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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of George Washington, Vol. 4 (of 5), by 
+John Marshall
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Life of George Washington, Vol. 4 (of 5)
+       Commander in Chief of the American Forces During the War
+       which Established the Independence of his Country and First
+       President of the United States
+
+Author: John Marshall
+
+Release Date: June 15, 2006 [EBook #18594]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Linda Cantoni and  David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+LIFE
+
+OF
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON,
+
+COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF THE
+
+AMERICAN FORCES,
+
+DURING THE WAR WHICH ESTABLISHED THE INDEPENDENCE OF HIS COUNTRY, AND
+
+FIRST PRESIDENT
+
+OF THE
+
+UNITED STATES.
+
+COMPILED UNDER THE INSPECTION OF
+
+THE HONOURABLE BUSHROD WASHINGTON,
+
+FROM
+
+_ORIGINAL PAPERS_
+
+BEQUEATHED TO HIM BY HIS DECEASED RELATIVE, AND NOW IN POSSESSION OF
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+TO WHICH IS PREFIXED,
+
+AN INTRODUCTION,
+
+CONTAINING A COMPENDIOUS VIEW OF THE COLONIES PLANTED BY THE ENGLISH
+ON THE
+
+CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA,
+
+FROM THEIR SETTLEMENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THAT WAR WHICH TERMINATED
+IN THEIR
+
+INDEPENDENCE.
+
+
+BY JOHN MARSHALL.
+
+
+VOL. IV.
+
+
+THE CITIZENS' GUILD
+OF WASHINGTON'S BOYHOOD HOME
+FREDERICKSBURG, VA.
+
+1926
+
+Printed in the U.S.A.
+
+
+[Illustration: George Washington
+
+_From the painting by James Sharples_
+
+_Sharples is distinguished for having painted what the Washington
+family regarded as the most faithful likenesses of the Father of His
+Country. This portrait in particular is the best resemblance we have
+of Washington during the period between his resignation as
+Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and his inauguration as
+First President of the United States. The Sharples portraits of
+Washington were commissioned by Robert Cary, a London merchant and
+admirer of our First President, who sent the artist on a special trip
+to America to do the work. This and other portraits by Sharples of
+Washington and his compeers long remained in England, but are now in
+the Collection of Herbert L. Pratt, New York._]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+Greene invests Camden.... Battle of Hobkirk's Hill.... Progress of
+Marion and Lee.... Lord Rawdon retires into the lower country....
+Greene invests Ninety Six.... Is repulsed.... Retires from that
+place.... Active movements of the two armies.... After a short repose
+they resume active operations.... Battle of Eutaw.... The British army
+retires towards Charleston.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Preparations for another campaign.... Proceedings in the Parliament of
+Great Britain. Conciliatory conduct of General Carleton....
+Transactions in the south.... Negotiations for peace.... Preliminary
+and eventual articles agreed upon between the United States and Great
+Britain.... Discontents of the American army.... Peace.... Mutiny of a
+part of the Pennsylvania line.... Evacuation of New York.... General
+Washington resigns his commission and retires to Mount Vernon.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+General Washington devotes his time to rural pursuits.... to the
+duties of friendship.... and to institutions of public utility....
+Resolves of Congress and of the Legislature of Virginia for erecting
+statues to his honour.... Recommends improvement in inland
+navigation.... Declines accepting a donation made to him by his native
+state.... The society of the Cincinnati.... He is elected
+President.... The causes which led to a change of the government of
+the United States.... Circular letter of General Washington to the
+governors of the several states.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Differences between Great Britain and the United States.... Mr. Adams
+appointed minister to Great Britain.... Discontents excited by the
+commercial regulations of Britain.... Parties in the United States....
+The convention at Annapolis.... Virginia appoints deputies to a
+convention at Philadelphia.... General Washington chosen one of
+them.... Insurrection at Massachusetts.... Convention at
+Philadelphia.... A form of government submitted to the respective
+states, as ratified by eleven of them.... Correspondence of General
+Washington respecting the chief magistracy.... He is elected
+president.... Meeting of the first congress.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+The election of General Washington officially announced to him.... His
+departure for the seat of government.... Marks of affection shown him
+on his journey.... His inauguration and speech to Congress.... His
+system of intercourse with the world.... Letters on this and other
+subjects.... Answers of both houses of Congress to the speech....
+Domestic and foreign relations of the United States.... Debates on the
+impost and tonnage bills.... On the power of removal from office....
+On the policy of the secretary of the treasury reporting plans of
+revenue.... On the style of the President.... Amendments to the
+constitution.... Appointment of executive officers, and of the
+judges.... Adjournment of the first session of congress.... The
+President visits New England.... His reception.... North Carolina
+accedes to the union.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... Report of the secretary
+of the treasury on public credit.... Debate thereon.... Bill for
+fixing the permanent seat of government.... Adjournment of
+congress.... Treaty with the Creek Indians.... Relations of the United
+States with Great Britain and Spain.... The President visits Mount
+Vernon.... Session of congress.... The President's speech.... Debates
+on the excise.... On a national bank.... The opinions of the cabinet
+on the law.... Progress of parties.... War with the Indians.... Defeat
+of Harmar.... Adjournment of congress.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+General St. Clair appointed Commander-in-chief.... The President makes
+a tour through the southern states.... Meeting of congress....
+President's speech.... Debate on the bill for apportioning
+representatives.... Military law.... Defeat of St. Clair....
+Opposition to the increase of the army.... Report of the Secretary of
+the Treasury for raising additional supplies.... Congress adjourns....
+Strictures on the conduct of administration, with a view of
+parties.... Disagreement between the Secretaries of State and
+Treasury.... Letters from General Washington.... Opposition to the
+excise law.... President's proclamation.... Insurrection and massacre
+in the island of St. Domingo.... General Wayne appointed to the
+command of the army.... Meeting of congress.... President's speech....
+Resolutions implicating the Secretary of the Treasury, rejected....
+Congress adjourns.... Progress of the French revolution, and its
+effects on parties in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+THE LIFE
+
+OF
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+     Greene invests Camden.... Battle of Hobkirk's Hill....
+     Progress of Marion and Lee.... Lord Rawdon retires into the
+     lower country.... Greene invests Ninety Six.... Is
+     repulsed.... Retires from that place.... Active movements of
+     the two armies.... After a short repose they resume active
+     operations.... Battle of Eutaw.... The British army retires
+     towards Charleston.
+
+
+{1781}
+
+In South Carolina and Georgia, the campaign of 1781 was uncommonly
+active. The importance of the object, the perseverance with which it
+was pursued, the talents of the generals, the courage, activity, and
+sufferings of the armies, and the accumulated miseries of the
+inhabitants, gave to the contest for these states, a degree of
+interest seldom bestowed on military transactions, in which greater
+numbers have not been employed.
+
+When Lord Cornwallis entered North Carolina, the military operations
+in the more southern states were committed to Lord Rawdon. For the
+preservation of his power, a line of posts slightly fortified had been
+continued from Charleston, by the way of Camden and Ninety Six, to
+Augusta, in Georgia. The spirit of resistance was still kept up in the
+north-western and north-eastern parts of the state, by Generals
+Sumpter and Marion, who respectively commanded a corps of militia.
+Their exertions, though great, seem not to have been successful; and
+they excited no alarm, because no addition to their strength was
+apprehended.
+
+Such was the situation of the country when General Greene formed the
+bold resolution of endeavouring to reannex it to the American union.
+His army consisted of about eighteen hundred men. The prospect of
+procuring subsistence was unpromising, and the chance of
+reinforcements precarious. He was apprized of the dangers to be
+encountered, but believed it to be for the public interest to meet
+them. "I shall take every measure," said this gallant officer, in a
+letter communicating his plan of operations to General Washington, "to
+avoid a misfortune. But necessity obliges me to commit myself to
+chance, and if any accident should attend me, I trust my friends will
+do justice to my reputation."
+
+The extensive line of posts maintained by Lord Rawdon, presented to
+Greene many objects, at which, it was probable he might strike with
+advantage. The day preceding his march from the camp on Deep river, he
+detached Lee to join General Marion, and communicated his intention of
+entering South Carolina to General Pickens with a request that he
+would assemble the western militia, and lay siege to Ninety Six, and
+Augusta.
+
+{April.}
+
+[Sidenote: Green invests Camden.]
+
+Having made these arrangements, he moved from Deep river on the
+seventh of April, and encamped before Camden on the nineteenth of the
+same month, within half a mile of the British works. Lord Rawdon had
+received early notice of his approach, and was prepared for his
+reception.
+
+{April 24.}
+
+Camden stands on a gentle elevation, and is covered on the south and
+south-west by the Wateree,[1] and on the east by Pine-tree creek. A
+strong chain of redoubts, extending from the river to the creek,
+protected the north and west sides of the town. Being unable to storm
+the works or to invest them on all sides, Greene contented himself
+with lying before the place in the hope of being reinforced by
+militia, or of some event which might bring on an action in the open
+field. With this view he retired a small distance, and encamped on
+Hobkirk's hill, about a mile and a half from the town. While in this
+situation, he received information that Colonel Watson was marching up
+the Santee with about four hundred men. A junction between these two
+divisions of the British army, could be prevented only by intercepting
+Watson while at a distance from Camden. For this purpose, he crossed
+Sand-hill creek and encamped east of Camden, on the road leading to
+Charleston. It being impracticable to transport the artillery and
+baggage over the deep marshes adjoining the creek, Colonel Carrington
+with the North Carolina militia was directed to convey them to a place
+of safety, and to guard them till farther orders. The army continued a
+few days in its new encampment, during which the troops subsisted on
+the scanty supplies furnished by the neighbourhood. Greene was
+compelled at length, by the want of provisions, to relinquish this
+position. About the same time he received intelligence which induced
+him to doubt the approach of Watson. On which he ordered Lieutenant
+Colonel Carrington to rejoin him; and on the 24th, returned to the
+north side of the town, and again encamped on Hobkirk's hill, a ridge
+covered with uninterrupted wood through which the great Waxhaw road
+passes. The army was encamped in order of battle, its left covered by
+the swamp of Pine-tree creek.
+
+     [Footnote 1: Higher up, this river is called the Catawba.]
+
+{April 25.}
+
+A drummer, who deserted on the morning after Greene's return, and
+before he was rejoined by Lieutenant Colonel Carrington, gave
+information to Lord Rawdon that the artillery and militia had been
+detached. His lordship determined to seize this favourable occasion
+for fighting his enemy to advantage, and, at the head of nine hundred
+men, marched out of town on the morning of the twenty-fifth to attack
+the American army.
+
+Lieutenant Colonel Carrington had arrived in camp that morning, and
+brought with him a supply of provisions which had been issued to the
+troops, some of whom were employed in cooking and others in washing
+their clothes. Notwithstanding those occupations, they were in reach
+of their arms, and were in readiness to take their ground and engage
+at a moment's warning.
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Hobkirk's Hill.]
+
+By keeping close to the swamp, and making a circuit of some distance,
+Lord Rawdon gained the American left without being perceived; and
+about eleven, his approach was announced by the fire of the advanced
+piquets, who were half a mile in front of Greene's encampment. Orders
+were instantly given to form the American line of battle.
+
+The Virginia brigade commanded by General Huger, consisting of two
+regiments under Campbell and Hawes, was drawn up on the right of the
+great road. The Maryland brigade commanded by Colonel Williams,
+consisting also of two regiments, under Gunby and Ford, was on the
+left, and the artillery was placed in the centre. The North Carolina
+militia under Colonel Read formed a second line; and Captain Kirkwood
+with the light infantry was placed in front for the purpose of
+supporting the piquets, and retarding the advance of the enemy.
+General Greene remained on the right, with Campbell's regiment.
+
+Captain Morgan of Virginia, and Captain Benson of Maryland, who
+commanded the piquets, gave the enemy a warm reception; but were soon
+compelled to retire. Captain Kirkwood also was driven in, and the
+British troops appeared in view. Rawdon continued his march through
+the wood along the low ground in front of the Maryland brigade which
+was in the act of forming, until he reached the road, where he
+displayed his column.
+
+Perceiving that the British advanced with a narrow front, Greene
+ordered Colonel Ford, whose regiment was on the extreme left, and
+Lieutenant Colonel Campbell, whose regiment was on the extreme right,
+severally to attack their flanks, while Gunby and Hawes should advance
+upon their front with charged bayonets. To complete their destruction
+by cutting off their retreat to the town, Lieutenant Colonel
+Washington was ordered to pass their left flank and charge them in the
+rear.
+
+The regiments commanded by Ford and Campbell, being composed chiefly
+of new levies, did not change their ground, and perform the evolutions
+necessary for the duty assigned to them, with the requisite rapidity
+and precision; in consequence of which Rawdon, who instantly perceived
+the danger that threatened his flanks, had time to extend his front by
+bringing the volunteers of Ireland into his line.
+
+This judicious movement disconcerted the design on his flanks, and
+brought the two armies into action fronting each other. But the
+regiments of Ford and Campbell were thrown into some confusion by the
+abortive attempt to gain the flanks of the British.
+
+Colonel Washington too was compelled by the thick underwood and felled
+trees which obstructed his direct course, to make so extensive a
+circuit, that he came into the rear of the British at a greater
+distance from the scene of action than was intended, in consequence of
+which he fell in with their medical and other staff, and with a number
+of the followers of the army and idle spectators, who took no part in
+the action. Too humane to cut his way through this crowd, he employed
+so much time in taking their verbal parole, that he could not reach
+the rear of the British line until the battle was ended. These
+casualties disappointed this very interesting part of Greene's
+intended operations.[2]
+
+     [Footnote 2: This account of the battle of Hobkirk's Hill
+     varies in several particulars from that contained in the
+     first edition. In making the alteration the author has
+     followed the letter of General Davie, published in Mr.
+     Johnson's biography of General Greene. General Davie was
+     known to the author to be a gentleman in whose
+     representations great confidence is to be placed on every
+     account, and his situation in the army enabled him to obtain
+     the best information.]
+
+The artillery, however, played on the enemy with considerable effect;
+and the regiments of Gunby and Hawes advanced on the British front
+with resolution. Some companies on the right of the Maryland regiment
+returned the fire of the enemy, and their example was followed by the
+others. Notwithstanding this departure from orders, they continued to
+advance with intrepidity, and Greene entertained sanguine hopes of
+victory. His prospects were blasted by one of those incidents against
+which military prudence can make no provision.
+
+Captain Beaty, who commanded on the right of Gunby's regiment, was
+killed, upon which his company with that adjoining it got into
+confusion and dropped out of the line. Gunby ordered the other
+companies, which were still advancing, to fall back, and form, with
+the two companies, behind the hill which the British were ascending.
+This retrograde movement was mistaken for a retreat, and the regiment
+gave way. Encouraged by this circumstance, the British pressed forward
+with increased ardour, and all the efforts of Colonel Williams, and of
+Gunby and Howard, to rally the regiment were, for a time, ineffectual.
+This veteran regiment, distinguished alike for its discipline and
+courage, which with the cavalry of Washington, had won the battle of
+the Cowpens, and nearly won that at Guilford court house, was seized
+with an unaccountable panic which, for a time, resisted all the
+efforts of their officers.
+
+The flight of the first Maryland regiment increased the confusion
+which the change of ground had produced in the second; and, in
+attempting to restore order, Colonel Ford was mortally wounded. Lord
+Rawdon improved these advantages to the utmost. His right gained the
+summit of the hill, forced the artillery to retire, and turned the
+flank of the second Virginia regiment, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel
+Hawes, which had advanced some distance down the hill. By this time
+the first Virginia regiment, which Greene had endeavoured to lead in
+person against the left flank of the British, being also in some
+disorder, began to give ground. Perceiving this reverse in his
+affairs, and knowing that he could not rely on his second line, Greene
+thought it most adviseable to secure himself from the hazard of a
+total defeat by withdrawing the second Virginia regiment from the
+action.
+
+The Maryland brigade was in part rallied; but Lord Rawdon had gained
+the hill, and it was thought too late to retrieve the fortune of the
+day. Greene determined to reserve his troops for a more auspicious
+moment, and ordered a retreat.
+
+Finding that the infantry had retreated, Colonel Washington also
+retired with the loss of only three men, bringing with him about fifty
+prisoners, among whom were all the surgeons belonging to the British
+army.
+
+The Americans retreated in good order about four miles from the field
+of battle, and proceeded, next day, to Rugeley's mills. The pursuit
+was continued about three miles. In the course of it, some sharp
+skirmishing took place, which was terminated by a vigorous charge made
+by Colonel Washington on a corps of British horse who led their van.
+This corps being broken and closely pursued, the infantry in its rear
+retreated precipitately into Camden.
+
+{April 26.}
+
+The number of continental troops engaged in this action amounted to
+about twelve hundred[3] men, and the loss in killed, wounded, and
+missing, to two hundred and sixty-six. Among the killed was Captain
+Beaty, of Maryland, who was mentioned by General Greene as an ornament
+to his profession; and among the wounded was Colonel Ford, of
+Maryland, a gallant officer, whose wounds proved mortal. The militia
+attached to the army amounted to two hundred and sixty-six, of whom
+two were missing. The total loss sustained by the British army has
+been stated at two hundred and fifty-eight, of whom thirty-eight were
+killed in the field.
+
+     [Footnote 3: There is some variance between this statement
+     and that which has been made by Mr. Ramsay and Mr. Gordon,
+     although their estimates are supposed to have been formed on
+     the same document--the field return made by the adjutant
+     general of the southern army, dated the 26th of April. This
+     return contains a column of the present fit for duty, and
+     also exhibits the killed, wounded, and missing, but contains
+     no column of total numbers. Mr. Ramsay and Mr. Gordon are
+     supposed to have taken the column of present fit for duty as
+     exhibiting the strength of the army on the day of the
+     battle; but as this return was made the day after the
+     action, the author has supposed that the killed, wounded,
+     and missing, must be added to the numbers fit for duty on
+     the day of the return, to give the actual strength of the
+     army at the time of the engagement.]
+
+The plan which the strength of Camden and his own weakness had induced
+General Greene originally to adopt, was still substantially pursued.
+He remained in the vicinity of that place, and by the activity of his
+cavalry, straightened the communication of the garrison with the
+neighbouring country. Their distress for provisions had been
+considerably increased by the progress of Marion and Lee.
+
+[Sidenote: Several British posts taken.]
+
+Lieutenant Colonel Lee joined Marion a few days after he was detached
+from the camp on Deep river; and these two officers commenced their
+operations against the line of communication between Camden and
+Charleston, by laying siege to fort Watson, which capitulated in a few
+days. The acquisition of this fort afforded the means of interrupting
+the intercourse between Camden and Charleston, and opposed an obstacle
+to the retreat of Lord Rawdon which he would have found it difficult
+to surmount.
+
+From the increasing perils of his situation, his lordship was relieved
+by the arrival of Colonel Watson.
+
+In attempting to obey the orders, which were given by Lord Rawdon on
+the approach of Greene, to join him at Camden, that officer found
+himself opposed by Marion and Lee, who had seized the passes over the
+creeks in his route; and had thus completely arrested his march. To
+elude these vigilant adversaries, Watson returned down the Santee, and
+crossing that river near its mouth, marched up its southern side, and
+recrossing it above the American detachment, and, eluding all the
+measures taken to intercept him, accomplished his object with much
+toil and hazard.
+
+This reinforcement gave the British general a decided superiority; and
+Greene entertained no doubt of its being immediately employed. On the
+day of its arrival, therefore, he withdrew from the neighbourhood of
+Camden, and took a strong position behind Sawney's creek.
+
+{May 7.}
+
+On the night of the seventh, as had been conjectured, Rawdon passed
+the Wateree at Camden ferry, intending to turn the flank of his enemy,
+and to attack his rear, where the ground was less difficult than in
+front. On being informed that the American army had changed its
+position, he followed it to its new encampment. This was so
+judiciously chosen that he despaired of being able to force it; and,
+after some ineffectual manoeuvres to draw Greene from it, returned to
+Camden.
+
+{Eighth.}
+
+Lord Rawdon had been induced to relinquish, thus hastily, his designs
+upon Greene, by the insecurity of his situation. The state of the
+British power in South Carolina was such as to require a temporary
+surrender of the upper country. Marion and Lee, after completely
+destroying his line of communication on the north side of the Santee,
+had crossed that river, and permitted no convoy from Charleston to
+escape their vigilance. On the eighth of May, after Watson had passed
+them, they laid siege to a post at Motte's house, on the south side of
+the Congaree, near its junction with the Wateree, which had been made
+the depot of all the supplies designed for Camden.
+
+From the energy of this party as well as from the defection of the
+inhabitants, Lord Rawdon had reason to apprehend the loss of all his
+lower posts, unless he should take a position which would support
+them. He had therefore determined to evacuate Camden, unless the issue
+of a battle with Greene should be such as to remove all fears of
+future danger from that officer.
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Rawdon retires into the lower country.]
+
+{May 12.}
+
+Having failed in his hope of bringing on a general engagement, he
+evacuated Camden, and marched down the river on its north side to
+Neilson's ferry. Among the objects to be obtained by this movement was
+the security of the garrison at Motte's house. But the siege of that
+place had been so vigorously prosecuted that, on crossing the river,
+his lordship received the unwelcome intelligence that it had
+surrendered on the twelfth, and that its garrison, consisting of one
+hundred and sixty-five men, had become prisoners. On the preceding
+day, the post at Orangeburg had surrendered to Sumpter.
+
+On the evening of the fourteenth, Lord Rawdon moved from Neilson's
+ferry, and marched to Monk's Corner, a position which enabled him to
+cover those districts from which Charleston drew its supplies.
+
+{May.}
+
+While the British army was thus under the necessity of retiring, the
+American force was exerted with a degree of activity which could not
+be surpassed. After the post at Motte's house had fallen, Marion
+proceeded against Georgetown, on the Black river, which place he
+reduced; and Lee marched against fort Granby, a post on the south of
+the Congaree, which was garrisoned by three hundred and fifty-two men,
+principally militia. The place was invested on the evening of the
+fourteenth, and the garrison capitulated the next morning.
+
+The late movement of the British army had left the garrison of Ninety
+Six and of Augusta exposed to the whole force of Greene, and he
+determined to direct his operations against them. Lee was ordered to
+proceed against the latter, while the general should march in person
+to the former.
+
+The post at Ninety Six was fortified. The principal work, which, from
+its form, was called the Star, and which was on the right of the
+village, consisted of sixteen salient and reentering angles, and was
+surrounded by a dry ditch, fraize, and abattis. On the left was a
+valley, through which ran a rivulet that supplied the place with
+water. This valley was commanded on one side by the town prison, which
+had been converted into a block-house, and on the other by a stockade
+fort, in which a block-house had been erected. The garrison, commanded
+by Lieutenant Colonel Cruger, was ample for the extent of the place,
+but was furnished with only three pieces of artillery.
+
+On evacuating Camden, Lord Rawdon had given directions that the
+garrison of Ninety Six should retire to Augusta; but his messengers
+were intercepted; and Cruger, remaining without orders, determined to
+put his post in the best possible state of defence.
+
+[Sidenote: Greene invests Ninety Six.]
+
+On the 22nd of May the American army, consisting of about one thousand
+continental troops, appeared before the town, and encamped in a wood,
+within cannon shot of the place. On the following night they broke
+ground, within seventy yards of the British works; but the besieged
+having mounted several guns in the star, made a vigorous sally under
+their protection, and drove the advanced party of the besiegers from
+their trenches, put several of them to the bayonet, and brought off
+their intrenching tools.
+
+This sortie was made with such rapidity, that, though General Greene
+put his whole army in motion, the party making it had accomplished the
+object and retired into the fort, before he could support his troops
+in the trenches. After this check, the siege was conducted with more
+caution, but with indefatigable industry.
+
+On the 8th of June, Lee rejoined the army with the troops under his
+command.
+
+The day after the fall of fort Granby, that active officer proceeded
+with great celerity to join General Pickens, and lay siege to Augusta.
+On the march, he took possession of fort Golphin, on the northern bank
+of the Savannah, which surrendered on the 21st of May; immediately
+after which the operations against Augusta were commenced.
+
+The place was bravely defended by Lieutenant Colonel Brown; but the
+approaches of the besiegers were so well conducted, that on the 5th of
+June he was reduced to the necessity of capitulating; and the
+prisoners, amounting to about three hundred, were conducted by Lee to
+the main army.
+
+This reinforcement enabled General Greene, who had till then made his
+approaches solely against the star, to commence operations against the
+works on the left also. The direction of the advances to be made in
+that quarter was entrusted to Lieutenant Colonel Lee. While the
+besiegers urged their approaches in the confidence that the place must
+soon capitulate, Lord Rawdon received a reinforcement which enabled
+him once more to overrun the state of South Carolina.
+
+{June 7.}
+
+On the third of June three regiments arrived from Ireland; and, on the
+seventh of that month, Lord Rawdon marched at the head of two thousand
+men to the relief of Ninety Six. Greene received intelligence of his
+approach on the eleventh, and ordered Sumpter, to whose aid the
+cavalry was detached, to continue in his front, and to impede his
+march by turning to the best account every advantage afforded by the
+face of the country. But Lord Rawdon passed Sumpter below the junction
+of the Saluda and Broad rivers, after which that officer was probably
+unable to regain his front.
+
+Greene had also intended to meet the British and fight them at some
+distance from Ninety Six, but found it impossible to draw together
+such aids of militia as would enable him to execute that intention
+with any prospect of success. The only remaining hope was to press the
+siege so vigorously as to compel a surrender before Lord Rawdon could
+arrive.
+
+{June 17.}
+
+In the execution of this plan, the garrison was reduced to
+extremities, when the near approach of his lordship was communicated
+to Cruger, by a loyalist who passed through the American lines, and
+extinguished every hope of carrying the place otherwise than by storm.
+Unwilling to relinquish a prize he was on the point of obtaining,
+Greene resolved to essay every thing which could promise success; but
+the works were so strong that it would be madness to assault them,
+unless a partial attempt to make a lodgement on one of the curtains of
+the star redoubt, and at the same time to carry the fort on the left,
+should the first succeed.
+
+{June 18.}
+
+[Sidenote: Is repulsed and retires from before that place.]
+
+The proper dispositions for this partial assault being made,
+Lieutenant Colonel Lee, at the head of the legion infantry and
+Kirkwood's company, was ordered to assault the works on the left of
+the town; while Lieutenant Colonel Campbell was to lead the first
+regiment of Maryland, and the first of Virginia, against the star
+redoubt. The lines of the third parallel were manned, and all the
+artillery opened on the besieged. About noon the detachments on this
+service marched cheerfully to the assault. Lee's attack on the left
+was successful. He forced the works in that quarter and took
+possession of them. But the resistance on the right was more
+determined, and Campbell, though equally brave, was less fortunate.
+Lieutenants Duval of Maryland, and Selden of Virginia, led the forlorn
+hope, and entered the ditch with great intrepidity; but its depth, and
+the height of the parapet opposed obstructions which could not be
+surmounted. After a severe conflict of more than half an hour, during
+which Lieutenants Duval and Selden were both badly wounded, and nearly
+all the forlorn hope were either killed or wounded, the assault was
+relinquished, and the few who remained alive were recalled from the
+ditch. The next day, Greene raised the siege, and, crossing the
+Saluda, encamped on Little River. The loss of the besieging army, in
+killed and wounded, amounted to one hundred and fifty-five men, among
+the former of whom was Captain Armstrong of Maryland. That of the
+garrison has been stated at eighty-five.
+
+On the morning of the 21st of June, Lord Rawdon arrived at Ninety Six;
+and, on the evening of the same day, marched in quest of the American
+army. In the preceding operations of the campaign, he had felt the
+want of cavalry so severely that, while at Monk's Corner, and in
+Charleston, he had formed a corps of one hundred and fifty horse.
+
+[Sidenote: Active movements of the two armies.]
+
+Greene, foreseeing that his active adversary would avail himself to
+the utmost of his superiority, had sent his sick and wounded
+northward; and, as soon as Rawdon had crossed the Saluda, he retreated
+towards Virginia. Lord Rawdon pursued him to the Eunora, whence he
+returned to Ninety Six.
+
+The retreat ceased with the pursuit. General Greene halted near the
+cross roads, on the north of Broad River.
+
+As Rawdon retired, he was followed close by the legion as far as
+Ninety Six, at which place he remained but two days. Still retaining
+the opinion that circumstances required him to contract his posts, he
+left the principal part of his army, under the command of Lieutenant
+Colonel Cruger, to protect the loyalists while removing within those
+limits which were to be maintained by the British forces; and, at the
+head of less than one thousand men, marched in person towards the
+Congaree.
+
+Supposing that his adversary intended to preserve the post at Ninety
+Six, where the royalists were numerous, and to establish one or two on
+the Congaree, where provisions were more plentiful than in any other
+part of the state, Greene determined to interrupt the execution of the
+plan which he believed to have been formed. Leaving his sick and
+baggage at Wynnsborough, to be conducted to Camden, he marched with
+the utmost expedition for Friday's ferry on the Congaree, at which
+place Lord Rawdon had arrived two days before him. As Greene drew near
+to his enemy, a detachment from the legion under the command of
+Captain Eggleston, announced his approach by attacking a foraging
+party within a mile of the British camp, and bringing off a troop
+consisting of forty-five men, with their officers and horses. Rawdon
+retreated the next day to Orangeburg, where he formed a junction with
+a detachment from Charleston, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Stuart.
+
+{July 11.}
+
+On the Congaree, Greene was reinforced by Sumpter and Marion with
+about one thousand men; and, on the 11th of July, marched towards
+Orangeburg with the intention of attacking the British army at that
+place. He arrived there the next day, but found it so strongly posted
+as to be unassailable. He offered battle, but prudence restrained him
+from attacking the enemy in his camp.
+
+{July 13.}
+
+At this place, intelligence was received of the evacuation of Ninety
+Six, and that Lieutenant Colonel Cruger was marching down to
+Orangeburg. The north branch of the Edisto, which, for thirty miles,
+was passable only at the place occupied by Rawdon, interposed an
+insuperable obstacle to any attempt on Cruger; and Greene thought it
+most adviseable to force the British out of the upper country by
+threatening their lower posts at Monk's corner and at Dorchester.
+Sumpter, Marion, and Lee, were detached on this service; and, on the
+same day, Greene moved towards the high hills of Santee, a healthy
+situation, where he purposed to give some refreshment and repose to
+his harassed army, and where he hoped to be joined by a few
+continental troops and militia from North Carolina.
+
+The detachments ordered against the posts in the north-eastern parts
+of the state, under the command of Sumpter, were not so completely
+successful as their numbers, courage, and enterprise deserved. The
+several corps took distinct routes, intending to fall on the different
+posts between Ashley and Cooper rivers, at the same time. That at
+Dorchester was broken up, on the approach of Lee, who captured horses,
+military stores, and baggage to a considerable amount, and obtained
+some trivial successes over the flying enemy. Lieutenant Colonel Wade
+Hampton, of the state cavalry, fell in with a body of mounted
+refugees, dispersed the whole, and made forty or fifty prisoners.
+
+Sumpter advanced against Monk's corner. This post was defended by
+Lieutenant Colonel Coates with the 19th British regiment, and a troop
+of horse. He had taken possession of a brick church at a bridge over
+Biggin creek, the most northern of the water courses which form the
+west branch of Cooper river. After passing Biggin, the road to
+Charleston crosses first Wattoo, and then Quinby creek; neither of
+which is passable except at the bridges over which the road leads, and
+at a ferry over Quinby.
+
+On the sixteenth, Sumpter approached Monk's corner, but, not supposing
+himself strong enough to hazard an attack until all his detachments
+should be collected, sent a party to seize the bridge over Wattoo, and
+either to hold or to destroy it. This party being attacked by a
+superior force, retired from the bridge without completing its
+destruction, and without informing Sumpter that his orders had not
+been fully executed.
+
+Marion had joined Sumpter. Lee arrived late in the evening, and the
+resolution was taken to attack Coates early next morning.
+
+In the course of the night he set fire to the church, in order to
+destroy the stores which were collected in it, and commenced his march
+to Charleston, by the road east of Cooper. Having repaired the bridge
+over Wattoo, he met with no obstruction; and proceeded with his
+infantry on the road leading to Quinby bridge, directed his cavalry to
+take a road turning to the right, and crossing the creek at the ferry.
+
+About three next morning, the flames bursting through the roof of the
+church announced the retreat of the British; and the pursuit was
+immediately commenced. Sumpter was preceded by the legion, supported
+by the state cavalry. A detachment from this regiment followed the
+British horse, in the vain hope of overtaking the troop at the ferry,
+while Lee pursued the infantry. Within a short distance of the bridge,
+which is eighteen miles from Monk's corner, he perceived the rear
+guard of the British, consisting of about one hundred men, commanded
+by Captain Campbell, which the cavalry charged, sword in hand. They
+threw down their arms, and begged for quarter; upon which they were
+placed under the care of a few militia horsemen, and the American
+cavalry resumed the pursuit.
+
+They had not proceeded far, when Lee was called to the rear, by
+information that the prisoners had been ordered to resume their arms.
+At this critical moment, Armstrong, at the head of the leading
+section, came in sight of Coates, who having passed the bridge, and
+loosened the planks, lay, unapprehensive of danger, intending to
+destroy it as soon as his rear guard should cross the creek.
+Armstrong, in obedience to orders, given in the expectation that he
+would overtake Coates before passing the creek, dashed over the bridge
+on the guard stationed at the opposite end with a howitzer, which he
+seized. In this operation, his horses threw off some of the loosened
+planks, and made a chasm, over which the following section, led by
+Lieutenant Carrington, leaped with difficulty. In doing this some
+other planks were thrown off, and the horses of the third section
+refused to take the leap. At this time Lee came up, and every effort
+was made to replace the planks, but without success. The creek was too
+deep and miry to afford foot hold to those who attempted to raise them
+from the water.
+
+This halt revived the courage of the British soldiers, who returned to
+the support of their commander, then engaged in an equal conflict with
+the cavalry who had passed the bridge. These gallant men[4] finding
+themselves overpowered by numbers, and that their comrades could not
+support them, pressed over the causeway, and wheeling into the woods,
+made their escape.
+
+     [Footnote 4: Mr. Johnson states that Captain M'Cauley, of
+     South Carolina, had joined Armstrong and Carrington. Some of
+     the troopers were killed on the bridge.]
+
+After finding the impracticability of replacing the planks on the
+bridge, in attempting which, Doctor Irvin, surgeon of the legion
+cavalry, and several of the troopers were wounded, Lee withdrew from
+the contest, and moved some distance up the creek, to a ford where he
+was soon joined by the infantry of the legion.
+
+Coates then completed the demolition of the bridge, and retired to an
+adjoining plantation, where he took possession of the dwelling house
+and out buildings that surrounded it.
+
+As the Americans were obliged to make a considerable circuit, Sumpter,
+who unfortunately left his artillery behind, did not arrive on the
+ground till three in the afternoon, and at four the house was
+attacked. The fire was kept up chiefly by Marion's division, from a
+fence near the house, till evening, when the ammunition was exhausted,
+and the troops were called off. In the course of the night, it was
+perceived that the loss had fallen almost entirely on Marion. Great
+discontent prevailed, and many of the men left him. The infection was
+communicated to Sumpter's troops, and there being reason to fear the
+approach of Lord Rawdon, the enterprise was abandoned. Sumpter crossed
+the Santee; and the legion rejoined the army, then encamped at the
+high hills of that river.
+
+The intense heat of this sultry season demanded some relaxation from
+the unremitting toils which the southern army had encountered. From
+the month of January, it had been engaged in one course of incessant
+fatigue, and of hardy enterprise. All its powers had been strained,
+nor had any interval been allowed to refresh and recruit the almost
+exhausted strength and spirits of the troops.
+
+The continued labours and exertions of all were highly meritorious;
+but the successful activity of one corps will attract particular
+attention. The legion, from its structure, was peculiarly adapted to
+the partisan war of the southern states; and, by being detached
+against the weaker posts of the enemy, had opportunities for
+displaying with advantage all the energies it possessed. In that
+extensive sweep which it made from the Santee to Augusta, which
+employed from the 15th of April to the 5th of June, this corps, acting
+in conjunction, first with Marion, afterwards with Pickens, and
+sometimes alone, had constituted an essential part of the force which
+carried five British posts, and made upwards of eleven hundred
+prisoners. Its leader, in the performance of these services, displayed
+a mind of so much fertility of invention and military resource, as to
+add greatly to his previous reputation as a partisan.
+
+The whole army had exhibited a degree of activity, courage, and
+patient suffering, surpassing any expectation that could have been
+formed of troops composed chiefly of new levies; and its general had
+manifested great firmness, enterprise, prudence, and skill.
+
+The suffering sustained in this ardent struggle for the southern
+states was not confined to the armies. The inhabitants of the country
+felt all the miseries which are inflicted by war in its most savage
+form. Being almost equally divided between the two contending parties,
+reciprocal injuries had gradually sharpened their resentments against
+each other, and had armed neighbour against neighbour, until it became
+a war of extermination. As the parties alternately triumphed,
+opportunities were alternately given for the exercise of their
+vindictive passions. They derived additional virulence from the
+examples occasionally afforded by the commanders of the British
+forces. After overrunning Georgia and South Carolina, they seem to
+have considered those states as completely reannexed to the British
+empire; and they manifested a disposition to treat those as rebels,
+who had once submitted and again taken up arms, although the temporary
+ascendency of the continental troops should have induced the measure.
+One of these executions, that of Colonel Hayne, took place on the
+third of August, while Lord Rawdon[5] was in Charleston, preparing to
+sail for Europe. The American army being at this time in possession of
+great part of the country, the punishment inflicted on this gentleman
+was taken up very seriously by General Greene, and was near producing
+a system of retaliation. The British officers, pursuing this policy,
+are stated to have executed several of the zealous partisans of the
+revolution who fell into their hands. These examples had
+unquestionably some influence in unbridling the revengeful passions of
+the royalists, and letting loose the spirit of slaughter which was
+brooding in their bosoms. The disposition to retaliate to the full
+extent of their power, if not to commit original injury, was equally
+strong in the opposite party. When fort Granby surrendered, the
+militia attached to the legion manifested so strong a disposition to
+break the capitulation, and to murder the most obnoxious among the
+prisoners who were inhabitants of the country, as to produce a solemn
+declaration from General Greene, that any man guilty of so atrocious
+an act should be executed. When fort Cornwallis surrendered, no
+exertions could have saved Colonel Brown, had he not been sent to
+Savannah protected by a guard of continental troops. Lieutenant
+Colonel Grierson, of the royal militia, was shot by unknown marksmen;
+and, although a reward of one hundred guineas was offered to any
+person who would inform against the perpetrator of the crime, he could
+never be discovered. "The whole country," said General Greene in one
+of his letters, "is one continued scene of blood and slaughter."
+
+     [Footnote 5: The execution of Colonel Hayne has been
+     generally ascribed to Lord Rawdon, and that gallant nobleman
+     has been censured throughout America for an act which has
+     been universally execrated. A letter addressed by him to the
+     late General Lee, on receiving the memoirs of the southern
+     war, written by that gentleman, which has been published in
+     the "View of the Campaign of 1781, in the Carolinas, by H.
+     Lee," gives the British view of that transaction, and
+     exonerates Lord Rawdon from all blame. Lieutenant Colonel
+     Balfour commanded, and Lord Rawdon sought to save Colonel
+     Hayne.]
+
+Greene was too humane, as well as too judicious, not to discourage
+this exterminating spirit. Perceiving in it the total destruction of
+the country, he sought to appease it by restraining the excesses of
+those who were attached to the American cause.
+
+At the high hills of Santee the reinforcements expected from North
+Carolina were received. The American army, counting every person
+belonging to it, was augmented to two thousand six hundred men; but
+its effective force did not exceed sixteen hundred.
+
+[Sidenote: Active movements of the two armies.]
+
+After the retreat of General Greene from Orangeburg, Lord Rawdon was
+induced by ill health to avail himself of a permit to return to Great
+Britain, and the command of the British forces in South Carolina
+devolved on Lieutenant Colonel Stuart. He again advanced to the
+Congaree; and encamping near its junction with the Wateree, manifested
+a determination to establish a permanent post at that place. Though
+the two armies were within sixteen miles of each other on a right
+line, two rivers ran between them which could not be crossed without
+making a circuit of seventy miles; in consequence of which Lieutenant
+Colonel Stuart felt himself so secure, that his foraging parties were
+spread over the country. To restrain them, and to protect the
+inhabitants, General Greene detached Marion towards Combahee ferry,
+and Washington over the Wateree. Frequent skirmishes ensued, which,
+from the superior courage and activity of the American cavalry,
+uniformly terminated in their favour.
+
+Finding that Lieutenant Colonel Stuart designed to maintain his
+important position on the Congaree, Greene prepared to recommence
+active operations. Breaking up his camp at the high hills of Santee,
+he crossed the Wateree near Camden, and marched towards Friday's
+ferry.
+
+[Sidenote: After a short repose, they resume active operations.]
+
+On being informed of his approach, the British army retired to Eutaw,
+where it was reinforced by a detachment from Charleston. Greene
+followed by slow and easy marches, for the double purpose of
+preserving his soldiers from the effects of fatigue under a hot sun,
+and of giving Marion, who was returning from a critical expedition to
+the Edisto, time to rejoin him. In the afternoon of the seventh that
+officer arrived; and it was determined to attack the British camp next
+day.
+
+{September 8.}
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Eutaw.]
+
+At four in the morning of the eighth, the American army moved from its
+ground, which was seven miles from Eutaw, in the following order: The
+legion of Lee and the state troops of South Carolina formed the
+advance. The militia moved next, and were followed by the regulars.
+The cavalry of Washington and the infantry of Kirkwood brought up the
+rear. The artillery moved between the columns.
+
+At eight in the morning, about four miles from the British camp, the
+van fell in with a body of horse and foot, who were escorting an
+unarmed foraging party, and a brisk action ensued. The British were
+instantly routed. The cavalry made their escape at the sight of the
+legion dragoons, and the infantry were killed or taken. About forty,
+including their captain, were made prisoners. The foraging party which
+followed in the rear saved themselves by flight, on hearing the first
+musket. Supposing this party to be the van of the English, Greene
+arranged his army in order of battle.
+
+The militia, commanded by Generals Marion and Pickens, composed the
+first line. The second was formed of the continental infantry. The
+North Carolina brigade, commanded by General Sumner, was placed on the
+right; the Virginians, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Campbell,
+formed the centre; and the Marylanders, commanded by Colonel Williams,
+the left. The legion of Lee was to cover the right flank; the state
+troops of South Carolina, commanded by Colonel Henderson, the left;
+and the cavalry of Washington, with the infantry of Kirkwood, formed
+the reserve. Captain Lieutenant Gaines, with two three-pounders, was
+attached to the first line; and Captain Brown, with two sixes, to the
+second.
+
+The British line also was immediately formed. It was drawn up across
+the road, in an oblique direction, in a wood, on the heights near the
+Eutaw springs, having its right flank on Eutaw creek. This flank was
+also covered by a battalion commanded by Major Majoribanks, which was
+posted in a thicket, in a line forming an obtuse angle with the main
+body. The left flank was protected by the cavalry commanded by Major
+Coffin, and by a body of infantry held in reserve. A detachment of
+infantry was pushed forward about a mile, with a field piece to employ
+the Americans until his arrangements should be completed.
+
+The American van continuing to move forward, encountered the British
+advanced party; upon which Captain Lieutenant Gaines came up with his
+field pieces, which opened on the enemy with considerable effect.
+General Greene also ordered up his first line with directions to move
+on briskly, and to advance as they fired. As this line came into
+action, the legion formed on its right flank, and the state troops of
+South Carolina on its left.
+
+The British advanced party was soon driven in; and the Americans,
+continuing to press forward, were engaged with the main body.
+Lieutenant Colonel Stuart, perceiving the materials of which this line
+was composed, and probably anticipating its speedy discomfiture, to
+avoid exposing his flanks to the American cavalry, had directed his
+troops not to change their position. His design was to meet the
+American regulars without any alteration of the arrangement originally
+made. But the militia, many of whom had frequently faced an enemy,
+being commanded by generals of experience and courage, exhibited a
+degree of firmness not common to that species of force, and maintained
+their ground with unexpected obstinacy. In the ardour of action, the
+order not to advance was disregarded, and the British pressed forward
+as the militia retired. The artillery which was placed in the road was
+well served on both sides, and did great execution till both the
+three-pounders commanded by Captain Lieutenant Gaines were dismounted.
+About the same time, one of the British shared the same fate.
+
+When the militia gave way, Lee and Henderson still maintained the
+engagement on the flanks, General Sumner was ordered up to fill the
+place from which Marion and Pickens were receding; and his brigade,
+ranging itself with the legion infantry, and the state regiment of
+South Carolina, came into action with great intrepidity. The British,
+who had advanced upon the militia, fell back to their first ground,
+upon which Stuart ordered the corps of infantry posted in the rear of
+his left wing into the line, and directed Major Coffin with his
+cavalry to guard that flank. About this time Henderson received a
+wound which disabled him from keeping the field, and the command of
+his corps devolved on Lieutenant Colonel Hampton.
+
+After sustaining the fire of the enemy with considerable resolution,
+Sumner's brigade began to give way, and the British rushed forward in
+some disorder. Greene then directed Williams and Campbell to charge
+with the bayonet, and at the same time ordered Washington to bring up
+the reserve, and to act on his left. Williams charged without firing a
+musket; but the soldiers of Campbell's regiment, being chiefly new
+levies, returned the fire of the enemy as they advanced. In this
+critical moment, Lee, perceiving that the American right extended
+beyond the British left, ordered Captain Rudolph, of the legion
+infantry, to turn their flank and give them a raking fire. This order
+was instantly executed with precision and effect. Charged thus both in
+front and flank, 'the British broke successively on the left, till the
+example was followed by all that part of the line. The Marylanders
+under Williams, had already used the bayonet, and before the troops
+opposed to them gave way, several had fallen on both sides, transfixed
+with that weapon.
+
+The British left, when driven off the field, retreated through their
+encampment towards Eutaw creek, near which stood a three story brick
+house, surrounded with offices, and connected with a strongly enclosed
+garden, into which Major Sheridan, in pursuance of orders previously
+given by Lieutenant Colonel Stuart, threw himself with the New York
+volunteers. The Americans pursued them closely, and took three hundred
+prisoners and two pieces of cannon. Unfortunately for their hopes of
+victory, the refreshments found in camp furnished a temptation too
+strong to be resisted; and many of the soldiers left their ranks, and,
+under cover of the tents, seized the spirits and food within their
+view. The legion infantry, however, pressed the rear so closely as to
+make a serious struggle to enter the house with the British. The door
+was forcibly shut in their faces, and several British officers and men
+were excluded. These were made prisoners, and mixed with the
+Americans, so as to save them from the fire of the house while
+retiring from it.
+
+As the British left gave way, Washington was directed to charge their
+right. He advanced with his accustomed impetuosity, but found it
+impossible, with cavalry, to penetrate the thicket occupied by
+Majoribanks. Perceiving an interval between the British right and the
+creek, he determined to pass through it round their flank and to
+charge them in the rear. In making the attempt, he received a fire
+which did immense execution. The British occupied a thicket almost
+impervious to horse. In attempting to force it, Lieutenant Stuart who
+commanded the leading section was badly wounded, his horse killed
+under him, and every man in his section killed or wounded. Captain
+Watts, the second in command, fell pierced with two balls. Colonel
+Washington was wounded, and his horse was killed. They fell together;
+and, before he could extricate himself, he was made a prisoner.
+
+After nearly all the officers, and a large portion of the men were
+killed or wounded, the residue of the corps was drawn off by Captain
+Parsons, assisted by Lieutenant Gordon. Soon after the repulse of
+Washington, Lieutenant Colonel Hampton and Captain Kirkwood with his
+infantry, came up and renewed the attack on Majoribanks. Great efforts
+were made to dislodge him, but they were ineffectual. Finding it
+impracticable to employ horse to advantage on that ground, Hampton
+drew off his troops and retired to the road.
+
+The corps commanded by Sheridan kept up a continual and destructive
+fire from the house in which they had taken shelter; and Greene
+ordered up the artillery to batter it. The guns were too light to make
+a breach in the walls, and, having been brought within the range of
+the fire from the house, almost every artillerist was killed, and the
+pieces were abandoned.
+
+The firm stand made by Majoribanks, and the disorder which had taken
+place among a part of the Americans, gave Stuart an opportunity of
+rallying his broken regiments, and bringing them again into action.
+They were formed between the thicket occupied by Majoribanks, and the
+house in possession of Sheridan.
+
+Major Coffin, who had repulsed the legion cavalry about the time the
+British infantry was driven off the field, still maintained a
+formidable position on their left; and no exertions could dislodge
+Majoribanks or Sheridan from the cover under which they fought.
+Perceiving that the contest was maintained on ground, and under
+circumstances extremely disadvantageous to the Americans, Greene
+withdrew them a small distance, and formed them again in the wood in
+which the battle had been fought. Thinking it unadviseable to renew
+the desperate attempt which had just failed, he collected his wounded,
+and retired with his prisoners to the ground from which he had marched
+in the morning, determined again to fight the British army when it
+should retreat from the Eutaws.
+
+Every corps engaged in this hard fought battle received the applause
+of the general. Almost every officer whose situation enabled him to
+attract notice was named with distinction. "Never," he said, "was
+artillery better served;" but, "he thought himself principally
+indebted for the victory he had gained, to the free use made of the
+bayonet by the Virginians and Marylanders, and by the infantry of the
+legion and of Kirkwood." To Colonel Williams he acknowledged himself
+to be particularly indebted. He gave that praise too to the valour of
+his enemy which it merited. "They really fought," he said, "with
+courage worthy a better cause."
+
+The loss on both sides bore a great proportion to the numbers engaged.
+That of the Americans was five hundred and fifty-five, including sixty
+officers. One hundred and thirty were killed on the spot. Seventeen
+commissioned officers were killed, and four mortally wounded. "This
+loss of officers," said their general, "is still more heavy on account
+of their value than their numbers."
+
+Among the slain was Lieutenant Colonel Campbell, who received a mortal
+wound while leading the Virginia brigade to that bold and decisive
+charge which broke the adverse line.
+
+The loss of the British army was stated by themselves at six hundred
+and ninety-three men, of whom only eighty-five were killed in the
+field. If this statement be correct,[6] the American dead greatly
+exceeded that of the adversary, which was probably the fact, as the
+carnage of the former, during their unavailing efforts to dislodge the
+latter from the house and strong adjoining ground, was immense.
+
+     [Footnote 6: The British accounts acknowledge only two
+     hundred and fifty-seven missing; but General Greene, in his
+     letter of the ninth of September, says, that including
+     seventy wounded who were left at Eutaw, he made five hundred
+     prisoners.]
+
+Each party had pretensions to the victory, and each claimed the merit
+of having gained it with inferior numbers. The truth probably is that
+their numbers were nearly equal.
+
+Nor can the claim of either to the victory be pronounced unequivocal.
+Unconnected with its consequences, the fortune of the day was nearly
+balanced. But if the consequences be taken into the account, the
+victory unquestionably belonged to Greene. The result of this, as of
+the two preceding battles fought by him in the Carolinas, was the
+expulsion of the hostile army from the territory which was the
+immediate object of contest.
+
+Four six-pounders, two of which had been taken in the early part of
+the day, were brought to play upon the house, and, being pushed so
+near as to be within the command of its fire, were unavoidably
+abandoned; but a three-pounder which had been also taken, was brought
+off by Captain Lieutenant Gaines, whose conduct was mentioned with
+distinction by General Greene. Thus the trophies of victory were
+divided.
+
+The thanks of congress were voted to every corps in the army; and a
+resolution was passed for "presenting to Major General Greene, as an
+honourable testimony of his merit, a British standard, and a golden
+medal, emblematic of the battle and of his victory."
+
+{September 9.}
+
+On the day succeeding the action, Lieutenant Colonel Stuart marched
+from Eutaw to meet Major M'Arthur, who was conducting a body of troops
+from Charleston. The junction was effected about fourteen miles from
+Eutaw; and this movement saved M'Arthur from Marion and Lee, who had
+been detached on the morning of the same day to intercept any
+reinforcement which might be coming from below. Stuart continued his
+retreat to Monk's corner, to which place he was followed by Greene,
+who, on finding that the numbers and position of the British army were
+such as to render an attack unadviseable, returned to the high hills
+of Santee.
+
+The ravages of disease were added to the loss sustained in battle, and
+the army remained for some time in too feeble a condition for active
+enterprise.
+
+{Nov. 18.}
+
+{Nov. 28.}
+
+The capitulation at Yorktown was soon followed by the evacuation of
+Wilmington, in North Carolina, and the British seemed to limit their
+views in the south to the country adjacent to the sea coast. As the
+cool season approached, the diseases of the American army abated; and
+Greene, desirous of partaking in the abundance of the lower country,
+marched from the high hills of Santee towards the Four Holes, a branch
+of the Edisto. Leaving the army to be conducted by Colonel Williams,
+he proceeded in person at the head of his cavalry, supported by about
+two hundred infantry, towards the British posts at Dorchester, where
+six hundred and fifty regular troops and two hundred royal militia
+were understood to be stationed.
+
+[Sidenote: The British army retires towards Charleston.]
+
+Though his march was conducted with the utmost secrecy, the country
+through which he passed contained so many disaffected, that it was
+impossible to conceal this movement; and intelligence of his approach
+was communicated to the officer commanding in Dorchester, the night
+before he reached that place. The advance, commanded by Lieutenant
+Colonel Hampton, met a small party, which he instantly charged, and,
+after killing and taking several, drove the residue over the bridge
+under cover of their works. In the course of the following night, the
+stores at Dorchester were burnt, and the garrison retired to the
+Quarter House, where their principal force was encamped. Greene
+returned to the army at the Round O, at which place he purposed to
+await the arrival of the reinforcements marching from the north under
+the command of General St. Clair. In the mean time, General Marion and
+Lieutenant Colonel Lee were stationed on each side of Ashley, so as to
+cover the country between the Cooper and the Edisto; thus confining
+the influence of the British arms to Charleston neck, and the adjacent
+islands.[7]
+
+     [Footnote 7: During this campaign a very effective
+     expedition against the Cherokees was conducted by General
+     Pickens. When the struggle for South Carolina recommenced,
+     those savages were stimulated to renew their incursions into
+     the settlements of the whites. At the head of about four
+     hundred mounted militia, Pickens penetrated into their
+     country, burned thirteen of their villages, killed upwards
+     of forty Indians, and took a number of prisoners, without
+     the loss of a single man. On this occasion a new and
+     formidable mode of attack was introduced. The militia horse
+     rushed upon the Indians, and charged them sword in hand.
+     Terrified at the rapidity of the pursuit, the Cherokees
+     humbly sued for peace, which was granted on terms calculated
+     to restrain depredations in future.]
+
+While in his camp at the Round O, General Greene was informed that
+large reinforcements from Ireland and from New York were expected by
+the army in Charleston. This intelligence excited the more alarm,
+because the term of service for which the levies from Virginia were
+engaged was about expiring, and no adequate measures had been taken
+for supplying their places. It proved untrue; but such was its
+impression, that the general addressed a letter to the governors of
+South Carolina, in which, after taking a serious view of the state of
+his army, he recommended that it should be recruited from the slaves.
+The governor thought the proposition of sufficient importance to be
+laid before the legislature, which was soon afterwards convened; but
+the measure was not adopted.
+
+On the fourth of January, General St. Clair, who conducted the
+reinforcement from the north, arrived in camp, and, five days
+afterward, General Wayne,[8] with his brigade, and the remnant of the
+third regiment of dragoons, commanded by Colonel White, was detached
+over the Savannah for the recovery of Georgia.
+
+     [Footnote 8: In the judicious orders given to Wayne, Greene
+     endeavoured to impress on that officer the importance of a
+     course of conduct, always observed by himself, which might
+     tend to conciliate parties. "Try," says he, "by every means
+     in your power, to soften the malignity and dreadful
+     resentments subsisting between the Whig and Tory; and put a
+     stop as much as possible to that cruel custom of putting men
+     to death after they surrender themselves prisoners. The
+     practice of plundering you will endeavour to check as much
+     as possible; and point out to the militia the ruinous
+     consequences of the policy. Let your discipline be as
+     regular and as rigid as the nature and constitution of your
+     troops will admit."--2 _Johnson_, 277.]
+
+General Greene crossed the Edisto and took post six miles in advance
+of Jacksonborough, on the road leading to Charleston, for the purpose
+of covering the state legislature, which assembled at that place on
+the eighteenth. Thus was civil government re-established in South
+Carolina, and that state restored to the union.
+
+It is impossible to review this active and interesting campaign
+without feeling that much is due to General Greene; and that he amply
+justified the favourable opinion of the Commander-in-chief. He found
+the country completely conquered, and defended by a regular army
+estimated at four thousand men. The inhabitants were so divided, as to
+leave it doubtful to which side the majority was attached. At no time
+did the effective continental force which he could bring into the
+field, amount to two thousand men; and of these a considerable part
+were raw troops. Yet he could keep the field without being forced into
+action; and by a course of judicious movement, and of hardy
+enterprise, in which invincible constancy was displayed, and in which
+courage was happily tempered with prudence, he recovered the southern
+states. It is a singular fact, well worthy of notice, which marks
+impressively the soundness of his judgment, that although he never
+gained a decisive victory, he obtained, to a considerable extent, even
+when defeated, the object for which he fought.
+
+A just portion of the praise deserved by these achievements, is
+unquestionably due to the troops he commanded. These real patriots
+bore every hardship and privation[9] with a degree of patience and
+constancy which can not be sufficiently admired. And never was a
+general better supported by his inferior officers. Not shackled by men
+who, without merit, held stations of high rank obtained by political
+influence, he commanded young men of equal spirit and intelligence,
+formed under the eye of Washington, and trained in the school
+furnished in the severe service of the north, to all the hardships and
+dangers of war.
+
+     [Footnote 9: The distresses of the southern army were such
+     that, if plainly described, truth would wear the appearance
+     of fiction. They were almost naked and barefooted,
+     frequently without food, and always without pay. That he
+     might relieve them when in the last extremity, without
+     diminishing the exertions of their general to derive support
+     from other sources, by creating an opinion that supplies
+     could be drawn from him, Mr. Morris, as was stated by
+     himself in conversation with the author, employed an agent
+     to attend the southern army as a volunteer, whose powers
+     were unknown to General Greene. This agent was instructed to
+     watch its situation; and, whenever it appeared impossible
+     for the general to extricate himself from his
+     embarrassments, to furnish him, on his pledging the public
+     faith for repayment, with a draught on the financier for
+     such a sum as would relieve the urgency of the moment. Thus
+     was Greene occasionally rescued from impending ruin by aids
+     which appeared providential, and for which he could not
+     account.]
+
+A peculiar importance was given to these successes in the south by the
+opinion that a pacific temper was finding its way into the cabinets of
+the belligerent powers of Europe. The communications from the court of
+Versailles rendered it probable that negotiations for peace would take
+place in the course of the ensuing winter; and dark hints had been
+given on the part of Great Britain to the minister of his most
+Christian Majesty, that all the American states could not reasonably
+expect to become independent, as several of them were subdued.
+Referring to the precedent of the low countries, it was observed that
+of the seventeen provinces originally united against the Spanish
+crown, only seven obtained their independence.
+
+Additional motives for exertion were furnished by other communications
+from the French monarch. These were that, after the present campaign,
+no farther pecuniary or military aids were to be expected from France.
+The situation of affairs in Europe would, it was said, demand all the
+exertions which that nation was capable of making; and the forces of
+his most Christian Majesty might render as much real service to the
+common cause elsewhere as in America.[10]
+
+     [Footnote 10: Secret Journals of Congress, vol. 2, pp. 305,
+     399, 400, 452.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+     Preparations for another campaign.... Proceedings in the
+     Parliament of Great Britain.... Conciliatory conduct of
+     General Carleton.... Transactions in the south....
+     Negotiations for peace.... Preliminary and eventual articles
+     agreed upon between the United States and Great Britain....
+     Discontents of the American army.... Peace.... Mutiny of a
+     part of the Pennsylvania line.... Evacuation of New York....
+     General Washington resigns his commission and retires to
+     Mount Vernon.
+
+
+{1782}
+
+[Sidenote: Preparations for another campaign.]
+
+The splendid success of the allied arms in Virginia, and the great
+advantages obtained still farther south, produced no disposition in
+General Washington to relax those exertions which might be necessary
+to secure the great object of the contest. "I shall attempt to
+stimulate congress," said he, in a letter to General Greene written at
+Mount Vernon, "to the best improvement of our late success, by taking
+the most vigorous and effectual measures to be ready for an early and
+decisive campaign the next year. My greatest fear is, that viewing
+this stroke in a point of light which may too much magnify its
+importance, they may think our work too nearly closed, and fall into a
+state of languor and relaxation. To prevent this error, I shall employ
+every means in my power, and, if unhappily we sink into this fatal
+mistake, no part of the blame shall be mine."
+
+On the 27th of November he reached Philadelphia, and congress passed a
+resolution granting him an audience on the succeeding day. On his
+appearance the President addressed him in a short speech, informing
+him that a committee was appointed to state the requisitions to be
+made for the proper establishment of the army, and expressing the
+expectation that he would remain in Philadelphia, in order to aid the
+consultations on that important subject.
+
+The secretary of war, the financier, and the secretary of foreign
+affairs, assisted at these deliberations; and the business was
+concluded with unusual celerity.
+
+A revenue was scarcely less necessary than an army; and it was obvious
+that the means for carrying on the war must be obtained, either by
+impressment, or by a vigorous course of taxation. But both these
+alternatives depended on the states; and the government of the union
+resorted to the influence of the Commander-in-chief in aid of its
+requisitions.
+
+But no exertions on the part of America alone could expel the invading
+army. A superiority at sea was indispensable to the success of
+offensive operations against the posts which the British still held
+within the United States. To obtain this superiority, General
+Washington pressed its importance on the minister of France and
+commanding officers of the French troops, as well as on the Marquis de
+Lafayette, who was about to return to his native country.
+
+[Sidenote: Proceedings in the British parliament.]
+
+The first intelligence from Europe was far from being calculated to
+diminish the anxieties still felt in America by the enlightened
+friends of the revolution. The parliament of Great Britain reassembled
+in November. The speech from the throne breathed a settled purpose to
+continue the war; and the addresses from both houses, which were
+carried by large majorities, echoed the sentiment.
+
+In the course of the animated debates which these addresses
+occasioned, an intention was indeed avowed by some members of the
+administration to change their system. The plan indicated for the
+future was to direct the whole force of the nation against France and
+Spain; and to suspend offensive operations in the interior of the
+United States, until the strength of those powers should be broken. In
+the mean time, the posts then occupied by their troops were to be
+maintained.
+
+This development of the views of administration furnished additional
+motives to the American government for exerting all the faculties of
+the nation, to expel the British garrisons from New York and
+Charleston. The efforts of the Commander-in-chief to produce these
+exertions were earnest and unremitting, but not successful. The state
+legislatures declared the inability of their constituents to pay
+taxes. Instead of filling the continental treasury, some were devising
+means to draw money from it; and some of those who passed bills
+imposing heavy taxes, directed that the demands of the state should be
+first satisfied, and that the residue only should be paid to the
+continental receiver. By the unwearied attention and judicious
+arrangements of the minister of finance, the expenses of the nation
+had been greatly reduced. The bank established in Philadelphia, and
+his own high character, had enabled him to support in some degree a
+system of credit, the advantages of which were incalculably great.
+
+He had through the Chevalier de la Luzerne obtained permission from
+his most Christian Majesty to draw for half a million of livres
+monthly, until six millions should be received. To prevent the
+diversion of any part of this sum from the most essential objects, he
+had concealed the negotiation even from congress, and had communicated
+it only to the Commander-in-chief; yet, after receiving the first
+instalment, it was discovered that Doctor Franklin had anticipated the
+residue of the loan, and had appropriated it to the purposes of the
+United States. At the commencement of the year 1782, not a dollar
+remained in the treasury; and, although congress had required the
+payment of two millions on the 1st of April, not a cent had been
+received on the twenty-third of that month; and, so late as the 1st of
+June, not more than twenty thousand dollars had reached the treasury.
+Yet to the financier every eye was turned; to him the empty hand of
+every public creditor was stretched forth; and against him, instead of
+the state governments, the complaints and imprecations of every
+unsatisfied claimant were directed. In July, when the second quarter
+annual payment of taxes ought to have been received, the minister of
+finance was informed by some of his agents, that the collection of the
+revenue had been postponed in some of the states, in consequence of
+which the month of December would arrive before any money could come
+into the hands of the continental receivers. In a letter communicating
+this unpleasant intelligence to the Commander-in-chief, he added,
+"with such gloomy prospects as this letter affords, I am tied here to
+be baited by continual clamorous demands; and for the forfeiture of
+all that is valuable in life, and which I hoped at this moment to
+enjoy, I am to be paid by invective. Scarce a day passes in which I am
+not tempted to give back into the hands of congress the power they
+have delegated, and to lay down a burden which presses me to the
+earth. Nothing prevents me but a knowledge of the difficulties I am
+obliged to struggle under. What may be the success of my efforts God
+only knows; but to leave my post at present, would, I know, be
+ruinous. This candid state of my situation and feelings I give to your
+bosom, because you who have already felt and suffered so much, will be
+able to sympathize with me."
+
+[Illustration: Livingston Manor, Dobbs Ferry, New York
+
+_A monument erected by the Sons of the Revolution on the lawn of this
+historic mansion, overlooking the Hudson River, states that here, on
+July 6, 1781, the French allies under Rochambeau joined the American
+Army. Here also, on August 14, 1781, Washington planned the Yorktown
+campaign which brought to a triumphant end the War for American
+Independence; and here, on May 6, 1783, Washington and Sir Guy
+Carleton arranged for the evacuation of American soil by the British.
+A concluding paragraph reads: "And opposite this point, May 8, 1783, a
+British sloop of war fired 17 guns in honor of the American
+Commander-in-Chief, the first salute by Great Britain to the United
+States of America."_]
+
+Fortunately for the United States, the temper of the British nation on
+the subject of continuing the war did not accord with that of its
+sovereign. That war, into which the people had entered with at least
+as much eagerness as the minister, had become almost universally
+unpopular.
+
+{February 27.}
+
+{March 4.}
+
+Motions against the measures of administration respecting America were
+repeated by the opposition; and, on every experiment, the strength of
+the minority increased. At length, on the 27th of February, General
+Conway moved in the house of commons, "that it is the opinion of this
+house that a farther prosecution of offensive war against America
+would, under present circumstances, be the means of weakening the
+efforts of this country against her European enemies, and tend to
+increase the mutual enmity so fatal to the interests both of Great
+Britain and America." The whole force of administration was exerted to
+get rid of this resolution, but was exerted in vain; and it was
+carried. An address to the king, in the words of the resolution, was
+immediately voted, and was presented by the whole house. The answer of
+the crown being deemed inexplicit, it was on the 4th of March
+resolved, "that the house will consider as enemies to his majesty and
+the country, all those who should advise, or attempt a farther
+prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North America."
+
+These votes were soon followed by a change of ministers, and by
+instructions to the officers commanding the forces in America, which
+conformed to them.
+
+While General Washington was employed in addressing circular letters
+to the state governments, suggesting all those motives which might
+stimulate them to exertions better proportioned to the exigency,
+English papers containing the debates in parliament on the various
+propositions respecting America, reached the United States. Alarmed at
+the impression these debates might make, he introduced the opinions it
+was deemed prudent to inculcate respecting them, into the letters he
+was then about to transmit to the governors of the several states. "I
+have perused these debates," he said, "with great attention and care,
+with a view, if possible, to penetrate their real design; and upon the
+most mature deliberation I can bestow, I am obliged to declare it as
+my candid opinion, that the measure, in all its views, so far as it
+respects America, is merely delusory, having no serious intention to
+admit our independence upon its true principles, but is calculated to
+produce a change of ministers to quiet the minds of their own people,
+and reconcile them to a continuance of the war, while it is meant to
+amuse this country with a false idea of peace, to draw us from our
+connexion with France, and to lull us into a state of security and
+inactivity, which taking place, the ministry will be left to prosecute
+the war in other parts of the world with greater vigour and effect.
+Your excellency will permit me on this occasion to observe, that, even
+if the nation and parliament are really in earnest to obtain peace
+with America, it will undoubtedly be wisdom in us to meet them with
+great caution and circumspection, and by all means to keep our arms
+firm in our hands, and instead of relaxing one iota in our exertions,
+rather to spring forward with redoubled vigour, that we may take the
+advantage of every favourable opportunity, until our wishes are fully
+obtained. No nation yet suffered in treaty by preparing (even in the
+moment of negotiation) most vigorously for the field.
+
+"The industry which the enemy is using to propagate their pacific
+reports, appears to me a circumstance very suspicious; and the
+eagerness with which the people, as I am informed, are catching at
+them, is, in my opinion, equally dangerous."
+
+{May.}
+
+[Sidenote: Conciliatory conduct of General Carleton.]
+
+Early in May, Sir Guy Carleton, who had succeeded Sir Henry Clinton in
+the command of all the British forces in the United States, arrived at
+New York. Having been also appointed in conjunction with Admiral
+Digby, a commissioner to negotiate a peace, he lost no time in
+conveying to General Washington copies of the votes of the British
+Parliament, and of a bill which had been introduced on the part of
+administration, authorizing his Majesty to conclude a peace or truce
+with those who were still denominated "the revolted colonies of North
+America." These papers, he said, would manifest the dispositions
+prevailing with the government and people of England towards those of
+America; and, if the like pacific temper should prevail in this
+country, both inclination and duty would lead him to meet it with the
+most zealous concurrence. He had addressed to congress, he said, a
+letter containing the same communications, and he solicited a passport
+for the person who should convey it.
+
+At this time, the bill enabling the British monarch to conclude a
+peace or truce with America had not become a law; nor was any
+assurance given that the present commissioners were empowered to offer
+other terms than those which had been formerly rejected. General
+Carleton therefore could not hope that negotiations would commence on
+such a basis; nor be disappointed at the refusal of the passports he
+requested by congress, to whom the application was, of course,
+referred. The letter may have been written for the general purpose of
+conciliation, and of producing a disposition in the United States on
+the subject of hostilities, corresponding with that which had been
+expressed in the House of Commons. But the situation of the United
+States justified a suspicion of different motives; and prudence
+required that their conduct should be influenced by that suspicion.
+The repugnance of the king to a dismemberment of the empire was
+understood; and it was thought probable that the sentiments expressed
+in the House of Commons might be attributable rather to a desire of
+changing ministers, than to any fixed determination to relinquish the
+design of reannexing America to the crown.
+
+Under these impressions, the overtures now made were considered as
+opiates, administered to lull the spirit of vigilance which the
+guardians of the public safety laboured to keep up, into a state of
+fatal repose; and to prevent those measures of security which it might
+yet be necessary to adopt.
+
+This jealousy was nourished by all the intelligence received from
+Europe. The utmost address of the British cabinet had been employed to
+detach the belligerents from each other. The mediation of Russia had
+been accepted to procure a separate peace with Holland; propositions
+had been submitted both to France and Spain, tending to an
+accommodation of differences with each of those powers singly; and
+inquiries had been made of Mr. Adams, the American minister at the
+Hague, which seemed to contemplate the same object with regard to the
+United States. These political manoeuvres furnished additional motives
+for doubting the sincerity of the English cabinet. Whatever views
+might actuate the court of St. James on this subject, the resolution
+of the American government to make no separate treaty was
+unalterable.[11]
+
+     [Footnote 11: Secret Journals of Congress, v. 2, pp. 412,
+     418, 454.]
+
+But the public votes which have been stated, and probably his private
+instructions, restrained Sir Guy Carleton from offensive war; and the
+state of the American army disabled General Washington from making any
+attempt on the posts in possession of the British. The campaign of
+1782 consequently passed away without furnishing any military
+operations of moment between the armies under the immediate direction
+of the respective commanders-in-chief.
+
+{August.}
+
+[Sidenote: Negotiations for peace.]
+
+Early in August a letter was received by General Washington from Sir
+Guy Carleton and Admiral Digby, which, among other communications
+manifesting a pacific disposition on the part of England, contained
+the information that Mr. Grenville was at Paris, invested with full
+powers to treat with all the parties at war, that negotiations for a
+general peace were already commenced, and that his Majesty had
+commanded his minister to direct Mr. Grenville, that the independence
+of the thirteen provinces should be proposed by him in the first
+instance, instead of being made a condition of a general treaty. But
+that this proposition would be made in the confidence that the
+loyalists would be restored to their possessions, or a full
+compensation made them for whatever confiscations might have taken
+place.
+
+This letter was, not long afterwards, followed by one from Sir Guy
+Carleton, declaring that he could discern no further object of
+contest, and that he disapproved of all farther hostilities by sea or
+land, which could only multiply the miseries of individuals, without a
+possible advantage to either nation. In pursuance of this opinion, he
+had, soon after his arrival in New York, restrained the practice of
+detaching parties of Indians against the frontiers of the United
+States, and had recalled those which were previously engaged in those
+bloody incursions.
+
+These communications appear to have alarmed the jealousy of the
+minister of France. To quiet his fears, congress renewed the
+resolution "to enter into no discussion of any overtures for
+pacification, but in confidence and in concert with his most Christian
+Majesty;"[12] and again recommend to the several states to adopt such
+measures as would most effectually guard against all intercourse with
+any subjects of the British crown during the war.
+
+     [Footnote 12: Secret Journals of Congress, v. 3, p. 249.]
+
+The same causes which produced this inactivity in the north, operated
+to a considerable extent with the armies of the south.
+
+When General Wayne entered Georgia, the British troops in that state
+retired to the town of Savannah; and the Americans advanced to
+Ebenezer. Though inferior to their enemy in numbers, they interrupted
+his communications with the country, and even burned some magazines
+which had been collected and deposited under the protection of his
+guns.
+
+Not receiving the aids from the militia which he had expected, Wayne
+pressed Greene for reinforcements, which that officer was unable to
+furnish, until Lieutenant Colonel Posey arrived from Virginia with
+about two hundred men. He proceeded immediately to Georgia, and
+reached the camp at Ebenezer on the 1st of April.
+
+These troops, though new levies, were veteran soldiers, who, having
+served the times for which they enlisted, had become the substitutes
+of men who were designated, by lot, for tours of duty they were
+unwilling to perform. Being commanded by old officers of approved
+courage and experience, the utmost confidence was to be placed in
+them; and Wayne, though still inferior to his enemy in numbers, sought
+for opportunities to employ them.
+
+The Indians, who occupied the southern and western parts of Georgia,
+were in the habit of assembling annually at Augusta, for the purpose
+of receiving those presents which were indispensable to the
+preservation of British influence over them. The usual time for
+holding these meetings was arrived; but the Americans being in
+possession of Augusta, it was necessary to transfer them to a British
+post, and the Indians were invited to keep down the south side of the
+Altamaha to its mouth, whence they were to be conveyed through the
+inland passage to Savannah. Arrangements had been made for bringing a
+strong party of Creeks and Choctaws, assembled on the south side of
+Altamaha, to Harris's bridge, on the Ogechee, about seven miles from
+that town, and Colonel Brown marched at the head of a strong
+detachment to convoy them into it. The Indians having quarrelled,
+instead of proceeding to Ogechee, returned home, and Brown marched
+back his detachment.
+
+Wayne received intelligence of this movement; and, determining to
+avail himself of the opportunity given by this division of his enemy
+to fight him in detail, immediately put his army in motion. He was
+soon informed that Brown was on his return, and would reach Savannah
+that night. Disregarding the danger of throwing himself with inferior
+numbers between the two divisions of the British army, he determined
+on hazarding an action, and his advance, consisting of a troop of
+Virginia cavalry, commanded by Captain Hughes and Lieutenant Boyer,
+and a light company of Virginia infantry, commanded by Captain Parker,
+entered the road along which Brown was marching about twelve at night,
+just as his front appeared in view. A vigorous charge was instantly
+made, which, being entirely unexpected, was completely successful. The
+British, struck with a panic, dispersed among the thickets and fled in
+all directions. Colonel Douglass and about forty men were killed,
+wounded, or taken. The American loss was five men killed and two
+wounded. The next day, after parading in view of Savannah, Wayne
+resumed his position at Ebenezer.
+
+The resolution of Parliament against the farther prosecution of active
+war in America was followed by instructions to the officers commanding
+the armies of Britain, in consequence of which propositions for the
+suspension of hostilities were made in the southern department, about
+the time that they were rejected in the north. The same motives
+continuing to influence congress, they were rejected in the south
+also, and the armies still continued to watch each other with
+vigilance. To avoid surprise, Wayne frequently changed his ground, and
+was continually on the alert. While his whole attention was directed
+towards Savannah, an enemy entirely unlooked for came upon his rear,
+entered his camp in the night, and, had not his army been composed of
+the best materials, must have dispersed it.
+
+A strong party of Creeks, led by a gallant warrior, Emistasigo, or
+Guristersego, instead of moving down on the south side of the
+Altamaha, passed through the centre of Georgia with the determination
+of engaging the American posts. Marching entirely in the night,
+through unfrequented ways, subsisting on meal made of parched corn,
+and guided by white men, they reached the neighbourhood of the
+American army then encamped at Gibbon's plantation, near Savannah,
+without being perceived, and made arrangements to attack it. In the
+night they emerged from the deep swamp in which they had been
+concealed, and, approaching the rear of the American camp with the
+utmost secrecy, reached it about three in the morning. The sentinel
+was killed before he could sound the alarm, and the first notice was
+given by the fire and the yell of the enemy. The Indians rushed into
+the camp, and, killing the few men they fell in with, seized the
+artillery. Fortunately some time was wasted in the attempt to turn the
+pieces on the Americans. Captain Parker, who commanded the light
+company, had been employed on a very fatiguing tour of duty near
+Savannah, and had returned that evening to camp. To allow his harassed
+soldiers some repose, he was placed in the rear near the artillery,
+and was asleep when the Indians entered the camp. Roused by the fire,
+and perceiving that the enemy was amidst them, he judiciously drew off
+his men in silence, and formed them with the quarter guard behind the
+house in which the general was quartered. Wayne was instantly on
+horseback, and, believing the whole garrison from Savannah to be upon
+him, determined to repulse the enemy or die in the attempt. Parker was
+directed to charge immediately with the bayonet, and orders were
+despatched to Posey, the commanding officer in camp, to bring up the
+troops without delay. The orders to Parker were so promptly executed,
+that Posey, although he moved with the utmost celerity, could not
+reach the scene of action in time to join in it. The light troops and
+quarter guard under Parker drove every thing before them at the point
+of the bayonet. The Indians, unable to resist the bayonet, soon fled,
+leaving their chief, his white guides, and seventeen of his warriors
+dead upon the spot. Wayne, who accompanied his light troops, now first
+discovered the character of his enemy, and adapted his pursuit to it.
+Yet only twelve prisoners were made. The general's horse was shot
+under him, and twelve privates were killed and wounded.[13]
+
+     [Footnote 13: In addition to the public documents and
+     accounts, the author received a statement of this action in
+     a letter from his friend Captain Parker.]
+
+This sharp conflict terminated the war in Georgia. Information was
+soon given of the determination to withdraw the British troops from
+Savannah; and arrangements being made, with the sanction of the civil
+government, for the security of such individuals as might remain in
+town, the place was evacuated. The regular troops retired to
+Charleston, and Colonel Brown conducted his loyalists through the
+islands into Florida. Wayne was directed to rejoin General Greene.
+
+In South Carolina the American army maintained its position in front
+of Jacksonborough, and that of the British was confined to Charleston
+and its immediate vicinity. The situation of the ground as well as the
+condition of his army, was unfavourable to offensive operations on the
+part of General Greene; and General Leslie, who commanded in
+Charleston, was not strong enough to attempt the recovery of the lower
+country. While the two armies continued to watch each other,
+occasional enterprises were undertaken by detachments, in some of
+which a considerable degree of merit was displayed. In one of them,
+the corps of Marion, its general being attending in the legislature,
+was surprised and dispersed by the British Colonel Thompson; and in
+another, an English guard galley, mounting twelve guns, and manned
+with forty-three seamen, was captured by Captain Rudolph, of the
+legion.
+
+From the possession of the lower country of South Carolina, which was
+known to contain considerable quantities of rice and beef cattle, the
+army had anticipated more regular and more abundant supplies of food
+than it had been accustomed to receive. This hope was disappointed by
+the measures of the government.
+
+The generals, and other agents acting under the authority of congress,
+had been accustomed in extreme cases, which too frequently occurred,
+to seize provisions for the use of the armies. This questionable power
+had been exercised with forbearance, most commonly in concert with the
+government of the state, and under the pressure of such obvious
+necessity as carried its justification with it.
+
+The war being transferred to the south at a time when the depreciation
+of paper money had deprived congress of its only fund, it became
+indispensably necessary to resort more generally to coercive means in
+order to procure subsistence for the troops. Popular discontent was
+the natural consequence of this odious measure, and the feelings of
+the people were communicated to their representatives. After the
+termination of the very active campaign of 1781 in Virginia, the
+legislature of that state passed a law prohibiting all impressment,
+"unless it be by warrant from the executive in time of actual
+invasion;" and the assembly of South Carolina, during the session at
+Jacksonborough, also passed a law forbidding impressment, and
+enacting, "that no other persons than those who shall be appointed by
+the governor for that purpose, shall be allowed or permitted to
+procure supplies for the army."
+
+The effect of this measure was soon felt. The exertions of the agent
+appointed by the governor failed to procure subsistence for the
+troops, and General Greene, after a long course of suffering, was
+compelled to relieve his urgent wants by an occasional recurrence to
+means forbidden by the law.
+
+Privations, which had been borne without a murmur under the excitement
+of active military operations, produced great irritation during the
+leisure which prevailed after the enemy had abandoned the open field;
+and, in the Pennsylvania line, which was composed chiefly of
+foreigners, the discontent was aggravated to such a point as to
+produce a treasonable intercourse with the enemy, in which a plot is
+understood to have been laid for seizing General Greene and delivering
+him to a detachment of British troops, which would move out of
+Charleston for the purpose of favouring the execution of the design.
+It was discovered when it is supposed to have been on the point of
+execution; and a sergeant Gornell, believed to be the chief of the
+conspiracy, was condemned to death by a court martial, and executed on
+the 22nd of April. Some others, among whom were two domestics in the
+general's family, were brought before the court on suspicion of being
+concerned in the plot, but the testimony was not sufficient to convict
+them; and twelve deserted the night after it was discovered. There is
+no reason to believe that the actual guilt of this transaction
+extended farther.
+
+{July 11.}
+
+Charleston was held until the 14th of December. Previous to its
+evacuation, General Leslie had proposed a cessation of hostilities,
+and that his troops might be supplied with fresh provisions, in
+exchange for articles of the last necessity in the American camp. The
+policy of government being adverse to this proposition, General Greene
+was under the necessity of refusing his assent to it, and the British
+general continued to supply his wants by force. This produced several
+skirmishes with foraging parties, to one of which importance was given
+by the death of Lieutenant Colonel Laurens, whose loss was universally
+lamented.
+
+This gallant and accomplished young gentleman had entered into the
+family of the Commander-in-chief at an early period of the war, and
+had always shared a large portion of his esteem. Brave to excess, he
+sought every occasion to render service to his country, and to acquire
+that military fame which he pursued with the ardour of a young
+soldier, whose courage seems to have partaken largely of that romantic
+spirit which youth and enthusiasm produce in a fearless mind. No small
+addition to the regrets occasioned by his loss was derived from the
+reflection that he fell unnecessarily, in an unimportant skirmish, in
+the last moments of the war, when his rash exposure to the danger
+which proved fatal to him could no longer be useful to his country.
+
+From the arrival of Sir Guy Carleton at New York, the conduct of the
+British armies on the American continent was regulated by the spirit
+then recently displayed in the house of commons; and all the
+sentiments expressed by their general were pacific and conciliatory.
+But to these nattering appearances it was dangerous to yield implicit
+confidence. With a change of men, a change of measures might also take
+place; and, in addition to the ordinary suggestions of prudence, the
+military events in the West Indies were calculated to keep alive the
+attention, and to continue the anxieties of the United States.
+
+After the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, the arms of France and Spain
+in the American seas had been attended with such signal success, that
+the hope of annihilating the power of Great Britain in the West Indies
+was not too extravagant to be indulged. Immense preparations had been
+made for the invasion of Jamaica; and, early in April, Admiral Count
+de Grasse sailed from Martinique with a powerful fleet, having on
+board the land forces and artillery which were to be employed in the
+operations against that island. His intention was to form a junction
+with the Spanish Admiral Don Solano, who lay at Hispaniola; after
+which the combined fleet, whose superiority promised to render it
+irresistible, was to proceed on the important enterprise which had
+been concerted. On his way to Hispaniola, De Grasse was overtaken by
+Rodney, and brought to an engagement, in which he was totally
+defeated, and made a prisoner. This decisive victory disconcerted the
+plans of the combined powers, and gave security to the British
+islands. In the United States, it was feared that this alteration in
+the aspect of affairs might influence the councils of the English
+cabinet on the question of peace; and these apprehensions increased
+the uneasiness with which all intelligent men contemplated the state
+of the American finances.
+
+It was then in contemplation to reduce the army, by which many of the
+officers would be discharged. While the general declared, in a
+confidential letter to the secretary of war, his conviction of the
+alacrity with which they would retire into private life, could they be
+placed in a situation as eligible as they had left to enter into the
+service, he added--"Yet I cannot help fearing the result of the
+measure, when I see such a number of men goaded by a thousand stings
+of reflection on the past, and of anticipation on the future, about to
+be turned on the world, soured by penury, and what they call the
+ingratitude of the public; involved in debts, without one farthing of
+money to carry them home, after having spent the flower of their days,
+and, many of them, their patrimonies, in establishing the freedom and
+independence of their country; and having suffered every thing which
+human nature is capable of enduring on this side of death. I repeat
+it, when I reflect on these irritating circumstances, unattended by
+one thing to soothe their feelings, or brighten the gloomy prospect, I
+cannot avoid apprehending that a train of evils will follow of a very
+serious and distressing nature.
+
+"I wish not to heighten the shades of the picture so far as the real
+life would justify me in doing, or I would give anecdotes of
+patriotism and distress which have scarcely ever been paralleled,
+never surpassed, in the history of mankind. But you may rely upon it,
+the patience and long sufferance of this army are almost exhausted,
+and there never was so great a spirit of discontent as at this
+instant. While in the field, I think it may be kept from breaking out
+into acts of outrage; but when we retire into winter quarters (unless
+the storm be previously dissipated) I can not be at ease respecting
+the consequences. It is high time for a peace."
+
+To judge rightly of the motives which produced this uneasy temper in
+the army, it will be necessary to recollect that the resolution of
+October, 1780, granting half pay for life to the officers, stood on
+the mere faith of a government possessing no funds enabling it to
+perform its engagements. From requisitions alone, to be made on
+sovereign states, the supplies were to be drawn which should satisfy
+these meritorious public creditors; and the ill success attending
+these requisitions while the dangers of war were still impending,
+furnished melancholy presages of their unproductiveness in time of
+peace. In addition to this reflection, of itself sufficient to disturb
+the tranquillity which the passage of the resolution had produced,
+were other considerations of decisive influence. The dispositions
+manifested by congress itself were so unfriendly to the half pay
+establishment as to extinguish the hope that any funds the government
+might acquire, would be applied to that object. Since the passage of
+the resolution, the articles of confederation, which required the
+concurrence of nine states to any act appropriating public money, had
+been adopted; and nine states had never been in favour of the measure.
+Should the requisitions of congress therefore be respected, or should
+permanent funds be granted by the states, the prevailing sentiment of
+the nation was too hostile to the compensation which had been
+stipulated, to leave a probability that it would be substantially
+made. This was not merely the sentiment of the individuals then
+administering the government, which might change with a change of men.
+It was known to be the sense of the states they represented; and
+consequently the hope could not be indulged that, on this subject, a
+future congress would be more just, or would think more liberally. As
+therefore the establishment of that independence for which they had
+fought and suffered appeared to become more certain,--as the end of
+their toils approached--the officers became more attentive to their
+own situation; and the inquietude of the army increased with the
+progress of the negotiation.
+
+In October, the French troops marched to Boston, in order to embark
+for the West Indies; and the Americans retired into winter quarters.
+The apparent indisposition of the British general to act offensively,
+the pacific temper avowed by the cabinet of London, and the strength
+of the country in which the American troops were cantoned, gave ample
+assurance that no military operations would be undertaken during the
+winter, which could require the continuance of General Washington in
+camp. But the irritable temper of the army furnished cause for serious
+apprehension; and he determined to forego every gratification to be
+derived from a suspension of his toils, in order to watch its
+discontents.
+
+While the situation of the United States thus loudly called for peace,
+the negotiations in Europe were protracted by causes which, in
+America, were almost unknown, and which it would have been dangerous
+to declare. Although, so far as respected the dismemberment of the
+British empire, the war had been carried on with one common design,
+the ulterior views of the belligerent powers were not only different,
+but, in some respects, incompatible with each other. To depress a
+proud and hated rival was so eagerly desired by the house of Bourbon,
+that France and Spain might be disposed to continue hostilities for
+the attainment of objects in which America could feel no common
+interest. This circumstance, of itself, furnished motives for
+prolonging the war, after the causes in which it originated were
+removed; and additional delays were produced by the discordant views
+which were entertained in regard to those claims which were the
+subject of negotiation. These were, the boundaries which should be
+assigned to the United States, and the participation which should be
+allowed them in the fisheries. On both these points, the wishes of
+France and Spain were opposed to those of America; and the cabinets
+both of Versailles and Madrid, seemed disposed to intrigue with that
+of London, to prevent such ample concessions respecting them, as the
+British minister might be inclined to make.
+
+[Sidenote: Preliminary and eventual articles agreed upon between the
+United States and Great Britain.]
+
+{Nov. 30.}
+
+After an intricate negotiation, in which the penetration, judgment,
+and firmness, of the American commissioners were eminently displayed,
+eventual and preliminary articles were signed on the 30th of November.
+By this treaty every reasonable wish of America, especially on the
+questions of boundary and of the fisheries, was gratified.
+
+The liberality of the articles on these points attests the success
+which attended the endeavours of the plenipotentiaries of the United
+States, to prove that the real interests of England required that
+America should become independent in fact, as well as name; and that
+every cause of future discord between the two nations should be
+removed.
+
+{1783}
+
+The effect of this treaty was suspended until peace should be
+concluded between France and Great Britain. The connexions between
+their most Christian and Catholic Majesties not admitting of a
+separate peace on the part of either, the negotiations between the
+belligerent powers of Europe had been protracted by the persevering
+endeavours of Spain to obtain the cession of Gibraltar. At length, the
+formidable armament which had invested that fortress was repulsed with
+immense slaughter; after which the place was relieved by Lord Howe,
+and the besiegers abandoned the enterprise in despair. Negotiations
+were then taken up with sincerity; and preliminary articles of peace
+between Great Britain, France, and Spain, were signed on the 20th of
+January, 1783.
+
+[Sidenote: Discontents of the American Army.]
+
+In America, the approach of peace, combined with other causes,
+produced a state of things alike interesting and critical. The
+officers who had wasted their fortunes and their prime of life in
+unrewarded service, fearing, with reason, that congress possessed
+neither the power nor the inclination to comply with its engagements
+to the army, could not look with unconcern at the prospect which was
+opening to them. In December, soon after going into winter quarters,
+they presented a petition to congress, respecting the money actually
+due to them, and proposing a commutation of the half pay stipulated by
+the resolutions of October, 1780, for a sum in gross, which, they
+nattered themselves, would encounter fewer prejudices than the half
+pay establishment. Some security that the engagements of the
+government would be complied with was also requested. A committee of
+officers was deputed to solicit the attention of congress to this
+memorial, and to attend its progress through the house.
+
+Among the most distinguished members of the federal government, were
+persons sincerely disposed to do ample justice to the public creditors
+generally, and to that class of them particularly whose claims were
+founded in military service. But many viewed the army with jealous
+eyes, acknowledged its merit with unwillingness, and betrayed,
+involuntarily, their repugnance to a faithful observance of the public
+engagements. With this question, another of equal importance was
+connected, on which congress was divided almost in the same manner.
+One party was attached to a state, the other to a continental system.
+The latter laboured to fund the public debts on solid continental
+security, while the former opposed their whole weight to measures
+calculated to effect that object.
+
+In consequence of these divisions on points of the deepest interest,
+the business of the army advanced slowly, and the important question
+respecting the commutation of their half pay remained undecided, when
+intelligence was received of the signature of the preliminary and
+eventual articles of peace between the United States and Great
+Britain.
+
+[Sidenote: Anonymous letters and the proceedings in consequence
+thereof.]
+
+The officers, soured by their past sufferings, their present wants,
+and their gloomy prospects--exasperated by the neglect which they
+experienced, and the injustice which they apprehended, manifested an
+irritable and uneasy temper, which required only a slight impulse to
+give it activity. To render this temper the more dangerous, an opinion
+had been insinuated that the Commander-in-chief was restrained, by
+extreme delicacy, from supporting their interests with that zeal which
+his feelings and knowledge of their situation had inspired. Early in
+March, a letter was received from their committee in Philadelphia,
+showing that the objects they solicited had not been obtained. On the
+10th of that month, an anonymous paper was circulated, requiring a
+meeting of the general and field officers at the public building on
+the succeeding day at eleven in the morning; and announcing the
+expectation that an officer from each company, and a delegate from the
+medical staff would attend. The object of the meeting was avowed to
+be, "to consider the late letter from their representatives in
+Philadelphia, and what measures (if any) should be adopted to obtain
+that redress of grievances which they seemed to have solicited in
+vain."
+
+On the same day an address to the army was privately circulated, which
+was admirably well calculated to work on the passions of the moment,
+and to lead to the most desperate resolutions. Full justice can not be
+done to this eloquent paper without inserting it entire.
+
+"To the officers of the army.
+
+"Gentlemen,
+
+"A fellow soldier, whose interests and affections bend him strongly to
+you, whose past sufferings have been as great, and whose future
+fortune may be as desperate as yours, would beg leave to address you.
+
+"Age has its claims, and rank is not without its pretensions, to
+advise; but though unsupported by both, he flatters himself that the
+plain language of sincerity and experience will neither be unheard nor
+unregarded.
+
+"Like many of you, he loved private life, and left it with regret. He
+left it, determined to retire from the field with the necessity that
+called him to it, and not until then--not until the enemies of his
+country, the slaves of power, and the hirelings of injustice, were
+compelled to abandon their schemes, and acknowledge America as
+terrible in arms as she had been humble in remonstrance. With this
+object in view, he has long shared in your toils, and mingled in your
+dangers. He has felt the cold hand of poverty without a murmur, and
+has seen the insolence of wealth without a sigh. But too much under
+the direction of his wishes, and sometimes weak enough to mistake
+desire for opinion, he has until lately--very lately--believed in the
+justice of his country. He hoped that, as the clouds of adversity
+scattered, and as the sunshine of peace and better fortune broke in
+upon us, the coldness and severity of government would relax, and that
+more than justice, that gratitude would blaze forth upon those hands
+which had upheld her in the darkest stages of her passage from
+impending servitude to acknowledged independence. But faith has its
+limits, as well as temper, and there are points beyond which neither
+can be stretched without sinking into cowardice, or plunging into
+credulity. This, my friends, I conceive to be your situation. Hurried
+to the very verge of both, another step would ruin you for ever. To be
+tame and unprovoked when injuries press hard upon you, is more than
+weakness; but to look up for kinder usage without one manly effort of
+your own, would fix your character, and show the world how richly you
+deserve those chains you broke. To guard against this evil, let us
+take a review of the ground upon which we now stand, and from thence
+carry our thoughts forward for a moment into the unexplored field of
+expedient.
+
+"After a pursuit of seven long years, the object for which we set out
+is at length brought within our reach.--Yes, my friends, that
+suffering courage of yours was active once.--It has conducted the
+United States of America through a doubtful and a bloody war.--It has
+placed her in the chair of independency; and peace returns again to
+bless--whom?--A country willing to redress your wrongs, cherish your
+worth, and reward your services? A country courting your return to
+private life with tears of gratitude and smiles of admiration--longing
+to divide with you that independency which your gallantry has given,
+and those riches which your wounds have preserved? Is this the case?
+Or is it rather a country that tramples upon your rights, disdains
+your cries, and insults your distresses? Have you not more than once
+suggested your wishes and made known your wants to congress? Wants and
+wishes which gratitude and policy would have anticipated rather than
+evaded; and have you not lately, in the meek language of entreating
+memorials, begged from their justice what you could no longer expect
+from their favour? How have you been answered? Let the letter which
+you are called to consider to-morrow reply.
+
+"If this then be your treatment while the swords you wear are
+necessary for the defence of America, what have you to expect from
+peace, when your voice shall sink, and your strength dissipate by
+division? When those very swords, the instruments and companions of
+your glory, shall be taken from your sides, and no remaining mark of
+military distinction left but your wants, infirmities, and scars? Can
+you then consent to be the only sufferers by this revolution, and,
+retiring from the field, grow old in poverty, wretchedness, and
+contempt? Can you consent to wade through the vile mire of dependency,
+and owe the miserable remnant of that life to charity which has
+hitherto been spent in honour? If you can--go--and carry with you the
+jest of tories, and the scorn of whigs;--the ridicule, and, what is
+worse, the pity of the world. Go,--starve and be forgotten. But if
+your spirit should revolt at this; if you have sense enough to
+discover, and spirit enough to oppose, tyranny under whatever garb it
+may assume; whether it be the plain coat of republicanism, or the
+splendid robe of royalty; if you have yet learned to discriminate
+between a people and a cause, between men and principles,--awake;
+attend to your situation, and redress yourselves. If the present
+moment be lost, every future effort is in vain; and your threats then
+will be as empty as your entreaties now.
+
+"I would advise you therefore to come to some final opinion upon what
+you can bear, and what you will suffer. If your determination be in
+any proportion to your wrongs, carry your appeal from the justice to
+the fears of the government. Change the milk-and-water style of your
+last memorial. Assume a bolder tone,--decent, but lively, spirited,
+and determined; and suspect the man who would advise to more
+moderation and longer forbearance. Let two or three men who can feel
+as well as write, be appointed to draw up your _last remonstrance_;
+for I would no longer give it the sueing, soft, unsuccessful epithet
+of memorial. Let it be represented in language that will neither
+dishonour you by its rudeness, nor betray you by its fears, what has
+been promised by congress, and what has been performed;--how long and
+how patiently you have suffered;--how little you have asked, and how
+much of that little has been denied. Tell them that, though you were
+the first, and would wish to be the last to encounter danger; though
+despair itself can never drive you into dishonour, it may drive you
+from the field;--that the wound often irritated and never healed, may
+at length become incurable; and that the slightest mark of indignity
+from congress now must operate like the grave, and part you forever;
+that in any political event, the army has its alternative. If peace,
+that nothing shall separate you from your arms but death; if war, that
+courting the auspices, and inviting the directions of your illustrious
+leader, you will retire to some unsettled country, smile in your turn,
+and 'mock when their fear cometh on.' But let it represent also that,
+should they comply with the request of your late memorial, it would
+make you more happy and them more respectable. That while war should
+continue you would follow their standard into the field; and when it
+came to an end, you would withdraw into the shade of private life, and
+give the world another subject of wonder and applause;--an army
+victorious over its enemies, victorious over itself."
+
+Persuaded as the officers in general were of the indisposition of
+government to remunerate their services, this eloquent and impassioned
+address, dictated by genius and by feeling, found in almost every
+bosom a kindred though latent sentiment prepared to receive its
+impression. Quick as the train to which a torch is applied, the
+passions caught its flame, and nothing seemed to be required but the
+assemblage proposed for the succeeding day, to communicate the
+conflagration to the combustible mass, and to produce an explosion
+ruinous to the army and to the nation.
+
+Fortunately, the Commander-in-chief was in camp. His characteristic
+firmness and decision did not forsake him in this crisis. The occasion
+required that his measures should be firm, but prudent and
+conciliatory,--evincive of his fixed determination to oppose any rash
+proceedings, but calculated to assuage the irritation which was
+excited, and to restore confidence in government.
+
+Knowing well that it was much easier to avoid intemperate measures
+than to correct them, he thought it of essential importance to prevent
+the immediate meeting of the officers; but, knowing also that a sense
+of injury and a fear of injustice had made a deep impression on them,
+and that their sensibilities were all alive to the proceedings of
+congress on their memorial, he thought it more adviseable to guide
+their deliberations on that interesting subject, than to
+discountenance them.
+
+With these views, he noticed in his orders, the anonymous paper
+proposing a meeting of the officers, and expressed his conviction that
+their good sense would secure them from paying any "attention to such
+an irregular invitation; but his own duty, he conceived, as well as
+the reputation and true interest of the army, required his
+disapprobation of such disorderly proceedings. At the same time, he
+requested the general and field officers, with one officer from each
+company, and a proper representation from the staff of the army, to
+assemble at twelve on Saturday, the 15th, at the new building, to hear
+the report of the committee deputed by the army to congress. After
+mature deliberation they will devise what farther measures ought to be
+adopted as most rational and best calculated to obtain the just and
+important object in view." The senior officer in rank present was
+directed to preside, and report the result of the deliberations to the
+Commander-in-chief.
+
+The day succeeding that on which these orders were published, a second
+anonymous address appeared, from the same pen which had written the
+first. Its author, acquainted with the discontents of the army, did
+not seem to despair of impelling the officers to the desired point. He
+affected to consider the orders in a light favourable to his
+views:--"as giving system to their proceedings, and stability to their
+resolves."
+
+But Washington would not permit himself to be misunderstood. The
+interval between his orders and the general meeting they invited, was
+employed in impressing on those officers individually who possessed
+the greatest share of the general confidence, a just sense of the true
+interests of the army; and the whole weight of his influence was
+exerted to calm the agitations of the moment, and conduct them to a
+happy termination. This was a work of no inconsiderable difficulty. So
+convinced were many that government designed to deal unfairly by them,
+that only the reliance they placed on their general, and their
+attachment to his person and character, could have moderated their
+resentments so far as to induce them to adopt the measures he
+recommended.
+
+On the 15th, the convention of officers assembled, and General
+Gates[14] took the chair. The Commander-in-chief then addressed them
+in the following terms.
+
+     [Footnote 14: By a resolution of the preceding year, the
+     inquiry into his conduct had been dispensed with, and he had
+     been restored to his command in the army.]
+
+"Gentlemen,--
+
+"By an anonymous summons, an attempt has been made to convene you
+together. How inconsistent with the rules of propriety, how
+unmilitary, and how subversive of all order and discipline, let the
+good sense of the army decide.
+
+"In the moment of this summons, another anonymous production was sent
+into circulation, addressed more to the feelings and passions than to
+the judgment of the army. The author of the piece is entitled to much
+credit for the goodness of his pen; and I could wish he had as much
+credit for the rectitude of his heart; for as men see through
+different optics, and are induced by the reflecting faculties of the
+mind, to use different means to attain the same end, the author of the
+address should have had more charity, than to mark for suspicion the
+man who should recommend moderation and longer forbearance; or, in
+other words, who should not think as he thinks, and act as he advises.
+But he had another plan in view, in which candour and liberality of
+sentiment, regard to justice, and love of country, have no part; and
+he was right to insinuate the darkest suspicion to effect the blackest
+design. That the address was drawn with great art, and is designed to
+answer the most insidious purposes; that it is calculated to impress
+the mind with an idea of premeditated injustice, in the sovereign
+power of the United States, and rouse all those resentments which must
+unavoidably flow from such a belief; that the secret mover of this
+scheme, whoever he may be, intended to take advantage of the passions,
+while they were warmed by the recollection of past distresses, without
+giving time for cool deliberate thinking, and that composure of mind
+which is so necessary to give dignity and stability to measures, is
+rendered too obvious by the mode of conducting the business to need
+other proof than a reference to the proceedings.
+
+"Thus much, gentlemen, I have thought it incumbent on me to observe to
+you, to show upon what principles I opposed the irregular and hasty
+meeting which was proposed to have been held on Tuesday last, and not
+because I wanted a disposition to give you every opportunity
+consistent with your own honour, and the dignity of the army, to make
+known your grievances. If my conduct heretofore has not evinced to
+you, that I have been a faithful friend to the army, my declaration of
+it at this time would be equally unavailing and improper. But as I was
+among the first who embarked in the cause of our common country; as I
+have never left your side one moment but when called from you on
+public duty; as I have been the constant companion and witness of your
+distresses, and not among the last to feel and acknowledge your
+merits; as I have ever considered my own military reputation as
+inseparably connected with that of the army; as my heart has ever
+expanded with joy when I have heard its praises, and my indignation
+has arisen when the mouth of detraction has been opened against it; it
+can scarcely be supposed, at this last stage of the war, that I am
+indifferent to its interests. But how are they to be promoted? The way
+is plain, says the anonymous addresser.--If war continues, remove into
+the unsettled country; there establish yourselves, and leave an
+ungrateful country to defend itself! But who are they to defend? Our
+wives, our children, our farms and other property which we leave
+behind us? Or, in this state of hostile separation, are we to take the
+two first (the latter can not be removed) to perish in a wilderness
+with hunger, cold, and nakedness?
+
+"'If peace takes place, never sheath your swords,' says he, 'until you
+have obtained full and ample justice.' This dreadful alternative of
+either deserting our country in the extremest hour of her distress, or
+turning our arms against it, which is the apparent object, unless
+Congress can be compelled into instant compliance, has something so
+shocking in it, that humanity revolts at the idea. My God! what can
+this writer have in view by recommending such measures. Can he be a
+friend to the army? Can he be a friend to this country? Rather is he
+not an insidious foe: some emissary, perhaps, from New York, plotting
+the ruin of both, by sowing the seeds of discord and separation
+between the civil and military powers of the continent? And what a
+compliment does he pay to our understandings, when he recommends
+measures, in either alternative, impracticable in their nature? But
+here, gentlemen, I will drop the curtain, because it would be as
+imprudent in me to assign my reasons for this opinion, as it would be
+insulting to your conception to suppose you stood in need of them. A
+moment's reflection will convince every dispassionate mind of the
+physical impossibility of carrying either proposal into execution.
+There might, gentlemen, be an impropriety in my taking notice, in this
+address to you, of an anonymous production,--but the manner in which
+that performance has been introduced to the army, together with some
+other circumstances, will amply justify my observations on the
+tendency of that writing.
+
+"With respect to the advice given by the author, to suspect the man
+who shall recommend moderate measures and longer forbearance, I spurn
+it, as every man who regards that liberty, and reveres that justice
+for which we contend, undoubtedly must; for if men are to be precluded
+from offering their sentiments on a matter which may involve the most
+serious and alarming consequences that can invite the consideration of
+mankind, reason is of no use to us. The freedom of speech may be taken
+away, and dumb and silent, we may be led like sheep to the slaughter.
+I can not in justice to my own belief, and what I have great reason to
+conceive is the intention of congress, conclude this address, without
+giving it as my decided opinion, that that honourable body entertain
+exalted sentiments of the services of the army, and, from a full
+conviction of its merits and sufferings, will do it complete justice.
+That their endeavours to discover and establish funds for this purpose
+have been unwearied, and will not cease until they have succeeded, I
+have not a doubt.
+
+"But, like all other large bodies, where there is a variety of
+different interests to reconcile, their determinations are slow. Why
+then should we distrust them? And, in consequence of that distrust,
+adopt measures which may cast a shade over that glory which has been
+so justly acquired, and tarnish the reputation of an army which is
+celebrated through all Europe for its fortitude and patriotism? And
+for what is this done? To bring the object we seek nearer? No: most
+certainly, in my opinion, it will cast it at a greater distance. For
+myself, (and I take no merit in giving the assurance, being induced to
+it from principles of gratitude, veracity, and justice, and a grateful
+sense of the confidence you have ever placed in me,) a recollection of
+the cheerful assistance, and prompt obedience I have experienced from
+you, under every vicissitude of fortune, and the sincere affection I
+feel for an army I have so long had the honour to command, will oblige
+me to declare in this public and solemn manner, that in the attainment
+of complete justice for all your toils and dangers, and in the
+gratification of every wish, so far as may be done consistently with
+the great duty I owe my country, and those powers we are bound to
+respect, you may freely command my services to the utmost extent of my
+abilities.
+
+"While I give these assurances, and pledge myself in the most
+unequivocal manner to exert whatever abilities I am possessed of in
+your favour, let me entreat you, gentlemen, on your part, not to take
+any measures which, viewed in the calm light of reason, will lessen
+the dignity, and sully the glory you have hitherto maintained. Let me
+request you to rely on the plighted faith of your country, and place a
+full confidence in the purity of the intentions of congress;--that,
+previous to your dissolution as an army, they will cause all your
+accounts to be fairly liquidated, as directed in the resolutions which
+were published to you two days ago; and that they will adopt the most
+effectual measures in their power to render ample justice to you for
+your faithful and meritorious services. And let me conjure you, in the
+name of our common country, as you value your own honour, as you
+respect the rights of humanity, and as you regard the military and
+national character of America, to express your utmost horror and
+detestation of the man who wishes, under any specious pretences, to
+overturn the liberties of our country, and who wickedly attempts to
+open the flood gates of civil discord, and deluge our rising empire in
+blood.
+
+"By thus determining, and thus acting, you will pursue the plain and
+direct road to the attainment of your wishes; you will defeat the
+insidious designs of our enemies, who are compelled to resort from
+open force to secret artifice. You will give one more distinguished
+proof of unexampled patriotism and patient virtue, rising superior to
+the pressure of the most complicated sufferings; and you will by the
+dignity of your conduct, afford occasion for posterity to say, when
+speaking of the glorious example you have exhibited to mankind, had
+this day been wanting, the world had never seen the last stage of
+perfection to which human nature is capable of attaining."
+
+These sentiments from a person whom the army had been accustomed to
+love, to revere, and to obey; the solidity of whose judgment, and the
+sincerity of whose zeal for their interests, were alike unquestioned,
+could not fail to be irresistible. No person was hardy enough to
+oppose the advice he had given; and the general impression was
+apparent. A resolution moved by General Knox, and seconded by
+Brigadier General Putnam, "assuring him that the officers reciprocated
+his affectionate expressions with the greatest sincerity of which the
+human heart is capable," was unanimously voted. On the motion of
+General Putnam, a committee consisting of General Knox, Colonel
+Brooks, and Captain Howard was then appointed, to prepare resolutions
+on the business before them, and to report in half an hour. The report
+of the committee being brought in and considered, the following
+resolutions were passed.
+
+"Resolved unanimously, that at the commencement of the present war,
+the officers of the American army engaged in the service of their
+country from the purest love and attachment to the rights and
+privileges of human nature; which motives still exist in the highest
+degree; and that no circumstances of distress or danger shall induce a
+conduct that may tend to sully the reputation and glory which they
+have acquired at the price of their blood, and eight years faithful
+services.
+
+"Resolved unanimously, that the army continue to have an unshaken
+confidence in the justice of congress and their country, and are fully
+convinced that the representatives of America will not disband or
+disperse the army until their accounts are liquidated, the balances
+accurately ascertained, and adequate funds established for payment;
+and in this arrangement, the officers expect that the half pay, or a
+commutation for it, shall be efficaciously comprehended.
+
+"Resolved unanimously, that his excellency the Commander-in-chief, be
+requested to write to his excellency the president of congress,
+earnestly entreating the most speedy decision of that honourable body
+upon the subject of our late address, which was forwarded by a
+committee of the army, some of whom are waiting upon congress for the
+result. In the alternative of peace or war, this event would be highly
+satisfactory, and would produce immediate tranquillity in the minds of
+the army, and prevent any farther machinations of designing men, to
+sow discord between the civil and military powers of the United
+States.
+
+"On motion, resolved unanimously, that the officers of the American
+army view with abhorrence and reject with disdain, the infamous
+propositions contained in a late anonymous address to the officers of
+the army, and resent with indignation the secret attempts of some
+unknown person to collect the officers together in a manner totally
+subversive of all discipline and good order.
+
+"Resolved unanimously, that the thanks of the officers of the army be
+given to the committee who presented to congress the late address of
+the army; for the wisdom and prudence with which they have conducted
+that business; and that a copy of the proceedings of this day be
+transmitted by the president to Major General M'Dougal; and that he be
+requested to continue his solicitations at congress until the objects
+of his mission are accomplished."
+
+The storm which had been raised so suddenly and unexpectedly being
+thus happily dissipated, the Commander-in-chief exerted all his
+influence in support of the application the officers had made to
+congress. The following letter, written by him on the occasion, will
+show that he was not impelled to this measure by the engagements he
+had entered into more strongly than by his feelings.
+
+"The result of the proceedings of the grand convention of the
+officers, which I have the honour of enclosing to your excellency for
+the inspection of congress, will, I flatter myself, be considered as
+the last glorious proof of patriotism which could have been given by
+men who aspired to the distinction of a patriot army; and will not
+only confirm their claim to the justice, but will increase their title
+to the gratitude of their country.
+
+"Having seen the proceedings on the part of the army terminate with
+perfect unanimity, and in a manner entirely consonant to my wishes,
+being impressed with the liveliest sentiments of affection for those
+who have so long, so patiently, and so cheerfully, suffered and fought
+under my direction; having from motives of justice, duty, and
+gratitude, spontaneously offered myself as an advocate for their
+rights; and having been requested to write to your excellency,
+earnestly entreating the most speedy decision of congress upon the
+subjects of the late address from the army to that honourable body; it
+now only remains for me to perform the task I have assumed, and to
+intercede in their behalf, as I now do, that the sovereign power will
+be pleased to verify the predictions I have pronounced of, and the
+confidence the army have reposed in, the justice of their country.
+
+"And here I humbly conceive it is altogether unnecessary (while I am
+pleading the cause of an army which have done and suffered more than
+any other army ever did in the defence of the rights and liberties of
+human nature) to expatiate on their claims to the most ample
+compensation for their meritorious services, because they are
+perfectly known to the whole world, and because (although the topics
+are inexhaustible) enough has already been said on the subject. To
+prove these assertions, to evince that my sentiments have ever been
+uniform, and to show what my ideas of the rewards in question have
+always been, I appeal to the archives of congress, and call on those
+sacred deposites to witness for me. And in order that my observations
+and arguments in favour of a future adequate provision for the
+officers of the army may be brought to remembrance again, and
+considered in a single point of view, without giving congress the
+trouble of having recourse to their files, I will beg leave to
+transmit herewith an extract from a representation made by me to a
+committee of congress, so long ago as the 20th of January, 1778, and
+also the transcript of a letter to the president of congress, dated
+near Passaic falls, October the 11th, 1780.
+
+"That in the critical and perilous moment when the last mentioned
+communication was made, there was the utmost danger a dissolution of
+the army would have taken place unless measures similar to those
+recommended had been adopted, will not admit a doubt. That the
+adoption of the resolution granting half pay for life has been
+attended with all the happy consequences I foretold, so far as
+respected the good of the service, let the astonishing contrast
+between the state of the army at this instant and at the former
+period, determine. And that the establishment of funds, and security
+of the payment of all the just demands of the army, will be the most
+certain means of preserving the national faith, and future
+tranquillity of this extensive continent, is my decided opinion.
+
+"By the preceding remarks, it will readily be imagined that, instead
+of retracting and reprehending (from farther experience and
+reflection) the mode of compensation so strenuously urged in the
+enclosures, I am more and more confirmed in the sentiment; and if in
+the wrong, suffer me to please myself in the grateful delusion. For
+if, besides the simple payment of their wages, a farther compensation
+is not due to the sufferings and sacrifices of the officers, then have
+I been mistaken indeed. If the whole army have not merited whatever a
+grateful people can bestow, then have I been beguiled by prejudice,
+and built opinion on the basis of error. If this country should not in
+the event perform every thing which has been requested in the late
+memorial to congress, then will my belief become vain, and the hope
+that has been excited void of foundation. 'And if (as has been
+suggested for the purpose of inflaming their passions) the officers of
+the army are to be the only sufferers by this revolution; if, retiring
+from the field, they are to grow old in poverty, wretchedness, and
+contempt; if they are to wade through the vile mire of dependency, and
+owe the miserable remnant of that life to charity which has hitherto
+been spent in honour,' then shall I have learned what ingratitude is;
+then shall I have realized a tale which will embitter every moment of
+my future life.
+
+"But I am under no such apprehensions. A country rescued by their arms
+from impending ruin, will never leave unpaid the debt of gratitude.
+
+"Should any intemperate and improper warmth have mingled itself among
+the foregoing observations, I must entreat your excellency and
+congress that it may be attributed to the effusions of an honest zeal
+in the best of causes, and that my peculiar situation may be my
+apology; and I hope I need not, on this momentous occasion, make any
+new protestations of disinterestedness, having ever renounced for
+myself the idea of pecuniary reward. The consciousness of having
+attempted faithfully to discharge my duty, and the approbation of my
+country, will be a sufficient recompense for my services."
+
+{March 24.}
+
+[Sidenote: Peace concluded.]
+
+{April 19.}
+
+These proceedings of the army produced a concurrence of nine states in
+favour of a resolution commuting the half pay into a sum in gross
+equal to five years full pay; immediately after the passage of which,
+the fears still entertained in America that the war might continue,
+were dissipated by a letter from the Marquis de Lafayette, announcing
+a general peace. This intelligence, though not official, was certain;
+and orders were immediately issued, recalling all armed vessels
+cruising under the authority of the United States. Early in April, the
+copy of a declaration published in Paris, and signed by the American
+commissioners, announcing the exchange of ratifications of the
+preliminary articles between Great Britain and France, was received;
+and on the 19th of that month, the cessation[15] of hostilities was
+proclaimed.
+
+     [Footnote 15: See note, No. I. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Measures for disbanding the army.]
+
+The attention of congress might now be safely turned to the reduction
+of the army. This, in the empty state of the treasury, was a critical
+operation. In addition to the anxieties which the officers would
+naturally feel respecting their provision for the future, which of
+necessity remained unsecured, large arrears of pay were due to them,
+the immediate receipt of part of which was required by the most urgent
+wants. To disband an army to which the government was greatly
+indebted, without furnishing the individuals who composed it with the
+means of conveyance to their respective homes, was a perilous measure;
+and congress was unable to advance the pay of a single month.
+
+Although eight millions had been required for the year 1782, the
+payments into the public treasury had amounted to only four hundred
+and twenty thousand and thirty-one dollars, and twenty-nine
+ninetieths; and the foreign loans had not been sufficient to defray
+expenses it was impossible to avoid, at the close of that year, the
+expenditures of the superintendent of the finances had exceeded his
+receipts four hundred and four thousand seven hundred and thirteen
+dollars and nine ninetieths; and the excess continued to increase
+rapidly.
+
+Congress urged the states to comply so far with the requisitions as to
+enable the superintendent of the finances to advance a part of the
+arrears due to the soldiers; but, as the foreign danger diminished,
+they became still less attentive to these demands; and the financier
+was under the necessity of making farther anticipations of the
+revenue. Measures were taken to advance three months pay in his notes;
+but, before they could be prepared, orders were issued for complying
+with a resolution of Congress for granting unlimited furloughs to the
+non-commissioned officers and privates who were engaged to serve
+during the war. These orders produced a serious alarm. The generals,
+and officers commanding regiments and corps cantoned on the Hudson,
+assembled, and presented an address to the Commander-in-chief, in
+which the most ardent affection to his person, and confidence in his
+attachment to the interests of the army, were mingled with expressions
+of profound duty and respect for the government. But they declared
+that, after the late explanation on their claims, they had confidently
+expected that their accounts would be liquidated, the balances
+ascertained, and adequate funds for the payment of those balances
+provided, before they should be dispersed or disbanded.
+
+Bound to the army by the strongest ties of affection and gratitude,
+intimately convinced of the justice of their claims, and of the
+patriotic principles by which they were influenced, the General was
+induced by sentiment not less than by prudence, to regard this
+application. He returned an answer, on the succeeding day, in which,
+after declaring "that as no man could possibly be better acquainted
+than himself with the past merits and services of the army, so no one
+could possibly be more strongly impressed with their present
+ineligible situation; feel a keener sensibility at their distresses;
+or more ardently desire to alleviate or remove them." He added,
+"although the officers of the army very well know my official
+situation, that I am only a servant of the public, and that it is not
+for me to dispense with orders which it is my duty to carry into
+execution, yet as furloughs in all services are considered as a matter
+of indulgence, and not of compulsion; as congress, I am persuaded,
+entertain the best disposition towards the army; and as I apprehend in
+a very short time, the two principal articles of complaint will be
+removed; until the farther pleasure of congress can be known, I shall
+not hesitate to comply with the wishes of the army, under these
+reservations only, that officers sufficient to conduct the men who
+choose to receive furloughs, will attend them, either on furlough or
+by detachment."
+
+This answer satisfied the officers. The utmost good temper was
+manifested; and the arrangements for retiring on furlough were made
+without a murmur. In the course of the summer, a considerable
+proportion of the troops enlisted for three years were also permitted
+to return to their homes; and, in October, a proclamation was issued
+by congress, declaring all those who had engaged for the war to be
+discharged on the third of December.
+
+[Illustration: The Long Room in Fraunces' Tavern, New York City
+
+_It was here that Washington took formal leave of his officers,
+preparatory to resigning his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the
+Continental Army. Controlling his emotion with difficulty, the General
+arose, at the conclusion of a light repast, and proposed the following
+health: "With a heart full of love and gratitude I must now take my
+leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as
+prosperous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and
+honorable." The toast was drunk in silence, and Washington added: "I
+cannot come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be obliged to
+you if each will come and take me by the hand."_]
+
+[Sidenote: Mutiny of a part of the Pennsylvania line.]
+
+While these excellent dispositions were manifested by the veterans
+serving under the immediate eye of their patriot chief, the government
+was exposed to insult and outrage from the mutinous spirit of a small
+party of new levies. About eighty men of this description belonging to
+Pennsylvania, were stationed at Lancaster. Revolting against the
+authority of their officers, they marched in a body to Philadelphia,
+with the avowed purpose of obtaining redress of their grievances from
+the executive council of the state. The march of these insolent
+mutineers was not obstructed; and, after arriving in Philadelphia,
+their numbers were augmented by the junction of some troops quartered
+in the barracks. They then marched in military parade, with fixed
+bayonets, to the state-house, in which congress and the executive
+council of the state were sitting; and, after placing sentinels at the
+doors, sent in a written message, threatening the executive of the
+state with the vengeance of an enraged soldiery, if their demands were
+not gratified in twenty minutes. Although these threats were not
+directed particularly against congress, the government of the union
+was grossly insulted, and those who administered it were blockaded for
+several hours by licentious soldiers. After remaining in this
+situation about three hours, the members separated, having agreed to
+reassemble at Princeton.
+
+On receiving information of this outrage, the Commander-in-chief
+detached fifteen hundred men under the command of Major General Howe,
+to suppress the mutiny. His indignation at this insult to the civil
+authority, and his mortification at this misconduct of any portion of
+the American troops, were strongly marked in his letter to the
+president of congress.
+
+"While," said he, "I suffer the most poignant distress in observing
+that a handful of men, contemptible in numbers, and equally so in
+point of service, (if the veteran troops from the southward have not
+been seduced by their example,) and who are not worthy to be called
+soldiers, should disgrace themselves and their country as the
+Pennsylvania mutineers have done by insulting the sovereign authority
+of the United States, and that of their own, I feel an inexpressible
+satisfaction, that even this behaviour can not stain the name of the
+American soldiery. It can not be imputed to, or reflect dishonour on,
+the army at large; but, on the contrary, it will, by the striking
+contrast it exhibits, hold up to public view the other troops in the
+most advantageous point of light. Upon taking all the circumstances
+into consideration, I can not sufficiently express my surprise and
+indignation at the arrogance, the folly, and the wickedness of the
+mutineers; nor can I sufficiently admire the fidelity, the bravery,
+and patriotism, which must forever signalize the unsullied character
+of the other corps of our army. For when we consider that these
+Pennsylvania levies, who have now mutinied, are recruits, and soldiers
+of a day, who have not borne the heat and burden of the war, and who
+can have in reality very few hardships to complain of; and when we at
+the same time recollect that those soldiers, who have lately been
+furloughed from this army, are the veterans who have patiently endured
+hunger, nakedness, and cold; who have suffered and bled without a
+murmur, and who, with perfect good order, have retired to their homes,
+without a settlement of their accounts, or a farthing of money in
+their pockets; we shall be as much astonished at the virtues of the
+latter, as we are struck with horror and detestation at the
+proceedings of the former, and every candid mind, without indulging
+ill-grounded prejudices, will undoubtedly make the proper
+discrimination."
+
+Before the detachment from the army could reach Philadelphia, the
+disturbances were, in a great degree, quieted without bloodshed; but
+General Howe was ordered by congress to continue his march into
+Pennsylvania, "in order that immediate measures might be taken to
+confine and bring to trial all such persons belonging to the army as
+have been principally active in the late mutiny; to disarm the
+remainder; and to examine fully into all the circumstances relating
+thereto."
+
+The interval between the treaty with Great Britain and his retiring
+into private life, was devoted by the Commander-in-chief to objects of
+permanent utility.
+
+The independence of his country being established, he looked forward
+with anxiety to its future destinies. These might greatly depend on
+the systems to be adopted on the return of peace, and to those systems
+much of his attention was directed. The future peace establishment of
+the United States was one of the many interesting subjects which
+claimed the consideration of congress. As the experience of General
+Washington would certainly enable him to suggest many useful ideas on
+this important point, his opinions respecting it were requested by the
+committee to whom it was referred. His letter on this occasion, which
+was deposited, it is presumed, in the archives of state, will long
+deserve the attention of those to whom the interests of the United
+States may be confided. His strongest hopes of securing the future
+tranquillity, dignity and respectability of his country were placed on
+a well regulated and well disciplined militia, and his sentiments on
+this subject are entitled to the more regard, as a long course of
+severe experience had enabled him to mark the total incompetency of
+the existing system to the great purposes of national defence.
+
+[Sidenote: Evacuation of New York.]
+
+At length the British troops evacuated New York, and a detachment from
+the American army took possession of that town.
+
+Guards being posted for the security of the citizens, General
+Washington, accompanied by Governor Clinton, and attended by many
+civil and military officers, and a large number of respectable
+inhabitants on horseback, made his public entry into the city; where
+he was received with every mark of respect and attention. His military
+course was now on the point of terminating; and he was about to bid
+adieu to his comrades in arms. This affecting interview took place on
+the 4th of December. At noon, the principal officers of the army
+assembled at Frances' tavern, soon after which, their beloved
+commander entered the room. His emotions were too strong to be
+concealed. Filling a glass, he turned to them and said, "With a heart
+full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you; I most devoutly
+wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy, as your
+former ones have been glorious and honourable." Having drunk, he
+added, "I can not come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be
+obliged if each of you will come and take me by the hand." General
+Knox, being nearest, turned to him. Washington, incapable of
+utterance, grasped his hand, and embraced him. In the same
+affectionate manner he took leave of each succeeding officer. The tear
+of manly sensibility was in every eye; and not a word was articulated
+to interrupt the dignified silence, and the tenderness of the scene.
+Leaving the room, he passed through the corps of light infantry, and
+walked to White Hall, where a barge waited to convey him to Powles
+Hook. The whole company followed in mute and solemn procession, with
+dejected countenances, testifying feelings of delicious melancholy,
+which no language can describe. Having entered the barge, he turned to
+the company, and, waving his hat, bid them a silent adieu. They paid
+him the same affectionate compliment; and, after the barge had left
+them, returned in the same solemn manner to the place where they had
+assembled.[16]
+
+     [Footnote 16: Gordon.]
+
+Congress was then in session at Annapolis, in Maryland, to which place
+General Washington repaired, for the purpose of resigning into their
+hands the authority with which they had invested him.[17] He arrived
+on the 19th of December. The next day he informed that body of his
+intention to ask leave to resign the commission he had the honour of
+holding in their service; and requested to know whether it would be
+their pleasure that he should offer his resignation in writing, or at
+an audience.
+
+     [Footnote 17: See note, No. II. at the end of the volume.]
+
+To give the more dignity to the act, they determined that it should be
+offered at a public audience on the following Tuesday, at twelve.
+
+[Sidenote: General Washington resigns his commission and retires to
+Mount Vernon.]
+
+When the hour arrived for performing a ceremony so well calculated to
+recall the various interesting scenes which had passed since the
+commission now to be returned was granted, the gallery was crowded
+with spectators, and several persons of distinction were admitted on
+the floor of congress. The members remained seated and covered. The
+spectators were standing, and uncovered. The general was introduced by
+the secretary, and conducted to a chair. After a short pause, the
+president[18] informed him that "The United States in congress
+assembled were prepared to receive his communications." With native
+dignity improved by the solemnity of the occasion, the general rose
+and delivered the following address.
+
+     [Footnote 18: General Mifflin.]
+
+"Mr. President,
+
+"The great events on which my resignation depended, having at length
+taken place, I have now the honour of offering my sincere
+congratulations to congress, and of presenting myself before them, to
+surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to claim the
+indulgence of retiring from the service of my country.
+
+"Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and
+pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming a
+respectable nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I
+accepted with diffidence; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish
+so arduous a task, which however was superseded by a confidence in the
+rectitude of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the union,
+and the patronage of heaven.
+
+"The successful termination of the war has verified the most sanguine
+expectations; and my gratitude for the interposition of Providence,
+and the assistance I have received from my countrymen, increases with
+every review of the momentous contest.
+
+"While I repeat my obligations to the army in general, I should do
+injustice to my own feelings not to acknowledge in this place, the
+peculiar services and distinguished merits of the gentlemen who have
+been attached to my person during the war. It was impossible the
+choice of confidential officers to compose my family should have been
+more fortunate. Permit me, sir, to recommend in particular, those who
+have continued in the service to the present moment, as worthy of the
+favourable notice and patronage of congress.
+
+"I consider it as an indispensable duty to close this last act of my
+official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to
+the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence
+of them to his holy keeping.
+
+"Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great
+theatre of action, and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this
+august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my
+commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life."
+
+After advancing to the chair and delivering his commission to the
+president, he returned to his place, and received standing the
+following answer of congress, which was delivered by the president.
+
+"Sir,
+
+"The United States in congress assembled, receive with emotions too
+affecting for utterance, the solemn resignation of the authorities
+under which you have led their troops with success through a perilous
+and a doubtful war. Called upon by your country to defend its invaded
+rights, you accepted the sacred charge, before it had formed
+alliances, and whilst it was without funds or a government to support
+you. You have conducted the great military contest with wisdom and
+fortitude, invariably regarding the rights of the civil power, through
+all disasters and changes. You have by the love and confidence of your
+fellow citizens, enabled them to display their martial genius, and
+transmit their fame to posterity. You have persevered until these
+United States, aided by a magnanimous king and nation, have been
+enabled under a just Providence, to close the war in freedom, safety,
+and independence; on which happy event we sincerely join you in
+congratulations.
+
+"Having defended the standard of liberty in this new world, having
+taught a lesson useful to those who inflict and to those who feel
+oppression, you retire from the great theatre of action with the
+blessings of your fellow citizens. But the glory of your virtues will
+not terminate with your military command; it will continue to animate
+remotest ages.
+
+"We feel with you our obligations to the army in general, and will
+particularly charge ourselves with the interests of those confidential
+officers who have attended your person to this affecting moment.
+
+"We join you in commending the interests of our dearest country to the
+protection of Almighty God, beseeching him to dispose the hearts and
+minds of its citizens, to improve the opportunity afforded them of
+becoming a happy and respectable nation. And for you, we address to
+him our earnest prayers that a life so beloved, may be fostered with
+all his care; that your days may be as happy as they have been
+illustrious; and that he will finally give you that reward which this
+world can not give."
+
+This scene being closed, a scene rendered peculiarly interesting by
+the personages who appeared in it, by the great events it recalled to
+the memory, and by the singularity of the circumstances under which it
+was displayed, the American chief withdrew from the hall of congress,
+leaving the silent and admiring spectators deeply impressed with those
+sentiments which its solemnity and dignity were calculated to inspire.
+
+Divested of his military character, General Washington retired to
+Mount Vernon, followed by the enthusiastic love, esteem, and
+admiration of his countrymen. Relieved from the agitations of a
+doubtful contest, and from the toils of an exalted station, he
+returned with increased delight to the duties and the enjoyments of a
+private citizen. He indulged the hope that, in the shade of
+retirement, under the protection of a free government, and the
+benignant influence of mild and equal laws, he might taste that
+felicity which is the reward of a mind at peace with itself, and
+conscious of its own purity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+     General Washington devotes his time to rural pursuits.... to
+     the duties of friendship.... and to institutions of public
+     utility.... Resolves of Congress and of the Legislature of
+     Virginia for erecting statues to his honour.... Recommends
+     improvement in inland navigation.... Declines accepting a
+     donation made to him by his native state.... The society of
+     the Cincinnati.... He is elected President.... The causes
+     which led to a change of the government of the United
+     States.... Circular letter of General Washington to the
+     governors of the several states.
+
+
+{1783 to 1787}
+
+[Sidenote: After retiring to private life, General Washington devotes
+his time to rural pursuits, to the duties of friendship, and to
+institutions of public utility.]
+
+When an individual, long in possession of great power, and almost
+unlimited influence, retires from office with alacrity, and resumes
+the character of a private citizen with pleasure, the mind is
+gratified in contemplating the example of virtuous moderation, and
+dwells upon it with approving satisfaction. We look at man in his most
+estimable character; and this view of him exalts our opinion of human
+nature. Such was the example exhibited by General Washington to his
+country and to the world. His deportment, and his language, equally
+attest that he returned with these feelings to the employments of
+private life. In a letter to Governor Clinton, written only three days
+after his arrival at Mount Vernon, he says, "The scene is at length
+closed. I feel myself eased of a load of public care, and hope to
+spend the remainder of my days in cultivating the affections of good
+men, and in the practice of the domestic virtues." "At length, my dear
+marquis," said he to his noble and highly valued friend, Lafayette, "I
+have become a private citizen on the banks of the Potomac; and under
+the shadow of my own vine, and my own fig tree, free from the bustle
+of a camp, and the busy scenes of public life, I am solacing myself
+with those tranquil enjoyments, of which the soldier who is ever in
+pursuit of fame--the statesman whose watchful days and sleepless
+nights are spent in devising schemes to promote the welfare of his
+own--perhaps the ruin of other countries, as if this globe was
+insufficient for us all--and the courtier who is always watching the
+countenance of his prince in the hope of catching a gracious
+smile--can have very little conception. I have not only retired from
+all public employments, but am retiring within myself, and shall be
+able to view the solitary walk, and tread the paths of private life,
+with heartfelt satisfaction. Envious of none, I am determined to be
+pleased with all; and this, my dear friend, being the order of my
+march, I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with
+my fathers."
+
+But a mind accustomed to labour for a nation's welfare, does not
+immediately divest itself of ancient habits. That custom of thinking
+on public affairs, and that solicitude respecting them, which belong
+to the patriot in office, follow him into his retreat. In a letter to
+General Knox, written soon after his resignation, General Washington
+thus expressed the feelings attendant upon this sudden transition from
+public to private pursuits. "I am just beginning to experience the
+ease and freedom from public cares, which, however desirable, takes
+some time to realize; for strange as it may seem, it is nevertheless
+true, that it was not until lately, I could get the better of my usual
+custom of ruminating, as soon as I awoke in the morning, on the
+business of the ensuing day; and of my surprise at finding, after
+revolving many things in my mind, that I was no longer a public man,
+or had any thing to do with public transactions. I feel now, however,
+as I conceive a wearied traveller must do, who, after treading many a
+painful step with a heavy burden on his shoulders, is eased of the
+latter, having reached the haven to which all the former were
+directed; and from his house-top is looking back, and tracing with an
+eager eye, the meanders by which he escaped the quick-sands and mires
+which lay in his way, and into which none but the all powerful Guide
+and Dispenser of human events could have prevented his falling."
+
+For several months after arriving at Mount Vernon, almost every day
+brought him the addresses of an affectionate and grateful people. The
+glow of expression in which the high sense universally entertained of
+his services was conveyed, manifested the warmth of feeling which
+animated the American bosom. This unexampled tribute of voluntary
+applause, paid by a whole people, to an individual no longer in power,
+made no impression on the unassuming modesty of his character and
+deportment. The same firmness of mind, the same steady and well
+tempered judgment, which had guided him through the most perilous
+seasons of the war, still regulated his conduct; and the enthusiastic
+applauses of an admiring nation served only to cherish sentiments of
+gratitude, and to give greater activity to the desire still further to
+contribute to the general prosperity.
+
+[Sidenote: Resolves of Congress and of the legislature of Virginia for
+erecting statues in honour of him.]
+
+It was not by addresses alone that his country manifested its
+attachment to him. Soon after peace was proclaimed, congress
+unanimously passed a resolution for the erection of an equestrian
+statue of their general,[19] at the place which should be established
+for the residence of the government.
+
+     [Footnote 19: "Resolved that the statue be of bronze: the
+     general to be represented in a Roman dress, holding a
+     truncheon in his right hand, and his head encircled with a
+     laurel wreath. The statue to be supported by a marble
+     pedestal on which are to be represented, in basso relievo,
+     the following principal events of the war, in which General
+     Washington commanded in person: the evacuation of
+     Boston:--the capture of the Hessians at Trenton:--the battle
+     of Princeton:--the action of Monmouth:--and the surrender of
+     York.--On the upper part of the front of the pedestal to be
+     engraved as follows: the United States in congress
+     assembled, ordered this statue to be erected in the year of
+     our Lord 1783, in honour of George Washington, the
+     illustrious Commander-in-chief of the armies of the United
+     States of America, during the war which vindicated and
+     secured their liberty, sovereignty and independence."]
+
+The legislature of Virginia too, at its first session after his
+resignation, passed the following resolution.[20]
+
+     [Footnote 20: This resolution has been carried into
+     execution. The statue it ordained now stands in the capitol
+     of Virginia, in a spacious area in the centre of the
+     building. A bust of the Marquis de Lafayette, which was also
+     directed by the legislature, is placed in a niche of the
+     wall in the same part of the building.]
+
+"Resolved, that the executive be requested to take measures for
+procuring a statue of General Washington, to be of the finest marble
+and best workmanship, with the following inscription on its pedestal:
+
+"The general assembly of the commonwealth of Virginia have caused this
+statue to be erected as a monument of affection and gratitude to
+GEORGE WASHINGTON, who, uniting to the endowments of the HERO, the
+virtues of the PATRIOT, and exerting both in establishing the
+liberties of his country, has rendered his name dear to his fellow
+citizens, and given the world an immortal example of true glory."
+
+Although the toils of General Washington were no longer exhibited to
+the public eye, his time continued to be usefully employed. The
+judicious cultivation of the earth is justly placed among the most
+valuable sources of national prosperity, and nothing could be more
+wretched than the general state of agriculture in America. To its
+melioration by examples which might be followed, and by the
+introduction of systems adapted to the soil, the climate, and to the
+situation of the people, the energies of his active and intelligent
+mind were now in a great degree directed. No improvement of the
+implements to be used on a farm, no valuable experiments in husbandry,
+escaped his attention. His inquiries, which were equally minute and
+comprehensive, extended beyond the limits of his own country; and he
+entered into a correspondence on this interesting subject with those
+foreigners who had been most distinguished for their additions to the
+stock of agricultural science.
+
+[Illustration: The Old Senate Chamber at Annapolis, Maryland, Where
+Washington Resigned His Commission
+
+_The fate of the Republic was in the hands of Washington when he
+resigned his commission to Congress, then sitting at Annapolis,
+December 23, 1783, and retired to private life. Had he so desired, it
+is probable that he could have founded a monarchy, sustained by his
+army. Instead, as he wrote to Lafayette, shortly after his return to
+Mount Vernon: "I have not only retired from all public employments but
+am retiring within myself, and shall be able to view the solitary
+walk, and tread the paths of private life, with heartfelt
+satisfaction. Envious of none, I am determined to be pleased with all;
+and this, my dear friend, being the order of my march, I will move
+gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers."_]
+
+Mingled with this favourite pursuit, were the multiplied avocations
+resulting from the high office he had lately filled. He was engaged in
+an extensive correspondence with the friends most dear to his
+heart--the foreign and American officers who had served under him
+during the late war--and with almost every conspicuous political
+personage of his own, and with many of other countries. Literary men
+also were desirous of obtaining his approbation of their works, and
+his attention was solicited to every production of American genius.
+His countrymen who were about to travel, were anxious to receive from
+the first citizen of this rising republic, some testimonial of their
+worth; and all those strangers of distinction who visited this newly
+created empire, were ambitious of being presented to its founder.
+Among those who were drawn across the Atlantic by curiosity, and
+perhaps by a desire to observe the progress of the popular governments
+which were instituted in this new world, was Mrs. Macauley Graham. By
+the principles contained in her History of the Stuarts, this lady had
+acquired much reputation in republican America, and by all was
+received with marked attention. For the sole purpose of paying her
+respects to a person whose fame had spread over Europe, she paid a
+visit to Mount Vernon; and, if her letters may be credited, the
+exalted opinion she had formed of its proprietor, was "not diminished
+by a personal acquaintance with him."
+
+To these occupations, which were calculated to gratify an intelligent
+mind, or which derived a value from the indulgence they afforded to
+the feelings of the heart, others were unavoidably added, in the
+composition of which, no palatable ingredient was intermixed. Of these
+unwelcome intrusions upon his time, General Washington thus complained
+to an intimate military friend. "It is not, my dear sir, the letters
+of my friends which give me trouble, or add aught to my perplexity. I
+receive them with pleasure, and pay as much attention to them as my
+avocations will permit. It is references to old matters with which I
+have nothing to do--applications which oftentimes can not be complied
+with--inquiries, to satisfy which would employ the pen of a
+historian--letters of compliment, as unmeaning perhaps as they are
+troublesome, but which must be attended to; and the common-place
+business--which employ my pen and my time often disagreeably. Indeed,
+these, with company, deprive me of exercise; and, unless I can obtain
+relief, must be productive of disagreeable consequences. Already I
+begin to feel their effects. Heavy and painful oppressions of the
+head, and other disagreeable sensations often trouble me. I am
+determined therefore to employ some person who shall ease me of the
+_drudgery_ of this business. At any rate, if the whole of it is
+thereby suspended, I am determined to use exercise. My private affairs
+also require infinitely more attention than I have given, or can give
+them, under present circumstances. They can no longer be neglected
+without involving my ruin."
+
+It was some time after the date of this letter before he could
+introduce into his family a young gentleman, whose education and
+manners enabled him to fill the station of a private secretary and of
+a friend.
+
+This multiplicity of private avocations could not entirely withdraw
+the mind of Washington from objects tending to promote and secure the
+public happiness. His resolution never again to appear in the busy
+scenes of political life, though believed by himself, and by his bosom
+friends, to be unalterable, could not render him indifferent to those
+measures on which the prosperity of his country essentially depended.
+
+To a person looking beyond the present moment, it was only necessary
+to glance over the map of the United States, to be impressed with the
+importance of connecting the western with the eastern territory, by
+facilitating the means of intercourse between them. To this subject,
+the attention of General Washington had been directed in the early
+part of his life. While the American states were yet British colonies,
+he had obtained the passage of a bill for opening the Potomac so as to
+render it navigable from tide water to Wills creek.[21] The river
+James had also been comprehended in this plan; and he had triumphed so
+far over the opposition produced by local interests and prejudices,
+that the business was in a train which promised success, when the
+revolutionary war diverted the attention of its patrons, and of all
+America, from internal improvements to the still greater objects of
+liberty and independence. As that war approached its termination,
+subjects which for a time had yielded their pretensions to
+consideration, reclaimed that place to which their real magnitude
+entitled them; and internal navigation again attracted the attention
+of the wise and thinking part of society. Accustomed to contemplate
+America as his country, and to consider with solicitude the interests
+of the whole, Washington now took a more enlarged view of the
+advantages to be derived from opening both the eastern and the western
+waters; and for this, as well as for other purposes, after peace had
+been proclaimed, he traversed the western parts of New England and New
+York. "I have lately," said he in a letter to the Marquis of
+Chastellux, a nobleman in pursuit of literary as well as of military
+fame, "made a tour through the lakes George and Champlain as far as
+Crown Point;--then returning to Schenectady, I proceeded up the Mohawk
+river to fort Schuyler, crossed over to Wood creek which empties into
+the Oneida lake, and affords the water communication with Ontario. I
+then traversed the country to the head of the eastern branch of the
+Susquehanna, and viewed the lake Otswego, and the portage between that
+lake and the Mohawk river at Cotnajohario. Prompted by these actual
+observations, I could not help taking a more contemplative and
+extensive view of the vast inland navigation of these United States,
+and could not but be struck with the immense diffusion and importance
+of it; and with the goodness of that Providence which has dealt his
+favours to us with so profuse a hand. Would to God we may have wisdom
+enough to improve them. I shall not rest contented until I have
+explored the western country, and traversed those lines (or great part
+of them) which have given bounds to a new empire."
+
+     [Footnote 21: About one hundred and fifty miles.]
+
+Scarcely had he answered those spontaneous offerings of the heart,
+which flowed in upon him from every part of a grateful nation, when
+his views were once more seriously turned to this truly interesting
+subject. Its magnitude was also impressed on others; and the value of
+obtaining the aid which his influence and active interference would
+afford to any exertions for giving this direction to the public mind,
+and for securing the happy execution of the plan which might be
+devised, was perceived by all those who attached to the great work its
+real importance. A gentleman[22] who had taken an expanded view of it,
+concluded a letter to General Washington, containing a detailed
+statement of his ideas on the subject in these terms:
+
+     [Footnote 22: Mr. Jefferson.]
+
+"But a most powerful objection always arises to propositions of this
+kind. It is, that public undertakings are carelessly managed, and much
+money spent to little purpose. To obviate this objection is the
+purpose of my giving you the trouble of this discussion. You have
+retired from public life. You have weighed this determination, and it
+would be impertinence in me to touch it. But would the superintendence
+of this work break in too much on the sweets of retirement and repose?
+If they would, I stop here. Your future time and wishes are sacred in
+my eye. If it would be only a dignified amusement to you, what a
+monument of your retirement would it be! It is one which would follow
+that of your public life, and bespeak it the work of the same great
+hand. I am confident, that would you either alone, or jointly with any
+persons you think proper, be willing to direct this business, it would
+remove the only objection, the weight of which I apprehend."
+
+[Sidenote: Recommends the opening and improving the inland navigation
+of the great rivers in Virginia.]
+
+In the autumn of 1784, General Washington made a tour as far west as
+Pittsburgh; after returning from which, his first moments of leisure
+were devoted to the task of engaging his countrymen in a work which
+appeared to him to merit still more attention from its political, than
+from its commercial influence on the union. In a long and interesting
+letter to Mr. Harrison, then governor of Virginia, he detailed the
+advantages which might be derived from opening the great rivers, the
+Potomac and the James, as high as should be practicable. After stating
+with his accustomed exactness the distances, and the difficulties to
+be surmounted in bringing the trade of the west to different points on
+the Atlantic, he expressed unequivocally the opinion, that the rivers
+of Virginia afforded a more convenient, and a more direct course than
+could be found elsewhere, for that rich and increasing commerce. This
+was strongly urged as a motive for immediately commencing the work.
+But the rivers of the Atlantic constituted only a part of the great
+plan he contemplated. He suggested the appointment of commissioners of
+integrity and abilities, exempt from the suspicion of prejudice, whose
+duty it should be, after an accurate examination of the James and the
+Potomac, to search out the nearest and best portages between those
+waters and the streams capable of improvement, which run into the
+Ohio. Those streams were to be accurately surveyed, the impediments to
+their navigation ascertained, and their relative advantages examined.
+The navigable waters west of the Ohio, towards the great lakes, were
+also to be traced to their sources, and those which empty into the
+lakes to be followed to their mouths. "These things being done, and an
+accurate map of the whole presented to the public, he was persuaded
+that reason would dictate what was right and proper." For the
+execution of this latter part of his plan he had also much reliance on
+congress; and in addition to the general advantages to be drawn from
+the measure, he laboured, in his letters to the members of that body,
+to establish the opinion, that the surveys he recommended would add to
+the revenue, by enhancing the value of the lands offered for sale.
+"Nature," he said, "had made such an ample display of her bounties in
+those regions, that the more the country was explored, the more it
+would rise in estimation."
+
+The assent and co-operation of Maryland being indispensable to the
+improvement of the Potomac, he was equally earnest in his endeavours
+to impress a conviction of its superior advantages on those
+individuals who possessed most influence in that state. In doing so,
+he detailed the measures which would unquestionably be adopted by New
+York and Pennsylvania, for acquiring the monopoly of the western
+commerce, and the difficulty which would be found in diverting it from
+the channel it had once taken. "I am not," he added, "for discouraging
+the exertions of any state to draw the commerce of the western country
+to its sea-ports. The more communications we open to it, the closer we
+bind that rising world (for indeed it may be so called) to our
+interests, and the greater strength shall we acquire by it. Those to
+whom nature affords the best communication, will, if they are wise,
+enjoy the greatest share of the trade. All I would be understood to
+mean, therefore, is, that the gifts of Providence may not be
+neglected."
+
+But the light in which this subject would be viewed with most
+interest, and which gave to it most importance, was its political
+influence on the union. "I need not remark to you, sir," said he in
+his letter to the governor of Virginia, "that the flanks and rear of
+the United States are possessed by other powers,--and formidable ones
+too: need I press the necessity of applying the cement of
+interest to bind all parts of the union together by indissoluble
+bonds,--especially of binding that part of it which lies immediately
+west of us, to the middle states. For what ties, let me ask, should we
+have upon those people, how entirely unconnected with them shall we
+be, and what troubles may we not apprehend, if the Spaniards on their
+right, and Great Britain on their left, instead of throwing
+impediments in their way as they now do, should hold out lures for
+their trade and alliance? when they get strength, which will be sooner
+than most people conceive, what will be the consequence of their
+having formed close commercial connexions with both, or either of
+those powers? it needs not, in my opinion, the gift of prophecy to
+foretell."
+
+This idea was enlarged and pressed with much earnestness, in his
+letters to several members of congress.
+
+The letter to the governor was communicated to the assembly of
+Virginia, and the internal improvements it recommended were zealously
+supported by the wisest members of that body. While the subject
+remained undecided, General Washington, accompanied by the Marquis de
+Lafayette, who had crossed the Atlantic, and had devoted a part of his
+time to the delights of an enthusiastic friendship, paid a visit to
+the capital of the state. Never was reception more cordial, or more
+demonstrative of respect and affection, than was given to these
+beloved personages. But amidst the display of addresses and of
+entertainments which were produced by the occasion, the great business
+of internal improvements was not forgotten; and the ardour of the
+moment was seized to conquer those objections to the plan, which yet
+lingered in the bosoms of members who could perceive in it no future
+advantages to compensate for the present expense.
+
+An exact conformity between the acts of Virginia and of Maryland,
+being indispensable to the improvement of the Potomac, the friends of
+the measure deemed it adviseable to avail themselves of the same
+influence with the latter state, which had been successfully employed
+with the former; and a resolution was passed, soon after the return of
+General Washington to Mount Vernon, requesting him[23] to attend the
+legislature of Maryland, in order to agree on a bill which might
+receive the sanction of both states. This agreement being happily
+completed, the bills were enacted which form the first essay towards
+connecting the navigation of the eastern with the western waters of
+the United States.
+
+     [Footnote 23: General Gates was associated with him in the
+     mission.]
+
+These acts were succeeded by one, which conveys the liberal wishes of
+the legislature, with a delicacy scarcely less honourable to its
+framers, than to him who was its object. The treasurer had been
+instructed to subscribe, in behalf of the state, for a specified
+number of shares in each company. Just at the close of the session,
+when no refusal of their offer could be communicated to them, a bill
+was suddenly brought in, which received the unanimous assent of both
+houses, authorizing the treasurer to subscribe for the benefit of
+General Washington, the same number of shares in each company as were
+to be taken for the state. A preamble was prefixed to the enacting
+clause of this bill[24] in which its greatest value consisted. With
+simple elegance, it conveyed the sentiment, that in seizing this
+occasion, to make a donation which would in some degree testify their
+sense of the merits of their most favoured and most illustrious
+citizen, the donors would themselves be the obliged.
+
+     [Footnote 24: It is in these words; "whereas it is the
+     desire of the representatives of this commonwealth to
+     embrace every suitable occasion of testifying their sense of
+     the unexampled merits of George Washington, esquire, towards
+     his country, and it is their wish in particular that those
+     great works for its improvement, which both as springing
+     from the liberty which he has been so instrumental in
+     establishing, and as encouraged by his patronage, will be
+     durable monuments of his glory, may be made monuments also
+     of the gratitude of his country. Be it enacted, &c." This
+     bill is understood to have been drawn by Mr. Madison.]
+
+However delightful might be the sensations produced by this delicate
+and flattering testimony of the affection of his fellow citizens, it
+was not without its embarrassments. From his early resolution to
+receive no pecuniary compensation for his services, he could not
+permit himself to depart; and yet this mark of the gratitude and
+attachment of his country, could not easily be rejected without
+furnishing occasion for sentiments he was unwilling to excite. To the
+friend[25] who conveyed to him the first intelligence of this bill,
+his difficulties were thus expressed.
+
+     [Footnote 25: Mr. Madison.]
+
+[Sidenote: He declines accepting a donation made to him by his native
+state.]
+
+"It is not easy for me to decide by which my mind was most affected
+upon the receipt of your letter of the sixth instant--surprise or
+gratitude. Both were greater than I had words to express. The
+attention and good wishes which the assembly has evidenced by their
+act for vesting in me one hundred and fifty shares in the navigation
+of the rivers Potomac and James, is more than mere compliment,--there
+is an unequivocal and substantial meaning annexed. But, believe me,
+sir, no circumstance has happened since I left the walks of public
+life which has so much embarrassed me. On the one hand, I consider
+this act, as I have already observed, as a noble and unequivocal proof
+of the good opinion, the affection, and disposition of my country to
+serve me; and I should be hurt, if by declining the acceptance of it,
+my refusal should be construed into disrespect, or the smallest slight
+upon the generous intention of the legislature; or that an
+ostentatious display of disinterestedness, or public virtue, was the
+source of refusal.
+
+"On the other hand, it is really my wish to have my mind and my
+actions, which are the result of reflection, as free and independent
+as the air, that I may be more at liberty (in things which my
+opportunities and experience have brought me to the knowledge of) to
+express my sentiments, and if necessary, to suggest what may occur to
+me, under the fullest conviction that, although my judgment may be
+arraigned, there will be no suspicion that sinister motives had the
+smallest influence in the suggestion. Not content then with the bare
+consciousness of my having in all this navigation business, acted upon
+the clearest conviction of the political importance of the measure, I
+would wish that every individual who may hear that it was a favourite
+plan of mine, may know also, that I had no other motive for promoting
+it, than the advantage of which I conceived it would be productive to
+the union at large, and to this state in particular, by cementing the
+eastern and western territory together, at the same time that it will
+give vigour and increase to our commerce, and be a convenience to our
+citizens."
+
+At length he determined, in the same letter which should convey his
+resolution not to retain the shares for his private emolument, to
+signify his willingness to hold them in trust for such public
+institution as the legislature should approve. The following letter
+conveyed this resolution to the general assembly, through the governor
+of the state.
+
+(October, 1785.)
+
+"Sir,
+
+"Your excellency having been pleased to transmit me a copy of the act
+appropriating to my benefit certain shares in the companies for
+opening the navigation of James and Potomac rivers, I take the liberty
+of returning to the general assembly through your hands, the profound
+and grateful acknowledgments inspired by so signal a mark of their
+beneficent intentions towards me. I beg you, sir, to assure them, that
+I am filled on this occasion with every sentiment which can flow from
+a heart warm with love for my country, sensible to every token of its
+approbation and affection, and solicitous to testify in every instance
+a respectful submission to its wishes.
+
+"With these sentiments in my bosom, I need not dwell on the anxiety I
+feel in being obliged, in this instance, to decline a favour which is
+rendered no less flattering by the manner in which it is conveyed,
+than it is affectionate in itself. In explaining this, I pass over a
+comparison of my endeavours in the public service, with the many
+honourable testimonies of approbation which have already so far
+overrated, and overpaid them--reciting one consideration only which
+supersedes the necessity of recurring to every other.
+
+"When I was first called to the station with which I was honoured
+during the late conflict for our liberties, to the diffidence which I
+had so many reasons to feel in accepting it, I thought it my duty to
+join a firm resolution to shut my hand against every pecuniary
+recompense. To this resolution I have invariably adhered, and from it
+(if I had the inclination) I do not consider myself at liberty now to
+depart.
+
+"Whilst I repeat therefore my fervent acknowledgments to the
+legislature, for their very kind sentiments and intentions in my
+favour, and at the same time beg them to be persuaded that a
+remembrance of this singular proof of their goodness towards me, will
+never cease to cherish returns of the warmest affection and gratitude,
+I must pray that their act, so far as it has for its object my
+personal emolument, may not have its effect; but if it should please
+the general assembly to permit me to turn the destination of the fund
+vested in me, from my private emolument, to objects of a public
+nature, it will be my study, in selecting these, to prove the
+sincerity of my gratitude for the honour conferred upon me, by
+preferring such as may appear most subservient to the enlightened and
+patriotic views of the legislature."
+
+The wish suggested in this letter, immediately received the sanction
+of the legislature; and at a subsequent time, the trust was executed
+by conveying the shares respectively to the use of a seminary of
+learning established in the vicinity of each river.
+
+General Washington felt too strong an interest in the success of these
+works, to refuse the presidency of the companies instituted for their
+completion. In conducting the affairs of the Potomac company, he took
+an active part: to that formed for opening the navigation of the
+James, he could only give his counsel.
+
+These were not the only institutions which occasionally drew the
+farmer of Mount Vernon from his retreat, and continued him in the
+public view.
+
+The sentiments with which the officers of the American army
+contemplated a final separation from each other, will be comprehended
+by all who are conversant with the finest feelings of the human heart.
+Companions in virtuous suffering, in danger, and in glory--attached to
+each other by common exertions made in a severe struggle for the
+attainment of a common object--they felt that to part for ever was a
+calamity too afflicting to be supported. The means of perpetuating
+those friendships which had been formed, and of renewing that
+endearing social intercourse which had taken place in camp, were
+universally desired. Perhaps, too, that _esprit de corps_ which,
+identifying the individual with the community, transfers to the
+aggregate of the society a portion of that self-love which is felt by
+every private person, and which inspires in the members with a
+repugnance to the dissolution of the political, not unlike in effect
+to that which is excited at the dissolution of the natural body, was
+not without its influence in suggesting some expedient which might
+preserve the memory of the army, while it cheered the officers who
+were on the point of separating, with the hope that the separation
+would not be eternal: that at distant intervals, they might still
+communicate with each other: that the bonds by which they were
+connected would not be totally dissolved: and that, for many
+beneficial purposes, the patriots of the American army would still
+form one great society.
+
+[Sidenote: Establishment of the society of the Cincinnati of which he
+is elected president.]
+
+This idea was suggested by General Knox, and was matured in a meeting
+composed of the generals, and of deputies from the regiments, at which
+Major General the Baron Steuben presided. An agreement was then
+entered into, by which the officers were to constitute themselves into
+one society of friends, to endure as long as they should endure, or
+any of their eldest male posterity; and, in failure thereof, any
+collateral branches who might be judged worthy of becoming its
+supporters and members, were to be admitted into it. To mark their
+veneration for that celebrated Roman between whose situation and their
+own they found some similitude, they were to be denominated, "The
+Society of the Cincinnati." Individuals of the respective states,
+distinguished for their patriotism and abilities, might be admitted as
+honorary members for life, provided their numbers should at no time
+exceed a ratio of one to four.
+
+The society was to be designated by a medal of gold representing the
+American eagle bearing on its breast the devices of the order, which
+was to be suspended by a ribbon of deep blue edged with white,
+descriptive of the union of America and France. To the ministers who
+had represented his Most Christian Majesty at Philadelphia, to the
+admirals who had commanded in the American seas, to the Count de
+Rochambeau, and the generals and colonels of the French troops who had
+served in the United States, the insignia of the order were to be
+presented, and they were to be invited to consider themselves as
+members of the society; at the head of which the Commander-in-chief
+was respectfully solicited to place his name. An incessant attention,
+on the part of the members, to the preservation of the exalted rights
+and liberties of human nature for which they had fought and bled, and
+an unalterable determination to promote and cherish between the
+respective states, union and national honour, were declared to be the
+immutable principles of the society. Its objects were, to perpetuate
+the remembrance of the American revolution, as well as cordial
+affection and the spirit of brotherly kindness among the officers; and
+to extend acts of beneficence to those officers and their families,
+whose situation might require assistance. To give effect to the
+charitable object of the institution, a common fund was to be created
+by the deposite of one month's pay on the part of every officer
+becoming a member; the product of which fund, after defraying certain
+necessary charges, was to be sacredly appropriated to this humane
+purpose.
+
+The military gentlemen of each state were to constitute a distinct
+society, deputies from which were to assemble triennially, in order to
+form a general meeting for the regulation of general concerns.
+
+Without encountering any open opposition, this institution was carried
+into complete effect; and its honours were sought, especially by the
+foreign officers, with great avidity. But soon after it was organized,
+those jealousies which in its first moments had been concealed, burst
+forth into open view. In October, 1783, a pamphlet was published by
+Mr. Burk of South Carolina, for the purpose of rousing the
+apprehensions of the public, and of directing its resentments against
+the society. Perceiving or believing that he perceived, in the
+Cincinnati, the foundation of an hereditary order, whose base, from
+associating with the military the chiefs of the powerful families in
+each state, would acquire a degree of solidity and strength admitting
+of any superstructure, he portrayed, in the fervid and infectious
+language of passion, the dangers to result from the fabric which would
+be erected on it. The ministers of the United States too in Europe,
+and the political theorists who cast their eyes towards the west for
+support to favourite systems, having the privileged orders constantly
+in view, were loud in their condemnations of an institution from which
+a race of nobles was expected to spring. The alarm was spread
+throughout every state, and a high degree of jealousy pervaded the
+mass of the people. In Massachusetts, the subject was even taken up by
+the legislature; and it was well understood that, in congress, the
+society was viewed with secret disapprobation.
+
+"It was impossible for General Washington to view with indifference
+this state of the public feeling. Bound to the officers of his army by
+the strictest ties of esteem and affection, conscious of their merits,
+and assured of their attachment to his person, he was alive to every
+thing which might affect their reputation, or their interests. However
+innocent the institution might be in itself, or however laudable its
+real objects, if the impression it made on the public mind was such as
+to draw a line of distinction between the military men of America and
+their fellow citizens, he was earnest in his wishes to adopt such
+measures as would efface that impression. However ill founded the
+public prejudices might be, he thought this a case in which they ought
+to be respected; and, if it should be found impracticable to convince
+the people that their fears were misplaced, he was disposed to yield
+to them in a degree, and not to suffer that which was intended for the
+best of purposes, to produce a bad one."
+
+A general meeting was to be held in Philadelphia in May, 1784; and, in
+the mean time, he had been appointed the temporary president.
+
+To prepare the officers for those fundamental changes in the
+principles of the society, which he contemplated as a necessary
+sacrifice to the public apprehensions, his ideas were suggested to his
+military correspondents; and to give weight to the measures which
+might be recommended, his utmost influence was exerted to obtain a
+full assemblage of deputies, which should be respectable for its
+numbers, and for its wisdom.
+
+Officers of high respectability entertained different opinions on
+surrendering those parts of the institution which were deemed
+objectionable. By some, the public clamour was attributed to a spirit
+of persecution, which only attached them more closely to the order.
+Many, it was said, were in quest of a cause of quarrel with their late
+protectors; and the removal of one ground of accusation against them,
+would only induce the substitution of some other. The source of the
+uneasiness which had been manifested was to be found in the temper of
+the people, not in the matters of which they complained; and if the
+present cause of irritation was removed, their ill humour would be
+openly and avowedly directed against the commutation.
+
+General Washington was too much in the habit of considering subjects
+of difficulty in various points of view, and of deciding on them with
+coolness and deliberation, to permit his affections to influence his
+judgment. The most exact inquiries, assiduously made into the true
+state of the public mind, resulted in a conviction that opinions
+unfriendly to the institution, in its actual form, were extensively
+entertained; and that those opinions were founded, not in hostility to
+the late army, but in real apprehensions for equal liberty.
+
+A wise and necessary policy required, he thought, the removal of these
+apprehensions; and, at the general meeting in May, the hereditary
+principle, and the power of adopting honorary members, were
+relinquished. The result demonstrated the propriety of this
+alteration. Although a few who always perceive most danger where none
+exists, and the visionaries then abounding in Europe, continued their
+prophetic denunciations against the order, America dismissed her
+fears; and, notwithstanding the refusal of one or two of the state
+societies to adopt the measures recommended by the general meeting,
+the members of the Cincinnati were received as brethren into the bosom
+of their country.
+
+[Sidenote: The causes which led to a change of the government of the
+United States.]
+
+While General Washington thus devoted a great part of his time to
+rural pursuits, to the duties of friendship, and to institutions of
+public utility, the political state of his country, becoming daily
+more embarrassed, attracted more and more deeply the anxious
+solicitude of every enlightened and virtuous patriot. From peace, from
+independence, and from governments of their own choice, the United
+States had confidently anticipated every blessing. The glorious
+termination of their contest with one of the most powerful nations of
+the earth; the steady and persevering courage with which that contest
+had been maintained; and the unyielding firmness with which the
+privations attending it had been supported, had surrounded the infant
+republics with a great degree of splendour, and had bestowed upon them
+a character which could be preserved only by a national and dignified
+system of conduct. A very short time was sufficient to demonstrate,
+that something not yet possessed was requisite, to insure the public
+and private prosperity expected to flow from self government. After a
+short struggle so to administer the existing system, as to make it
+competent to the great objects for which it was instituted, the effort
+became apparently desperate; and American affairs were impelled
+rapidly to a crisis, on which the continuance of the United States, as
+a nation, appeared to depend.
+
+In tracing the causes which led to this interesting state of things,
+it will be necessary to carry back our attention to the conclusion of
+the war.
+
+A government authorized to declare war, but relying on independent
+states for the means of prosecuting it; capable of contracting debts,
+and of pledging the public faith for their payment, but depending on
+thirteen distinct sovereignties for the preservation of that faith,
+could not be rescued from ignominy and contempt, but by finding those
+sovereignties administered by men exempt from the passions incident to
+human nature.
+
+The debts of the union were computed, on the first of January, 1783,
+at somewhat more than forty millions of dollars. "If," say congress,
+in an address to the states, urging that the means of payment should
+be placed in their hands, "other motives than that of justice could be
+requisite on this occasion, no nation could ever feel stronger; for to
+whom are the debts to be paid?
+
+"_To an ally_, in the first place, who to the exertion of his arms in
+support of our cause has added the succours of his treasure; who to
+his important loans has added liberal donations, and whose loans
+themselves carry the impression of his magnanimity and friendship.
+
+"_To individuals in a foreign country_, in the next place, who were
+the first to give so precious a token of their confidence in our
+justice, and of their friendship for our cause, and who are members of
+a republic which was second in espousing our rank among nations.
+
+"Another class of creditors is, that _illustrious and patriotic band of
+fellow citizens_, whose blood and whose bravery have defended the
+liberties of their country, who have patiently borne, among other
+distresses, the privation of their stipends, whilst the distresses of
+their country disabled it from bestowing them: and who, even now, ask
+for no more than such a portion of their dues, as will enable them to
+retire from the field of victory and glory, into the bosom of peace
+and private citizenship, and for such effectual security for the
+residue of their claims, as their country is now unquestionably able
+to provide.
+
+"The remaining class of creditors is composed partly of such of our
+fellow citizens as originally lent to the public the use of their
+funds, or have since manifested most confidence in their country, by
+receiving transfers from the lenders; and partly of those whose
+property has been either advanced or assumed for the public service.
+To discriminate the merits of these several descriptions of creditors,
+would be a task equally unnecessary and invidious. If the voice of
+humanity plead more loudly in favour of some than of others, the voice
+of policy, no less than of justice, pleads in favour of all. A wise
+nation will never permit those who relieve the wants of their country,
+or who rely most on its faith, its firmness, and its resources, when
+either of them is distrusted, to suffer by the event."
+
+In a government constituted like that of the United States, it would
+readily be expected that great contrariety of sentiment would prevail,
+respecting the principles on which its affairs should be conducted. It
+has been already stated that the continent was divided into two great
+political parties, the one of which contemplated America as a nation,
+and laboured incessantly to invest the federal head with powers
+competent to the preservation of the union. The other attached itself
+to the state government, viewed all the powers of congress with
+jealousy, and assented reluctantly to measures which would enable the
+head to act, in any respect, independently of the members. Men of
+enlarged and liberal minds who, in the imbecility of a general
+government, by which alone the capacities of the nation could be
+efficaciously exerted, could discern the imbecility of the nation
+itself; who, viewing the situation of the world, could perceive the
+dangers to which these young republics were exposed, if not held
+together by a cement capable of preserving a beneficial connexion; who
+felt the full value of national honour, and the full obligation of
+national faith; and who were persuaded of the insecurity of both, if
+resting for their preservation on the concurrence of thirteen distinct
+sovereigns; arranged themselves generally in the first party. The
+officers of the army, whose local prejudices had been weakened by
+associating with each other, and whose experience had furnished
+lessons on the inefficacy of requisitions which were not soon to be
+forgotten, threw their weight almost universally into the same scale.
+
+The other party, if not more intelligent, was more numerous, and more
+powerful. It was sustained by prejudices and feelings which grew
+without effort, and gained strength from the intimate connexions
+subsisting between a state and its citizens. It required a concurrence
+of extrinsic circumstances to force on minds unwilling to receive the
+demonstration, a conviction of the necessity of an effective national
+government, and to give even a temporary ascendency to that party
+which had long foreseen and deplored the crisis to which the affairs
+of the United States were hastening.
+
+Sensible that the character of the government would be decided, in a
+considerable degree, by the measures which should immediately follow
+the treaty of peace, gentlemen of the first political abilities and
+integrity sought a place in the congress of 1783. Combining their
+efforts for the establishment of principles on which the honour and
+the interest of the nation were believed to depend, they exerted all
+their talents to impress on the several states, the necessity of
+conferring on the government of the union, powers which might be
+competent to its preservation, and which would enable it to comply
+with the engagements it had formed. With unwearied perseverance they
+digested and obtained the assent of congress to a system, which,
+though unequal to what their wishes would have prepared, or their
+judgments have approved, was believed to be the best that was
+attainable. The great object in view was, "to restore and support
+public credit," to effect which it was necessary, "to obtain from the
+states substantial funds for funding the whole debt of the United
+States."
+
+The committee[26] to whom this interesting subject was referred,
+reported sundry resolutions, recommending it to the several states, to
+vest in congress permanent and productive funds adequate to the
+immediate payment of the interest on the national debt, and to the
+gradual extinction of the principal. A change in the rule by which the
+proportions of the different states were to be ascertained, was also
+recommended. In lieu of that article of the confederation which
+apportions on them the sums required for the public treasury,
+according to the value of their located lands with the improvements
+thereon, it was proposed to substitute another more capable of
+execution, which should make the population of each state the measure
+of its contribution.[27]
+
+     [Footnote 26: Mr. Fitzsimmons, and Mr. Rutledge.]
+
+     [Footnote 27: On a subsequent occasion, an attempt was made
+     to obtain a resolution of congress, recommending as an
+     additional amendment to the eighth article of the
+     confederation, that the taxes for the use of the continent
+     should be laid and levied separate from any other tax, and
+     should be paid directly into the national treasury; and that
+     the collectors respectively should be liable to an execution
+     to be issued by the treasurer, or his deputy, under the
+     direction of congress, for any arrears of taxes by him to be
+     collected, which should not be paid into the treasury in
+     conformity with the requisitions of congress.
+
+     Such was the prevalence of state policy, even in the
+     government of the union, or such the conviction of the
+     inutility of recommending such an amendment, that a vote of
+     congress could not be obtained for asking this salutary
+     regulation as a security for the revenue only for eight
+     years.]
+
+To the application which congress had made during the war for power to
+levy an impost of five per cent on imported and prize goods, one state
+had never assented, and another had withdrawn the assent it had
+previously given.
+
+It was impossible to yield to some of the objections which had been
+made to this measure, because they went to the certain destruction of
+the system itself; but in points where the alterations demanded,
+though mischievous, were not fatal to the plan, it was thought
+adviseable to accommodate the recommendations of the government to the
+prejudices which had been disclosed. It had been insisted that the
+power of appointing persons to collect the duties, would enable
+congress to introduce into a state, officers unknown and unaccountable
+to the government thereof; and that a power to collect an indefinite
+sum for an indefinite time, for the expenditure of which that body
+could not be accountable to the states, would render it independent of
+its constituents, and would be dangerous to liberty. To obviate these
+objections, the proposition now made was so modified, that the grant
+was to be limited to twenty-five years; was to be strictly
+appropriated to the debt contracted on account of the war; and was to
+be collected by persons to be appointed by the respective states.
+
+After a debate, which the tedious mode of conducting business
+protracted for several weeks, the report was adopted; and a committee,
+consisting of Mr. Madison, Mr. Hamilton, and Mr. Ellsworth, was
+appointed to prepare an address, which should accompany the
+recommendation to the several states.
+
+After a full explanation of the principles on which the system had
+been framed, this address proceeds:--"The plan thus communicated and
+explained by congress, must now receive its fate from their
+constituents. All the objects comprised in it are conceived to be of
+great importance to the happiness of this confederated republic, are
+necessary to render the fruits of the revolution a full reward for the
+blood, the toils, the cares and the calamities which have purchased
+it. But the object of which the necessity will be peculiarly felt, and
+which it is peculiarly the duty of congress to inculcate, is the
+provision recommended for the national debt. Although this debt is
+greater than could have been wished, it is still less on the whole
+than could have been expected; and when referred to the cause in which
+it has been incurred, and compared with the burthens which wars of
+ambition and of vain glory have entailed on other nations, ought to be
+borne not only with cheerfulness but with pride. But the magnitude of
+the debt makes no part of the question. It is sufficient that the debt
+has been fairly contracted, and that justice and good faith demand
+that it should be fully discharged. Congress had no option but between
+different modes of discharging it. The same option is the only one
+that can exist with the states. The mode which has, after long and
+elaborate discussion, been preferred, is, we are persuaded, the least
+objectionable of any that would have been equal to the purpose. Under
+this persuasion, we call upon the justice and plighted faith of the
+several states to give it its proper effect, to reflect on the
+consequences of rejecting it, and to remember that congress will not
+be answerable for them."
+
+After expatiating on the merits of the several creditors, the report
+concludes, "let it be remembered finally, that it ever has been the
+pride and boast of America, that the rights for which she contended,
+were the rights of human nature. By the blessing of the Author of
+these rights, on the means exerted for their defence, they have
+prevailed against all opposition, and formed the basis of thirteen
+independent states. No instance has heretofore occurred, nor can any
+instance be expected hereafter to occur, in which the unadulterated
+forms of republican government can pretend to so fair an opportunity
+of justifying themselves by their fruits. In this view, the citizens
+of the United States are responsible for the greatest trust ever
+confided to a political society. If justice, good faith, honour,
+gratitude, and all the other good qualities which ennoble the
+character of a nation, and fulfil the ends of government, be the
+fruits of our establishments, the cause of liberty will acquire a
+dignity and lustre which it has never yet enjoyed; and an example will
+be set, which can not but have the most favourable influence on the
+rights of mankind. If, on the other side, our governments should be
+unfortunately blotted with the reverse of these cardinal and essential
+virtues, the great cause which we have engaged to vindicate will be
+dishonoured and betrayed; the last and fairest experiment in favour of
+the rights of human nature will be turned against them, and their
+patrons and friends exposed to be insulted and silenced by the
+votaries of tyranny and usurpation."
+
+For the complete success of the plan recommended by congress, no
+person felt more anxious solicitude than General Washington. Of the
+vital importance of UNION, no man could be more entirely persuaded;
+and of the obligations of the government to its creditors, no man
+could feel a stronger conviction. His conspicuous station had rendered
+him peculiarly sensible to their claims; and he had unavoidably been
+personally instrumental in the creation of a part of them. All the
+feelings of his heart were deeply engaged in the payment of some of
+the creditors, and that high sense of national honour, of national
+justice, and of national faith, of which elevated minds endowed with
+integrity can never be divested, impelled him to take a strong
+interest in the security of all. Availing himself of the usage of
+communicating on national subjects with the state governments, and of
+the opportunity, which his approaching resignation of the command of
+the army gave, impressively to convey his sentiments to them, he had
+determined to employ all the influence which the circumstances of his
+life had created, in a solemn recommendation of measures, on which he
+believed the happiness and prosperity of his country to depend. On the
+eighth of June, 1783, he addressed to the governors of the several
+states respectively, the paternal and affectionate letter which
+follows.
+
+[Sidenote: Letters of General Washington to the governors of the
+several states.]
+
+"Sir,
+
+"The great object for which I had the honour to hold an appointment in
+the service of my country being accomplished, I am now preparing to
+resign it into the hands of congress, and to return to that domestic
+retirement which, it is well known, I left with the greatest
+reluctance; a retirement for which I have never ceased to sigh through
+a long and painful absence, and in which (remote from the noise and
+trouble of the world) I meditate to pass the remainder of life in a
+state of undisturbed repose. But before I carry this resolution into
+effect, I think it a duty incumbent upon me, to make this my last
+official communication; to congratulate you on the glorious events
+which heaven has been pleased to produce in our favour; to offer my
+sentiments respecting some important subjects which appear to me to be
+intimately connected with the tranquillity of the United States: to
+take my leave of your excellency as a public character: and to give my
+final blessing to that country in whose service I have spent the prime
+of my life, for whose sake I have consumed so many anxious days and
+watchful nights, and whose happiness, being extremely dear to me, will
+always constitute no inconsiderable part of my own.
+
+"Impressed with the liveliest sensibility on this pleasing occasion, I
+will claim the indulgence of dilating the more copiously on the
+subjects of our mutual felicitation. When we consider the magnitude of
+the prize we contended for, the doubtful nature of the contest, and
+the favourable manner in which it has terminated, we shall find the
+greatest possible reason for gratitude and rejoicing. This is a theme
+that will afford infinite delight to every benevolent and liberal
+mind, whether the event in contemplation be considered as the source
+of present enjoyment, or the parent of future happiness: and we shall
+have equal occasion to felicitate ourselves on the lot which
+Providence has assigned us, whether we view it in a natural, a
+political, or moral point of light.
+
+"The citizens of America, placed in the most enviable condition, as
+the sole lords and proprietors of a vast tract of continent,
+comprehending all the various soils and climates of the world, and
+abounding with all the necessaries and conveniencies of life, are now,
+by the late satisfactory pacification, acknowledged to be possessed of
+absolute freedom and independency. They are from this period, to be
+considered as the actors on a most conspicuous theatre, which seems to
+be peculiarly designated by Providence for the display of human
+greatness and felicity. Here they are not only surrounded with every
+thing which can contribute to the completion of private and domestic
+enjoyment; but heaven has crowned all its other blessings, by giving a
+fairer opportunity for political happiness, than any other nation has
+ever been favoured with. Nothing can illustrate these observations
+more forcibly, than a recollection of the happy conjuncture of times
+and circumstances, under which our republic assumed its rank among the
+nations. The foundation of our empire was not laid in the gloomy age
+of ignorance and superstition, but at an epoch when the rights of
+mankind were better understood, and more clearly defined, than at any
+former period. The researches of the human mind after social happiness
+have been carried to a great extent; the treasures of knowledge
+acquired by the labours of philosophers, sages, and legislators,
+through a long succession of years, are laid open for our use; and
+their collected wisdom may be happily employed in the establishment of
+our forms of government. The free cultivation of letters; the
+unbounded extension of commerce; the progressive refinement of
+manners; the growing liberality of sentiment; and above all, the pure
+and benign light of revelation; have had a meliorating influence on
+mankind, and increased the blessings of society. At this auspicious
+period, the United States came into existence as a nation; and if
+their citizens should not be completely free and happy, the fault will
+be entirely their own.
+
+"Such is our situation, and such are our prospects. But
+notwithstanding the cup of blessing is thus reached out to us;
+notwithstanding happiness is ours, if we have a disposition to seize
+the occasion, and make it our own; yet, it appears to me, there is an
+option still left to the United States of America; that it is in their
+choice, and depends upon their conduct, whether they will be
+respectable and prosperous, or contemptible and miserable as a nation.
+This is the time of their political probation; this is the moment when
+the eyes of the whole world are turned upon them; this is the moment
+to establish or ruin their national character forever; this is the
+favourable moment to give such a tone to our federal government, as
+will enable it to answer the ends of its institution, or this may be
+the ill-fated moment for relaxing the powers of the union,
+annihilating the cement of the confederation, and exposing us to
+become the sport of European politics, which may play one state
+against another, to prevent their growing importance, and to serve
+their own interested purposes. For according to the system of policy
+the states shall adopt at this moment, they will stand or fall; and by
+their confirmation or lapse, it is yet to be decided, whether the
+revolution must ultimately be considered a blessing or a curse:--a
+blessing or a curse not to the present age alone, for with our fate
+will the destiny of unborn millions be involved.
+
+"With this conviction of the importance of the present crisis, silence
+in me would be a crime. I will therefore speak to your excellency the
+language of freedom and of sincerity, without disguise. I am aware,
+however, that those who differ from me in political sentiment, may
+perhaps remark that I am stepping out of the proper line of my duty,
+and may possibly ascribe to arrogance or ostentation, what I know is
+alone the result of the purest intentions. But the rectitude of my own
+heart, which disdains such unworthy motives; the part I have hitherto
+acted in life; the determination I have formed of not taking any share
+in public business hereafter; the ardent desire I feel, and shall
+continue to manifest, of quietly enjoying, in private life, after all
+the toils of war, the benefits of a wise and liberal government: will,
+I flatter myself, sooner or later convince my countrymen, that I could
+have no sinister views in delivering with so little reserve the
+opinions contained in this address.
+
+"There are four things which I humbly conceive are essential to the
+well being, I may even venture to say, to the existence of the United
+States as an independent power.
+
+1st. An indissoluble union of the states under one federal head.
+
+2d. A sacred regard to public justice.
+
+3d. The adoption of a proper peace establishment, and,
+
+4th. The prevalence of that pacific and friendly disposition, among
+the people of the United States, which will induce them to forget
+their local prejudices and politics, to make those mutual concessions
+which are requisite to the general prosperity, and in some instances,
+to sacrifice their individual advantages to the interest of the
+community.
+
+"These are the pillars on which the glorious fabric of our
+independency and national character must be supported. Liberty is the
+basis, and whoever would dare to sap the foundation, or overturn the
+structure, under whatever specious pretext he may attempt it, will
+merit the bitterest execration, and the severest punishment, which can
+be inflicted by his injured country.
+
+"On the three first articles, I will make a few observations, leaving
+the last to the good sense and serious consideration of those
+immediately concerned.
+
+"Under the first head, although it may not be necessary or proper for
+me, in this place, to enter into a particular disquisition of the
+principles of the union, and to take up the great question which has
+frequently been agitated, whether it be expedient and requisite for
+the states to delegate a larger proportion of power to congress or
+not; yet it will be a part of my duty, and that of every true patriot,
+to assert without reserve, and to insist upon the following positions:
+that unless the states will suffer congress to exercise those
+prerogatives they are undoubtedly invested with by the constitution,
+every thing must very rapidly tend to anarchy and confusion: that it
+is indispensable to the happiness of the individual states, that there
+should be lodged somewhere a supreme power to regulate and govern the
+general concerns of the confederated republic, without which the union
+can not be of long duration: that there must be a faithful and pointed
+compliance, on the part of every state, with the late proposals and
+demands of congress, or the most fatal consequences will ensue: that
+whatever measures have a tendency to dissolve the union, or contribute
+to violate or lessen the sovereign authority, ought to be considered
+as hostile to the liberty and independence of America, and the authors
+of them treated accordingly: and lastly, that unless we can be
+enabled, by the concurrence of the states, to participate of the
+fruits of the revolution, and enjoy the essential benefits of civil
+society, under a form of government so free and uncorrupted, so
+happily guarded against the danger of oppression as has been devised
+and adopted by the articles of confederation, it will be a subject of
+regret, that so much blood and treasure have been lavished for no
+purpose; that so many sufferings have been encountered without a
+compensation; and that so many sacrifices have been made in vain. Many
+other considerations might here be adduced to prove, that without an
+entire conformity to the spirit of the union, we can not exist as an
+independent power. It will be sufficient for my purpose to mention one
+or two, which seem to me of the greatest importance. It is only in our
+united character that we are known as an empire, that our independence
+is acknowledged, that our power can be regarded, or our credit
+supported among foreign nations. The treaties of the European powers
+with the United States of America, will have no validity on a
+dissolution of the union. We shall be left nearly in a state of
+nature, or we may find, by our own unhappy experience, that there is a
+natural and necessary progression from the extreme of anarchy to the
+extreme of tyranny; and that arbitrary power is most easily
+established on the ruins of liberty abused to licentiousness.
+
+"As to the second article, which respects the performance of public
+justice, congress have in their late address to the United States,
+almost exhausted the subject. They have explained their ideas so
+fully, and have enforced the obligations the states are under, to
+render complete justice to all the public creditors, with so much
+dignity and energy, that in my opinion, no real friend to the honour
+and independency of America, can hesitate a single moment respecting
+the propriety of complying with the just and honourable measures
+proposed. If their arguments do not produce conviction, I know of
+nothing that will have greater influence; especially when we recollect
+that the system referred to, being the result of the collected wisdom
+of the continent, must be esteemed, if not perfect, certainly the
+least objectionable of any that could be devised; and that if it
+should not be carried into immediate execution, a national bankruptcy,
+with all its deplorable consequences, will take place before any
+different plan can possibly be proposed and adopted. So pressing are
+the present circumstances, and such is the alternative now offered to
+the states.
+
+"The ability of the country to discharge the debts which have been
+incurred in its defence is not to be doubted; an inclination I flatter
+myself will not be wanting. The path of our duty is plain before
+us--honesty will be found, on every experiment, to be the best and
+only true policy. Let us then as a nation, be just; let us fulfil the
+public contracts which congress had undoubtedly a right to make, for
+the purpose of carrying on the war, with the same good faith we
+suppose ourselves bound to perform our private engagements. In the
+mean time, let an attention to the cheerful performance of their
+proper business as individuals, and as members of society, be
+earnestly inculcated on the citizens of America. Then will they
+strengthen the hands of government, and be happy under its protection.
+Every one will reap the fruit of his labours; every one will enjoy his
+own acquisitions, without molestation, and without danger.
+
+"In this state of absolute freedom and perfect security, who will
+grudge to yield a very little of his property to support the common
+interest of society, and insure the protection of government? Who does
+not remember the frequent declarations, at the commencement of the
+war, that we should be completely satisfied, if at the expense of one
+half, we could defend the remainder of our possessions? Where is the
+man to be found who wishes to remain indebted for the defence of his
+own person and property, to the exertions, the bravery, and the blood
+of others, without making one generous effort to repay the debt of
+honour and of gratitude? In what part of the continent shall we find
+any man or body of men, who would not blush to stand up and propose
+measures purposely calculated to rob the soldier of his stipend, and
+the public creditor of his due? And were it possible that such a
+flagrant instance of injustice could ever happen, would it not excite
+the general indignation, and tend to bring down upon the authors of
+such measures, the aggravated vengeance of heaven? If, after all, a
+spirit of disunion, or a temper of obstinacy and perverseness, should
+manifest itself in any of the states; if such an ungracious
+disposition should attempt to frustrate all the happy effects that
+might be expected to flow from the union; if there should be a refusal
+to comply with the requisitions for funds to discharge the annual
+interest of the public debts; and if that refusal should revive again
+all those jealousies, and produce all those evils, which are now
+happily removed; congress, who have in all their transactions, shown a
+great degree of magnanimity and justice, will stand justified in the
+sight of God and man; and the state alone which puts itself in
+opposition to the aggregate wisdom of the continent, and follows such
+mistaken and pernicious counsels, will be responsible for all the
+consequences.
+
+"For my own part, conscious of having acted while a servant of the
+public, in the manner I conceived best suited to promote the real
+interests of my country; having, in consequence of my fixed belief, in
+some measure pledged myself to the army, that their country would
+finally do them complete and ample justice; and not wishing to conceal
+any instance of my official conduct from the eyes of the world; I have
+thought proper to transmit to your excellency the enclosed collection
+of papers, relative to the half pay and commutation granted by
+congress to the officers of the army. From these communications, my
+decided sentiments will be clearly comprehended, together with the
+conclusive reasons which induced me, at an early period, to recommend
+the adoption of the measure, in the most earnest and serious manner.
+As the proceedings of congress, the army, and myself, are open to all,
+and contain, in my opinion, sufficient information to remove the
+prejudices, and errors, which may have been entertained by any, I
+think it unnecessary to say any thing more than just to observe, that
+the resolutions of congress now alluded to, are undoubtedly as
+absolutely binding upon the United States, as the most solemn acts of
+confederation or legislation. As to the idea which I am informed, has
+in some instances prevailed, that the half pay and commutation are to
+be regarded merely in the odious light of a pension, it ought to be
+exploded for ever. That provision should be viewed as it really was, a
+reasonable compensation offered by congress, at a time when they had
+nothing else to give to the officers of the army, for services then to
+be performed. It was the only means to prevent a total dereliction of
+the service.--It was a part of their hire.--I may be allowed to say it
+was the price of their blood, and of your independence. It is
+therefore more than a common debt; it is a debt of honour. It can
+never be considered as a pension, or gratuity; nor be cancelled until
+it is fairly discharged.
+
+"With regard to a distinction between officers and soldiers, it is
+sufficient that the uniform experience of every nation of the world,
+combined with your own, proves the utility and propriety of the
+discrimination. Rewards in proportion to the aids the public derives
+from them, are unquestionably due to all its servants. In some lines,
+the soldiers have perhaps generally had as ample a compensation for
+their services, by the large bounties which have been paid to them, as
+their officers will receive in the proposed commutation; in others, if
+besides the donation of lands, the payment of arrearages, of clothing
+and wages, (in which articles all the component parts of the army must
+be put upon the same footing,) we take into the estimate the bounties
+many of the soldiers have received, and the gratuity of one year's
+full pay which is promised to all, possibly their situation (every
+circumstance duly considered) will not be deemed less eligible than
+that of the officers. Should a further reward, however, be judged
+equitable, I will venture to assert, no one will enjoy greater
+satisfaction than myself, on seeing an exemption from taxes for a
+limited time, (which has been petitioned for in some instances,) or
+any other adequate immunity or compensation, granted to the brave
+defenders of their country's cause. But neither the adoption nor
+rejection of this proposition will in any manner affect, much less
+militate against, the act of congress, by which they have offered five
+years full pay, in lieu of the half pay for life, which had been
+before promised to the officers of the army.
+
+"Before I conclude the subject of public justice, I can not omit to
+mention the obligations this country is under to that meritorious
+class of veteran non-commissioned officers and privates who have been
+discharged for inability, in consequence of the resolution of congress
+of the 23d April, 1782, on an annual pension for life. Their peculiar
+sufferings, their singular merits, and claims to that provision, need
+only be known, to interest all the feelings of humanity in their
+behalf. Nothing but a punctual payment of their annual allowance can
+rescue them from the most complicated misery, and nothing could be a
+more melancholy and distressing sight, than to behold those who have
+shed their blood or lost their limbs in the service of their country,
+without a shelter, without a friend, and without the means of
+obtaining any of the necessaries or comforts of life; compelled to beg
+their daily bread from door to door. Surfer me to recommend those of
+this description, belonging to your state, to the warmest patronage of
+your excellency and your legislature.
+
+"It is necessary to say but a few words on the third topic which was
+proposed, and which regards particularly the defence of the republic,
+as there can be little doubt but congress will recommend a proper
+peace establishment for the United States, in which a due attention
+will be paid to the importance of placing the militia of the union
+upon a regular and respectable footing. If this should be the case, I
+would beg leave to urge the great advantage of it in the strongest
+terms. The militia of this country must be considered as the palladium
+of our security, and the first effectual resort in case of hostility.
+It is essential, therefore, that the same system should pervade the
+whole; that the formation and discipline of the militia of the
+continent should be absolutely uniform, and that the same species of
+arms, accoutrements, and military apparatus should be introduced in
+every part of the United States. No one who has not learned it from
+experience, can conceive the difficulty, expense, and confusion, which
+result from a contrary system, or the vague arrangements which have
+hitherto prevailed.
+
+"If in treating of political points, a greater latitude than usual has
+been taken in the course of this address, the importance of the
+crisis, and magnitude of the objects in discussion, must be my
+apology. It is, however, neither my wish nor expectation, that the
+preceding observations should claim any regard, except so far as they
+shall appear to be dictated by a good intention, consonant to the
+immediate rules of justice, calculated to produce a liberal system of
+policy, and founded on whatever experience may have been acquired by a
+long and close attention to public business. Here I might speak with
+the more confidence, from my actual observations; and, if it would not
+swell this letter (already too prolix) beyond the bounds I had
+prescribed myself, I could demonstrate to every mind open to
+conviction, that in less time, and with much less expense than has
+been incurred, the war might have been brought to the same happy
+conclusion, if the resources of the continent could have been properly
+drawn forth; that the distresses and disappointments which have very
+often occurred, have, in too many instances, resulted more from a want
+of energy in the continental government, than a deficiency of means in
+the particular states: that the inefficacy of measures, arising from
+the want of an adequate authority in the supreme power, from a partial
+compliance with the requisitions of congress in some of the states,
+and from a failure of punctuality in others, while it tended to damp
+the zeal of those which were more willing to exert themselves, served
+also to accumulate the expenses of the war, and to frustrate the best
+concerted plans; and that the discouragement occasioned by the
+complicated difficulties and embarrassments in which our affairs were
+by this means involved, would have long ago produced the dissolution
+of any army less patient, less virtuous, and less persevering, than
+that which I have had the honour to command. But while I mention these
+things which are notorious facts, as the defects of our federal
+constitution, particularly in the prosecution of a war, I beg it may
+be understood, that as I have ever taken a pleasure in gratefully
+acknowledging the assistance and support I have derived from every
+class of citizens, so shall I always be happy to do justice to the
+unparalleled exertions of the individual states, on many interesting
+occasions.
+
+"I have thus freely disclosed what I wished to make known before I
+surrendered up my public trust to those who committed it to me. The
+task is now accomplished. I now bid adieu to your excellency as the
+chief magistrate of your state; at the same time I bid a last farewell
+to the cares of office and all the employments of public life.
+
+"It remains then to be my final and only request, that your excellency
+will communicate these sentiments to your legislature at their next
+meeting; and that they may be considered as the legacy of one who has
+ardently wished, on all occasions, to be useful to his country; and
+who, even in the shade of retirement, will not fail to implore the
+divine benediction upon it.
+
+"I now make it my earnest prayer that God would have you, and the
+state over which you preside, in his holy protection, that he would
+incline the hearts of the citizens to cultivate a spirit of
+subordination and obedience to government; to entertain a brotherly
+affection and love for one another, for their fellow citizens of the
+United States at large, and particularly for their brethren who have
+served in the field, and finally, that he would most graciously be
+pleased to dispose us all to do justice, to love mercy, and to demean
+ourselves with that charity, humility, and pacific temper of mind,
+which were the characteristics of the Divine Author of our blessed
+religion; without an humble imitation of whose example in these things
+we can never hope to be a happy nation."
+
+The impression made by this solemn and affecting admonition could not
+be surpassed. The circumstances under which it was given, added to the
+veneration with which it was received; and, like the counsel of a
+parent on whom the grave is about to close forever, it sunk deep into
+the hearts of all. But, like the counsels of a parent withdrawn from
+view, the advice was too soon forgotten, and the impression it had
+made was too soon effaced.
+
+The recommendations of congress did not receive that prompt
+consideration which the public exigence demanded, nor did they meet
+that universal assent which was necessary to give them effect.
+
+Not immediately perceiving that the error lay in a system which was
+unfit for use, the distinguished patriots of the revolution
+contemplated with increasing anxiety, the anti-American temper which
+displayed itself in almost every part of the union. The letters
+addressed to the late Commander-in-chief, by many of those who had
+borne a conspicuous part in the arduous struggle for independence,
+manifest the disappointment and chagrin occasioned by this temper. The
+venerable Trumbull, who had rendered great service to the cause of
+united America; who, like Washington, had supported the burden of
+office throughout a hazardous contest, and like Washington, had
+determined to withdraw from the cares of a public station when that
+contest should be terminated, in a letter communicating to his friend
+and compatriot the resolution he had taken, thus disclosed the fears
+which the dispositions manifested by many of his countrymen inspired.
+"The fruits of our peace and independence do not at present wear so
+promising an appearance as I had fondly painted to my mind. The
+prejudices, the jealousies, and turbulence of the people, at times,
+almost stagger my confidence in our political establishments; and
+almost occasion me to think that they will show themselves unworthy of
+the noble prize for which we have contended, and which, I had pleased
+myself with the hope, we were so near enjoying. But again, I check
+this rising impatience, and console myself under the present prospect
+with the consideration, that the same beneficent and wise Providence
+which has done so much for this country, will not eventually leave us
+to ruin our own happiness, to become the sport of chance, or the scoff
+of a once admiring world; but that great things are yet in store for
+this people, which time, and the wisdom of the Great Director will
+produce in its best season."
+
+"It is indeed a pleasure," said General Washington in reply, "from the
+walks of private life to view in retrospect the difficulties through
+which we have waded, and the happy haven into which our ship has been
+brought. Is it possible after this that it should founder? will not
+the all wise and all powerful Director of human events preserve it? I
+think he will. He may, however, for some wise purpose of his own,
+suffer our indiscretions and folly to place our national character low
+in the political scale;--and this, unless more wisdom and less
+prejudice take the lead in our government, will most certainly
+happen."
+
+That the imbecility of the federal government, the impotence of its
+requisitions, and the inattention of some of the states to its
+recommendations, would, in the estimation of the world, abase the
+American character, could scarcely be termed a prediction. That course
+of national degradation had already commenced.
+
+As the system recommended to the states on the 18th of April, 1783,
+had been matured by the best wisdom in the federal councils, a
+compliance with it was the last hope of the government; and congress
+continued to urge its adoption on the several states. While its fate
+remain undecided, requisitions for the intermediate supply of the
+national demands were annually repeated, and were annually neglected.
+Happily, a loan had been negotiated in Holland by Mr. Adams, after the
+termination of the war, out of which the interest of the foreign debt
+had been partly paid; but that fund was exhausted, and the United
+States possessed no means of replacing it. Unable to pay the interest,
+they would, in the course of the succeeding year, be liable for the
+first instalment of the principal; and the humiliating circumstance
+was to be encountered of a total failure to comply with the most
+solemn engagements, unaccompanied with the prospect of being enabled
+to give assurances, that, at any future time, their situation would be
+more eligible. If the condition of the domestic creditors was not
+absolutely desperate, the prospect of obtaining satisfaction for their
+claims was so distant and uncertain, that their evidences of debt were
+transferred at an eighth, and even at a tenth of their nominal value.
+The distress consequent on this depreciation was great and afflicting.
+"The requisitions of congress for eight years past," say the committee
+in February, 1786, to whom the subject of the revenue had been
+referred, "have been so irregular in their operation, so uncertain in
+their collection, and so evidently unproductive, that a reliance on
+them in future as a source from whence moneys are to be drawn to
+discharge the engagements of the confederacy, definite as they are in
+time and amount, would be not less dishonourable to the understandings
+of those who entertain such confidence, than it would be dangerous to
+the welfare and peace of the union." Under public embarrassments which
+were daily increasing, it had become, it was said, "the duty of
+congress to declare most explicitly that the crisis _had_ arrived,
+when the people of the United States, by whose will, and for whose
+benefit, the federal government was instituted, must decide whether
+they will support their rank as a nation, by maintaining the public
+faith at home and abroad, or whether, for want of a timely exertion in
+establishing a general revenue, and thereby giving strength to the
+confederacy, they will hazard not only the existence of the union, but
+of those great and invaluable privileges for which they have so
+arduously and so honourably contended."
+
+The revenue system of the 18th of April, 1783, was again solemnly
+recommended to the consideration of the several states, and their
+unanimous and early accession to it was declared to be the only
+measure which could enable congress to preserve the public faith, and
+to avoid the fatal evils which will inevitably flow from "a violation
+of those principles of justice which are the only solid basis of the
+honour and prosperity of nations."
+
+In framing this system, a revenue adequate to the funding of the whole
+national debt had been contemplated, and no part of it was to go into
+operation until the whole should be adopted. By suspending partial
+relief to the pressing necessities of the government, it was believed
+that complete relief would be the more certainly secured.
+
+The enlightened and virtuous statesmen with whom that measure
+originated, thought it impossible that their countrymen would be so
+unmindful of the obligations of honour and of justice, or could so
+mistake their real interests, as to withhold their assent from the
+entire plan, if convinced that no partial compliance with it would be
+received. In the progress of the business, however, there was reason
+to believe that the impost might be conceded, but that the application
+for internal taxes would encounter difficulties not to be surmounted.
+In the impoverished state of the federal treasury, an incompetent
+revenue was preferred to no revenue; and it was deemed more adviseable
+to accept a partial compliance with the recommendations of congress,
+than, by inflexibly adhering to the integrity of the system, to lose
+the whole. The states therefore, were requested to enable congress,
+"to carry into effect that part which related to impost so soon as it
+should be acceded to." In the course of the year 1786, every state in
+the union had acted upon the recommendation, and, with the exception
+of New York, had granted the impost duty which had been required. New
+York had passed an act upon the subject; but, influenced by its
+jealousy of the federal government, had not vested in congress the
+power of collection, but had reserved to itself the sole right of
+levying the duties according to its own laws. Neither did the act
+permit the collectors to be made accountable to congress. To the state
+only were they amenable. In addition to these deviations from the plan
+recommended, New York had emitted bills of credit, which were liable
+to depreciation, and in them the duties were payable. As the failure
+on the part of this single state, suspended the operation of the
+grants made by all the others, the executive thereof was requested
+again to convene the legislature, in order to lay the subject once
+more before them. To a similar resolution Governor Clinton had already
+replied, that "he had not power to convene the legislature before the
+time fixed by law for their stated meeting, except on extraordinary
+occasions, and as the present business proposed for their
+consideration had already been repeatedly laid before them, and so
+recently as at their last session had received their determination, it
+could not come within that description." This second resolution was
+not more successful than that which preceded it, and thus was finally
+defeated the laborious and persevering effort made by the federal
+government to obtain from the states the means of preserving, in whole
+or in part, the faith of the nation. General Washington's letters of
+that period abound with passages showing the solicitude with which he
+watched the progress of this recommendation, and the chagrin with
+which he viewed the obstacles to its adoption. In a letter of October,
+1785, he said, "the war, as you have very justly observed, has
+terminated most advantageously for America, and a fair field is
+presented to our view; but I confess to you freely, my dear sir, that
+I do not think we possess wisdom or justice enough to cultivate it
+properly. Illiberality, jealousy, and local policy, mix too much in
+our public councils, for the good government of the union. In a word,
+the confederation appears to me to be little more than a shadow
+without the substance; and congress a nugatory body, their
+ordinances being little attended to. To _me_, it is a solecism in
+politics:--indeed it is one of the most extraordinary things in
+nature, that we should confederate as a nation, and yet be afraid to
+give the rulers of that nation, who are the creatures of our own
+making, appointed for a limited and short duration, and who are
+amenable for every action, recallable at any moment, and subject to
+all the evils which they may be instrumental in producing,--sufficient
+powers to order and direct the affairs of the same. By such policy as
+this, the wheels of government are clogged, and our brightest
+prospects, and that high expectation which was entertained of us by
+the wondering world, are turned into astonishment; and from the high
+ground on which we stood, we are descending into the vale of confusion
+and darkness.
+
+"That we have it in our power to become one of the most respectable
+nations upon earth, admits, in my humble opinion, of no doubt, if we
+would but pursue a wise, just, and liberal policy towards one another,
+and would keep good faith with the rest of the world:--that our
+resources are ample and increasing, none can deny; but while they are
+grudgingly applied, or not applied at all, we give a vital stab to
+public faith, and will sink in the eyes of Europe, into contempt."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+     Differences between Great Britain and the United States....
+     Mr. Adams appointed minister to Great Britain....
+     Discontents excited by the commercial regulations of
+     Britain.... Parties in the United States.... The convention
+     at Annapolis.... Virginia appoints deputies to a convention
+     at Philadelphia.... General Washington chosen one of
+     them.... Insurrection at Massachusetts.... Convention at
+     Philadelphia.... A form of government submitted to the
+     respective states, as ratified by eleven of them....
+     Correspondence of General Washington respecting the chief
+     magistracy.... He is elected president.... Meeting of the
+     first congress.
+
+
+{1783 to 1787}
+
+While the friends of the national government were making these
+unavailing efforts to invest it with a revenue which might enable it
+to preserve the national faith, many causes concurred to prepare the
+public mind for some great and radical change in the political system
+of America.
+
+[Sidenote: Misunderstandings between Great Britain and the United
+States.]
+
+Scarcely had the war of the revolution terminated, when the United
+States and Great Britain reciprocally charged each other with
+violations of the treaty of peace. On the construction of that part of
+the seventh article which stipulates against the "destruction or
+carrying away of any negroes, or other property of the American
+inhabitants," a serious difference of opinion prevailed which could
+not be easily accommodated. As men seldom allow much weight to the
+reasoning of an adversary, the construction put upon that article by
+the cabinet of London was generally treated in America as a mere
+evasion; and the removal of the negroes who had joined the British
+army on the faith of a proclamation offering them freedom, was
+considered as a flagrant breach of faith. In addition to this
+circumstance, the troops of his Britannic Majesty still retained
+possession of the posts on the American side of the great lakes. As
+those posts gave their possessors a decided influence over the warlike
+tribes of Indians in their neighbourhood, this was a subject to which
+the United States were peculiarly sensible.
+
+On the other hand, the United States were charged with infringing the
+fourth, fifth, and sixth articles, which contain agreements respecting
+the payment of debts, the confiscation of property, and prosecution of
+individuals for the part taken by them during the war.
+
+On the 14th of January, 1784, the day on which the definitive articles
+were ratified, congress passed a resolution containing a
+recommendation in the words of the treaty, respecting confiscated
+property, which was transmitted without delay to the several states.
+They considered this resolution as merely formal; and contended that
+neither the American nor the British government expected from it any
+beneficial results. But other stipulations which are explicit, the
+performance of which was not to rest on the recommendation of the
+government, especially that respecting the payment of debts, were also
+neglected. These causes of mutual complaint being permitted to rankle
+for some time in the bosoms of both nations, produced a considerable
+degree of irritation. The British merchants had large credits in
+America. Those engaged in the colonial trade had been nearly ruined by
+the rupture between the two countries; and, without taking into the
+account the embarrassments in which the war had involved their
+debtors, they calculated, after the restoration of peace, on the
+prompt collection of the vast sums which were due to them. But the
+impediments to the recovery of debts were, in many instances,
+permitted to remain; and the dispositions manifested by those states
+in which they were chiefly due, did not authorize a belief that any
+favourable change of measures was about to take place. The complaints
+of the creditors were loud and incessant. They openly charged the
+American government with violating the most solemn obligations which
+public and private contract could create; and this charge affected the
+national character the more seriously, because the terms of the treaty
+were universally deemed highly advantageous to the United States. The
+recriminations on the part of individuals in America, were also
+uttered with the angry vehemence of men who believe themselves to be
+suffering unprovoked injuries. The negroes in possession of the
+British armies at the restoration of peace, belonged, in many cases,
+to actual debtors; and in all, to persons who required the labour of
+which they were thus deprived, to repair the multiplied losses
+produced by the war. To the detention of the posts on the lakes was
+ascribed the hostile temper manifested by the Indians; and thus, to
+the indignity of permitting a foreign power to maintain garrisons
+within the limits of the nation, were superadded the murders
+perpetrated by the savages, and the consequent difficulty of settling
+the fertile and vacant lands of the west.[28] On the north-eastern
+frontier too, the British were charged with making encroachments on
+the territory of the United States. On that side, the river St. Croix,
+from its source to its mouth in the bay of Passamaquoddy, is the
+boundary between the two nations. Three rivers of that name empty into
+the bay. The Americans claimed the most eastern, as the real St.
+Croix, while settlements were actually made under the authority of the
+government of Nova Scotia to the middle river, and the town of St.
+Andrews was established on its banks.
+
+     [Footnote 28: See note, No. III. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Mr. Adams appointed to negotiate with the British cabinet.]
+
+But the cause of most extensive disquiet was the rigorous commercial
+system pursued by Great Britain. While colonists, the Americans had
+carried on a free and gainful trade with the British West Indies.
+Those ports were closed against them as citizens of an independent
+state; and their accustomed intercourse with other parts of the empire
+also was interrupted by the navigation act. To explore new channels
+for the commerce of the nation was, in the actual state of things,
+opposed by obstacles which almost discouraged the attempt. On every
+side they met with rigorous and unlooked for restrictions. Their trade
+with the colonies of other powers, as well as with those of England,
+was prohibited; and in all the ports of Europe they encountered
+regulations which were extremely embarrassing. From the Mediterranean,
+they were excluded by the Barbary powers, whose hostility they had no
+force to subdue, and whose friendship they had no money to purchase.
+Thus, the characteristic enterprise of their merchants, which, in
+better times, has displayed their flag in every ocean, was then in a
+great measure restrained from exerting itself by the scantiness of
+their means. These commercial difficulties suggested the idea of
+compelling Great Britain to relax the rigour of her system, by
+opposing it with regulations equally restrictive; but to render
+success in such a conflict possible, it was necessary that the whole
+power of regulating commerce should reside in a single legislature.
+Few were so sanguine as to hope that thirteen independent governments,
+jealous of each other, could be induced to concur for a length of
+time, in measures capable of producing the desired effect. With many,
+therefore, the desire of counteracting a system which appeared to them
+so injurious, triumphed over their attachment to state sovereignty;
+and the converts to the opinion that congress ought to be empowered to
+regulate trade, were daily multiplied. Meanwhile, the United States
+were unremitting in their endeavours to form commercial treaties in
+Europe. Three commissioners had been appointed for that purpose; and
+at length, as the trade with England was peculiarly important, and the
+growing misunderstandings between the two countries threatened serious
+consequences should their adjustment be much longer delayed, Mr. John
+Adams was appointed minister plenipotentiary to the court of St.
+James. His endeavours to form a commercial treaty were not successful.
+His overtures were declined by the cabinet of London, because the
+government of the United States was unable to secure the observance of
+any general commercial regulations; and it was deemed unwise to enter
+into stipulations which could not be of reciprocal obligation. In
+fact, it is not probable that, had even this difficulty been
+surmounted, Britain could have been induced to grant advantages that
+would have been satisfactory to America. The latter expected great
+relaxations of the navigation act, and a free admission into the
+colonies of the former; and believed its commerce of sufficient
+importance to obtain these objects, if it could be regulated by a
+single legislature. The reflecting part of America did not require
+this additional evidence of the sacrifice which had been made of
+national interest on the altars of state jealousy, to demonstrate the
+defectiveness of the existing system. On the mind of no person had
+this impression been more strongly made, than on that of General
+Washington. His extensive correspondence bears ample testimony to the
+solicitude with which he contemplated the proceedings of the states on
+this interesting subject.
+
+The opinion he sought to inculcate was, that the trade between the
+United States and Great Britain was equally important to each; and
+therefore, that a commercial intercourse between the two nations might
+be established on equal terms, if the political arrangements in
+America would enable its government to guard its interests; but
+without such arrangements, those interests could not be protected, and
+America must appear in a very contemptible point of view to those with
+whom she was endeavouring to form commercial treaties, without
+possessing the means of carrying them into effect:--who "must see and
+feel that the union, or the states individually are sovereign as best
+suits their purposes:--in a word, that we are one nation to day, and
+thirteen to-morrow. Who," he added, "will treat with us on such
+terms?"
+
+About this time, General Washington received a long and affectionate
+letter from the Marquis de Lafayette, who had just returned from a
+tour through the north of Europe. In communicating the occurrences at
+the courts he had visited, and especially at that of Prussia, whose
+aged and distinguished monarch, uniting the acquirements of the
+scholar and the statesman with the most profound skill in the art of
+war, could confer either literary or military fame, he dwelt with
+enthusiasm on the plaudits which were universally bestowed on his
+military patron and paternal friend. "I wish," he added, "the other
+sentiments I have had occasion to discover with respect to America,
+were equally satisfactory with those that are personal to yourself. I
+need not say that the spirit, the firmness, with which the revolution
+was conducted, has excited universal admiration:--That every friend to
+the rights of mankind is an enthusiast for the principles on which
+those constitutions are built:--but I have often had the mortification
+to hear, that the want of powers in congress, of union between the
+states, of energy in their government, would make the confederation
+very insignificant. By their conduct in the revolution," he added,
+"the citizens of America have commanded the respect of the world; but
+it grieves me to think they will in a measure lose it, unless they
+strengthen the confederation, give congress power to regulate their
+trade, pay off their debt, or at least the interest of it, establish a
+well regulated militia, and, in a word, complete all those measures
+which you have recommended to them."
+
+"Unhappily for us," said the general in reply, "though the reports you
+mention are greatly exaggerated, our conduct has laid the foundation
+for them. It is one of the evils of democratic governments, that the
+people, not always seeing, and frequently misled, must often feel
+before they act right. But evils of this nature seldom fail to work
+their own cure. It is to be lamented, nevertheless, that the remedies
+are so slow, and that those who wish to apply them seasonably, are not
+attended to before they suffer in person, in interest, and in
+reputation. I am not without hopes that matters will soon take a
+favourable turn in the federal constitution. The discerning part of
+the community have long since seen the necessity of giving adequate
+powers to congress for national purposes, and those of a different
+description must yield to it ere long."
+
+[Sidenote: Discontents of the Americans against the commercial
+regulations of Britain.]
+
+While the recommendation of the 30th of April, 1784, was before the
+states, many causes contributed to diffuse through the community such
+a general dissatisfaction with the existing state of things, as to
+prepare the way for some essential change in the American system. In
+the course of the long war which had been carried on in the bosom of
+their country, the people of the United States had been greatly
+impoverished. Their property had been seized for the support of both
+armies; and much of their labour had been drawn from agriculture for
+the performance of military service. The naval power of their enemy
+had almost annihilated their commerce; from which resulted the
+two-fold calamity, that imported commodities were enhanced to an
+enormous price, while those for exportation were reduced much below
+their ordinary value. The inevitable consequence was, that those
+consumable articles which habit had rendered necessary, were
+exhausted; and peace found the American people, not only destitute of
+the elegancies, and even of the conveniences of life, but also without
+the means of procuring them, otherwise than by anticipating the
+proceeds of future industry. On opening their ports, an immense
+quantity of foreign merchandise was introduced into the country, and
+they were tempted by the sudden cheapness of imported goods, and by
+their own wants, to purchase beyond their capacities for payment. Into
+this indiscretion, they were in some measure beguiled by their own
+sanguine calculations on the value which a free trade would bestow on
+the produce of their soil, and by a reliance on those evidences of the
+public debt which were in the hands of most of them. So extravagantly
+too did many estimate the temptation which equal liberty and vacant
+lands would hold out to emigrants from the old world, as to entertain
+the opinion that Europe was about to empty itself into America, and
+that the United States would derive from that source such an increase
+of population, as would enhance their lands to a price heretofore not
+even conjectured. Co-operating with the cause last mentioned, was the
+impression which had been made by paper money on public morals, and on
+public opinion. It had not escaped observation that every purchaser on
+credit, however excessive the price might apparently be, had not only
+been relieved by the depreciation, but had derived great gains from
+his contract. Speculating on a similar course of things, many
+individuals had made extensive purchases at high prices; and had thus
+contributed to continue for a time, the deception imposed on
+themselves by those who supposed that the revolution was a talisman,
+whose magic powers were capable of changing the nature of things. The
+delusive hopes created by these visionary calculations were soon
+dissipated, and a great proportion of the inhabitants found themselves
+involved in debts they were unable to discharge. One of the
+consequences resulting from this unprosperous state of things was a
+general discontent with the course of trade. It had commenced with the
+native merchants of the north, who found themselves incapable of
+contending in their own ports with foreigners; and was soon
+communicated to others. The gazettes of Boston contained some very
+animated and angry addresses, which produced resolutions for the
+government of the citizens of that town, applications to their state
+legislature, a petition to congress, and a circular letter to the
+merchants of the several sea-ports throughout the United States. After
+detailing the disadvantages under which the trade and navigation of
+America laboured, and expressing their confidence that the necessary
+powers to the federal government would be soon, if not already,
+delegated, the petition to congress thus concludes: "Impressed with
+these ideas, your petitioners beg leave to request of the very august
+body which they have now the honour to address, that the numerous
+impositions of the British, on the trade and exports of these states,
+may be forthwith contravened by similar expedients on our part: else
+may it please your excellency and honours, the commerce of this
+country, and of consequence its wealth, and perhaps the union itself,
+may become victims to the artifice of a nation whose arms have been in
+vain exerted to accomplish the ruin of America."
+
+The merchants of the city of Philadelphia presented a memorial to the
+legislature of that state, in which, after lamenting it as a
+fundamental defect in the constitution that full and entire power over
+the commerce of the United States had not been originally vested in
+congress, "as no concern common to many could be conducted to a good
+end, but by a unity of councils;" they say, "hence it is that the
+intercourses of the states are liable to be perplexed and injured by
+various and discordant regulations, instead of that harmony of
+measures on which the particular, as well as general interests depend;
+productive of mutual disgusts, and alienation among the several
+members of the empire.
+
+"But the more certain inconveniences foreseen and now experimentally
+felt, flow from the unequal footing this circumstance puts us on with
+other nations, and by which we stand in a very singular and
+disadvantageous situation; for while the whole of our trade is laid
+open to these nations, they are at liberty to limit us to such
+branches of theirs as interest or policy may dictate:--unrestrained by
+any apprehensions, as long as the power remains severally with the
+states, of being met and opposed by any consistent and effectual
+restrictions on our part."
+
+This memorial prayed that the legislature would endeavour to procure
+from congress, a recommendation to the several states, to vest in that
+body the necessary powers over the commerce of the United States.
+
+It was immediately taken into consideration, and resolutions were
+passed conforming to its prayer. Similar applications were made by
+other commercial towns.
+
+From these proceedings, and from the general representations made by
+the American merchants, General Washington had augured the most happy
+effects.
+
+In a letter to the Marquis de Lafayette, he thus expressed his hope of
+the consequences which would attend the efforts then making to enlarge
+the powers of congress. "However unimportant America may be considered
+at present, and however Britain may affect to despise her trade, there
+will assuredly come a day when this country will have some weight in
+the scale of empires."
+
+But a concurrence of the states in granting to the general government
+the beneficial powers in question, was not so near being effected as
+was hoped by its friends. A resolution was moved in congress,
+recommending it to the several states to vest in that body full
+authority to regulate their commerce, both external and internal, and
+to impose such duties as might be necessary for that purpose. This
+power was to be fettered with several extraordinary limitations, which
+might render it more acceptable to the governments who were asked to
+bestow it, among which was a provision that the duties should be
+"collectible under the authority, and accrue to the use of the state
+in which the same should be made payable." Notwithstanding these
+restrictions, marking the keen sighted jealousy with which any
+diminution of state sovereignty was watched, this resolution
+encountered much opposition even in congress.
+
+During these transactions, the public attention was called to another
+subject which served to impress still more powerfully on every
+reflecting mind, the necessity of enlarging the powers of the general
+government, were it only to give efficacy to those which in theory it
+already possessed.
+
+The uneasiness occasioned by the infractions of the treaty of peace on
+the part of Great Britain, has been already noticed. To obtain its
+complete execution, constituted one of the objects for which Mr. Adams
+had been deputed to the court of St. James. A memorial presented by
+that minister in December, 1785, urging the complaints of America, and
+pressing for a full compliance with the treaty, was answered by an
+enumeration of the violations of that compact on the part of the
+United States. The Marquis of Carmarthen acknowledged explicitly the
+obligation created by the seventh article to withdraw the British
+garrisons from every post within the United States; but insisted that
+the obligation created by the fourth article, to remove every lawful
+impediment to the recovery of _bona fide_ debts, was equally clear and
+explicit.
+
+"The engagements entered into by a treaty ought," he said, "to be
+mutual, and equally binding on the respective contracting parties. It
+would, therefore, be the height of folly as well as injustice, to
+suppose one party alone obliged to a strict observance of the public
+faith, while the other might remain free to deviate from its own
+engagements as often as convenience might render such deviation
+necessary, though at the expense of its own credit and importance."
+
+He concluded with the assurance, "that whenever America should
+manifest a real determination to fulfil her part of the treaty, Great
+Britain would not hesitate to prove her sincerity to co-operate in
+whatever points depended upon her, for carrying every article of it
+into real and complete effect."
+
+This letter was accompanied by a statement of the infractions of the
+fourth article.
+
+Copies of both documents were immediately transmitted by Mr. Adams to
+congress, by whom they were referred to Mr. Jay, the secretary for
+foreign affairs. The report of that upright minister did not, by
+contravening facts, affect to exculpate his country. "Some of the
+facts," said he in a letter to General Washington, written after
+permission to communicate the papers had been given, "are inaccurately
+stated and improperly coloured; but it is too true that the treaty has
+been violated. On such occasions, I think it better fairly to confess
+and correct errors, than attempt to deceive ourselves and others, by
+fallacious though plausible palliations and excuses.
+
+"To oppose popular prejudices, to censure the proceedings and expose
+the impropriety of states, is an unpleasant task, but it must be
+done."[29]
+
+     [Footnote 29: The facts relative to this negotiation were
+     stated in the correspondence of General Washington. The
+     statement is supported by the Secret Journals of Congress,
+     vol. 4, p. 329, and those which follow.]
+
+That the United States might with reason be required to fulfil the
+treaty before they could entitle themselves to demand a strict
+performance of it on the part of Great Britain, was a position the
+propriety of which they were prevented from contesting by the
+miserably defective organization of the government. If their treaties
+were obligatory in theory, the inability of congress to enforce their
+execution had been demonstrated in practice. Restrained by this defect
+in the constitution from insisting that the evacuation of the western
+posts should precede the removal of the impediments to the _bona fide_
+execution of the treaty on the part of America, government exerted its
+earnest endeavours to prevail on the several states to repeal all
+existing laws which might be repugnant to that compact. The
+resolutions which were passed on that subject, and the circular
+letters which accompanied them to the several governors, contain
+arguments which ought to have demonstrated to all, the constitutional
+obligation of a treaty negotiated under the authority of congress, and
+the real policy, as well as the moral duty of faithfully executing
+that which had been formed with Great Britain. To the deep
+mortification of those who respected the character of the nation,
+these earnest representations did not produce the effect which was
+expected from them. "It was impolitic and unfortunate, if not unjust
+in these states," said General Washington to a member of congress by
+whom the objectionable conduct of America was first intimated to him,
+"to pass laws which by fair construction might be considered as
+infractions of the treaty of peace. It is good policy at all times to
+place one's adversary in the wrong. Had we observed good faith, and
+the western posts had been withheld from us by Great Britain, we might
+have appealed to God and man for justice."
+
+"What a misfortune it is," said he in reply to the secretary for
+foreign affairs, "that the British should have so well grounded a
+pretext for their palpable infractions, and what a disgraceful part,
+out of the choice of difficulties before us, are we to act!"
+
+[Sidenote: Rise of parties in the United States.]
+
+The discontents arising from the embarrassments in which individuals
+were involved, continued to increase. At length, two great parties
+were formed in every state, which were distinctly marked, and which
+pursued distinct objects, with systematic arrangement.
+
+The one struggled with unabated zeal for the exact observance of
+public and private engagements. By those belonging to it, the faith of
+a nation, or of a private man was deemed a sacred pledge, the
+violation of which was equally forbidden by the principles of moral
+justice, and of sound policy. The distresses of individuals were, they
+thought, to be alleviated only by industry and frugality, not by a
+relaxation of the laws, or by a sacrifice of the rights of others.
+They were consequently the uniform friends of a regular administration
+of justice, and of a vigorous course of taxation which would enable
+the state to comply with its engagements. By a natural association of
+ideas, they were also, with very few exceptions, in favour of
+enlarging the powers of the federal government, and of enabling it to
+protect the dignity and character of the nation abroad, and its
+interests at home.
+
+The other party marked out for themselves a more indulgent course.
+Viewing with extreme tenderness the case of the debtor, their efforts
+were unceasingly directed to his relief. To exact a faithful
+compliance with contracts was, in their opinion, a harsh measure which
+the people would not bear. They were uniformly in favour of relaxing
+the administration of justice, of affording facilities for the payment
+of debts, or of suspending their collection, and of remitting taxes.
+The same course of opinion led them to resist every attempt to
+transfer from their own hands into those of congress, powers, which by
+others were deemed essential to the preservation of the union. In many
+of these states, the party last mentioned, constituted a decided
+majority of the people; and in all of them, it was very powerful. The
+emission of paper money, the delay of legal proceedings, and the
+suspension of the collection of taxes, were the fruits of their rule
+wherever they were completely predominant. Even where they failed to
+carry their measures, their strength was such as to encourage the hope
+of succeeding in a future attempt; and annual elections held forth to
+them the prospect of speedily repairing the loss of a favourite
+question. Throughout the union, the contest between these parties was
+periodically revived; and the public mind was perpetually agitated
+with hopes and fears on subjects which essentially affected the
+fortunes of a considerable proportion of the society.
+
+These contests were the more animated, because, in the state
+governments generally, no principle had been introduced which could
+resist the wild projects of the moment, give the people an opportunity
+to reflect, and allow the good sense of the nation time for exertion.
+This uncertainty with respect to measures of great importance to every
+member of the community, this instability in principles which ought,
+if possible, to be rendered immutable, produced a long train of ills;
+and is seriously believed to have been among the operating causes of
+those pecuniary embarrassments, which, at that time, were so general
+as to influence the legislation of almost every state in the union.
+Its direct consequence was the loss of confidence in the government,
+and in individuals. This, so far as respected the government, was
+peculiarly discernible in the value of state debts.
+
+The war having been conducted by nations in many respects independent
+of each other, the debts contracted in its prosecution were due, in
+part from the United States, and in part from the individual states
+who became immediately responsible to the creditors, retaining their
+claim against the government of the union for any balances which might
+appear to be due on a general settlement of accounts.
+
+That the debt of the United States should have greatly depreciated
+will excite no surprise, when it is recollected that the government of
+the union possessed no funds, and, without the assent of jealous and
+independent sovereigns, could acquire none, to pay the accruing
+interest: but the depreciation of the debt due from those states which
+made an annual and adequate provision for the interest, can be
+ascribed only to a want of confidence in governments which were
+controlled by no fixed principles; and it is therefore not entirely
+unworthy of attention. In many of those states which had repelled
+every attempt to introduce into circulation a depreciated medium of
+commerce, or to defeat the annual provision of funds for the payment
+of the interest, the debt sunk in value to ten, five, and even less
+than four shillings in the pound. However unexceptionable might be the
+conduct of the existing legislature, the hazard from those which were
+to follow was too great to be encountered without an immense premium.
+In private transactions, an astonishing degree of distrust also
+prevailed. The bonds of men whose ability to pay their debts was
+unquestionable, could not be negotiated but at a discount of thirty,
+forty, and fifty _per centum_: real property was scarcely vendible;
+and sales of any article for ready money could be made only at a
+ruinous loss. The prospect of extricating the country from these
+embarrassments was by no means flattering. Whilst every thing else
+fluctuated, some of the causes which produced this calamitous state of
+things were permanent. The hope and fear still remained, that the
+debtor party would obtain the victory at the elections; and instead of
+making the painful effort to obtain relief by industry and economy,
+many rested all their hopes on legislative interference. The mass of
+national labour, and of national wealth, was consequently diminished.
+In every quarter were found those who asserted it to be impossible for
+the people to pay their public or private debts; and in some
+instances, threats were uttered of suspending the administration of
+justice by violence.
+
+By the enlightened friends of republican government, this gloomy state
+of things was viewed with deep chagrin. Many became apprehensive that
+those plans from which so much happiness to the human race had been
+anticipated, would produce only real misery; and would maintain but a
+short and a turbulent existence. Meanwhile, the wise and thinking part
+of the community, who could trace evils to their source, laboured
+unceasingly to inculcate opinions favourable to the incorporation of
+some principles into the political system, which might correct the
+obvious vices, without endangering the free spirit of the existing
+institutions.
+
+While the advocates for union were exerting themselves to impress its
+necessity on the public mind, measures were taken in Virginia, which,
+though originating in different views, terminated in a proposition for
+a general convention to revise the state of the union.
+
+To form a compact relative to the navigation of the rivers Potomac and
+Pocomoke, and of part of the bay of Chesapeake, commissioners were
+appointed by the legislatures of Virginia and Maryland, who assembled
+in Alexandria, in March, 1785. While at Mount Vernon on a visit, they
+agreed to propose to their respective governments, the appointment of
+other commissioners, with power to make conjoint arrangements, to
+which the assent of congress was to be solicited, for maintaining a
+naval force in the Chesapeake; and to establish a tariff of duties on
+imports, to which the laws of both states should conform. When these
+propositions received the assent of the legislature of Virginia, an
+additional resolution was passed, directing that which respected the
+duties on imports to be communicated to all the states in the union,
+who were invited to send deputies to the meeting.
+
+On the 21st of January, 1786, a few days after the passage of these
+resolutions, another was adopted appointing certain commissioners,[30]
+"who were to meet such as might be appointed by the other states in
+the union, at a time and place to be agreed on, to take into
+consideration the trade of the United States; to examine the relative
+situation and trade of the said states; to consider how far a uniform
+system in their commercial relations may be necessary to their common
+interest, and their permanent harmony; and to report to the several
+states such an act relative to this great object, as, when unanimously
+ratified by them, will enable the United States in congress assembled
+effectually to provide for the same."
+
+     [Footnote 30: Edmund Randolph, James Madison, Walter Jones,
+     St. George Tucker, and Meriwether Smith.]
+
+In the circular letter transmitting these resolutions to the
+respective states, Annapolis in Maryland was proposed as the place,
+and the ensuing September as the time of meeting.
+
+Before the arrival of the period at which these commissioners were to
+assemble, the idea was carried by those who saw and deplored the
+complicated calamities which flowed from the intricacy of the general
+government, much further than was avowed by the resolution of
+Virginia. "Although," said one of the most conspicuous patriots[31] of
+the revolution, in a letter to General Washington, dated the 16th of
+March, 1786, "you have wisely retired from public employments, and
+calmly view from the temple of fame, the various exertions of that
+sovereignty and independence which Providence has enabled you to be so
+greatly and gloriously instrumental in securing to your country, yet I
+am persuaded you can not view them with the eye of an unconcerned
+spectator.
+
+     [Footnote 31: Mr. Jay.]
+
+"Experience has pointed out errors in our national government which
+call for correction, and which threaten to blast the fruit we expected
+from our tree of liberty. The convention proposed by Virginia may do
+some good, and would perhaps do more, if it comprehended more objects.
+An opinion begins to prevail that a general convention for revising
+the articles of confederation would be expedient. Whether the people
+are yet ripe for such a measure, or whether the system proposed to be
+attained by it is only to be expected from calamity and commotion, is
+difficult to ascertain.
+
+"I think we are in a delicate situation, and a variety of
+considerations and circumstances give me uneasiness. It is in
+contemplation to take measures for forming a general convention. The
+plan is not matured. If it should be well connected and take effect, I
+am fervent in my wishes that it may comport with the line of life you
+have marked out for yourself, to favour your country with your
+counsels on such an important and _single_ occasion. I suggest this
+merely as a hint for consideration."
+
+In the moment of tranquillity, and of real or imaginary security, the
+mind delights to retrace the intricate path by which this point of
+repose has been attained. The patriots who accomplished that great
+revolution which has given to the American people a national
+government capable of maintaining the union of the states, and of
+preserving republican liberty, must be gratified with the review of
+that arduous and doubtful struggle, which terminated in the triumph of
+human reason, and the establishment of that government. Even to him
+who was not an actor in the busy scene, who enjoys the fruits of the
+labour without participating in the toils or the fears of the patriots
+who have preceded him, the sentiments entertained by the most
+enlightened and virtuous of America at the eventful period between the
+restoration of peace and the adoption of our present free and
+effective constitution, can not be uninteresting.
+
+"Our affairs," said the same gentleman in a letter of the 27th of
+June, "seem to lead to some crisis, some revolution--something that I
+can not foresee or conjecture. I am uneasy and apprehensive, more so
+than during the war. _Then_, we had a fixed object, and though the
+means and time of obtaining it were often problematical, yet I did
+firmly believe that we should ultimately succeed, because I did firmly
+believe that justice was with us. The case is now altered; we are
+going, and doing wrong, and therefore I look forward to evils and
+calamities, but without being able to guess at the instrument, nature,
+or measure of them.
+
+"That we shall again recover, and things again go well, I have no
+doubt. Such a variety of circumstances would not, almost miraculously,
+have combined to liberate and make us a nation, for transient and
+unimportant purposes. I therefore believe we are yet to become a great
+and respectable people--but when or how, only the spirit of prophecy
+can discern.
+
+"There doubtless is much reason to think and to say that we are
+wofully, and, in many instances, wickedly misled. Private rage for
+property suppresses public considerations, and personal rather than
+national interests have become the great objects of attention.
+Representative bodies will ever be faithful copies of their originals,
+and generally exhibit a chequered assemblage of virtue and vice, of
+abilities and weakness. The mass of men are neither wise nor good, and
+the virtue, like the other resources of a country, can only be drawn
+to a point by strong circumstances, ably managed, or strong
+governments, ably administered. New governments have not the aid of
+habit and hereditary respect, and being generally the result of
+preceding tumult and confusion, do not immediately acquire stability
+or strength. Besides, in times of commotion, some men will gain
+confidence and importance who merit neither; and who, like political
+mountebanks, are less solicitous about the health of the credulous
+crowd, than about making the most of their nostrums and prescriptions.
+
+"What I most fear is, that the better kind of people (by which I mean
+the people who are orderly and industrious, who are content with their
+situations, and not uneasy in their circumstances) will be led by the
+insecurity of property, the loss of confidence in their rulers, and
+the want of public faith and rectitude, to consider the charms of
+liberty as imaginary and delusive. A state of uncertainty and
+fluctuation must disgust and alarm such men, and prepare their minds
+for almost any change that may promise them quiet and security."
+
+To this interesting letter, General Washington made the following
+reply: "Your sentiments that our affairs are drawing rapidly to a
+crisis, accord with my own. What the event will be is also beyond the
+reach of my foresight. We have errors to correct; we have probably had
+too good an opinion of human nature in forming our confederation.
+Experience has taught us that men will not adopt and carry into
+execution measures the best calculated for their own good, without the
+intervention of coercive power. I do not conceive we can exist long as
+a nation, without lodging somewhere a power which will pervade the
+whole union in as energetic a manner, as the authority of the state
+governments extends over the several states. To be fearful of
+investing congress, constituted as that body is, with ample
+authorities for national purposes, appears to me the very climax of
+popular absurdity and madness. Could congress exert them for the
+detriment of the people, without injuring themselves in an equal or
+greater proportion? Are not their interests inseparably connected with
+those of their constituents? By the rotation of appointment, must they
+not mingle frequently with the mass of citizens? Is it not rather to
+be apprehended, if they were possessed of the powers before described,
+that the individual members would be induced to use them, on many
+occasions, very timidly and inefficaciously, for fear of losing their
+popularity and future election? We must take human nature as we find
+it: perfection falls not to the share of mortals. Many are of opinion
+that congress have too frequently made use of the suppliant humble
+tone of requisition in applications to the states, when they had a
+right to assert their imperial dignity, and command obedience. Be that
+as it may, requisitions are a perfect nullity, where thirteen
+sovereign, independent, disunited states, are in the habit of
+discussing, and refusing or complying with them at their option.
+Requisitions are actually little better than a jest and a bye-word
+throughout the land. If you tell the legislatures they have violated
+the treaty of peace, and invaded the prerogatives of the confederacy,
+they will laugh in your face. What then is to be done? Things can not
+go on in the same train for ever. It is much to be feared, as you
+observe, that the better kind of people, being disgusted with these
+circumstances, will have their minds prepared for any revolution
+whatever. We are apt to run from one extreme into another. To
+anticipate and prevent disastrous contingencies, would be the part of
+wisdom and patriotism.
+
+"What astonishing changes a few years are capable of producing! I am
+told that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical form of
+government without horror. From thinking, proceeds speaking, thence to
+acting is often but a single step. But how irrevocable and tremendous!
+what a triumph for our enemies to verify their predictions!--what a
+triumph for the advocates of despotism to find that we are incapable
+of governing ourselves, and that systems founded on the basis of equal
+liberty are merely ideal and fallacious! Would to God that wise
+measures may be taken in time to avert the consequences we have but
+too much reason to apprehend.
+
+"Retired as I am from the world, I frankly acknowledge I can not feel
+myself an unconcerned spectator. Yet having happily assisted in
+bringing the ship into port, and having been fairly discharged, it is
+not my business to embark again on a sea of troubles.
+
+"Nor could it be expected that my sentiments and opinions would have
+much weight on the minds of my countrymen.--They have been neglected,
+though given as a last legacy in the most solemn manner.--I had then
+perhaps some claims to public attention.--I consider myself as having
+none at present."
+
+[Sidenote: The convention at Annapolis.]
+
+The convention at Annapolis was attended by commissioners from only
+six states.[32] These, after appointing Mr. Dickinson their chairman,
+proceeded to discuss the objects for which they had convened.
+Perceiving that more ample powers would be required to effect the
+beneficial purposes which they contemplated, and hoping to procure a
+representation from a greater number of states, the convention
+determined to rise without coming to any specific resolutions on the
+particular subject which had been referred to them. Previous to their
+adjournment, however, they agreed on a report to be made to their
+respective states, in which they represented the necessity of
+extending the revision of the federal system to all its defects, and
+recommended that deputies for that purpose be appointed by the several
+legislatures, to meet in convention in the city of Philadelphia, on
+the second day of the ensuing May.
+
+     [Footnote 32: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware,
+     Maryland, and Virginia.]
+
+The reasons for preferring a convention to a discussion of this
+subject in congress were stated to be, "that in the latter body, it
+might be too much interrupted by the ordinary business before them,
+and would, besides, be deprived of the valuable counsels of sundry
+individuals who were disqualified by the constitution or laws of
+particular states, or by peculiar circumstances, from a seat in that
+assembly."
+
+A copy of this report was transmitted to congress in a letter from the
+chairman, stating the inefficacy of the federal government, and the
+necessity of devising such further provisions as would render it
+adequate to the exigencies of the union.
+
+[Sidenote: Virginia appoints deputies to meet those of other states at
+Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the federal system.]
+
+On receiving this report, the legislature of Virginia passed an act
+for the appointment of deputies to meet such as might be appointed by
+other states; to assemble in convention at Philadelphia, at the time,
+and for the purposes, specified in the recommendation from the
+convention which had met at Annapolis.
+
+In communicating this act to General Washington, its principal
+advocate[33] thus intimated the intention of aiding it by the
+influence and character of the chief of the revolution. "It has been
+thought adviseable to give the subject a very solemn dress, and all
+the weight which could be derived from a single state. This idea will
+also be pursued in the selection of characters to represent Virginia
+in the federal convention. You will infer our earnestness on this
+point, from the liberty which will be used of placing your name at the
+head of them. How far this liberty may correspond with the ideas by
+which you ought to be governed, will be best decided where it must
+ultimately be decided. In every event it will assist powerfully in
+marking the zeal of our legislature, and its opinion of the magnitude
+of the occasion."
+
+     [Footnote 33: Mr. Madison.]
+
+"Although," said the general in reply, "I have bid a public adieu to
+the public walks of life, and had resolved never more to tread that
+theatre; yet, if upon an occasion so interesting to the well being of
+the confederacy, it had been the wish of the assembly that I should be
+an associate in the business of revising the federal system, I should
+from a sense of the obligation I am under for repeated proofs of
+confidence in me, more than from any opinion I could entertain of my
+usefulness, have obeyed its call; but it is now out of my power to do
+this with any degree of consistency--the cause I will mention.
+
+"I presume you heard, sir, that I was first appointed, and have since
+been rechosen president of the society of the Cincinnati; and you may
+have understood also, that the triennial general meeting of this body
+is to be held in Philadelphia the first Monday in May next. Some
+particular reasons combining with the peculiar situation of my private
+concerns, the necessity of paying attention to them, a wish for
+retirement and relaxation from public cares, and rheumatic pains which
+I begin to feel very sensibly, induced me, on the 31st ultimo, to
+address a circular letter to each state society, informing them of my
+intention not to be at the next meeting, and of my desire not to be
+rechosen president. The vice-president is also informed of this, that
+the business of the society may not be impeded by my absence. Under
+these circumstances, it will readily be perceived that I could not
+appear at the same time and place on any other occasion, without
+giving offence to a very respectable and deserving part of the
+community--the late officers of the American army."
+
+[Sidenote: Washington chosen one of them.]
+
+Notwithstanding this letter, the name of General Washington was not
+withdrawn, and he was unanimously chosen a member of the convention.
+On receiving private information of this appointment, he addressed a
+second letter to his confidential friend, in which he detailed more at
+large, the motives which induced him to decline a service, the
+importance of which he felt sensibly, and which he would willingly
+have undertaken but for the peculiar circumstances which were stated.
+
+His name, however, was continued in the appointment. The gloomy aspect
+of affairs in the north rendered this the more necessary, and it was
+thus explained by his correspondent. "I have considered well the
+circumstances which it (your letter) confidentially discloses, as well
+as those contained in your preceding favour. The difficulties which
+they oppose to an acceptance of the appointment in which you are
+included, can as little be denied, as they can fail to be regretted.
+But I still am inclined to think, that the posture of our affairs, if
+it should continue, would prevent any criticism on the situation which
+the contemporary meetings would place you in; and wish that at least a
+door could be kept open for your acceptance hereafter, in case the
+gathering clouds should become so dark and menacing as to supersede
+every consideration but that of our national existence or safety. A
+suspense of your ultimate determination would be nowise inconvenient
+in a public view, as the executive are authorized to fill vacancies,
+and can fill them at any time; and in any event, three out of seven
+deputies are authorized to represent the state. How far it may be
+admissible in another view, will depend perhaps in some measure on the
+chance of your finally undertaking the service, but principally on the
+correspondence which is now passing on the subject, between yourself
+and the governor."
+
+The governor of Virginia,[34] who was himself also elected to the
+convention, transmitted to General Washington the act, and the vote of
+the assembly in the following letter. "By the enclosed act you will
+readily discover that the assembly are alarmed at the storms which
+threaten the United States. What our enemies have foretold seems to be
+hastening to its accomplishment, and can not be frustrated but by an
+instantaneous, zealous, and steady union among the friends of the
+federal government. To you I need not press our present dangers. The
+inefficiency of congress you have often felt in your official
+character; the increasing languor of our associated republics you
+hourly see; and a dissolution would be, I know, to you, a source of
+the deepest mortification.
+
+     [Footnote 34: Mr. Randolph.]
+
+"I freely then entreat you to accept the unanimous appointment of the
+general assembly to the convention at Philadelphia. For the gloomy
+prospect still admits one ray of hope, that those who began, carried
+on, and consummated the revolution, can yet rescue America from the
+impending ruin."
+
+"Sensible as I am," said the general in reply, "of the honour
+conferred on me by the general assembly of this commonwealth, in
+appointing me one of the deputies to a convention proposed to be held
+in the city of Philadelphia in May next, for the purpose of revising
+the federal constitution; and desirous as I am on all occasions of
+testifying a ready obedience to the calls of my country--yet, sir,
+there exist at this moment, circumstances which I am persuaded will
+render this fresh instance of confidence incompatible with other
+measures which I had previously adopted, and from which seeing little
+prospect of disengaging myself, it would be disingenuous not to
+express a wish that some other character, on whom greater reliance can
+be had, may be substituted in my place, the probability of my
+non-attendance being too great to continue my appointment.
+
+"As no mind can be more deeply impressed than mine is with the
+critical situation of our affairs, resulting in a great measure from
+the want of efficient powers in the federal head, and due respect to
+its ordinances, so consequently those who do engage in the important
+business of removing these defects, will carry with them every good
+wish of mine, which the best dispositions towards their attainment can
+bestow."
+
+The executive, unwilling to relinquish the advantages which the
+legislature had expected to derive from exhibiting the name of
+Washington at the head of the Virginia delegation, refused to consider
+him as having declined the appointment. That his judgment had not
+completely decided on the course which duty and patriotism required
+him to pursue; that in a crisis on which probably depended the union
+of the states, and the happiness of America, he refused himself
+reluctantly to the anxious wishes of his countrymen; were too apparent
+not to leave a hope that events might yet determine him to yield to
+their desires. He was therefore emphatically requested not to decide
+absolutely, and was informed that as no inconvenience would result
+from not appointing a successor, the option of complying with the
+earnest solicitations of those who considered the effort about to be
+made as the last hope of the union, would, as long as possible, be
+permitted to remain with him. In the mean time, those who persuaded
+themselves that much good might result from the proposed convention,
+continued to urge him with delicacy but with earnestness, not to
+withhold on this great and particular occasion, those inestimable
+services which the confidence so justly reposed by the public in his
+talents and character, enabled him alone to render.
+
+Placed in these circumstances, General Washington weighed deliberately
+in his own mind the arguments for and against accepting the
+appointment which was so seriously pressed upon him. That the proposed
+convention was, in any point of view in which it could be
+contemplated, an object of the first magnitude, appeared to him to be
+undeniable. It was apparent that the actual government could not exist
+much longer without additional means. It was therefore necessary to
+meet the solemn question whether it ought to be supported or
+annihilated. Those who embraced the former part of the alternative
+must consider the convention as the only remaining experiment from
+which the federal government could derive powers sufficiently ample
+for its preservation. Those who embraced the latter, who thought that
+on a full and dispassionate revision of the system, its continuance
+would be adjudged impracticable or unwise, could not hesitate to admit
+that their opinion would derive great additional weight from the
+sanction of so respectable a body as that which was about to assemble:
+and that in such an event, it was greatly desirable, and would afford
+some security against civil discord, to put the public in possession
+of a plan prepared and digested by such high authority. "I must
+candidly confess," he added in a letter to Colonel Humphries, "as we
+could not remain quiet more than three or four years in time of peace,
+under the constitutions of our own choosing, which were believed in
+many states to have been formed with deliberation and wisdom, I see
+little prospect either of our agreeing on any other, or that we should
+remain long satisfied under it, if we could. Yet I would wish any
+thing and every thing essayed to prevent the effusion of blood, and to
+avert the humiliating and contemptible figure we are about to make in
+the annals of mankind!"
+
+Earnestly as General Washington wished success to the experiment about
+to be made, he could not surrender his objections to the step its
+friends urged him to take, without the most serious consideration. In
+addition to that which grew out of his connexion with the Cincinnati,
+and to the reluctance with which he could permit himself to be drawn,
+on any occasion, into a political station, there were others which
+could not be disregarded. A convention, not originating in a
+recommendation of congress, was deemed by many an illegitimate
+meeting; and as the New England states had neglected the invitation to
+appear by their representatives at Annapolis, there was reason to
+apprehend they might be equally inattentive to the request now made
+them to assemble at Philadelphia. To appear in a public character, for
+a purpose not generally deemed of the utmost importance, would not
+only be unpleasant to himself, but might diminish his capacity to be
+useful on occasions which subsequent events might produce. "If," said
+he in a private letter to a military friend, "this second attempt to
+convene the states for the purposes proposed by the report of the
+partial representation at Annapolis in September, should also prove
+abortive, it may be considered as unequivocal evidence that the states
+are not likely to agree on any general measure which is to pervade the
+union, and of course, that there is an end of the federal government.
+The states which make this last dying essay to avoid this misfortune
+would be mortified at the issue, and their deputies would return home
+chagrined at their ill success and disappointment. This would be a
+disagreeable circumstance to any one of them, but more particularly to
+a person in my situation." His letters of consultation therefore, with
+a few confidential friends, also requested information respecting
+those points on which his own judgment might ultimately be formed. He
+was particularly desirous of knowing how the proposition made by
+Virginia was received in the other states, and what measures were
+taken to contravene, or to give it effect. He inquired too with the
+utmost solicitude how the members of the Cincinnati would receive his
+appearance in convention, after declining to be rechosen the president
+of that society.
+
+The enlightened friends of the union and of republican government,
+generally regarded the convention as a measure which afforded the best
+chance for preserving liberty and internal peace. And those whose
+hopes predominated over their fears, were anxious to increase the
+probability of deriving from it every practicable good, by retaining
+on the list of its members, the most conspicuous name of which America
+could boast. But this opinion was not universal. Among those who felt
+the importance of the crisis, and who earnestly wished that a free
+government, competent to the preservation of the union, might be
+established, there were some who despaired of a favourable issue to
+the attempt, and who were therefore anxious to rescue their general
+from the increased mortification which would attend its failure,
+should he be personally engaged in it. They believed that all the
+states would not be represented in the convention. In a letter of the
+20th of January, 1787, Colonel Humphries, who was himself under this
+impression, thus accounts for the omission of the federal men in the
+assembly of Connecticut, to press the appointment of deputies. "The
+reason," he said, "was a conviction that the persons who could be
+elected were some of the best anti-federal men in the state, who
+believed, or acted as if they believed, that the powers of congress
+were already too unlimited, and who would wish, apparently, to see the
+union dissolved. These demagogues," continued the letter, "really
+affect to persuade the people (to use their own phraseology) that they
+are only in danger of having their liberties stolen away by an artful
+designing aristocracy. But should the convention be formed under the
+most favourable auspices, and should the members be unanimous in
+recommending, in the most forcible, the most glowing, and the most
+pathetic terms which language can afford, that it is indispensable to
+the salvation of the country, congress should be clothed with more
+ample powers, the states," he thought, "would not all comply with the
+recommendation. They have a mortal reluctance to divest themselves of
+the smallest attribute of independent separate sovereignties." After
+assigning many reasons against accepting the appointment, this
+gentleman added: "the result of the convention may not perhaps be so
+important as is expected, in which case your character would be
+materially affected. Other people can work up the present scene. I
+know your personal influence and character is justly considered the
+last stake which America has to play. Should you not reserve yourself
+for the united call of a continent entire?
+
+"If you should attend on this convention, and concur in recommending
+measures which should be generally adopted, but opposed in some parts
+of the union, it would doubtless be understood that you had in a
+degree pledged yourself for their execution. This would at once sweep
+you back inevitably into the tide of public affairs."
+
+The same opinion was also intimated by another military friend[35] who
+had always possessed a large portion of the esteem and affection of
+his general. After stating the various and contradictory plans of
+government which were suggested by the schemers of the day, he added:
+"you will see by this sketch, my dear sir, how various are the
+opinions of men, and how difficult it will be to bring them to concur
+in any effective government. I am persuaded, if you were determined to
+attend the convention, and it should be generally known, it would
+induce the eastern states to send delegates to it. I should therefore
+be much obliged for information of your decision on this subject. At
+the same time, the principles of the purest and most respectful
+friendship induce me to say, that however strongly I wish for measures
+which would lead to national happiness and glory, yet I do not wish
+you to be concerned in any political operations, of which there are
+such various opinions. There may indeed arise some solemn occasion, in
+which you may conceive it to be your duty again to exert your utmost
+talents to promote the happiness of your country. But this occasion
+must be of an unequivocal nature, in which the enlightened and
+virtuous citizens should generally concur."
+
+     [Footnote 35: General Knox.]
+
+While the confidential friends of General Washington were thus divided
+on the part which it behoved him to act, there was much reason to fear
+that a full representation of the states would not be obtained. Among
+those who were disinclined to a convention, were persons who were
+actuated by different, and even by opposite motives. There were
+probably some who believed that a higher toned[36] government than was
+compatible with the opinions generally prevailing among the friends of
+order, of real liberty, and of national character, was essential to
+the public safety. They believed that men would be conducted to that
+point only through the road of misery into which their follies would
+lead them, and that "times must be worse before they could be better."
+Many had sketched in their own minds a plan of government strongly
+resembling that which had been actually adopted, but despaired of
+seeing so rational a system accepted, or even recommended; "some
+gentlemen," said the correspondent last mentioned, "are apprehensive
+that a convention of the nature proposed to meet in May next, might
+devise some expedient to brace up the present defective confederation,
+so as just to serve to keep us together, while it would prevent those
+exertions for a national character which are essential to our
+happiness: that in this point of view it might be attended with the
+bad effect of assisting us to creep on in our present miserable
+condition, without a hope of a generous constitution, that should, at
+the same time, shield us from the effects of faction, and of
+despotism."[37] Many discountenanced the convention, because the mode
+of calling it was deemed irregular, and some objected to it, because
+it was not so constituted as to give authority to the plan which
+should be devised. But the great mass of opposition originated in a
+devotion to state sovereignty, and in hostility to any considerable
+augmentation of federal power.
+
+     [Footnote 36: This sentiment was far from being avowed by
+     any correspondent of General Washington, but is stated in
+     the private letters to him, to have been taken up by some.]
+
+     [Footnote 37: In a subsequent part of the same letter, this
+     gentleman draws the outlines of a constitution such as he
+     would wish. It is essentially the same with that which was
+     recommended by the convention.]
+
+The ultimate decision of the states on this interesting proposition
+seems to have been in no inconsiderable degree influenced by the
+commotions which about that time agitated all New England, and
+particularly Massachusetts.
+
+[Sidenote: Insurrection in Massachusetts.]
+
+Those causes of discontent which existed, after the restoration of
+peace, in every part of the union, were particularly operative in New
+England. The great exertions which had been made by those states in
+the course of the war, had accumulated a mass of debt, the taxes for
+the payment of which were the more burdensome, because their fisheries
+had become unproductive. The restlessness produced by the uneasy
+situation of individuals, connected with lax notions concerning public
+and private faith, and erroneous opinions which confound liberty with
+an exemption from legal control, produced a state of things which
+alarmed all reflecting men, and demonstrated to many the indispensable
+necessity of clothing government with powers sufficiently ample for
+the protection of the rights of the peaceable and quiet, from the
+invasions of the licentious and turbulent part of the community.
+
+This disorderly spirit was cherished by unlicensed conventions, which,
+after voting their own constitutionality, and assuming the name of the
+people, arrayed themselves against the legislature, and detailed at
+great length the grievances by which they alleged themselves to be
+oppressed. Its hostility was principally directed against the
+compensation promised to the officers of the army, against taxes, and
+against the administration of justice: and the circulation of a
+depreciated currency was required, as a relief from the pressure of
+public and private burdens which had become, it was alleged, too heavy
+to be borne. Against lawyers and courts, the strongest resentments
+were manifested; and to such a dangerous extent were these
+dispositions indulged, that, in many instances, tumultuous assemblages
+of people arrested the course of law, and restrained the judges from
+proceeding in the execution of their duty. The ordinary recourse to
+the power of the country was found an insufficient protection, and the
+appeals made to reason were attended with no beneficial effect. The
+forbearance of the government was attributed to timidity rather than
+to moderation, and the spirit of insurrection appeared to be organized
+into a regular system for the suppression of courts.
+
+In the bosom of Washington, these tumults excited attention and alarm.
+"For God's sake tell me," said he in a letter to Colonel Humphries,
+"what is the cause of all these commotions? Do they proceed from
+licentiousness, British influence disseminated by the tories, or real
+grievances which admit of redress? if the latter, why was redress
+delayed until the public mind had become so much agitated? if the
+former, why are not the powers of government tried at once? It is as
+well to be without, as not to exercise them. Commotions of this sort,
+like snow-balls, gather strength as they roll, if there is no
+opposition in the way to divide and crumble them."
+
+"As to your question, my dear general," said Colonel Humphries in
+reply, "respecting the cause and origin of these commotions, I hardly
+find myself in condition to give a certain answer. If from all the
+information I have been able to obtain, I might be authorized to
+hazard an opinion, I should attribute them to all the three causes
+which you have suggested. In Massachusetts particularly, I believe
+there are a few real grievances; and also some wicked agents or
+emissaries who have been busy in magnifying the positive evils, and
+fomenting causeless jealousies and disturbances. But it rather appears
+to me, that there is a licentious spirit prevailing among many of the
+people; a levelling principle; a desire of change; and a wish to
+annihilate all debts, public and private." "It is indeed a fact," said
+General Knox, after returning from a visit to the eastern country,
+"that high taxes are the ostensible cause of the commotion, but that
+they are the real cause, is as far remote from truth, as light is from
+darkness. The people who are the insurgents have never paid any, or
+but very little taxes. But they see the weakness of government. They
+feel at once their own poverty compared with the opulent, and their
+own force; and they are determined to make use of the latter, in order
+to remedy the former. Their creed is, that the property of the United
+States has been protected from confiscation by the joint exertions of
+all, and therefore ought to be common to all. And he that attempts
+opposition to this creed is an enemy to equity and justice, and ought
+to be swept from the face of the earth."
+
+The force of this party throughout New England was computed by General
+Knox at twelve or fifteen thousand men. "They were chiefly," he said,
+"of the young and active part of the community, who were more easily
+collected than kept together. Desperate and unprincipled, they would
+probably commit overt acts of treason which would compel them, for
+their own safety, to embody and submit to discipline. Thus would there
+be a formidable rebellion against reason, the principle of all
+government, and the very name of liberty. This dreadful situation," he
+added, "has alarmed every man of principle and property in New
+England. They start as from a dream, and ask--what has been the cause
+of our delusion? What is to afford us security against the violence of
+lawless men? Our government must be braced, changed, or altered, to
+secure our lives and our property. We imagined that the mildness of
+the government, and the virtue of the people were so correspondent,
+that we were not as other nations, requiring brutal force to support
+the laws. But we find that we are men, actual men, possessing all the
+turbulent passions belonging to that animal; and that we must have a
+government proper and adequate for him. Men of reflection and
+principle are determined to endeavour to establish a government which
+shall have the power to protect them in their lawful pursuits, and
+which will be efficient in cases of internal commotions, or foreign
+invasions. They mean that liberty shall be the basis, a liberty
+resulting from the equal and firm administration of the laws."
+
+Deeply affected by these commotions, General Washington continued his
+anxious inquiries respecting the course they threatened to take. "I
+feel, my dear General Knox," said he, in answer to the letter from
+which the foregoing extracts are taken, "infinitely more than I can
+express to you, for the disorders which have arisen in these states.
+Good God! who besides a tory could have foreseen, or a Briton have
+predicted them? I do assure you that even at this moment, when I
+reflect upon the present aspect of our affairs, it seems to me like
+the visions of a dream. My mind can scarcely realize it as a thing in
+actual existence:--so strange, so wonderful does it appear to me. In
+this, as in most other matters, we are too slow. When this spirit
+first dawned, it might probably have been easily checked; but it is
+scarcely within the reach of human ken, at this moment, to say when,
+where, or how it will terminate. There are combustibles in every
+state, to which a spark might set fire.
+
+"In bewailing, which I have often done with the keenest sorrow, the
+death of our much lamented friend General Greene,[38] I have
+accompanied my regrets of late with a query, whether he would not have
+preferred such an exit to the scenes which it is more than probable,
+many of his compatriots may live to bemoan."
+
+     [Footnote 38: This valuable officer died in Georgia in the
+     year 1786.]
+
+Ostensibly, on account of the danger which threatened the frontiers,
+but, really, with a view to the situation of Massachusetts, congress
+had agreed to augment the military establishment to a legionary corps
+of two thousand and forty men, and had detached the secretary of war,
+General Knox, to that state, with directions to concert measures with
+its government for the safety of the arsenal at Springfield. So
+inauspicious was the aspect of affairs, as to inspire serious fears
+that the torch of civil discord, about to be lighted up in
+Massachusetts, would communicate its flame to all New England, and
+perhaps to the union. Colonel Lee, a member of congress, drew the
+following picture of the condition of the eastern country at that
+time. "General Knox has just returned, and his report, grounded on his
+own knowledge, is replete with melancholy information. A majority of
+the people of Massachusetts are in opposition to the government. Some
+of the leaders avow the subversion of it to be their object, together
+with the abolition of debts, the division of property, and a reunion
+with Great Britain. In all the eastern states, same temper prevails
+more or less, and will certainly break forth whenever the opportune
+moment may arrive. The malcontents are in close connexion with
+Vermont, and that district, it is believed, is in negotiation with the
+government of Canada. In one word, my dear general, we are all in dire
+apprehension that a beginning of anarchy with all its calamities is
+made, and we have no means to stop the dreadful work. Knowing your
+unbounded influence, and believing that your appearance among the
+seditious might bring them back to peace and reconciliation,
+individuals suggest the propriety of an invitation to you from
+congress to pay us a visit. This is only a surmise, and I take the
+liberty to mention it to you, that, should the conjuncture of affairs
+induce congress to make this request, you may have some previous time
+for reflection on it."
+
+"The picture which you have exhibited," replied the general, "and the
+accounts which are published of the commotions and temper of numerous
+bodies in the eastern country, present a state of things equally to be
+lamented and deprecated. They exhibit a melancholy verification of
+what our transatlantic foes have predicted; and of another thing
+perhaps which is still more to be regretted, and is yet more
+unaccountable--that mankind when left to themselves are unfit for
+their own government. I am mortified beyond expression when I view the
+clouds which have spread over the brightest morn that ever dawned upon
+any country. In a word, I am lost in amazement when I behold what
+intrigue, the interested views of desperate characters, ignorance and
+jealousy of the minor part, are capable of effecting as a scourge on
+the major part of our fellow citizens of the union; for it is hardly
+to be supposed that the great body of the people, though they will not
+act, can be so short sighted or enveloped in darkness, as not to see
+rays of a distant sun through all this mist of intoxication and folly.
+
+"You talk, my good sir, of employing influence to appease the present
+tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be
+found; nor if attainable, that it would be a proper remedy for these
+disorders. _Influence_ is not _government_. Let us have a
+_government_, by which our lives, liberties, and properties will be
+secured; or let us know the worst at once. Under these impressions, my
+humble opinion is, that there is a call for decision. Know precisely
+what the insurgents aim at. If they have _real_ grievances, redress
+them if possible; or acknowledge the justice of them, and your
+inability to do it in the present moment. If they have not, employ the
+force of the government against them at once. If this is inadequate,
+_all_ will be convinced that the superstructure is bad, or wants
+support. To be more exposed in the eyes of the world, and more
+contemptible than we already are, is hardly possible. To delay one or
+the other of these expedients, is to exasperate on the one hand, or to
+give confidence on the other, and will add to their numbers; for like
+snow-balls, such bodies increase by every movement, unless there is
+something in the way to obstruct and crumble them before their weight
+is too great and irresistible.
+
+"These are my sentiments. Precedents are dangerous things. Let the
+reins of government then be braced, and held with a steady hand; and
+every violation of the constitution be reprehended. If defective, let
+it be amended, but not suffered to be trampled upon while it has an
+existence."
+
+In a letter written about the same period, Colonel Humphries, after
+stating his apprehensions that the insurgents would seize the
+continental magazine at Springfield, proceeded to add: "a general
+failure to comply with the requisitions of congress for money, seems
+to prognosticate that we are rapidly advancing to a crisis. The wheels
+of the great political machine can scarcely continue to move much
+longer, under their present embarrassment. Congress, I am told, are
+seriously alarmed, and hardly know which way to turn, or what to
+expect. Indeed, my dear general, nothing but a good Providence can
+extricate us from our present difficulties, and prevent some terrible
+conclusion.
+
+"In case of civil discord I have already told you it was seriously my
+opinion that you could not remain neuter; and that you would be
+obliged in self defence, to take part on one side or the other, or
+withdraw from the continent. Your friends are of the same opinion; and
+I believe you are convinced that it is impossible to have more
+disinterested or zealous friends, than those who have been about your
+person."
+
+"It is," said the general in reply, "with the deepest and most
+heartfelt concern, I perceive by some late paragraphs extracted from
+the Boston papers, that the insurgents of Massachusetts, far from
+being satisfied with the redress offered by their general court, are
+still acting in open violation of law and government, and have obliged
+the chief magistrate, in a decided tone, to call upon the militia of
+the state to support the constitution. What, gracious God, is man!
+that there should be such inconsistency and perfidiousness in his
+conduct. It is but the other day that we were shedding our blood to
+obtain the constitutions under which we now live--constitutions of our
+own choice and making--and now, we are unsheathing the sword to
+overturn them. The thing is so unaccountable, that I hardly know how
+to realize it; or to persuade myself that I am not under the illusion
+of a dream.
+
+"My mind, previous to the receipt of your letter of the first ultimo,
+had often been agitated by a thought similar to the one you expressed
+respecting an old friend of yours: but heaven forbid that a crisis
+should come when he shall be driven to the necessity of making a
+choice of either of the alternatives there mentioned."
+
+Finding that the lenient measures which had been taken by the
+legislature to reclaim the insurgents, only enlarged their demands;
+and that they were proceeding systematically to organize a military
+force for the subversion of the constitution; Governor Bowdoin
+determined, with the advice of council, on a vigorous exertion of all
+the powers he possessed, for the protection and defence of the
+commonwealth. Upwards of four thousand militia were ordered into
+service, and were placed under the command of the veteran General
+Lincoln. "His military reputation," says Mr. Minot, "and mildness of
+temper, rendered him doubly capacitated for so delicate and important
+a trust." But the public treasury did not afford the means of keeping
+this force in the field a single week; and, the legislature not being
+in session, the government was incapable of putting the troops in
+motion. This difficulty was removed by individual patriotism. From the
+commencement of the commotions, the citizens of Boston had manifested,
+unequivocally, their fidelity to the constitution. On this occasion, a
+number of gentlemen, preceded by the governor, subscribed, in a few
+hours, a sufficient sum to carry on the proposed expedition.
+
+In the depth of winter, the troops from the eastern part of the state
+assembled near Boston, and marched towards the scene of action. Those
+from the western counties met in arms under General Shepard, and took
+possession of the arsenal at Springfield. Before the arrival of
+Lincoln, a party of the insurgents attempted to dislodge Shepard, but
+were repulsed with some loss. Not being pursued by that officer, who
+could not venture to weaken his post by detachments, they continued
+embodied, but did not venture again to undertake offensive operations.
+
+Urging his march with the utmost celerity, Lincoln soon came up; and,
+pressing the insurgent army, endeavoured, by a succession of rapid
+movements, in which the ardour of his troops triumphed over the
+severity of the season, to disperse, or to bring it to action. Their
+generals retreated from post to post with a rapidity which for some
+time eluded his designs; and, rejecting every proposition to lay down
+their arms, used all their address to produce a suspension of
+hostilities until an accommodation might be negotiated with the
+legislature. "Applications were also made," says General Lincoln, "by
+committees and select men of the several towns in the counties of
+Worcester and Hampshire, praying that the effusion of blood might be
+avoided, while the real design of these applications was supposed to
+be, to stay our operations until a new court should be elected. They
+had no doubt, if they could keep up their influence until another
+choice of the legislature and of the executive, that matters might be
+moulded in general court to their wishes. To avoid this, was the duty
+of government." In answer to these applications, Lincoln exhorted
+those towns who sincerely wished to put an end to the rebellion
+without the effusion of blood, "to recall their men now in arms, and
+to aid in apprehending all abettors of those who should persist in
+their treason, and all who should yield them any comfort or supplies."
+
+The army of government continued to brave the rigours of the climate,
+and to press the insurgents without intermission. At length, with the
+loss of a few killed, and several prisoners, the rebels were
+dispersed, their leaders driven out of the state, and this formidable
+and wicked rebellion was quelled.
+
+The same love of country which had supported the officers and soldiers
+of the late army through a perilous war, still glowed in their bosoms;
+and the patriot veterans of the revolution, uninfected by the wide
+spreading contagion of the times, arranged themselves almost
+universally under the banners of the constitution and of the laws.
+This circumstance lessened the prejudices which had been excited
+against them as creditors of the public, and diminished the odium
+which, in the eastern states, especially, had been directed against
+the order of the Cincinnati. But the most important effect of this
+unprovoked rebellion was, a deep conviction of the necessity of
+enlarging the powers of the general government; and the consequent
+direction of the public mind towards the convention which was to
+assemble at Philadelphia.
+
+In producing this effect, a resolution of congress had also
+considerable influence. New York had given her final _veto_ to the
+impost system, and in doing so, had virtually decreed the dissolution
+of the existing government. The confederation was apparently expiring
+from mere debility. The last hope of its friends having been
+destroyed, the vital necessity of some measure which might prevent the
+separation of the integral parts of which the American empire was
+composed, became apparent even to those who had been unwilling to
+perceive it; and congress was restrained from giving its sanction to
+the proposed convention, only by an apprehension that their taking an
+interest in the measure would impede rather than promote it. From this
+embarrassment, the members of that body were relieved by the
+legislature of New York. A vote of that state, which passed in the
+senate by a majority of only one voice, instructed its delegation to
+move in congress, a resolution, recommending to the several states, to
+appoint deputies to meet in convention, for the purpose of revising
+and proposing amendments to the federal constitution. On the 21st of
+February, 1787, the day succeeding the instructions given by New York,
+the subject, which had been for some time under consideration, was
+finally acted upon: and it was declared, "in the opinion of congress,
+to be expedient that, on the second Monday in May next, a convention
+of delegates, who shall have been appointed by the several states, be
+held at Philadelphia, for the sole and express purpose of revising the
+articles of confederation, and reporting to congress and the several
+legislatures, such alterations and provisions therein, as shall, when
+agreed to in congress, and confirmed by the states, render the federal
+constitution adequate to the exigencies of government, and the
+preservation of the union."
+
+This recommendation removed all objections to the regularity of the
+convention; and co-operated with the impressions made by the
+licentious and turbulent spirit which had lately endangered the peace
+and liberty of New England, to incline those states to favour the
+measure. By giving the proposed meeting a constitutional sanction, and
+by postponing it to a day subsequent to that on which the Cincinnati
+were to assemble, it also removed one impediment, and diminished
+another, to the attendance of General Washington as a member. He
+persuaded himself that by repairing to Philadelphia previous to the
+second Monday in May, in order to attend the general meeting of the
+Cincinnati, he should efface any impressions unfavourable to the
+attachment he felt to his military friends, which might otherwise be
+excited in their bosoms by his appearing in a public character, after
+declining the presidency of their society. The increasing probability
+that the convention would be attended by a full representation of the
+states, and would propose a scheme of government which, if accepted,
+might conduce to the public happiness, and would not be unworthy of
+his character, had also its influence on his mind. An opinion too
+began to prevail, that the government must be invigorated by agreement
+or by force, and that a part of the opposition to the convention
+originated in a desire to establish a system of greater energy than
+could spring from consent. The idea that his refusing his aid in the
+present crisis might be attributed to a dereliction of republican
+principles, furnished additional motives for yielding to the wishes of
+his fellow citizens. On the 28th of March, he addressed a letter to
+the governor of Virginia, in which, after stating the reasons which
+had induced him to decline attending the convention, the influence of
+which he still felt, he added--"However, as my friends, with a degree
+of solicitude which is unusual, seem to wish for my attendance on this
+occasion, I have come to a resolution to go if my health will permit,
+provided from the lapse of time between your excellency's letter and
+this reply, the executive may not (the reverse of which would be
+highly pleasing to me) have turned their thoughts to some other
+character."
+
+After communicating this determination to the executive of Virginia,
+he received a letter from the secretary of war, one of the small
+number of his friends who had endeavoured to dissuade him from the
+resolution he had ultimately taken, in which that officer avowed an
+entire change of opinion on this subject. "It is," said he, "the
+general wish that you should attend. It is conceived to be highly
+important to the success of the propositions which may be made by the
+convention.
+
+"The mass of the people feel the inconvenience of the present
+government, and ardently wish for such alterations as would remedy
+them. These must be effected by reason and by agreement, or by force.
+The convention appears to be the only mean by which to effect them
+peaceably. If it should not be attended by a proper weight of wisdom
+and character to carry into execution its propositions, we are to look
+to events, and to force, for a remedy. Were you not then to attend the
+convention, slander and malice might suggest that force would be the
+most agreeable mode of reform to you. When civil commotion rages, no
+purity of character, no services, however exalted, can afford a secure
+shield from the shafts of calumny.
+
+"On the other hand, the unbounded confidence the people have in your
+tried patriotism and wisdom, would exceedingly facilitate the adoption
+of any important alterations that might be proposed by a convention of
+which you were a member; and (as I before hinted) the president."
+
+[Sidenote: Convention at Philadelphia.]
+
+At the time and place appointed, the representatives of twelve states
+convened. In Rhode Island alone a spirit sufficiently hostile to every
+species of reform was found, to prevent the election of deputies on an
+occasion so generally deemed momentous. Having unanimously chosen
+General Washington for their president, the convention proceeded, with
+closed doors, to discuss the interesting and extensive subject
+submitted to their consideration.
+
+On the great principles which should constitute the basis of their
+system, not much contrariety of opinion is understood to have
+prevailed. But on the various and intricate modifications of those
+principles, an equal degree of harmony was not to be expected. More
+than once, there was reason to fear that the rich harvest of national
+felicity, which had been anticipated from the ample stock of worth
+collected in convention, would all be blasted by the rising of that
+body without effecting the object for which it was formed. At length
+the high importance attached to union triumphed over local interests;
+and, on the 17th of September, that constitution which has been alike
+the theme of panegyric and invective, was presented to the American
+public.
+
+The instrument with its accompanying resolutions was by the unanimous
+order of the convention, transmitted to congress in a letter
+subscribed by the president, in which it was said to be, "the result
+of a spirit of amity, and of that mutual deference and concession,
+which the peculiarity of their political situation rendered
+indispensable.
+
+[Sidenote: A form of government for the United States is submitted to
+the respective states, which is ratified by eleven of them.]
+
+"That it will meet the full and entire approbation of every state,"
+continued the letter, "is not, perhaps, to be expected; but each will
+doubtless consider, that had her interests been alone consulted, the
+consequences might have been particularly disagreeable or injurious to
+others. That it is liable to as few exceptions as could reasonably
+have been expected, we hope and believe; that it may promote the
+lasting welfare of that country so dear to us all, and secure her
+freedom and happiness, is our most ardent wish."
+
+Congress resolved unanimously, that the report with the letter
+accompanying it be transmitted to the several legislatures, in order
+to be submitted to a convention of delegates chosen in each state by
+the people thereof.
+
+Neither the intrinsic merits of the constitution nor the imposing
+weight of character by which it was supported, gave assurance to its
+friends that it would be ultimately adopted. A comparison of the views
+and interests by which a powerful party was actuated, with particular
+provisions in the constitution which were especially designed to
+counteract those views and interests, prepared them to expect a mass
+of zealous and active opposition, against which the powers of reason
+would be in vain directed, because the real motives in which it
+originated would not be avowed. There were also many individuals,
+possessing great influence and respectable talents, who, from
+judgment, or from particular causes, seemed desirous of retaining the
+sovereignty of the states unimpaired, and of reducing the union to an
+alliance between independent nations. To these descriptions of
+persons, joined by those who supposed that an opposition of interests
+existed between different parts of the continent, was added a numerous
+class of honest men, many of whom possessed no inconsiderable share of
+intelligence, who could identify themselves perfectly with the state
+government, but who considered the government of the United States as
+in some respects foreign. The representation of their particular state
+not composing a majority of the national legislature, they could not
+consider that body as safely representing the people, and were
+disposed to measure out power to it with the same sparing hand with
+which they would confer it on persons not chosen by themselves, not
+accountable to them for its exercise, nor having any common interest
+with them. That power might be abused, was, to persons of this
+opinion, a conclusive argument against its being bestowed; and they
+seemed firmly persuaded that the cradle of the constitution would be
+the grave of republican liberty. The friends and the enemies of that
+instrument were stimulated to exertion by motives equally powerful;
+and, during the interval between its publication and adoption, every
+faculty of the mind was strained to secure its reception or rejection.
+The press teemed with the productions of temperate reason, of genius,
+and of passion; and it was apparent that each party believed power,
+sovereignty, liberty, peace, and security;--things most dear to the
+human heart;--to be staked on the question depending before the
+public. From that oblivion which is the common destiny of fugitive
+pieces, treating on subjects which agitate only for the moment, was
+rescued, by its peculiar merit, a series of essays which first
+appeared in the papers of New York. To expose the real circumstances
+of America, and the dangers which hung over the republic; to detect
+the numerous misrepresentations of the constitution; to refute the
+arguments of its opponents; and to confirm, and increase, its friends,
+by a full and able development of its principles; three gentlemen,[39]
+distinguished for their political experience, their talents, and their
+love of union, gave to the public a series of numbers which, collected
+in two volumes under the title of the FEDERALIST, will be read and
+admired when the controversy in which that valuable treatise on
+government originated, shall be no longer remembered.
+
+     [Footnote 39: Colonel Hamilton, Mr. Madison, and Mr. Jay.]
+
+To decide the interesting question which agitated a continent, the
+best talents of the several states were assembled in their respective
+conventions. So balanced were parties in some of them, that, even
+after the subject had been discussed for a considerable time, the fate
+of the constitution could scarcely be conjectured; and so small, in
+many instances, was the majority in its favour, as to afford strong
+ground for the opinion that, had the influence of character been
+removed, the intrinsic merits of the instrument would not have secured
+its adoption. Indeed, it is scarcely to be doubted that, in some of
+the adopting states, a majority of the people were in the opposition.
+In all of them, the numerous amendments which were proposed,
+demonstrate the reluctance with which the new government was accepted;
+and that a dread of dismemberment, not an approbation of the
+particular system under consideration, had induced an acquiescence in
+it. The interesting nature of the question, the equality of the
+parties, the animation produced inevitably by ardent debate, had a
+necessary tendency to embitter the dispositions of the vanquished, and
+to fix more deeply, in many bosoms, their prejudices against a plan of
+government, in opposition to which all their passions were enlisted.
+
+{1788}
+
+At length, the conventions of eleven states[40] assented to and
+ratified the constitution; and the preparatory measures were taken for
+bringing it into operation.
+
+     [Footnote 40: North Carolina and Rhode Island did not at
+     first accept the constitution, and New York was apparently
+     dragged into it by a repugnance to being excluded from the
+     confederacy. By the convention of that state a circular
+     letter was addressed to the several states in the union
+     inviting them to unite in calling a general convention to
+     revise the constitution. Its friends seem to have been
+     persuaded that this measure, if successful, would
+     effectually destroy the edifice they had erected with so
+     much labour, before an experience of its advantages could
+     dissipate the prejudices which had been excited against it.
+     "You will have seen," said one of its most effective
+     advocates, "the circular letter from the convention of this
+     state. It has a most pernicious tendency. If an early
+     general convention can not be parried, it is seriously to be
+     feared that the system which has resisted so many direct
+     attacks, may be at length successfully undermined by its
+     enemies. It is now perhaps to be wished that Rhode Island
+     may not accede until this new crisis of danger be over; some
+     think it would be better if even New York had held out until
+     the operation of the government could have dissipated the
+     fears which artifice had created, and the attempts resulting
+     from those fears and artifices."]
+
+From the moment the public was possessed of this new arrangement of
+their political system, the attention of all was directed to General
+Washington as the first President of the United States. He alone was
+believed to fill so pre-eminent a station in the public opinion, that
+he might be placed at the head of the nation without exciting envy;
+and he alone possessed the confidence of the people in so unlimited a
+degree that under his auspices, the friends of the government might
+hope to see it introduced with a degree of firmness which would enable
+it to resist the open assaults, and secret plots of its numerous
+adversaries. By all who knew him, fears were entertained that his
+preference for private life would prevail over the wishes of the
+public; and, soon after the adoption of the constitution was
+ascertained, his correspondents began to press him on a point which
+was believed essential to the completion of the great work on which
+the grandeur and happiness of America was supposed to depend. "We can
+not," said Mr. Johnson, a gentleman of great political eminence in
+Maryland, "do without you, and I, and thousands more can explain to
+any body but yourself, why we can not do without you." "I have ever
+thought," said Mr. Gouverneur Morris, a gentleman who had been among
+the most valuable members of congress through great part of the war,
+and who had performed a most splendid part in the general convention,
+"and have ever said that you must be president; no other man can fill
+that office. No other man can draw forth the abilities of our country
+into the various departments of civil life. You alone can awe the
+insolence of opposing factions, and the greater insolence of assuming
+adherents. I say nothing of foreign powers, nor of their ministers.
+With these last you will have some plague. As to your feelings on this
+occasion, they are, I know, both deep and affecting; you embark
+property most precious on a most tempestuous ocean: for, as you
+possess the highest reputation, so you expose it to the perilous
+chance of popular opinion. On the other hand, you will, I firmly
+expect, enjoy the inexpressible felicity of contributing to the
+happiness of all your countrymen. You will become the father of more
+than three millions of children; and while your bosom glows with
+parental tenderness, in theirs, or at least in a majority of them, you
+will excite the duteous sentiments of filial affection. This, I repeat
+it, is what I firmly expect; and my views are not directed by that
+enthusiasm which your public character has impressed on the public
+mind. Enthusiasm is generally short sighted and too often blind. I
+form my conclusions from those talents and virtues which the world
+_believes_, and which your friends _know_ you possess."
+
+To those who attribute human action in every case to the motives which
+most usually guide the human mind, it will appear scarcely possible
+that the supreme magistracy could possess no charms for a man long
+accustomed to command others; and that ambition had no share in
+tempting the hero of the American revolution to tread once more the
+paths of public life. Yet, if his communications to friends to whom he
+unbosomed the inmost sentiments of his soul be inspected, it will be
+difficult to resist the conviction that the struggle produced by the
+occasion was unaffected, and that, in accepting the presidency of the
+United States, no private passion was gratified; but a decided
+preference for private life yielded to a sense of duty, and a deep
+conviction of his obligations to his country.
+
+As this is an important æra in the life of Washington, and the motives
+by which he was actuated will assist in developing his real character,
+the American reader, at least, will be gratified at seeing copious
+extracts from his correspondence on this interesting occasion.
+
+In a letter detailing those arrangements which were making for the
+introduction of the new government, Colonel Lee proceeded thus to
+speak of the presidency of the United States. "The solemnity of the
+moment, and its application to yourself, have fixed my mind in
+contemplations of a public and a personal nature, and I feel an
+involuntary impulse which I can not resist, to communicate without
+reserve to you some of the reflections which the hour has produced.
+Solicitous for our common happiness as a people, and convinced as I
+continue to be that our peace and prosperity depend on the proper
+improvement of the present period, my anxiety is extreme that the new
+government may have an auspicious beginning. To effect this, and to
+perpetuate a nation formed under your auspices, it is certain that
+again you will be called forth.
+
+"The same principles of devotion to the good of mankind, which have
+invariably governed your conduct, will no doubt continue to rule your
+mind, however opposite their consequences may be to your repose and
+happiness. It may be wrong, but I can not suppress, in my wishes for
+national felicity, a due regard for your personal fame and content.
+
+"If the same success should attend your efforts on this important
+occasion which has distinguished you hitherto, then, to be sure, you
+will have spent a life which Providence rarely if ever before gave to
+the lot of one man. It is my anxious hope, it is my belief, that this
+will be the case; but all things are uncertain, and perhaps nothing
+more so than political events." He then proceeded to state his
+apprehensions, that the government might sink under the active
+hostility of its foes, and in particular, the fears which he
+entertained from the circular letter of New York, around which the
+minorities in the several states might be expected to rally.
+
+To counteract its baneful influence with the legislature of Virginia,
+he expressed his earnest wish, that Mr. Madison might be prevailed on
+to take a seat in that assembly, and then added,
+
+"It would certainly be unpleasant to you, and obnoxious to all who
+feel for your just fame, to see you at the head of a trembling system.
+It is a sacrifice on your part unjustifiable in any point of view. But
+on the other hand no alternative seems to be presented.
+
+"Without you, the government can have but little chance of success;
+and the people, of that happiness which its prosperity must yield."
+
+{1789}
+
+[Sidenote: Letters from Gen. Washington respecting the chief
+magistracy of the new government.]
+
+In reply to this letter General Washington said, "Your observations on
+the solemnity of the crisis, and its application to myself, bring
+before me subjects of the most momentous and interesting nature. In
+our endeavours to establish a new general government, the contest,
+nationally considered, seems not to have been so much for glory, as
+existence. It was for a long time doubtful whether we were to survive
+as an independent republic, or decline from our federal dignity into
+insignificant and wretched fragments of empire. The adoption of the
+constitution so extensively, and with so liberal an acquiescence on
+the part of the minorities in general, promised the former; but
+lately, the circular letter of New York has manifested, in my
+apprehension, an unfavourable, if not an insidious tendency to a
+contrary policy. I still hope for the best; but before you mentioned
+it, I could not help fearing it would serve as a standard to which the
+disaffected might resort. It is now evidently the part of all honest
+men, who are friends to the new constitution, to endeavour to give it
+a chance to disclose its merits and defects, by carrying it fairly
+into effect, in the first instance.
+
+"The principal topic of your letter, is to me a point of great
+delicacy indeed;--insomuch that I can scarcely, without some
+impropriety, touch upon it. In the first place, the event to which you
+allude may never happen, among other reasons, because, if the
+partiality of my fellow citizens conceive it to be a mean by which the
+sinews of the new government would be strengthened, it will of
+consequence be obnoxious to those who are in opposition to it, many of
+whom, unquestionably, will be placed among the electors.
+
+"This consideration alone would supersede the expediency of announcing
+any definitive and irrevocable resolution. You are among the small
+number of those who know my invincible attachment to domestic life,
+and that my sincerest wish is to continue in the enjoyment of it
+solely, until my final hour. But the world would be neither so well
+instructed, nor so candidly disposed, as to believe me to be
+uninfluenced by sinister motives, in case any circumstance should
+render a deviation from the line of conduct I had prescribed for
+myself indispensable. Should the contingency you suggest take place,
+and (for argument sake alone, let me say) should my unfeigned
+reluctance to accept the office be overcome by a deference for the
+reasons and opinions of my friends; might I not, after the
+declarations I have made, (and heaven knows they were made in the
+sincerity of my heart,) in the judgment of the impartial world, and of
+posterity, be chargeable with levity and inconsistency, if not with
+rashness and ambition? Nay, farther, would there not even be some
+apparent foundation for the two former charges? Now, justice to
+myself, and tranquillity of conscience require that I should act a
+part, if not above imputation, at least capable of vindication. Nor
+will you conceive me to be too solicitous for reputation. Though I
+prize as I ought the good opinion of my fellow citizens, yet, if I
+know myself, I would not seek or retain popularity at the expense of
+one social duty, or moral virtue. While doing what my conscience
+informed me was right, as it respected my God, my country, and myself,
+I could despise all the party clamour and unjust censure which must be
+expected from some, whose personal enmity might be occasioned by their
+hostility to the government. I am conscious, that I fear alone to give
+any real occasion for obloquy, and that I do not dread to meet with
+unmerited reproach. And certain I am, whensoever I shall be convinced
+the good of my country requires my reputation to be put in risque,
+regard for my own fame will not come in competition with an object of
+so much magnitude.
+
+"If I declined the task, it would be upon quite another principle.
+Notwithstanding my advanced season of life, my increasing fondness for
+agricultural amusements, and my growing love of retirement, augment
+and confirm my decided predilection for the character of a private
+citizen, yet it will be no one of these motives, nor the hazard to
+which my former reputation might be exposed, or the terror of
+encountering new fatigues and troubles, that would deter me from an
+acceptance;--but a belief that some other person, who had less
+pretence and less inclination to be excused, could execute all the
+duties full as satisfactorily as myself. To say more would be
+indiscreet; as a disclosure of a refusal before hand might incur the
+application of the fable, in which the fox is represented as
+undervaluing the grapes he could not reach. You will perceive, my dear
+sir, by what is here observed (and which you will be pleased to
+consider in the light of a confidential communication), that my
+inclinations will dispose and decide me to remain as I am, unless a
+clear and insurmountable conviction should be impressed on my mind,
+that some very disagreeable consequences must in all human probability
+result from the indulgence of my wishes."
+
+About the same time, Colonel Hamilton concluded a letter on
+miscellaneous subjects with the following observations. "I take it for
+granted, sir, you have concluded to comply with what will, no doubt,
+be the general call of your country in relation to the new government.
+You will permit me to say that it is indispensable you should lend
+yourself to its first operations. It is to little purpose to have
+introduced a system, if the weightiest influence is not given to its
+firm establishment in the outset."
+
+"On the delicate subject," said General Washington in reply, "with
+which you conclude your letter, I can say nothing; because the event
+alluded to may never happen; and because in case it should occur, it
+would be a point of prudence to defer forming one's ultimate and
+irrevocable decision, so long as new data might be afforded for one to
+act with the greater wisdom and propriety. I would not wish to conceal
+my prevailing sentiment from you. For you know me well enough, my good
+sir, to be persuaded that I am not guilty of affectation, when I tell
+you it is my great and sole desire to live and die in peace and
+retirement on my own farm. Were it even indispensable a different line
+of conduct should be adopted, while you and some others who are
+acquainted with my heart would _acquit_, the world and posterity might
+probably _accuse_ me of _inconsistency_ and _ambition_. Still I hope,
+I shall always possess firmness and virtue enough to maintain (what I
+consider the most enviable of all titles) the character of _an honest
+man_."
+
+This answer drew from Colonel Hamilton the following reply: "I should
+be deeply pained, my dear sir, if your scruples in regard to a certain
+station should be matured into a resolution to decline it; though I am
+neither surprised at their existence, nor can I but agree in opinion
+that the caution you observe in deferring the ultimate determination
+is prudent. I have, however, reflected maturely on the subject, and
+have come to a conclusion (in which I feel no hesitation) that every
+public and personal consideration will demand from you an acquiescence
+in what will _certainly_ be the unanimous wish of your country.
+
+"The absolute retreat which you meditated at the close of the late war
+was natural and proper. Had the government produced by the revolution
+gone on in a _tolerable_ train, it would have been most adviseable to
+have persisted in that retreat. But I am clearly of opinion that the
+crisis which brought you again into public view left you no
+alternative but to comply; and I am equally clear in the opinion that
+you are by that act _pledged_ to take a part in the execution of the
+government. I am not less convinced that the impression of the
+necessity of your filling the station in question is so universal,
+that you run no risk of any uncandid imputation by submitting to it.
+But even if this were not the case, a regard to your own reputation,
+as well as to the public good, calls upon you in the strongest manner
+to run that risk.
+
+"It can not be considered as a compliment to say, that on your
+acceptance of the office of president, the success of the new
+government in its commencement may materially depend. Your agency and
+influence will be not less important in preserving it from the future
+attacks of its enemies, than they have been in recommending it in the
+first instance to the adoption of the people. Independent of all
+considerations drawn from this source, the point of light in which you
+stand at home and abroad, will make an infinite difference in the
+respectability with which the government will begin its operations, in
+the alternative of your being or not being at the head of it. I
+forbear to mention considerations which might have a more personal
+application. What I have said will suffice for the inferences I mean
+to draw.
+
+"First. In a matter so essential to the well being of society as the
+prosperity of a newly instituted government, a citizen of so much
+consequence as yourself to its success, has no option but to lend his
+services if called for. Permit me to say, it would be inglorious, in
+such a situation, not to hazard the glory, however great, which he
+might have previously acquired.
+
+"Secondly. Your signature to the proposed system, pledges your
+judgment for its being such an one as upon the whole was worthy of the
+public approbation. If it should miscarry, (as men commonly decide
+from success or the want of it) the blame will in all probability be
+laid on the system itself. And the framers of it will have to
+encounter the disrepute of having brought about a revolution in
+government, without substituting any thing that was worthy of the
+effort; they pulled down one Utopia, it will be said, to build up
+another. This view of the subject, if I mistake not, my dear sir, will
+suggest to your mind greater hazard to that fame, which must be, and
+ought to be dear to you, in refusing your future aid to the system,
+than in affording it. I will only add, that in my estimate of the
+matter, that aid is indispensable.
+
+"I have taken the liberty to express these sentiments, and to lay
+before you my view of the subject. I doubt not the considerations
+mentioned have fully occurred to you, and I trust, they will finally
+produce in your mind the same result which exists in mine. I flatter
+myself the frankness with which I have delivered myself, will not be
+displeasing to you. It has been prompted by motives which you would
+not disapprove."
+
+In answer to this letter General Washington opened himself without
+reserve. "In acknowledging," said he, "the receipt of your candid and
+kind letter by the last post, little more is incumbent on me than to
+thank you sincerely for the frankness with which you communicated your
+sentiments, and to assure you that the same manly tone of intercourse
+will always be more than barely welcome,--indeed it will be highly
+acceptable to me.
+
+"I am particularly glad, in the present instance, that you have dealt
+thus freely and like a friend. Although I could not help observing
+from several publications and letters that my name had been sometimes
+spoken of, and that it was possible the _contingency_ which is the
+subject of your letter might happen, yet I thought it best to maintain
+a guarded silence, and to lack the counsel of my best friends (which I
+certainly hold in the highest estimation) rather than to hazard an
+imputation unfriendly to the delicacy of my feelings. For, situated as
+I am, I could hardly bring the question into the slightest discussion,
+or ask an opinion even in the most confidential manner, without
+betraying, in my judgment, some impropriety of conduct, or without
+feeling an apprehension that a premature display of anxiety, might be
+construed into a vain glorious desire of pushing myself into notice as
+a candidate. Now; if I am not grossly deceived in myself, I should
+unfeignedly rejoice, in case the electors, by giving their votes in
+favour of some other person, would save me from the dreadful dilemma
+of being forced to accept or refuse. If that may not be, I am in the
+next place, earnestly desirous of searching out the truth, and of
+knowing whether there does not exist a probability that the government
+would be just as happily and effectually carried into execution
+without my aid, as with it. I am _truly_ solicitous to obtain all the
+previous information which the circumstances will afford, and to
+determine (when the determination can with propriety be no longer
+postponed) according to the principles of right reason, and the
+dictates of a clear conscience; without too great a reference to the
+unforeseen consequences which may affect my person or reputation.
+Until that period, I may fairly hold myself open to conviction, though
+I allow your sentiments to have weight in them; and I shall not pass
+by your arguments without giving them as dispassionate a consideration
+as I can possibly bestow upon them.
+
+"In taking a survey of the subject, in whatever point of light I have
+been able to place it, I will not suppress the acknowledgment, my dear
+sir, that I have always felt a kind of gloom upon my mind, as often as
+I have been taught to expect I might, and perhaps must ere long be
+called to make a decision. You will, I am well assured, believe the
+assertion (though I have little expectation it would gain credit from
+those who are less acquainted with me) that if I should receive the
+appointment, and should be prevailed upon to accept it; the acceptance
+would be attended with more diffidence and reluctance, than ever I
+experienced before in my life. It would be, however, with a fixed and
+sole determination of lending whatever assistance might be in my power
+to promote the public weal, in hopes that at a convenient and an early
+period, my services might be dispensed with; and that I might be
+permitted once more to retire--to pass an unclouded evening after the
+stormy day of life, in the bosom of domestic tranquillity."
+
+This correspondence was thus closed by Colonel Hamilton. "I feel a
+conviction that you will finally see your acceptance to be
+indispensable. It is no compliment to say that no other man can
+sufficiently unite the public opinion, or can give the requisite
+weight to the office, in the commencement of the government. These
+considerations appear to me of themselves decisive. I am not sure that
+your refusal would not throw every thing into confusion. I am sure
+that it would have the worst effect imaginable.
+
+"Indeed, as I hinted in a former letter, I think circumstances leave
+no option."
+
+Although this correspondence does not appear to have absolutely
+decided General Washington on the part he should embrace, it could not
+have been without its influence on his judgment, nor have failed to
+dispose him to yield to the wish of his country. "I would willingly,"
+said he to his estimable friend General Lincoln, who had also pressed
+the subject on him, "pass over in silence that part of your letter, in
+which you mention the persons who are candidates for the two first
+offices in the executive, if I did not fear the omission might seem to
+betray a want of confidence. Motives of delicacy have prevented me
+hitherto from conversing or writing on this subject, whenever I could
+avoid it with decency. I may, however, with great sincerity, and I
+believe without offending against modesty or propriety, _say_ to
+_you_, that I most heartily wish the choice to which you allude might
+not fall upon me: and that if it should, I must reserve to myself the
+right of making up my final decision, at the last moment, when it can
+be brought into one view, and when the expediency or inexpediency of a
+refusal can be more judiciously determined than at present. But be
+assured, my dear sir, if from any inducement I shall be persuaded
+ultimately to accept, it will not be (so far as I know my own heart)
+from any of a private or personal nature. Every personal consideration
+conspires, to rivet me (if I may use the expression) to retirement. At
+my time of life, and under my circumstances, nothing in this world can
+ever draw me from it, unless it be a _conviction_ that the partiality
+of my countrymen had made my services absolutely necessary, joined to
+a _fear_ that my refusal might induce a belief that I preferred the
+conservation of my own reputation and private ease, to the good of my
+country. After all, if I should conceive myself in a manner
+constrained to accept, I call heaven to witness, that this very act
+would be the greatest sacrifice of my personal feelings and wishes,
+that ever I have been called upon to make. It would be to forego
+repose and domestic enjoyment for trouble, perhaps for public obloquy:
+for I should consider myself as entering upon an unexplored field,
+enveloped on every side with clouds and darkness.
+
+"From this embarrassing situation I had naturally supposed that my
+declarations at the close of the war would have saved me; and that my
+sincere intentions, then publicly made known, would have effectually
+precluded me forever afterwards from being looked upon as a candidate
+for any office. This hope, as a last anchor of worldly happiness in
+old age, I had still carefully preserved; until the public papers and
+private letters from my correspondents in almost every quarter, taught
+me to apprehend that I might soon be obliged to answer the question,
+whether I would go again into public life or not?"
+
+"I can say little or nothing new," said he in a letter to the Marquis
+de Lafayette, "in consequence of the repetition of your opinion on the
+expediency there will be, for my accepting the office to which you
+refer. Your sentiments indeed coincide much more nearly with those of
+my ether friends, than with my own feelings. In truth, my difficulties
+increase and magnify as I draw towards the period, when, according to
+the common belief, it will be necessary for me to give a definitive
+answer in one way or other. Should circumstances render it, in a
+manner, inevitably necessary to be in the affirmative, be assured, my
+dear sir, I shall assume the task with the most unfeigned reluctance,
+and with a real diffidence, for which I shall probably receive no
+credit from the world. If I know my own heart, nothing short of a
+conviction of duty will induce me again to take an active part in
+public affairs. And in that case, if I can form a plan for my own
+conduct, my endeavours shall be unremittingly exerted (even at the
+hazard of former fame or present popularity) to extricate my country
+from the embarrassments in which it is entangled through want of
+credit; and to establish a general system of policy, which, if
+pursued, will ensure permanent felicity to the commonwealth. I think I
+see a path, as clear and as direct as a ray of light, which leads to
+the attainment of that object. Nothing but harmony, honesty, industry,
+and frugality, are necessary to make us a great and happy people.
+Happily, the present posture of affairs, and the prevailing
+disposition of my countrymen, promise to co-operate in establishing
+those four great and essential pillars of public felicity."
+
+[Illustration: The Room in Which the First Constitutional Convention
+Met in Philadelphia
+
+_Delegates from twelve of the thirteen States (Rhode Island alone
+being unrepresented) assembled at Philadelphia, where the opening
+sessions of the first Constitutional Convention were held in this room
+in Independence Hall, May 14, 1787. George Washington presided during
+the four months taken to draft the Constitution of the United States.
+When it was completed on September 17th, it is said that many of the
+delegates seemed awe-struck and that Washington himself sat with his
+head bowed in deep meditation. As the Convention adjourned, Franklin,
+who was then over eighty-one years of age, arose and pointing to the
+President's quaint armchair on the back of which was emblazoned a half
+sun, brilliant with gilded rays, observed: "As I have been sitting
+here all these weeks, I have often wondered whether yonder sun is
+rising or setting, but now I know that it is a rising sun."_]
+
+[Sidenote: He is unanimously elected president.]
+
+After the elections had taken place, a general persuasion prevailed
+that the public will, respecting the chief magistrate of the union,
+had been too unequivocally manifested not to be certainly obeyed; and
+several applications were made to General Washington for those offices
+in the respective states, which would be in the gift of the president
+of the United States.
+
+As marking the frame of mind with which he came into the government,
+the following extract is given from one of the many letters written to
+persons whose pretensions he was disposed to favour. "Should it become
+absolutely necessary for me to occupy the station in which your letter
+presupposes me, I have determined to go into it, perfectly free from
+all engagements of every nature whatsoever.--A conduct in conformity
+to this resolution, would enable me, in balancing the various
+pretensions of different candidates for appointments, to act with a
+sole reference to justice and the public good. This is, in substance,
+the answer that I have given to all applications (and they are not
+few) which have already been made. Among the places sought after in
+these applications, I must not conceal that the office to which you
+particularly allude is comprehended. This fact I tell you merely as
+matter of information. My general manner of thinking, as to the
+propriety of holding myself totally disengaged, will apologize for my
+not enlarging farther on the subject.
+
+"Though I am sensible that the public suffrage which places a man in
+office, should prevent him from being swayed, in the execution of it,
+by his private inclinations, yet he may assuredly, without violating
+his duty, be indulged in the continuance of his former attachments."
+
+[Sidenote: Meeting of the first congress.]
+
+The impotence of the late government, added to the dilatoriness
+inseparable from its perplexed mode of proceeding on the public
+business, and to its continued session, had produced among the members
+of congress such an habitual disregard of punctuality in their
+attendance on that body, that, although the new government was to
+commence its operations on the 4th of March, 1789, a house of
+representatives was not formed until the first, nor a senate until the
+6th day of April.
+
+At length, the votes for the president and vice president of the
+United States were opened and counted in the senate. Neither the
+animosity of parties, nor the preponderance of the enemies of the new
+government in some of the states, could deprive General Washington of
+a single vote. By the unanimous voice of an immense continent, he was
+called to the chief magistracy of the nation. The second number of
+votes was given to Mr. John Adams. George Washington and John Adams
+were therefore declared to be duly elected president and vice
+president of the United States, to serve for four years from the 4th
+of March, 1789.[41]
+
+     [Footnote 41: The reluctance with which General Washington
+     assumed his new dignity, and that genuine modesty which was
+     a distinguished feature of his character, are further
+     illustrated by the following extract from a letter to
+     General Knox. "I feel for those members of the new congress,
+     who, hitherto, have given an unavailing attendance at the
+     theatre of action. For myself, the delay may be compared to
+     a reprieve; for in confidence, I tell _you_ (with the
+     _world_ it would obtain _little credit_,) that my movements
+     to the chair of government will be accompanied by feelings
+     not unlike those of a culprit who is going to the place of
+     his execution; so unwilling am I in the evening of life,
+     nearly consumed in public cares, to quit a peaceful abode
+     for an ocean of difficulties, without that competency of
+     political skill, abilities, and inclination, which are
+     necessary to manage the helm. I am sensible that I am
+     embarking the voice of the people, and a good name of my own
+     on this voyage; but what returns will be made for them
+     heaven alone can foretell.--Integrity and firmness are all I
+     can promise; these, be the voyage long or short, shall never
+     forsake me, although I may be deserted by all men; for of
+     the consolations which are to be derived from these, under
+     any circumstances, the world can not deprive me."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+     The election of General Washington officially announced to
+     him.... His departure for the seat of government.... Marks
+     of affection shown him on his journey.... His inauguration
+     and speech to Congress.... His system of intercourse with
+     the world.... Letters on this and other subjects.... Answer
+     of both houses of Congress to the speech.... Domestic and
+     foreign relations of the United States.... Debates on the
+     impost and tonnage bills.... On the power of removal from
+     office.... On the policy of the secretary of the treasury
+     reporting plans of revenue.... On the style of the
+     President.... Amendments to the constitution.... Appointment
+     of executive officers, and of the judges.... Adjournment of
+     the first session of Congress.... The President visits New
+     England.... His reception.... North Carolina accedes to the
+     union.
+
+
+{1789}
+
+[Sidenote: The election of General Washington officially announced to
+him.]
+
+The election of General Washington to the office of chief magistrate
+of the United States, was announced to him at Mount Vernon on the 14th
+of April, 1789. Accustomed to respect the wishes of his fellow
+citizens, he did not think himself at liberty to decline an
+appointment conferred upon him by the suffrage of an entire people.
+His acceptance of it, and his expressions of gratitude for this fresh
+proof of the esteem and confidence of his country, were connected with
+declarations of diffidence in himself. "I wish," he said, "that there
+may not be reason for regretting the choice,--for indeed, all I can
+promise, is to accomplish that which can be done by an honest zeal."
+
+[Sidenote: His departure for the seat of government.]
+
+As the public business required the immediate attendance of the
+president at the seat of government, he hastened his departure; and,
+on the second day after receiving notice of his appointment, took
+leave of Mount Vernon.
+
+In an entry made by himself in his diary, the feelings inspired by an
+occasion so affecting to his mind are thus described, "About ten
+o'clock I bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life, and to domestic
+felicity; and with a mind oppressed with more anxious and painful
+sensations than I have words to express, set out for New York in
+company with Mr. Thompson, and Colonel Humphries, with the best
+dispositions to render service to my country in obedience to its call,
+but with less hope of answering its expectations."
+
+[Sidenote: Marks of respect and affection shown him on his journey.]
+
+He was met by a number of gentlemen residing in Alexandria, and
+escorted to their city, where a public dinner had been prepared to
+which he was invited. The sentiments of veneration and affection which
+were felt by all classes of his fellow citizens for their patriot
+chief, were manifested by the most flattering marks of heartfelt
+respect; and by addresses which evinced the unlimited confidence
+reposed in his virtues and his talents. A place can not be given to
+these addresses: but that from the citizens of Alexandria derives such
+pretensions to particular notice from the recollection that it is to
+be considered as an effusion from the hearts of his neighbours and
+private friends, that its insertion may be pardoned. It is in the
+following words:
+
+"Again your country commands your care. Obedient to its wishes,
+unmindful of your ease, we see you again relinquishing the bliss of
+retirement; and this too at a period of life, when nature itself seems
+to authorize a preference of repose!
+
+"Not to extol your glory as a soldier; not to pour forth our gratitude
+for past services; not to acknowledge the justice of the unexampled
+honour which has been conferred upon you by the spontaneous and
+unanimous suffrages of three millions of freemen, in your election to
+the supreme magistracy; nor to admire the patriotism which directs
+your conduct, do your neighbours and friends now address you. Themes
+less splendid but more endearing, impress our minds. The first and
+best of citizens must leave us: our aged must lose their ornament; our
+youth their model; our agriculture its improver; our commerce its
+friend; our infant academy its protector; our poor their benefactor;
+and the interior navigation of the Potomac (an event replete with the
+most extensive utility, already, by your unremitted exertions, brought
+into partial use) its institutor and promoter.
+
+"Farewell!--go! and make a grateful people happy, a people, who will
+be doubly grateful when they contemplate this recent sacrifice for
+their interest.
+
+"To that Being who maketh and unmaketh at his will, we commend you;
+and after the accomplishment of the arduous business to which you are
+called, may he restore to us again, the best of men, and the most
+beloved fellow citizen!"
+
+To this affectionate address General Washington returned the following
+answer:
+
+"Gentlemen,
+
+"Although I ought not to conceal, yet I can not describe the painful
+emotions which I felt in being called upon to determine whether I
+would accept or refuse the presidency of the United States. The
+unanimity in the choice, the opinion of my friends communicated from
+different parts of Europe, as well as from America, the apparent wish
+of those who were not entirely satisfied with the constitution in its
+present form; and an ardent desire on my own part to be instrumental
+in connecting the good will of my countrymen towards each other, have
+induced an acceptance. Those who know me best (and you my fellow
+citizens are, from your situation, in that number) know better than
+any others, my love of retirement is so great, that no earthly
+consideration, short of a conviction of duty, could have prevailed
+upon me to depart from my resolution, 'never more to take any share in
+transactions of a public nature.' For, at my age, and in my
+circumstances, what prospects or advantages could I propose to myself,
+from embarking again on the tempestuous and uncertain ocean of public
+life?
+
+"I do not feel myself under the necessity of making public
+declarations, in order to convince you, gentlemen, of my attachment to
+yourselves, and regard for your interests. The whole tenor of my life
+has been open to your inspection; and my past actions, rather than my
+present declarations, must be the pledge of my future conduct.
+
+"In the mean time, I thank you most sincerely for the expressions of
+kindness contained in your valedictory address. It is true, just after
+having bade adieu to my domestic connexions, this tender proof of your
+friendships is but too well calculated still further to awaken my
+sensibility, and increase my regret at parting from the enjoyments of
+private life.
+
+"All that now remains for me is to commit myself and you to the
+protection of that beneficent Being who, on a former occasion, hath
+happily brought us together, after a long and distressing separation.
+Perhaps, the same gracious Providence will again indulge me.
+Unutterable sensations must then be left to more expressive silence;
+while from an aching heart, I bid you all, my affectionate friends,
+and kind neighbours, farewell!"
+
+In the afternoon of the same day, he left Alexandria, and was attended
+by his neighbours to Georgetown, where a number of citizens from the
+state of Maryland had assembled to receive him.
+
+Throughout his journey the people continued to manifest the same
+feeling. Crowds flocked around him wherever he stopped; and corps of
+militia, and companies of the most respectable citizens, escorted him
+through their respective streets. At Philadelphia, he was received
+with peculiar splendour. Gray's bridge, over the Schuylkill, was
+highly decorated. In imitation of the triumphal exhibitions of ancient
+Rome, an arch, composed of laurel, in which was displayed the simple
+elegance of true taste, was erected at each end of it, and on each
+side was a laurel shrubbery. As the object of universal admiration
+passed under the arch, a civic crown was, unperceived by him, let down
+upon his head by a youth ornamented with sprigs of laurel, who was
+assisted by machinery. The fields and avenues leading from the
+Schuylkill to Philadelphia, were crowded with people, through whom
+General Washington was conducted into the city by a numerous and
+respectable body of citizens; and at night the town was illuminated.
+The next day, at Trenton, he was welcomed in a manner as new as it was
+pleasing. In addition to the usual demonstrations of respect and
+attachment which were given by the discharge of cannon, by military
+corps, and by private persons of distinction, the gentler sex prepared
+in their own taste, a tribute of applause indicative of the grateful
+recollection in which they held their deliverance twelve years before
+from a formidable enemy. On the bridge over the creek which passes
+through the town, was erected a triumphal arch highly ornamented with
+laurels and flowers: and supported by thirteen pillars, each entwined
+with wreaths of evergreen. On the front arch was inscribed in large
+gilt letters,
+
+THE DEFENDER OF THE MOTHERS
+
+WILL BE THE
+
+PROTECTOR OF THE DAUGHTERS.
+
+On the centre of the arch above the inscription, was a dome or cupola
+of flowers and evergreens, encircling the dates of two memorable
+events which were peculiarly interesting to New Jersey. The first was
+the battle of Trenton, and the second the bold and judicious stand
+made by the American troops at the same creek, by which the progress
+of the British army was arrested on the evening preceding the battle
+of Princeton.
+
+At this place, he was met by a party of matrons leading their
+daughters dressed in white, who carried baskets of flowers in their
+hands, and sang, with exquisite sweetness, an ode of two stanzas
+composed for the occasion.
+
+At Brunswick, he was joined by the governor of New Jersey, who
+accompanied him to Elizabethtown Point. A committee of congress
+received him on the road, and conducted him with military parade to
+the Point, where he took leave of the governor and other gentlemen of
+Jersey, and embarked for New York in an elegant barge of thirteen
+oars, manned by thirteen branch pilots prepared for the purpose by the
+citizens of New York.
+
+"The display of boats," says the general, in his private journal,
+"which attended and joined on this occasion, some with vocal, and
+others with instrumental music on board, the decorations of the ships,
+the roar of cannon, and the loud acclamations of the people, which
+rent the sky as I passed along the wharves, filled my mind with
+sensations as painful (contemplating the reverse of this scene, which
+may be the case after all my labours to do good) as they were
+pleasing."
+
+At the stairs on Murray's wharf, which had been prepared and
+ornamented for the purpose, he was received by the governor of New
+York, and conducted with military honours, through an immense
+concourse of people, to the apartments provided for him. These were
+attended by all who were in office, and by many private citizens of
+distinction, who pressed around him to offer their congratulations,
+and to express the joy which glowed in their bosoms at seeing the man
+in whom all confided, at the head of the American empire. This day of
+extravagant joy was succeeded by a splendid illumination.
+
+It is no equivocal mark of the worth of Washington, and of the
+soundness of his judgment, that it could neither be corrupted nor
+misguided by these flattering testimonials of attachment.
+
+Two days before the arrival of the President, the Vice President took
+his seat in the senate, and addressed that body in a dignified speech
+adapted to the occasion, in which, after manifesting the high opinion
+that statesman always entertained of his countrymen, he thus expressed
+his sentiments of the executive magistrate.
+
+"It is with satisfaction that I congratulate the people of America on
+the formation of a national constitution, and the fair prospect of a
+consistent administration of a government of laws: on the acquisition
+of a house of representatives, chosen by themselves; of a senate thus
+composed by their own state legislatures; and on the prospect of an
+executive authority, in the hands of one whose portrait I shall not
+presume to draw.--Were I blessed with powers to do justice to his
+character, it would be impossible to increase the confidence or
+affection of his country, or make the smallest addition to his glory.
+This can only be effected by a discharge of the present exalted trust
+on the same principles, with the same abilities and virtues which have
+uniformly appeared in all his former conduct, public or private. May I
+nevertheless be indulged to inquire, if we look over the catalogue of
+the first magistrates of nations, whether they have been denominated
+presidents or consuls, kings, or princes, where shall we find one,
+whose commanding talents and virtues, whose overruling good fortune,
+have so completely united all hearts and voices in his favour? who
+enjoyed the esteem and admiration of foreign nations, and fellow
+citizens, with equal unanimity? qualities so uncommon, are no common
+blessings to the country that possesses them. By these great
+qualities, and their benign effects, has Providence marked out the
+head of this nation, with a hand so distinctly visible, as to have
+been seen by all men, and mistaken by none."
+
+[Illustration: Washington Taking the Oath of Office
+
+_From the painting by Alonzo Chappell_
+
+_On the balcony of the old City Hall, Broad and Wall Streets, New
+York, Washington was sworn in as first President of the United States,
+April 30, 1789. The artist here accurately depicts him wearing a suit
+of dark brown, at his side a dress sword, and his hair powdered in the
+fashion of the period. White silk stockings and shoes with simple
+silver buckles completed his attire. On one side of him stood
+Chancellor Livingstone, who administered the oath. On the other side
+was Vice-President John Adams. Washington solemnly repeated the words
+of the oath, clearly enunciating, "I swear": adding in a whisper, with
+closed eyes, "So help me, God"._]
+
+[Sidenote: He forms a system of conduct to be observed in his
+intercourse with the world.]
+
+A President of the United States being a new political personage, to a
+great portion of whose time the public was entitled, it became proper
+to digest a system of conduct to be observed in his intercourse with
+the world, which would keep in view the duties of his station, without
+entirely disregarding his personal accommodation, or the course of
+public opinion. In the interval between his arrival in New York, and
+entering on the duties of his office, those most capable of advising
+on the subject were consulted; and some rules were framed by General
+Washington for his government in these respects. As one of them, the
+allotment of a particular hour for receiving visits not on business,
+became the subject of much animadversion; and, being considered merely
+as an imitation of the levee days established by crowned heads, has
+constituted not the least important of the charges which have been
+made against this gentleman. The motives assigned by himself for the
+rule may not be unworthy of attention.
+
+[Sidenote: Letters from him on this and other subjects.]
+
+Not long after the government came into operation, Doctor Stuart, a
+gentleman nearly connected with the President in friendship and by
+marriage, addressed to him a letter stating the accusations which were
+commonly circulating in Virginia on various subjects, and especially
+against the regal manners of those who administered the affairs of the
+nation. In answer to this letter the President observed, "while the
+eyes of America, perhaps of the world, are turned to this government,
+and many are watching the movements of all those who are concerned in
+its administration, I should like to be informed, through so good a
+medium, of the public opinion of both men and measures, and of none
+more than myself;--not so much of what may be thought commendable
+parts, if any, of my conduct, as of those which are conceived to be of
+a different complexion. The man who means to commit no wrong will
+never be guilty of enormities, consequently can never be unwilling to
+learn what are ascribed to him as foibles.--If they are really such,
+the knowledge of them in a well disposed mind will go half way towards
+a reform.--If they are not errors, he can explain and justify the
+motives of his actions.
+
+"At a distance from the theatre of action, truth is not always related
+without embellishment, and sometimes is entirely perverted from a
+misconception of the causes which produced the effects that are the
+subject of censure.
+
+"This leads me to think that a system which I found it indispensably
+necessary to adopt upon my first coming to this city, might have
+undergone severe strictures, and have had motives very foreign from
+those that governed me, assigned as causes thereof.--I mean first,
+returning _no_ visits: second, appointing certain days to receive them
+generally (not to the exclusion however of visits on any other days
+under particular circumstances;) and third, at first entertaining no
+company, and afterwards (until I was unable to entertain any at all)
+confining it to official characters. A few days evinced the necessity
+of the two first in so clear a point of view, that had I not adopted
+it, I should have been unable to have attended to any sort of
+business, unless I had applied the hours allotted to rest and
+refreshment to this purpose; for by the time I had done breakfast, and
+thence until dinner--and afterwards until bed-time, I could not get
+relieved from the ceremony of one visit before I had to attend to
+another. In a word, I had no leisure to read or to answer the
+despatches that were pouring in upon me from all quarters."
+
+In a subsequent letter written to the same gentleman, after his levees
+had been openly-censured by the enemies of his administration, he thus
+expressed himself:
+
+"Before the custom was established, which now accommodates foreign
+characters, strangers, and others who from motives of curiosity,
+respect to the chief magistrate, or any other cause, are induced to
+call upon me, I was unable to attend to any business whatsoever. For
+gentlemen, consulting their own convenience rather than mine, were
+calling from the time I rose from breakfast--often before--until I sat
+down to dinner. This, as I resolved not to neglect my public duties,
+reduced me to the choice of one of these alternatives; either to
+refuse them _altogether_, or to appropriate a time for the reception
+of them. The first would, I well knew, be disgusting to many;--the
+latter I expected, would undergo animadversion from those who would
+find fault with or without cause. To please every body was impossible.
+I therefore adopted that line of conduct which combined public
+advantage with private convenience, and which, in my judgment, was
+unexceptionable in itself.
+
+"These visits are optional. They are made without invitation. Between
+the hours of three and four every Tuesday, I am prepared to receive
+them. Gentlemen, often in great numbers, come and go;--chat with each
+other;--and act as they please. A porter shows them into the room; and
+they retire from it when they choose, and without ceremony. At their
+first entrance, they salute me, and I them, and as many as I can talk
+to, I do. What pomp there is in all this I am unable to discover.
+Perhaps it consists in not sitting. To this two reasons are opposed:
+first, it is unusual; secondly, (which is a more substantial one)
+because I have no room large enough to contain a third of the chairs
+which would be sufficient to admit it. If it is supposed that
+ostentation, or the fashions of courts (which by the by I believe
+originate oftener in convenience, not to say necessity, than is
+generally imagined) gave rise to this custom, I will boldly affirm
+that _no_ supposition was ever more erroneous; for were I to indulge
+my inclinations, every moment that I could withdraw from the fatigues
+of my station should be spent in retirement. That they are not,
+proceeds from the sense I entertain of the propriety of giving to
+every one as free access as consists with that respect which is due to
+the chair of government;--and that respect, I conceive, is neither to
+be acquired nor preserved, but by maintaining a just medium between
+too much state, and too great familiarity.
+
+"Similar to the above, but of a more familiar and sociable kind, are
+the visits every Friday afternoon to Mrs. Washington, where I always
+am. These public meetings, and a dinner once a week to as many as my
+table will hold, with the references to and from the different
+departments of state, and other communications with all parts of the
+union, is as much if not more than I am able to undergo; for I have
+already had within less than a year, two severe attacks;--the last
+worse than the first,--a third, it is more than probable will put me
+to sleep with my fathers--at what distance this may be, I know not."
+
+[Sidenote: His inauguration and speech to congress.]
+
+The ceremonies of the inauguration having been adjusted by congress,
+the President attended in the senate chamber, on the 30th of April, in
+order to take, in the presence of both houses, the oath prescribed by
+the constitution.
+
+To gratify the public curiosity, an open gallery adjoining the senate
+chamber had been selected by congress, as the place in which the oath
+should be administered. Having taken it in the view of an immense
+concourse of people, whose loud and repeated acclamations attested the
+joy with which his being proclaimed President of the United States
+inspired them, he returned to the senate chamber, where he delivered
+the following address:
+
+"_Fellow citizens of the Senate and of the House of Representatives:_
+
+"Among the vicissitudes incident to life, no event could have filled
+me with greater anxieties than that of which the notification was
+transmitted by your order, and received on the 14th day of the present
+month. On the one hand, I was summoned by my country, whose voice I
+can never hear but with veneration and love, from a retreat which I
+had chosen with the fondest predilection, and, in my flattering hopes,
+with an immutable decision, as the asylum of my declining years: a
+retreat which was rendered every day more necessary as well as more
+dear to me, by the addition of habit to inclination, and of frequent
+interruptions in my health to the gradual waste committed on it by
+time. On the other hand, the magnitude and difficulty of the trust to
+which the voice of my country called me, being sufficient to awaken in
+the wisest and most experienced of her citizens a distrustful scrutiny
+into his qualifications, could not but overwhelm with despondence,
+one, who, inheriting inferior endowments from nature, and unpractised
+in the duties of civil administration, ought to be peculiarly
+conscious of his own deficiencies. In this conflict of emotions, all I
+dare aver is, that it has been my faithful study to collect my duty
+from a just appreciation of every circumstance by which it might be
+effected. All I dare hope is, that, if in accepting this task, I have
+been too much swayed by a grateful remembrance of former instances, or
+by an affectionate sensibility to this transcendent proof of the
+confidence of my fellow citizens: and have thence too little consulted
+my incapacity, as well as disinclination for the weighty and untried
+cares before me; my ERROR will be palliated by the motives which
+misled me, and its consequences be judged by my country, with some
+share of the partiality in which they originated.
+
+"Such being the impressions under which I have, in obedience to the
+public summons, repaired to the present station, it will be peculiarly
+improper to omit in this first official act, my fervent supplications
+to that Almighty Being who rules over the universe--who presides in
+the councils of nations--and whose providential aids can supply every
+human defect, that his benediction may consecrate to the liberties and
+happiness of the people of the United States, a government instituted
+by themselves for these essential purposes: and may enable every
+instrument employed in its administration, to execute with success,
+the functions allotted to his charge. In tendering this homage to the
+great Author of every public and private good, I assure myself that it
+expresses your sentiments not less than my own; nor those of my fellow
+citizens at large, less than either. No people can be bound to
+acknowledge and adore the invisible hand which conducts the affairs of
+men, more than the people of the United States. Every step by which
+they have advanced to the character of an independent nation seems to
+have been distinguished by some token of providential agency; and in
+the important revolution just accomplished in the system of their
+united government, the tranquil deliberations and voluntary consent of
+so many distinct communities, from which the event has resulted, can
+not be compared with the means by which most governments have been
+established, without some return of pious gratitude along with an
+humble anticipation of the future blessings which the past seem to
+presage. These reflections, arising out of the present crisis, have
+forced themselves too strongly on my mind to be suppressed. You will
+join with me, I trust, in thinking that there are none, under the
+influence of which the proceedings of a new and free government can
+more auspiciously commence.
+
+"By the article establishing the executive department, it is made the
+duty of the President 'to recommend to your consideration, such
+measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.' The circumstances
+under which I now meet you will acquit me from entering into that
+subject, farther than to refer to the great constitutional charter
+under which you are assembled, and which in defining your powers,
+designates the objects to which your attention is to be given. It will
+be more consistent with those circumstances, and far more congenial
+with the feelings which actuate me, to substitute in place of a
+recommendation of particular measures, the tribute that is due to the
+talents, the rectitude, and the patriotism, which adorn the characters
+selected to devise and adopt them. In these honourable qualifications,
+I behold the surest pledges that, as on one side, no local prejudices
+or attachments, no separate views nor party animosities, will
+misdirect the comprehensive and equal eye which ought to watch over
+this great assemblage of communities and interests: so, on another,
+that the foundations of our national policy will be laid in the pure
+and immutable principles of private morality; and the pre-eminence of
+free government be exemplified by all the attributes which can win the
+affections of its citizens, and command the respect of the world. I
+dwell on this prospect with every satisfaction which an ardent love
+for my country can inspire, since there is no truth more thoroughly
+established than that there exists, in the economy and course of
+nature, an indissoluble union between virtue and happiness--between
+duty and advantage--between the genuine maxims of an honest and
+magnanimous policy, and the solid rewards of public prosperity and
+felicity; since we ought to be no less persuaded that the propitious
+smiles of heaven can never be expected on a nation that disregards the
+eternal rules of order and right which heaven itself has ordained: and
+since the preservation of the sacred fire of liberty, and the destiny
+of the republican model of government, are justly considered as
+DEEPLY, perhaps as FINALLY staked, on the experiment entrusted to the
+hands of the American people.
+
+"Besides the ordinary objects submitted to your care, it will remain
+with your judgment to decide, how far an exercise of the occasional
+power delegated by the fifth article of the constitution is rendered
+expedient, at the present juncture, by the nature of objections which
+have been urged against the system, or by the degree of inquietude
+which has given birth to them. Instead of undertaking particular
+recommendations on this subject, in which I could be guided by no
+lights derived from official opportunities, I shall again give way to
+my entire confidence in your discernment and pursuit of the public
+good: for I assure myself that whilst you carefully avoid every
+alteration which might endanger the benefits of a united and effective
+government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience,
+a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for
+the public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on
+the question how far the former can be more impregnably fortified, or
+the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.
+
+"To the preceding observations I have one to add, which will be most
+properly addressed to the house of representatives. It concerns
+myself, and will therefore be as brief as possible. When I was first
+honoured with a call into the service of my country, then on the eve
+of an arduous struggle for its liberties, the light in which I
+contemplated my duty required that I should renounce every pecuniary
+compensation. From this resolution I have in no instance departed. And
+being still under the impressions which produced it, I must decline,
+as inapplicable to myself, any share in the personal emoluments which
+may be indispensably included in a permanent provision for the
+executive department; and must accordingly pray that the pecuniary
+estimates for the station in which I am placed, may, during my
+continuance in it, be limited to such actual expenditures as the
+public good may be thought to require.
+
+"Having thus imparted to you my sentiments, as they have been awakened
+by the occasion which brings us together, I shall take my present
+leave; but not without resorting once more to the benign Parent of the
+human race, in humble supplication, that since he has been pleased to
+favour the American people with opportunities for deliberating in
+perfect tranquillity, and dispositions for deciding with unparalleled
+unanimity on a form of government, for the security of their union,
+and the advancement of their happiness, so his divine blessing may be
+equally _conspicuous_ in the enlarged views, the temperate
+consultations, and the wise measures on which the success of this
+government must depend."
+
+[Sidenote: Answer of both houses of congress to the speech.]
+
+In their answer to this speech, the senate say: "The unanimous
+suffrage of the elective body in your favour, is peculiarly expressive
+of the gratitude, confidence, and affection of the citizens of
+America, and is the highest testimonial at once of your merit, and
+their esteem. We are sensible, sir, that nothing but the voice of your
+fellow citizens could have called you from a retreat, chosen with the
+fondest predilection, endeared by habit, and consecrated to the repose
+of declining years. We rejoice, and with us all America, that, in
+obedience to the call of our common country, you have returned once
+more to public life. In you all parties confide; in you all interests
+unite; and we have no doubt that your past services, great as they
+have been, will be equalled by your future exertions; and that your
+prudence and sagacity, as a statesman, will tend to avert the dangers
+to which we were exposed, to give stability to the present government,
+and dignity and splendour to that country, which your skill and valour
+as a soldier, so eminently contributed to raise to independence and to
+empire."
+
+The affection for the person and character of the President with which
+the answer of the house of representatives glowed, promised that
+between this branch of the legislature also and the executive, the
+most harmonious co-operation in the public service might be expected.
+
+"The representatives of the people of the United States," says this
+address, "present their congratulations on the event by which your
+fellow citizens have attested the pre-eminence of your merit. You have
+long held the first place in their esteem. You have often received
+tokens of their affection. You now possess the only proof that
+remained of their gratitude for your services, of their reverence for
+your wisdom, and of their confidence in your virtues. You enjoy the
+highest, because the truest honour, of being the first magistrate, by
+the unanimous choice of the freest people on the face of the earth."
+
+After noticing the several communications made in the speech, intense
+of deep felt respect and affection, the answer concludes thus:
+
+"Such are the sentiments with which we have thought fit to address
+you. They flow from our own hearts, and we verily believe that among
+the millions we represent, there is not a virtuous citizen whose heart
+will disown them.
+
+"All that remains is, that we join in your fervent supplications for
+the blessing of heaven on our country; and that we add our own for the
+choicest of these blessings on the most beloved of her citizens."
+
+[Sidenote: Situation of the United States at this period in their
+domestic and foreign relations.]
+
+A perfect knowledge of the antecedent state of things being essential
+to a due administration of the executive department, its attainment
+engaged the immediate attention of the President; and he required the
+temporary heads of departments to prepare and lay before him such
+statements and documents as would give this information.
+
+But in the full view which it was useful to take of the interior, many
+objects were to be contemplated, the documents respecting which were
+not to be found in official records. The progress which had been made
+in assuaging the bitter animosities engendered in the sharp contest
+respecting the adoption of the constitution, and the means which might
+be used for conciliating the affections of all good men to the new
+government, without enfeebling its essential principles, were subjects
+of the most interesting inquiry.
+
+The agitation had been too great to be suddenly calmed; and for the
+active opponents of the system to become suddenly its friends, or even
+indifferent to its fate, would have been a victory of reason over
+passion, or a surrender of individual judgment to the decision of a
+majority, examples of which are rarely given in the progress of human
+affairs.
+
+In some of the states, a disposition to acquiesce in the decision
+which had been made, and to await the issue of a fair experiment of
+the constitution, was avowed by the minority. In others, the chagrin
+of defeat seemed to increase the original hostility to the instrument;
+and serious fears were entertained by its friends, that a second
+general convention might pluck from it the most essential of its
+powers, before their value, and the safety with which they might be
+confided where they were placed, could be ascertained by experience.
+
+From the same cause, exerting itself in a different direction, the
+friends of the new system had been still more alarmed. In all those
+states where the opposition was sufficiently formidable to inspire a
+hope of success, the effort was made to fill the legislature with the
+declared enemies of the government, and thus to commit it, in its
+infancy, to the custody of its foes. Their fears were quieted for the
+present. In both branches of the legislature, the federalists, an
+appellation at that time distinguishing those who had supported the
+constitution, formed the majority; and it soon appeared that a new
+convention was too bold an experiment to be applied for by the
+requisite number of states. The condition of individuals too, was
+visibly becoming more generally eligible. Industry, notwithstanding
+the causes which had diminished its profits, was gradually improving
+their affairs; and the new course of thinking, inspired by the
+adoption of a constitution prohibiting all laws impairing the
+obligation of contracts, had, in a great measure, restored that
+confidence which is essential to the internal prosperity of nations.
+From these, or from other causes, the crisis of the pressure on
+individuals seemed to be passing away, and brighter prospects to be
+opening on them.
+
+But, two states still remained out of the pale of the union; and a
+mass of ill humour existed among those who were included within it,
+which increased the necessity of circumspection in those who
+administered the government.
+
+To the western parts of the continent, the attention of the executive
+was attracted by discontents which were displayed with some violence,
+and which originated in circumstances, and in interests, peculiar to
+that country.
+
+Spain, in possession of the mouth of the Mississippi, had refused to
+permit the citizens of the United States to follow its waters into the
+ocean; and had occasionally tolerated or interdicted their commerce to
+New Orleans, as had been suggested by the supposed interest or caprice
+of the Spanish government, or of its representatives in America. The
+eyes of the inhabitants adjacent to the waters which emptied into that
+river, were turned down it, as the only channel through which the
+surplus produce of their luxuriant soil could be conveyed to the
+markets of the world. Believing that the future wealth and prosperity
+of their country depended on the use of that river, they gave some
+evidence of a disposition to drop from the confederacy, if this
+valuable acquisition could not otherwise be made. This temper could
+not fail to be viewed with interest by the neighbouring powers, who
+had been encouraged by it, and by the imbecility of the government, to
+enter into intrigues of an alarming nature.
+
+Previous to his departure from Mount Vernon, the President had
+received intelligence, too authentic to be disregarded, of private
+machinations by real or pretended agents both of Spain and Great
+Britain, which were extremely hostile to the peace, and to the
+integrity of the union.
+
+Spain had intimated that the navigation of the Mississippi could never
+be conceded, while the inhabitants of the western country remained
+connected with the Atlantic states, but might be freely granted to
+them, if they should form an independent empire.
+
+On the other hand, a gentleman from Canada, whose ostensible business
+was to repossess himself of some lands on the Ohio which had been
+formerly granted to him, frequently discussed the vital importance of
+the navigation of the Mississippi, and privately assured several
+individuals of great influence, that if they were disposed to assert
+their rights, he was authorized by Lord Dorchester, the governor of
+Canada, to say, that they might rely confidently on his assistance.
+With the aid it was in his power to give, they might seize New
+Orleans, fortify the Balise at the mouth of the Mississippi, and
+maintain themselves in that place against the utmost efforts of Spain.
+
+The probability of failing in any attempt to hold the mouth of the
+Mississippi by force, and the resentments against Great Britain which
+prevailed generally throughout the western country, diminished the
+danger to be apprehended from any machinations of that power; but
+against those of Spain, the same security did not exist.
+
+In contemplating the situation of the United States in their relations
+not purely domestic, the object demanding most immediate consideration
+was the hostility of several tribes of Indians. The military strength
+of the nations who inhabited the country between the lakes, the
+Mississippi, and the Ohio, was computed at five thousand men, of whom
+about fifteen hundred were at open war with the United States.
+Treaties had been concluded with the residue; but the attachment
+of young savages to war, and the provocation given by the
+undistinguishing vengeance which had been taken by the whites in their
+expeditions into the Indian country, furnished reasons for
+apprehending that these treaties would soon be broken.
+
+In the south, the Creeks, who could bring into the field six thousand
+fighting men, were at war with Georgia. In the mind of their leader,
+the son of a white man, some irritation had been produced by the
+confiscation of the lands of his father, who had resided in that
+state; and several other refugees whose property had also been
+confiscated, contributed still further to exasperate the nation. But
+the immediate point in contest between them was a tract of land on the
+Oconee, which the state of Georgia claimed under a purchase, the
+validity of which was denied by the Indians.
+
+The regular force of the United States was less than six hundred men.
+
+Not only the policy of accommodating differences by negotiation which
+the government was in no condition to terminate by the sword; but a
+real respect for the rights of the natives, and a regard for the
+claims of justice and humanity, disposed the President to endeavour,
+in the first instance, to remove every cause of quarrel by a treaty;
+and his message to congress on this subject evidenced his preference
+of pacific measures.
+
+Possessing many valuable articles of commerce for which the best
+market was often found on the coast of the Mediterranean, struggling
+to export them in their own bottoms, and unable to afford a single gun
+for their protection, the Americans could not view with unconcern the
+dispositions which were manifested towards them by the Barbary powers.
+A treaty had been formed with the emperor of Morocco; but from
+Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, peace had not been purchased; and those
+regencies consider all as enemies to whom they have not sold their
+friendship. The unprotected vessels of America presented a tempting
+object to their rapacity; and their hostility was the more terrible,
+because by their public law, prisoners became slaves.
+
+The United States were at peace with all the powers of Europe; but
+controversies of a delicate nature existed with some of them, the
+adjustment of which required a degree of moderation and firmness,
+which there was reason to fear, might not, in every instance, be
+exhibited.
+
+The early apprehensions with which Spain had contemplated the future
+strength of the United States, and the consequent disposition of the
+house of Bourbon to restrict them to narrow limits, have been already
+noticed. After the conclusion of the war, the attempt to form a treaty
+with that power had been repeated; but no advance towards an agreement
+on the points of difference between the two governments had been made.
+A long and intricate negotiation between the secretary of foreign
+affairs, and Don Guardoqui, the minister of his Catholic majesty, had
+terminated with the old government; and the result was an inflexible
+adherence on the part of Mr. Guardoqui to the exclusion of the
+citizens of the United States from navigating the Mississippi below
+their southern boundary. On this point there was much reason to fear
+that the cabinet of Madrid would remain immoveable. The violence with
+which the discontents of the western people were expressed, furnished
+Spain with additional motives for perpetuating the evil of which they
+complained. Aware of the embarrassments which this display of
+restlessness must occasion, and sensible of the increased difficulty
+and delay with which a removal of its primary cause must be attended,
+the executive perceived in this critical state of things, abundant
+cause for the exercise of its watchfulness, and of its prudence. With
+Spain, there was also a contest respecting boundaries. The treaty of
+peace had extended the limits of the United States to the thirty-first
+degree of north latitude, but the pretensions of the Catholic King
+were carried north of that line, to an undefined extent. He claimed as
+far as he had conquered from Britain, but the precise limits of his
+conquest were not ascertained.
+
+The circumstances attending the points of difference with Great
+Britain, were still more serious; because, in their progress, a temper
+unfavourable to accommodation had been uniformly displayed.
+
+The resentments produced by the various calamities war had occasioned,
+were not terminated with their cause. The idea that Great Britain was
+the natural enemy of America had become habitual. Believing it
+impossible for that nation to have relinquished its views of conquest,
+many found it difficult to bury their animosities, and to act upon the
+sentiment contained in the declaration of independence, "to hold them
+as the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends." In addition
+to the complaints respecting the violation of the treaty of peace,
+events were continually supplying this temper with fresh aliment. The
+disinclination which the cabinet of London had discovered to a
+commercial treaty with the United States was not attributed
+exclusively to the cause which had been assigned for it. It was in
+part ascribed to that jealousy with which Britain was supposed to view
+the growing trade of America.
+
+The general restrictions on commerce by which every maritime power
+sought to promote its own navigation, and that part of the European
+system in particular, by which each aimed at a monopoly of the trade
+of its colonies, were felt with peculiar keenness when enforced by
+England. The people of America were perhaps the more sensible to the
+British resolutions on this subject, because, having composed a part
+of that empire, they had grown up in the habit of a free intercourse
+with all its ports; and, without accurately appreciating the cause to
+which a change of this usage was to be ascribed, they attributed it to
+a jealousy of their prosperity, and to an inclination to diminish the
+value of their independence. In this suspicious temper, almost every
+unfavourable event which occurred was traced up to British hostility.
+
+That an attempt to form a commercial treaty with Portugal had failed,
+was attributed to the influence of the cabinet of London; and to the
+machinations of the same power were also ascribed the danger from the
+corsairs of Barbary, and the bloody incursions of the Indians. The
+resentment excited by these causes was felt by a large proportion of
+the American people; and the expression of it was common and public.
+That correspondent dispositions existed in England is by no means
+improbable, and the necessary effect of this temper was to increase
+the difficulty of adjusting the differences between the two nations.
+
+With France, the most perfect harmony subsisted. Those attachments
+which originated in the signal services received from his most
+Christian Majesty during the war of the revolution, had sustained no
+diminution. Yet, from causes which it was found difficult to
+counteract, the commercial intercourse between the two nations was not
+so extensive as had been expected. It was the interest, and of
+consequence the policy of France, to avail herself of the
+misunderstandings between the United States and Great Britain, in
+order to obtain such regulations as might gradually divert the
+increasing trade of the American continent from those channels in
+which it had been accustomed to flow; and a disposition was felt
+throughout the United States to co-operate with her, in enabling her
+merchants, by legislative encouragements, to rival those of Britain in
+the American market.
+
+A great revolution had commenced in that country, the first stage of
+which was completed by limiting the powers of the monarch, and by the
+establishment of a popular assembly. In no part of the globe was this
+revolution hailed with more joy than in America. The influence it
+would have on the affairs of the world was not then distinctly
+foreseen: and the philanthropist, without becoming a political
+partisan, rejoiced in the event. On this subject, therefore, but one
+sentiment existed.
+
+The relations of the United States with the other powers of Europe,
+did not require particular attention. Their dispositions were rather
+friendly than otherwise; and an inclination was generally manifested
+to participate in the advantages, which the erection of an independent
+empire on the western shores of the Atlantic, held forth to the
+commercial world.
+
+By the ministers of foreign powers in America, it would readily be
+supposed, that the first steps taken by the new government would, not
+only be indicative of its present system, but would probably affect
+its foreign relations permanently, and that the influence of the
+President would be felt in the legislature. Scarcely was the exercise
+of his executive functions commenced, when the President received an
+application from the Count de Moustiers, the minister of France,
+requesting a private conference. On being told that the department of
+foreign affairs was the channel through which all official business
+should pass, the Count replied that the interview he requested was,
+not for the purpose of actual business, but rather as preparatory to
+its future transaction.
+
+The next day, at one in the afternoon, was named for the interview.
+The Count commenced the conversation with declarations of his personal
+regard for America, the manifestations of which, he said, had been
+early and uniform. His nation too was well disposed to be upon terms
+of amity with the United States: but at his public reception, there
+were occurrences which he thought indicative of coolness in the
+secretary of foreign affairs, who had, he feared, while in Europe,
+imbibed prejudices not only against Spain, but against France also. If
+this conjecture should be right, the present head of that department
+could not be an agreeable organ of intercourse with the President. He
+then took a view of the modern usages of European courts, which, he
+said, favoured the practice he recommended of permitting foreign
+ministers to make their communications directly to the chief of the
+executive. "He then presented a letter," says the President in his
+private journal, "which he termed confidential, and to be considered
+as addressed to me in my private character, which was too strongly
+marked with an intention, as well as a wish, to have no person between
+the Minister and President, in the transaction of business between the
+two nations."
+
+In reply to these observations, the President gave the most explicit
+assurances that, judging from his own feelings, and from the public
+sentiment, there existed in America a reciprocal disposition to be on
+the best terms with France. That whatever former difficulties might
+have occurred, he was persuaded the secretary of foreign affairs had
+offered no intentional disrespect, either to the minister, or to his
+nation. Without undertaking to know the private opinions of Mr. Jay,
+he would declare that he had never heard that officer express,
+directly or indirectly, any sentiment unfavourable to either.
+
+Reason and usage, he added, must direct the mode of treating national
+and official business. If rules had been established, they must be
+conformed to. If they were yet to be framed, it was hoped that they
+would be convenient and proper. So far as ease could be made to
+comport with regularity, and with necessary forms, it ought to be
+consulted; but custom, and the dignity of office, were not to be
+disregarded. The conversation continued upwards of an hour, but no
+change was made in the resolution of the President.
+
+The subjects which pressed for immediate attention on the first
+legislature assembled under the new government, were numerous and
+important. Much was to be created, and much to be reformed.
+
+The subject of revenue, as constituting the vital spring without which
+the action of government could not long be continued, was taken up in
+the house of representatives, as soon as it could be introduced. The
+qualification of the members was succeeded by a motion for the house
+to resolve itself into a committee of the whole on the state of the
+union; and in that committee, a resolution was moved by Mr. Madison,
+declaring the opinion that certain duties ought to be levied on goods,
+wares, and merchandise, imported into the United States; and on the
+tonnage of vessels.
+
+As it was deemed important to complete a temporary system in time to
+embrace the spring importations, Mr. Madison presented the scheme of
+impost which had been recommended by the former congress, and had
+already received the approbation of a majority of the states; to which
+he added a general proposition for a duty on tonnage. By this scheme
+specific duties were imposed on certain enumerated articles; and an
+ad-valorem duty on those not enumerated. Mr. Fitzsimmons, of
+Pennsylvania, moved an amendment, enlarging the catalogue of
+enumerated articles.
+
+[Sidenote: Debates on the impost and tonnage bills.]
+
+Mr. Madison having consented to subjoin the amendment proposed by Mr.
+Fitzsimmons to the original resolution, it was received by the
+committee; but in proceeding to fill up the blanks with the sum
+taxable on each article, it was soon perceived that gentlemen had
+viewed the subject in very different lights. The tax on many articles
+was believed to press more heavily on some states than on others; and
+apprehensions were expressed that, in the form of protecting duties,
+the industry of one part of the union would be encouraged by premiums
+charged on the labour of another part. On the discrimination between
+the duty on the tonnage of foreign and American bottoms, a great
+degree of sensibility was discovered. The citizens of the United
+States not owning a sufficient number of vessels to export all the
+produce of the country, it was said that the increased tonnage on
+foreign bottoms operated as a tax on agriculture, and a premium to
+navigation. This discrimination, it was therefore contended, ought to
+be very small.
+
+In answer to these arguments, Mr. Madison said, "If it is expedient
+for America to have vessels employed in commerce at all, it will be
+proper that she have enough to answer all the purposes intended; to
+form a school for seamen; to lay the foundation of a navy: and to be
+able to support itself against the interference of foreigners. I do
+not think there is much weight in the observations that the duty we
+are about to lay in favour of American vessels is a burden on the
+community, and particularly oppressive to some parts. But if there
+were, it may be a burden of that kind which will ultimately save us
+from one that is greater.
+
+"I consider an acquisition of maritime strength essential to this
+country; should we ever be so unfortunate as to be engaged in war,
+what but this can defend our towns and cities upon the sea coast? Or
+what but this can enable us to repel an invading enemy? Those parts
+which are said to bear an undue proportion of the burden of the
+additional duty on foreign shipping, are those which will be most
+exposed to the operations of a predatory war, and will require the
+greatest exertions of the union in their defence. If therefore some
+little sacrifice be made by them to obtain this important object, they
+will be peculiarly rewarded for it in the hour of danger. Granting a
+preference to our own navigation will insensibly bring it forward to
+that perfection so essential to American safety; and though it may
+produce some little inequality at first, it will soon ascertain its
+level, and become uniform throughout the union."
+
+But no part of the system was discussed with more animation than that
+which proposed to make discriminations in favour of those nations with
+whom the United States had formed commercial treaties. In the debate
+on this subject, opinions and feelings with respect to foreign powers
+were disclosed, which, strengthening with circumstances, afterwards
+agitated the whole American continent.
+
+While the resolutions on which the bills were to be framed were under
+debate, Mr. Benson rose to inquire on what principle the proposed
+discriminations between foreign nations was founded? "It was certainly
+proper," he said, "to comply with existing treaties. But those
+treaties stipulated no such preference. Congress then was at liberty
+to consult the interests of the United States. If those interests
+would be promoted by the measure, he should be willing to adopt it,
+but he wished its policy to be shown."
+
+The resolutions, as reported, were supported by Mr. Madison, Mr.
+Baldwin, Mr. Fitzsimmons, Mr. Clymer, Mr. Page, and Mr. Jackson.
+
+They relied much upon the public sentiment which had, they said, been
+unequivocally expressed through the several state legislatures and
+otherwise, against placing foreign nations generally, on a footing
+with the allies of the United States. So strong was this sentiment,
+that to its operation the existing constitution was principally to be
+ascribed. They thought it important to prove to those nations who had
+declined forming commercial treaties with them, that the United States
+possessed and would exercise the power of retaliating any regulations
+unfavourable to their trade, and they insisted strongly on the
+advantages of America in a war of commercial regulation, should this
+measure produce one.
+
+The disposition France had lately shown to relax with regard to the
+United States, the rigid policy by which her counsels had generally
+been guided, ought to be cultivated. The evidence of this disposition
+was an edict by which American built ships purchased by French
+subjects became naturalized. There was reason to believe that the
+person charged with the affairs of the United States at that court,
+had made some favourable impressions, which the conduct of the
+American government ought not to efface.
+
+With great earnestness it was urged, that from artificial or
+adventitious causes, the commerce between the United States and Great
+Britain had exceeded its natural boundary. It was wise to give such
+political advantages to other nations as would enable them to acquire
+their due share of the direct trade. It was also wise to impart some
+benefits to nations that had formed commercial treaties with the
+United States, and thereby to impress on those powers which had
+hitherto neglected to form such treaties, the idea that some
+advantages were to be gained by a reciprocity of friendship.
+
+That France had claims on the gratitude of the American people which
+ought not to be overlooked, was an additional argument in favour of
+the principle for which they contended.
+
+The discrimination was opposed by Mr. Benson, Mr. Lawrence, Mr.
+Wadsworth, and Mr. Sherman.
+
+They did not admit that the public sentiment had been unequivocally
+expressed; nor did they admit that such benefits had flowed from
+commercial treaties as to justify a sacrifice of interest to obtain
+them. There was a commercial treaty with France; but neither that
+treaty, nor the favours shown to that nation, had produced any
+correspondent advantages. The license to sell ships could not be of
+this description, since it was well known that the merchants of the
+United States did not own vessels enough for the transportation of the
+produce of the country, and only two, as was believed, had been sold
+since the license had been granted. The trade with Great Britain,
+viewed in all its parts, was upon a footing as beneficial to the
+United States as that with France.
+
+That the latter power had claims upon the gratitude of America was
+admitted, but that these claims would justify premiums for the
+encouragement of French commerce and navigation, to be drawn from the
+pockets of the American people, was not conceded. The state of the
+revenue, it was said, would not admit of these experiments.
+
+The observation founded on the extensiveness of the trade between the
+United States and Great Britain was answered by saying, that this was
+not a subject proper for legislative interposition. It was one of
+which the merchants were the best judges. They would consult their
+interest as individuals; and this was a case in which the interest of
+the nation and of individuals was the same.
+
+At length, the bills passed the house of representatives, and were
+carried to the senate, where they were amended by expunging the
+discrimination made in favour of the tonnage and distilled spirits of
+those nations which had formed commercial treaties with the United
+States.
+
+These amendments were disagreed to; and each house insisting on its
+opinion, a conference took place, after which the point was
+reluctantly yielded by the house of representatives. The proceedings
+of the senate being at that time conducted with closed doors, the
+course of reasoning on which this important principle was rejected can
+not be stated.
+
+This debate on the impost and tonnage bills was succeeded by one on a
+subject which was believed to involve principles of still greater
+interest.
+
+[Sidenote: On the President's power of removal from office.]
+
+In organizing the departments of the executive, the question in what
+manner the high officers who filled them should be removeable, came on
+to be discussed. Believing that the decision of this question would
+materially influence the character of the new government, the members
+supported their respective opinions with a degree of earnestness
+proportioned to the importance they attributed to the measure. In a
+committee of the whole house on the bill "to establish an executive
+department to be denominated the[42] department of foreign affairs,"
+Mr. White moved to strike out the clause which declared the secretary
+to be removeable by the President. The power of removal, where no
+express provision existed, was, he said, in the nature of things,
+incidental to that of appointment. And as the senate was, by the
+constitution, associated with the President in making appointments,
+that body must, in the same degree, participate in the power of
+removing from office.
+
+     [Footnote 42: This has since been denominated the department
+     of state.]
+
+Mr. White was supported by Mr. Smith of South Carolina, Mr. Page, Mr.
+Stone, and Mr. Jackson.
+
+Those gentlemen contended that the clause was either unnecessary or
+improper. If the constitution gave the power to the President, a
+repetition of the grant in an act of congress was nugatory: if the
+constitution did not give it, the attempt to confer it by law was
+improper. If it belonged conjointly to the President and senate, the
+house of representatives should not attempt to abridge the
+constitutional prerogative of the other branch of the legislature.
+However this might be, they were clearly of opinion that it was not
+placed in the President alone. In the power over all the executive
+officers which the bill proposed to confer upon the President, the
+most alarming dangers to liberty were perceived. It was in the nature
+of monarchical prerogative, and would convert them into the mere tools
+and creatures of his will. A dependence so servile on one individual,
+would deter men of high and honourable minds from engaging in the
+public service; and if, contrary to expectation, such men should be
+brought into office, they would be reduced to the necessity of
+sacrificing every principle of independence to the will of the chief
+magistrate, or of exposing themselves to the disgrace of being removed
+from office, and that too at a time when it might be no longer in
+their power to engage in other pursuits.
+
+Gentlemen they feared were too much dazzled with the splendour of the
+virtues which adorned the actual President, to be able to look into
+futurity. But the framers of the constitution had not confined their
+views to the person who would most probably first fill the
+presidential chair. The house of representatives ought to follow their
+example, and to contemplate this power in the hands of an ambitious
+man, who might apply it to dangerous purposes; who might from caprice
+remove the most worthy men from office.
+
+[Illustration: View of the Old City or Federal Hall, New York, in 1789
+
+_On the balcony of this building, the site of which is now occupied by
+the United States Sub-Treasury, at the corner of Broad and Wall
+Streets, George Washington took the oath of office as First President
+of the United States, April 30, 1789. In the near distance, at the
+intersection of Wall and Broadway, may be seen the original Trinity
+Church structure which was completed in 1697. It was replaced by the
+present edifice in 1846. President Washington, who was an
+Episcopalian, did not attend Trinity, but maintained a pew in St.
+Paul's Chapel, Broadway and Vesey Street, which remains as it was when
+he worshipped there._]
+
+By the friends of the original bill, the amendment was opposed with
+arguments of great force drawn from the constitution and from general
+convenience. On several parts of the constitution, and especially on
+that which vests the executive power in the President, they relied
+confidently to support the position, that, in conformity with that
+instrument, the power in question could reside only with the chief
+magistrate: no power, it was said, could be more completely executive
+in its nature than that of removal from office.
+
+But if it was a case on which the constitution was silent, the
+clearest principles of political expediency required that neither
+branch of the legislature should participate in it.
+
+The danger that a President could ever be found who would remove good
+men from office, was treated as imaginary. It was not by the splendour
+attached to the character of the present chief magistrate alone that
+this opinion was to be defended. It was founded on the structure of
+the office. The man in whose favour a majority of the people of this
+continent would unite, had probability at least in favour of his
+principles; in addition to which, the public odium that would
+inevitably attach to such conduct, would be an effectual security
+against it.
+
+After an ardent discussion which consumed several days, the committee
+divided: and the amendment was negatived by a majority of thirty-four
+to twenty. The opinion thus expressed by the house of representatives
+did not explicitly convey their sense of the constitution. Indeed the
+express grant of the power to the President, rather implied a right in
+the legislature to give or withhold it at their discretion. To obviate
+any misunderstanding of the principle on which the question had been
+'decided, Mr. Benson moved in the house, when the report of the
+committee of the whole was taken up, to amend the second clause in the
+bill so as clearly to imply the power of removal to be solely in the
+President. He gave notice that if he should succeed in this, he would
+move to strike out the words which had been the subject of debate. If
+those words continued, he said the power of removal by the President
+might hereafter appear to be exercised by virtue of a legislative
+grant only, and consequently be subjected to legislative instability;
+when he was well satisfied in his own mind, that it was by fair
+construction, fixed in the constitution. The motion was seconded by
+Mr. Madison, and both amendments were adopted. As the bill passed into
+a law, it has ever been considered as a full expression of the sense
+of the legislature on this important part of the American
+constitution.
+
+[Sidenote: On the policy of the secretary of the treasury reporting
+plans for the management of the revenue.]
+
+The bill to establish the treasury department, contained a clause
+making it the duty of the secretary "to digest and report plans for
+the improvement and management of the revenue, and for the support of
+public credit."
+
+Mr. Page moved to strike out these words, observing, that to permit
+the secretary to go further than to prepare estimates would be a
+dangerous innovation on the constitutional privilege of that house. It
+would create an undue influence within those walls, because members
+might be led by the deference commonly paid to men of abilities, who
+gave an opinion in a case they have thoroughly considered, to support
+the plan of the minister even against their own judgment. Nor would
+the mischief stop there. A precedent would be established which might
+be extended until ministers of the government should be admitted on
+that floor, to explain and support the plans they had digested and
+reported, thereby laying a foundation for an aristocracy, or a
+detestable monarchy.
+
+Mr. Tucker seconded the motion of Mr. Page, and observed, that the
+authority contained in the bill to prepare and report plans would
+create an interference of the executive with the legislative powers,
+and would abridge the particular privilege of that house to originate
+all bills for raising a revenue. How could the business originate in
+that house, if it was reported to them by the minister of finance? All
+the information that could be required might be called for without
+adopting a clause that might undermine the authority of the house, and
+the security of the people. The constitution has pointed out the
+proper method of communication between the executive and legislative
+departments. It is made the duty of the President to give from time to
+time information to congress of the state of the union, and to
+recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge
+necessary and expedient. If revenue plans are to be prepared and
+reported to congress, he is the proper person to perform this service.
+He is responsible to the people for what he recommends, and will be
+more cautious than any other person to whom a less degree of
+responsibility was attached.
+
+He hoped the house was not already weary of executing and sustaining
+the powers vested in them by the constitution; and yet the adoption of
+this clause would argue that they thought themselves less adequate
+than an individual, to determine what burdens their constituents were
+able to bear. This was not answering the high expectation that had
+been formed of their exertions for the general good, or of their
+vigilance in guarding their own and the people's rights.
+
+The arguments of Mr. Page and Mr. Tucker were enforced and enlarged by
+Mr. Livermore and Mr. Gerry. The latter gentleman said, "that he had
+no objection to obtaining information, but he could not help observing
+the great degree of importance gentlemen were giving to this and the
+other executive officers. If the doctrine of having prime and great
+ministers of state was once well established, he did not doubt but he
+should soon see them distinguished by a green or red ribbon, insignia
+of court favour and patronage."
+
+It was contended that the plans of the secretary, being digested,
+would be received entire. Members would be informed that each part was
+necessary to the whole, and that nothing could be touched without
+injuring the system. Establish this doctrine, and congress would
+become a useless burden.
+
+The amendment was opposed by Mr. Benson, Mr. Goodhue, Mr. Ames, Mr.
+Sedgewick, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Madison, Mr. Stone, Mr.
+Sherman, and Mr. Baldwin. It was insisted that to prepare and report
+plans for the improvement of the revenue, and support of public
+credit, constituted the most important service which could be rendered
+by the officer who should be placed at the head of the department of
+finance. When the circumstances under which the members of that house
+were assembled, and the various objects for which they were convened
+were considered, it was no imputation upon them to suppose that they
+might receive useful information from a person whose peculiar duty it
+was to direct his attention to systems of finance, and who would be in
+some measure selected on account of his fitness for that object. It
+was denied that the privileges of the house would be infringed by the
+measure. The plans of the secretary could not be termed bills, nor
+would they even be reported in that form. They would only constitute
+information which would be valuable, and which could not be received
+in a more eligible mode. "Certainly," said Mr. Goodhue, "we carry our
+dignity to the extreme, when we refuse to receive information from any
+but ourselves."
+
+"If we consider the present situation of our finances," said Mr. Ames,
+"owing to a variety of causes, we shall no doubt perceive a great
+though unavoidable confusion throughout the whole scene. It presents
+to the imagination a deep, dark, and dreary chaos, impossible to be
+reduced to order, unless the mind of the architect be clear and
+capacious, and his power commensurate to the object. He must not be
+the flitting creature of the day; he must have time given him
+competent to the successful exercise of his authority. It is with the
+intention of letting a little sunshine into the business, that the
+present arrangement is proposed."
+
+It was not admitted that the plans of the secretary would possess an
+influence to which their intrinsic value would not give them a just
+claim. There would always be sufficient intelligence in that house to
+detect, and independence to expose any oppressive or injurious scheme
+which might be prepared for them. Nor would a plan openly and
+officially reported possess more influence on the mind of any member,
+than if given privately at the secretary's office.
+
+Mr. Madison said, the words of the bill were precisely those used by
+the former congress on two occasions. The same power had been annexed
+to the office of superintendent of the finances; and he had never
+heard that any inconvenience had been experienced from the regulation.
+Perhaps if the power had been more fully and more frequently
+exercised, it might have contributed more to the public good. "There
+is," continued this gentleman, "a small probability, though it is but
+small, that an officer may derive weight from this circumstance, and
+have some degree of influence upon the deliberations of the
+legislature. But compare the danger likely to result from this cause,
+with the danger and inconvenience of not having well formed and
+digested plans, and we shall find infinitely more to apprehend from
+the latter. Inconsistent, unproductive, and expensive schemes, will
+produce greater injury to our constituents, than is to be apprehended
+from any undue influence which the well digested plans of a well
+informed officer can have. From a bad administration of the
+government, more detriment will arise than from any other source. Want
+of information has occasioned much inconvenience, and many unnecessary
+burdens in some of the state governments. Let it be our care to avoid
+those rocks and shoals in our political voyage which have injured, and
+nearly proved fatal to many of our contemporary navigators."
+
+The amendment was rejected.
+
+[Sidenote: On the style by which the president should be addressed.]
+
+Among the interesting points which were settled in the first congress,
+was the question by what style the President and Vice President should
+be addressed. Mr. Benson, from the committee appointed to confer with
+a committee of the senate on this subject reported, "that it is not
+proper to annex any style or title to the respective styles or titles
+of office expressed in the constitution;" and this report was, without
+opposition, agreed to in the house of representatives. In the senate,
+the report was disapproved, and a resolution passed requesting the
+house of representatives to appoint another committee, again to confer
+with one from the senate, on the same subject. This message being
+taken up in the house of representatives, a resolution was moved by
+Mr. Parker, seconded by Mr. Page, declaring that it would be improper
+to accede to the request of the senate. Several members were in favour
+of this motion; but others who were opposed to receding from the
+ground already taken, seemed inclined to appoint a committee as a
+measure properly respectful to the other branch of the legislature.
+
+After a warm debate, the resolution proposed by Mr. Parker was set
+aside by the previous question, and a committee of conference was
+appointed. They could not agree upon a report, in consequence of which
+the subject was permitted to rest; and the senate, conforming to the
+precedent given by the house of representatives, addressed the
+President in their answer to his speech by the terms used in the
+constitution.
+
+While the representatives were preparing bills for organizing the
+great executive departments, the senate was occupied with digesting
+the system of a national judiciary. This complex and extensive subject
+was taken up in the commencement of the session, and was completed
+towards its close.
+
+[Sidenote: Amendment to the constitution proposed by congress and
+ratified by the states.]
+
+In the course of this session Mr. Madison brought forward a
+proposition for recommending to the consideration and adoption of the
+states, several new articles to be added to the constitution.
+
+Many of those objections to it which had been urged with all the
+vehemence of conviction, and which, in the opinion of some of its
+advocates, were entitled to serious consideration, were believed by
+the most intelligent to derive their sole support from erroneous
+construction of the instrument. Others were upon points on which the
+objectors might be gratified without injury to the system. To
+conciliate the affections of their brethren to the government, was an
+object greatly desired by its friends. Disposed to respect, what they
+deemed, the errors of their opponents, where that respect could be
+manifested without a sacrifice of essential principles, they were
+anxious to annex to the constitution those explanations and barriers
+against the possible encroachments of rulers on the liberties of the
+people, which had been loudly demanded, however unfounded, in their
+judgments, might be the fears by which those demands were suggested.
+These dispositions were perhaps, in some measure, stimulated to
+exertion by motives of the soundest policy. The formidable minorities
+in several of the conventions, which in the legislatures of some
+powerful states had become majorities, and the refusal of two states
+to complete the union, were admonitions not to be disregarded, of the
+necessity of removing jealousies, however misplaced, which operated on
+so large a portion of society. Among the most zealous friends of the
+constitution therefore, were found some of the first and warmest
+advocates for amendments.
+
+To meet the various ideas expressed by the several conventions; to
+select from the mass of alterations which they had proposed those
+which might be adopted without stripping the government of its
+necessary powers; to condense them into a form and compass which would
+be acceptable to persons disposed to indulge the caprice, and to adopt
+the language of their particular states; were labours not easily to be
+accomplished. But the greatest difficulty to be surmounted was, the
+disposition to make those alterations which would enfeeble, and
+materially injure, the future operations of the government. At length,
+ten articles in addition to and amendment of the constitution, were
+assented to by two-thirds of both houses of congress, and proposed to
+the legislatures of the several states. Although the necessity of
+these amendments had been urged by the enemies of the constitution,
+and denied by its friends, they encountered scarcely any other
+opposition in the state legislatures, than was given by the leaders of
+the anti-federal party. Admitting the articles to be good and
+necessary, it was contended that they were not sufficient for the
+security of liberty; and the apprehension was avowed that their
+adoption would quiet the fears of the people, and check the pursuit of
+those radical alterations which would afford a safe and adequate
+protection to their rights. They were at length ratified by the
+legislatures of three-fourths of the states, and probably contributed,
+in some degree, to diminish the jealousies which had been imbibed
+against the constitution.
+
+[Sidenote: Appointment of the officers of the cabinet, council and of
+the judges.]
+
+The government being completely organized, and a system of revenue
+established, the important duty of filling the offices which had been
+created, remained to be performed. In the execution of this delicate
+trust, the purest virtue and the most impartial judgment were
+exercised in selecting the best talents, and the greatest weight of
+character, which the United States could furnish. The unmingled
+patriotism of the motives by which the President was actuated, would
+receive its clearest demonstration from a view of all his private
+letters on this subject: and the success of his endeavours is attested
+by the abilities and reputation which he drew into the public service.
+
+At the head of the department of foreign affairs, since denominated
+the department of state, he placed Mr. Jefferson.
+
+This gentleman had been bred to the bar, and at an early period of
+life, had acquired considerable reputation for extensive attainments
+in the science of politics. He had been a distinguished member of the
+second congress, and had been offered a diplomatic appointment, which
+he had declined. Withdrawing from the administration of continental
+affairs, he had been elected governor of Virginia, which office he
+filled for two years. He afterwards again represented his native state
+in the councils of the union, and in the year 1784, was appointed to
+succeed Dr. Franklin at the court of Versailles. In that station, he
+had acquitted himself much to the public satisfaction. His Notes on
+Virginia, which were read with applause, were believed to evince the
+soundness of his political opinions; and the Declaration of
+Independence was universally ascribed to his pen. He had long been
+placed by America amongst the most eminent of her citizens, and had
+long been classed by the President with those who were most capable of
+serving the nation. Having lately obtained permission to return for a
+short time to the United States, he was, while on his passage,
+nominated to this important office; and, on his arrival in Virginia,
+found a letter from the President, giving him the option of becoming
+the secretary of foreign affairs, or of retaining his station at the
+court of Versailles. He appears rather to have inclined to continue in
+his foreign appointment; and, in changing his situation, to have
+consulted the wishes of the first magistrate more than the preference
+of his own mind.
+
+The task of restoring public credit, of drawing order and arrangement
+from the chaotic confusion in which the finances of America were
+involved, and of devising means which should render the revenue
+productive, and commensurate with the demand, in a manner least
+burdensome to the people, was justly classed among the most arduous of
+the duties which devolved on the new government. In discharging it,
+much aid was expected from the head of the treasury. This important,
+and, at that time, intricate department, was assigned to Colonel
+Hamilton.
+
+This gentleman was a native of the island of St. Croix, and, at a very
+early period of life, had been placed by his friends, in New York.
+Possessing an ardent temper, he caught fire from the concussions of
+the moment, and, with all the enthusiasm of youth, engaged first his
+pen, and afterwards his sword, in the stern contest between the
+American colonies and their parent state. Among the first troops
+raised by New York was a corps of artillery, in which he was appointed
+a captain. Soon after the war was transferred to the Hudson, his
+superior endowments recommended him to the attention of the
+Commander-in-chief, into whose family, before completing his
+twenty-first year, he was invited to enter. Equally brave and
+intelligent, he continued, in this situation, to display a degree of
+firmness and capacity which commanded the confidence and esteem of his
+general, and of the principal officers in the army.
+
+After the capitulation at Yorktown, the war languished throughout the
+American continent, and the probability that its termination was
+approaching daily increased.
+
+The critical circumstances of the existing government rendered the
+events of the civil, more interesting than those of the military
+department; and Colonel Hamilton accepted a seat in the congress of
+the United States. In all the important acts of the day, he performed
+a conspicuous part; and was greatly distinguished among those
+distinguished men whom the crisis had attracted to the councils of
+their country. He had afterwards been active in promoting those
+measures which led to the convention at Philadelphia, of which he was
+a member, and had greatly contributed to the adoption of the
+constitution by the state of New York. In the pre-eminent part he had
+performed, both in the military and civil transactions of his country,
+he had acquired a great degree of well merited fame; and the frankness
+of his manners, the openness of his temper, the warmth of his
+feelings, and the sincerity of his heart, had secured him many
+valuable friends.
+
+To talents equally splendid and useful, he united a patient industry,
+not always the companion of genius, which fitted him, in a peculiar
+manner, for subduing the difficulties to be encountered by the man who
+should be placed at the head of the American finances.
+
+The department of war was already filled by General Knox, and he was
+again nominated to it.
+
+Throughout the contest of the revolution, this officer had continued
+at the head of the American artillery, and from being the colonel of a
+regiment, had been promoted to the rank of a major general. In this
+important station, he had preserved a high military character; and, on
+the resignation of General Lincoln, had been appointed secretary of
+war. To his past services, and to unquestionable integrity, he was
+admitted to unite a sound understanding; and the public judgment, as
+well as that of the chief magistrate, pronounced him in all respects
+competent to the station he filled.
+
+The office of attorney general was filled by Mr. Edmund Randolph. To a
+distinguished reputation in the line of his profession, this gentleman
+added a considerable degree of political eminence. After having been
+for several years the attorney general of Virginia, he had been
+elected its governor. While in this office, he was chosen a member of
+the convention which framed the constitution, and was also elected to
+that which was called by the state for its adoption or rejection.
+After having served at the head of the executive the term permitted by
+the constitution of the state, he entered into its legislature, where
+he preserved a great share of influence.
+
+Such was the first cabinet council of the President. In its
+composition, public opinion as well as intrinsic worth had been
+consulted, and a high degree of character had been combined with real
+talent.
+
+In the selection of persons for high judicial offices, the President
+was guided by the same principles. At the head of this department he
+placed Mr. John Jay.
+
+From the commencement of the revolution, this gentleman had filled a
+large space in the public mind. Remaining, without intermission, in
+the service of his country, he had passed through a succession of high
+offices, and, in all of them, had merited the approbation of his
+fellow citizens. To his pen, while in congress, America was indebted
+for some of those masterly addresses which reflected most honour upon
+the government; and to his firmness and penetration, was to be
+ascribed, in no inconsiderable degree, the happy issue of those
+intricate negotiations, which were conducted, towards the close of the
+war, at Madrid, and at Paris. On returning to the United States, he
+had been appointed secretary of foreign affairs, in which station he
+had conducted himself with his accustomed ability. A sound judgment
+improved by extensive reading and great knowledge of public affairs,
+unyielding firmness, and inflexible integrity, were qualities of which
+Mr. Jay had given frequent and signal proofs. Although for some years
+withdrawn from that profession to which he was bred, the acquisitions
+of his early life had not been lost; and the subjects on which his
+mind had been exercised, were not entirely foreign from those which
+would, in the first instance, employ the courts in which he was to
+preside.
+
+John Rutledge of South Carolina, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, William
+Cushing of Massachusetts, Robert Harrison of Maryland, and John Blair
+of Virginia were nominated as associate justices. Some of these
+gentlemen had filled the highest law offices in their respective
+states; and all of them had received distinguished marks of the public
+confidence.
+
+In the systems which had been adopted by the several states, offices
+corresponding to those created by the revenue laws of congress, had
+been already established. Uninfluenced by considerations of personal
+regard, the President could not be induced to change men whom he found
+in place, if worthy of being employed; and where the man who had
+filled such office in the former state of things was unexceptionable
+in his conduct and character, he was uniformly re-appointed. In
+deciding between competitors for vacant offices, the law he prescribed
+for his government was to regard the fitness of candidates for the
+duties they would be required to discharge; and, where an equality in
+this respect existed, former merits and sufferings in the public
+service, gave claims to preference which could not be overlooked.
+
+In the legislative, as well as in the executive and judicial
+departments, great respectability of character was also associated
+with an eminent degree of talents. The constitutional prohibition to
+appoint any member of the legislature to an office created during the
+time for which he had been elected, did not exclude men of the most
+distinguished abilities from the first congress. Impelled by an
+anxious solicitude respecting the first measures of the government,
+its zealous friends had pressed into its service: and, in both
+branches of the legislature, men were found who possessed the fairest
+claims to the public confidence.
+
+From the duties attached to his office, the Vice President of the
+United States, and President of the senate, though not a member of the
+legislature, was classed, in the public mind, with that department not
+less than with the executive. Elected by the whole people of America
+in common with the President, he could not fail to be taken from the
+most distinguished citizens, and to add to the dignity of the body
+over which he presided.
+
+Mr. John Adams was one of the earliest and most ardent patriots of the
+revolution. Bred to the bar, he had necessarily studied the
+constitution of his country, and was among the most determined
+asserters of its rights. Active in guiding that high spirit which
+animated all New England, he became a member of the congress of 1774,
+and was among the first who dared to avow sentiments in favour of
+independence. In that body he soon attained considerable eminence;
+and, at an early stage of the war, was chosen one of the commissioners
+to whom the interests of the United States in Europe were confided. In
+his diplomatic character, he had contributed greatly to those measures
+which drew Holland into the war; had negotiated the treaty between the
+United States and the Dutch republic: and had, at critical points of
+time, obtained loans of money which were of great advantage to his
+country. In the negotiations which terminated the war, he had also
+rendered important services; and, after the ratification of the
+definitive articles of peace, had been deputed to Great Britain for
+the purpose of effecting a commercial treaty with that nation. The
+political situation of America having rendered this object
+unattainable, he solicited leave to return, and arrived in the United
+States soon after the adoption of the constitution.
+
+As a statesman, this gentleman had, at all times, ranked high in the
+estimation of his countrymen. He had improved a sound understanding by
+extensive political and historical reading; and perhaps no American
+had reflected more profoundly on the subject of government. The
+exalted opinion he entertained of his own country was flattering to
+his fellow citizens; and the purity of his mind, the unblemished
+integrity of a life spent in the public service, had gained him their
+confidence.
+
+A government, supported in all its departments by so much character
+and talent, at the head of which was placed a man whose capacity was
+undoubted, whose life had been one great and continued lesson of
+disinterested patriotism, and for whom almost every bosom glowed with
+an attachment bordering on enthusiasm, could not fail to make a rapid
+progress in conciliating the affection of the people. That all
+hostility to the constitution should subside, that public measures
+should receive universal approbation; that no particular disgusts and
+individual irritations should be excited; were expectations which
+could not reasonably be indulged. Exaggerated accounts were indeed
+occasionally circulated of the pomp and splendour which were affected
+by certain high officers, of the monarchical tendencies of particular
+institutions, and of the dispositions which prevailed to increase the
+powers of the executive. That the doors of the senate were closed, and
+that a disposition had been manifested by that body to distinguish the
+President of the United States by a title,[43] gave considerable
+umbrage, and were represented as evincing inclinations in that branch
+of the legislature, unfriendly to republicanism. The exorbitance of
+salaries was also a subject of some declamation, and the equality of
+commercial privileges with which foreign bottoms entered American
+ports, was not free from objection. But the apprehensions of danger to
+liberty from the new system, which had been impressed on the minds of
+well meaning men, were visibly wearing off; the popularity of the
+administration was communicating itself to the government; and the
+materials with which the discontented were furnished, could not yet be
+efficaciously employed.
+
+     [Footnote 43: The following extract from a letter written
+     July 1789, to Doctor Stuart, who had communicated to him
+     this among other private insinuations, shows the ideas
+     entertained by the President on this subject. "It is to be
+     lamented that a question has been stirred which has given
+     rise to so much animadversion, and which I confess has given
+     me much uneasiness, lest it should be supposed by some
+     unacquainted with facts that the object in view was not
+     displeasing to me. The truth is, the question was moved
+     before I arrived, without any privity or knowledge of it on
+     my part, and urged after I was apprised of it contrary to my
+     opinion;--for I foresaw and predicted the reception it has
+     met with, and the use that would be made of it by the
+     enemies of the government. Happily the matter is now done
+     with, I hope never to be revived."]
+
+Towards the close of the session, a report on a petition which had
+been presented at an early period by the creditors of the public
+residing in the state of Pennsylvania, was taken up in the house of
+representatives. Though many considerations rendered a postponement of
+this interesting subject necessary, two resolutions were passed; the
+one, "declaring that the house considered an adequate provision for
+the support of the public credit, as a matter of high importance to
+the national honour and prosperity;" and the other directing, "the
+secretary of the treasury to prepare a plan for that purpose, and to
+report the same to the house at its next meeting."
+
+[Sidenote: Adjournment of the first session of congress.]
+
+On the 29th of September, congress adjourned to the first Monday in
+the succeeding January.
+
+Throughout the whole of this laborious and important session, perfect
+harmony subsisted between the executive and the legislature; and no
+circumstance occurred which threatened to impair it. The modes of
+communication between the departments of government were adjusted in a
+satisfactory manner, and arrangements were made on some of those
+delicate points in which the senate participate of executive power.
+
+[Sidenote: The president visits the New England states.]
+
+Anxious to visit New England, to observe in person the condition of
+the country and the dispositions of the people towards the government
+and its measures, the President was disposed to avail himself of the
+short respite from official cares afforded by the recess of congress,
+to make a tour through the eastern states. His resolution being taken,
+and the executive business which required his immediate personal
+attendance being despatched,[44] he commenced his tour on the 15th of
+October; and, passing through Connecticut and Massachusetts, as far as
+Portsmouth in New Hampshire, returned by a different route to New
+York, where he arrived on the 13th of November.
+
+     [Footnote 44: Just before his departure from New York the
+     President received from the Count de Moustiers, the minister
+     of France, official notice that he was permitted by his
+     court to return to Europe. By the orders of his sovereign he
+     added, "that His Majesty was pleased at the alteration which
+     had taken place in the government, and congratulated America
+     on the choice they had made of a President." As from
+     himself, he observed that the government of this country had
+     been hitherto of so fluctuating a nature, that no dependence
+     could be placed on its proceedings; in consequence of which
+     foreign nations had been cautious of entering into treaties,
+     or engagements of any kind with the United States: but that
+     in the present government there was a head to look up to,
+     and power being placed in the hands of its officers,
+     stability in its measures might be expected. The disposition
+     of his Christian Majesty to cultivate the good will of the
+     new government was also manifested by his conduct in the
+     choice of a minister to replace the Count de Moustiers.
+     Colonel Ternan was named as a person who would be
+     particularly acceptable to America, and his appointment was
+     preceded by the compliment of ascertaining the sense of the
+     President respecting him.]
+
+With this visit, the President had much reason to be satisfied. To
+contemplate the theatre on which many interesting military scenes had
+been exhibited, and to review the ground on which his first campaign
+as Commander-in-chief of the American army had been made, were sources
+of rational delight. To observe the progress of society, the
+improvements in agriculture, commerce, and manufactures; and the
+temper, circumstances, and dispositions of the people, could not fail
+to be grateful to an intelligent mind, and an employment in all
+respects, worthy of the chief magistrate of the nation. The
+reappearance of their general, in the high station he now filled,
+brought back to recollection the perilous transactions of the war; and
+the reception universally given to him, attested the unabated love
+which was felt for his person and character, and indicated
+unequivocally the growing popularity, at least in that part of the
+union, of the government he administered.
+
+[Sidenote: His reception.]
+
+The sincerity and warmth with which he reciprocated the affection
+expressed for his person in the addresses presented to him, was well
+calculated to preserve the sentiments which were generally diffused.
+"I rejoice with you my fellow citizens," said he in answer to an
+address from the inhabitants of Boston, "in every circumstance that
+declares your prosperity;--and I do so most cordially because you have
+well deserved to be happy.
+
+"Your love of liberty--your respect for the laws--your habits of
+industry--and your practice of the moral and religious obligations,
+are the strongest claims to national and individual happiness. And
+they will, I trust, be firmly and lastingly established."
+
+But the interchange of sentiments with the companions of his military
+toils and glory, will excite most interest, because on both sides, the
+expressions were dictated by the purest and most delicious feelings of
+the human heart. From the Cincinnati of Massachusetts he received the
+following address:
+
+"Amidst the various gratulations which your arrival in this metropolis
+has occasioned, permit us, the members of the society of the
+Cincinnati in this commonwealth, most respectfully to assure you of
+the ardour of esteem and affection you have so indelibly fixed in our
+hearts, as our glorious leader in war, and illustrious example in
+peace.
+
+"After the solemn and endearing farewell on the banks of the Hudson,
+which our anxiety presaged as final, most peculiarly pleasing is the
+present unexpected meeting. On this occasion we can not avoid the
+recollection of the various scenes of toil and danger through which
+you conducted us; and while we contemplate various trying periods of
+the war, and the triumphs of peace, we rejoice to behold you, induced
+by the unanimous voice of your country, entering upon other trials,
+and other services alike important, and, in some points of view,
+equally hazardous. For the completion of the great purposes which a
+grateful country has assigned you, long, very long, may your
+invaluable life be preserved. And as the admiring world, while
+considering you as a soldier, have long wanted a comparison, may your
+virtue and talents as a statesman leave them without a parallel.
+
+"It is not in words to express an attachment founded like ours. We can
+only say that when soldiers, our greatest pride was a promptitude of
+obedience to your orders; as citizens, our supreme ambition is to
+maintain the character of firm supporters of that noble fabric of
+federal government over which you preside.
+
+"As members of the society of the Cincinnati, it will be our endeavour
+to cherish those sacred principles of charity and fraternal attachment
+which our institution inculcates. And while our conduct is thus
+regulated, we can never want the patronage of the first of patriots
+and the best of men."
+
+To this address the following answer was returned:
+
+"In reciprocating with gratitude and sincerity the multiplied and
+affecting gratulations of my fellow citizens of this commonwealth,
+they will all of them with justice allow me to say, that none can be
+dearer to me than the affectionate assurances which you have
+expressed. Dear, indeed, is the occasion which restores an intercourse
+with my faithful associates in prosperous and adverse fortune; and
+enhanced are the triumphs of peace, participated with those whose
+virtue and valour so largely contributed to procure them. To that
+virtue and valour your country has confessed her obligations. Be mine
+the grateful task to add the testimony of a connexion which it was my
+pride to own in the field, and is now my happiness to acknowledge in
+the enjoyments of peace and freedom.
+
+"Regulating your conduct by those principles which have heretofore
+governed your actions as men, soldiers, and citizens, you will repeat
+the obligations conferred on your country, and you will transmit to
+posterity an example that must command their admiration and grateful
+praise. Long may you continue to enjoy the endearments of fraternal
+attachments, and the heartfelt happiness of reflecting that you have
+faithfully done your duty.
+
+"While I am permitted to possess the consciousness of this worth,
+which has long bound me to you by every tie of affection and esteem, I
+will continue to be your sincere and faithful friend."
+
+Soon after his return to New York, the President was informed of the
+ill success which had attended his first attempt to negotiate a peace
+with the Creek Indians. General Lincoln, Mr. Griffin, and Colonel
+Humphries, had been deputed on this mission, and had met M'Gillivray
+with several other chiefs, and about two thousand men, at Rock
+landing, on the Oconee, on the frontiers of Georgia. The treaty
+commenced with favourable appearances, but was soon abruptly broken
+off by M'Gillivray. Some difficulties arose on the subject of a
+boundary, but the principal obstacles to a peace were supposed to grow
+out of his personal interests, and his connexions with Spain.
+
+[Sidenote: North Carolina accedes to the union.]
+
+This intelligence was more than counterbalanced by the accession of
+North Carolina to the union. In the month of November, a second
+convention had met under the authority of the legislature of that
+state, and the constitution was adopted by a great majority.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+     Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... Report of the
+     secretary of the treasury on public credit.... Debate
+     thereon.... Bill for fixing the permanent seat of
+     government.... Adjournment of congress.... Treaty with the
+     Creek Indians.... Relations of the United States with Great
+     Britain and Spain.... The President visits Mount Vernon....
+     Session of congress.... The President's speech.... Debates
+     on the excise.... On a national bank.... The opinions of the
+     cabinet on the law.... Progress of parties.... War with the
+     Indians.... Defeat of Harmar.... Adjournment of congress.
+
+
+{1790}
+
+On the eighth of January, 1790, the President met both houses of
+congress in the senate chamber.
+
+[Sidenote: Meeting of the second session of the first congress.]
+
+In his speech, which was delivered from the chair of the vice
+president, after congratulating congress on the accession of the
+important state of North Carolina to the union, and on the prosperous
+aspect of American affairs, he proceeded to recommend certain great
+objects of legislation to their more especial consideration.
+
+"Among the many interesting objects," continued the speech, "which
+will engage your attention, that of providing for the common defence
+will merit your particular regard. To be prepared for war is one of
+the most effectual means of preserving peace.
+
+"A free people ought not only to be armed but disciplined; to which
+end, a uniform and well digested plan is requisite; and their safety
+and interest require that they should promote such manufactories as
+tend to render them independent on others for essential, particularly
+for military supplies."
+
+As connected with this subject, a proper establishment for the troops
+which they might deem indispensable, was suggested for their mature
+deliberation; and the indications of a hostile temper given by several
+tribes of Indians, were considered as admonishing them of the
+necessity of being prepared to afford protection to the frontiers, and
+to punish aggression.
+
+The interests of the United States were declared to require that the
+means of keeping up their intercourse with foreign nations should be
+provided; and the expediency of establishing a uniform rule of
+naturalization was suggested.
+
+After expressing his confidence in their attention to many
+improvements essential to the prosperity of the interior, the
+President added, "nor am I less persuaded that you will agree with me
+in opinion that there is nothing which can better deserve your
+patronage than the promotion of science and literature. Knowledge is
+in every country the surest basis of public happiness. In one, in
+which the measures of government receive their impression so
+immediately from the sense of the community as in ours, it is
+proportionably essential. To the security of a free constitution it
+contributes in various ways: by convincing those who are intrusted
+with the public administration, that every valuable end of government
+is best answered by the enlightened confidence of the people; and by
+teaching the people themselves to know and to value their own rights;
+to discern and provide against invasions of them; to distinguish
+between oppression and the necessary exercise of lawful authority;
+between burdens proceeding from a disregard to their convenience, and
+those resulting from the inevitable exigencies of society; to
+discriminate the spirit of liberty from that of licentiousness,
+cherishing the first, avoiding the last, and uniting a speedy but
+temperate vigilance against encroachments, with an inviolable respect
+to the laws.
+
+"Whether this desirable object will be best promoted by affording aids
+to seminaries of learning already established, by the institution of a
+national university, or by any other expedients, will be well worthy
+of a place in the deliberations of the legislature."
+
+Addressing himself then particularly to the representatives he said:
+"I saw with peculiar pleasure at the close of the last session, the
+resolution entered into by you, expressive of your opinion, that an
+adequate provision for the support of the public credit is a matter of
+high importance to the national honour and prosperity. In this
+sentiment I entirely concur; and to a perfect confidence in your best
+endeavours to devise such a provision as will be truly consistent with
+the end, I add an equal reliance on the cheerful co-operation of the
+other branch of the legislature. It would be superfluous to specify
+inducements to a measure in which the character and permanent
+interests of the United States are so obviously and so deeply
+concerned; and which has received so explicit a sanction from your
+declaration."
+
+Addressing himself again to both houses, he observed, that the
+estimates and papers respecting the objects particularly recommended
+to their attention would be laid before them; and concluded with
+saying, "the welfare of our country is the great object to which our
+cares and efforts ought to be directed: and I shall derive great
+satisfaction from a co-operation with you in the pleasing though
+arduous task of insuring to our fellow citizens the blessings which
+they have a right to expect from a free, efficient, and equal
+government."
+
+The answers of both houses were indicative of the harmony which
+subsisted between the executive and legislative departments.
+
+Congress had been so occupied during its first session with those
+bills which were necessary to bring the new system into full
+operation, and to create an immediate revenue, that some measures
+which possessed great and pressing claims to immediate attention had
+been unavoidably deferred. That neglect under which the creditors of
+the public had been permitted to languish could not fail to cast an
+imputation on the American republics, which had been sincerely
+lamented by the wisest among those who administered the former
+government. The power to comply substantially with the engagements of
+the United States being at length conferred on those who were bound by
+them, it was confidently expected by the friends of the constitution
+that their country would retrieve its reputation, and that its fame
+would no longer be tarnished with the blots which stain a faithless
+people.
+
+[Sidenote: Report of the secretary of the treasury of a plan for the
+support of public credit.]
+
+On the 9th of January, a letter from the secretary of the treasury to
+the speaker of the house of representatives was read, stating that in
+obedience to the resolution of the 21st of September, he had prepared
+a plan for the support of public credit, which he was ready to report
+when the house should be pleased to receive it; and, after a short
+debate in which the personal attendance of the secretary for the
+purpose of making explanations was urged by some, and opposed by
+others, it was resolved that the report should be received in writing
+on the succeeding Thursday.
+
+Availing himself of the latitude afforded by the terms of the
+resolution under which he acted, the secretary had introduced into his
+report an able and comprehensive argument elucidating and supporting
+the principles it contained. After displaying, with strength and
+perspicuity, the justice and the policy of an adequate provision for
+the public debt, he proceeded to discuss the principles on which it
+should be made.
+
+"It was agreed," he said, "by all, that the foreign debt should be
+provided for according to the precise terms of the contract. It was to
+be regretted that, with respect to the domestic debt, the same
+unanimity of sentiment did not prevail."
+
+The first point on which the public appeared to be divided, involved
+the question, "whether a discrimination ought not to be made between
+original holders of the public securities, and present possessors by
+purchase." After reviewing the arguments generally urged in its
+support, the secretary declared himself against this discrimination.
+He deemed it "equally unjust and impolitic; highly injurious even to
+the original holders of public securities, and ruinous to public
+credit." To the arguments with which he enforced these opinions, he
+added the authority of the government of the union. From the circular
+address of congress to the states, of the 26th of April, 1783,
+accompanying their revenue system of the 18th of the same month,
+passages were selected indicating unequivocally, that in the view of
+that body the original creditors, and those who had become so by
+assignment, had equal claims upon the nation.
+
+After reasoning at great length against a discrimination between the
+different creditors of the union, the secretary proceeded to examine
+whether a difference ought to be permitted to remain between them and
+the creditors of individual states.
+
+Both descriptions of debt were contracted for the same objects, and
+were in the main the same. Indeed, a great part of the particular
+debts of the states had arisen from assumptions by them on account of
+the union; and it was most equitable that there should be the same
+measure of retribution for all. There were many reasons, some of which
+were stated, for believing this would not be the case, unless the
+state debts should be assumed by the nation.
+
+In addition to the injustice of favouring one class of creditors more
+than another which was equally meritorious, many arguments were urged
+in support of the policy of distributing to all with an equal hand
+from the same source.
+
+After an elaborate discussion of these and some other points connected
+with the subject, the secretary proposed that a loan should be opened
+to the full amount of the debt, as well of the particular states, as
+of the union.
+
+The terms to be offered were,--
+
+First. That for every one hundred dollars subscribed payable in the
+debt, as well interest as principal, the subscriber should be entitled
+to have two-thirds funded on a yearly interest of six per cent, (the
+capital redeemable at the pleasure of government by the payment of the
+principal) and to receive the other third in lands of the western
+territory at their then actual value. Or,
+
+Secondly. To have the whole sum funded at a yearly interest of four
+per cent., irredeemable by any payment exceeding five dollars per
+annum both on account of principal and interest, and to receive as a
+compensation for the reduction of interest, fifteen dollars and eighty
+cents, payable in lands as in the preceding case. Or,
+
+Thirdly. To have sixty-six and two-thirds of a dollar funded at a
+yearly interest of six per cent., irredeemable also by any payment
+exceeding four dollars and two-thirds of a dollar per annum on account
+both of principal and interest, and to have at the end of ten years
+twenty-six dollars and eighty-eight cents funded at the like interest
+and rate of redemption.
+
+In addition to these propositions the creditors were to have an option
+of vesting their money in annuities on different plans; and it was
+also recommended to open a loan at five per cent, for ten millions of
+dollars, payable one half in specie, and the other half in the debt,
+irredeemable by any payment exceeding six dollars per annum both of
+principal and interest.
+
+By way of experiment, a tontine on principles stated in the report was
+also suggested.
+
+The secretary was restrained from proposing to fund the whole debt
+immediately at the current rate of interest, by the opinion, "that
+although such a provision might not exceed the abilities of the
+country, it would require the extension of taxation to a degree, and
+to objects which the true interest of the creditors themselves would
+forbid. It was therefore to be hoped and expected, that they would
+cheerfully concur in such modifications of their claims, on fair and
+equitable principles, as would facilitate to the government an
+arrangement substantial, durable, and satisfactory to the community.
+Exigencies might ere long arise which would call for resources greatly
+beyond what was now deemed sufficient for the current service; and
+should the faculties of the country be exhausted, or even strained to
+provide for the public debt, there could be less reliance on the
+sacredness of the provision.
+
+"But while he yielded to the force of these considerations, he did not
+lose sight of those fundamental principles of good faith which dictate
+that every practicable exertion ought to be made, scrupulously to
+fulfil the engagements of government; that no change in the rights of
+its creditors ought to be attempted without their voluntary consent;
+and that this consent ought to be voluntary in fact, as well as in
+name. Consequently, that every proposal of a change ought to be in the
+shape of an appeal to their reason and to their interest, not to their
+necessities. To this end it was requisite that a fair equivalent
+should be offered, for what might be asked to be given up, and
+unquestionable security for the remainder." This fair equivalent for
+the proposed reduction of interest was, he thought, offered in the
+relinquishment of the power to redeem the whole debt at pleasure.
+
+That a free judgment might be exercised by the holders of public
+securities in accepting or rejecting the terms offered by the
+government, provision was made in the report for paying to
+non-subscribing creditors, a dividend of the surplus which should
+remain in the treasury after paying the interest of the proposed
+loans: but as the funds immediately to be provided, were calculated to
+produce only four per cent, on the entire debt, the dividend, for the
+present, was not to exceed that rate of interest.
+
+To enable the treasury to support this increased demand upon it, an
+augmentation of the duties on imported wines, spirits, tea, and
+coffee, was proposed, and a duty on home made spirits was also
+recommended.
+
+This celebrated report, which has been alike the fruitful theme of
+extravagant praise and bitter censure, merits the more attention,
+because the first regular and systematic opposition to the principles
+on which the affairs of the union were administered, originated in the
+measures which were founded on it.
+
+On the 28th of January, this subject was taken up; and, after some
+animadversions on the speculations in the public debt to which the
+report, it was said, had already given birth, the business was
+postponed until the eighth of February, when it was again brought
+forward.
+
+[Sidenote: Debate thereon.]
+
+Several resolutions affirmative of the principles contained in the
+report, were moved by Mr. Fitzsimmons. To the first, which respected a
+provision for the foreign debt, the house agreed without a dissenting
+voice. The second, in favour of appropriating permanent funds for
+payment of the interest on the domestic debt, and for the gradual
+redemption of the principal, gave rise to a very animated debate.
+
+Mr. Jackson declared his hostility to funding systems generally. To
+prove their pernicious influence, he appealed to the histories of
+Florence, Genoa, and Great Britain; and, contending that the subject
+ought to be deferred until North Carolina should be represented,
+moved, that the committee should rise. This question being decided in
+the negative, Mr. Scott declared the opinion that the United States
+were not bound to pay the domestic creditors the sums specified in the
+certificates of debts in their possession. He supported this opinion
+by urging, not that the public had received less value than was
+expressed on the face of the paper which had been issued, but that
+those to whom it had been delivered, by parting with it at two
+shillings and sixpence in the pound, had themselves fixed the value of
+their claims, and had manifested their willingness to add to their
+other sacrifices this deduction from their demand upon the nation. He
+therefore moved to amend the resolution before the committee so as to
+require a resettlement of the debt.
+
+The amendment was opposed by Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Ames, Mr.
+Sherman, Mr. Hartley, and Mr. Goodhue. They stated at large the terms
+on which the debt had been contracted, and urged the confidence which
+the creditors had a right to place in the government for its discharge
+according to settlements already made, and acknowledgments already
+given. The idea that the legislative body could diminish an
+ascertained debt was reprobated with great force, as being at the same
+time unjust, impolitic, and subversive of every principle on which
+public contracts are founded. The evidences of debt possessed by the
+creditors of the United States were considered as public bonds, for
+the redemption of which the property and the labour of the people were
+pledged.
+
+After the debate had been protracted to some length, the question was
+taken on Mr. Scott's amendment, and it passed in the negative.
+
+Mr. Madison then rose, and, in an eloquent speech, replete with
+argument, proposed an amendment to the resolution, the effect of which
+was to discriminate between the public creditors, so as to pay the
+present holder of assignable paper the highest price it had borne in
+the market, and give the residue to the person with whom the debt was
+originally contracted. Where the original creditor had never parted
+with his claim, he was to receive the whole sum acknowledged to be due
+on the face of the certificate.
+
+This motion was supported by Mr. Jackson, Mr. White, Mr. Moore, Mr.
+Page, Mr. Stone, Mr. Scott, and Mr. Seney.
+
+It was opposed with great earnestness and strength of argument, by Mr.
+Sedgewick, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Smith, of South Carolina, Mr. Ames, Mr.
+Gerry, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Wadsworth, Mr. Goodhue, Mr. Hartley, Mr.
+Bland, Mr. Benson, Mr. Burke, and Mr. Livermore.
+
+The argument was ably supported on both sides, was long, animated, and
+interesting. At length the question was put, and the amendment was
+rejected by a great majority.
+
+This discussion deeply engaged the public attention. The proposition
+was new and interesting. That the debt ought to be diminished for the
+public advantage, was an opinion which had frequently been advanced,
+and was maintained by many. But a reduction from the claims of its
+present holders for the benefit of those who had sold their rights,
+was a measure which saved nothing to the public purse, and was
+therefore recommended only by considerations, the operation of which
+can never be very extensive. Against it were arranged all who had made
+purchases, and a great majority of those who conceived that sound
+policy and honest dealing require a literal observance of public
+contracts.
+
+Although the decision of congress against a discrimination in favour
+of the original creditor produced no considerable sensation, the
+determination on that part of the secretary's report which was the
+succeeding subject of deliberation, affecting political interests and
+powers which are never to be approached without danger, seemed to
+unchain all those fierce passions which a high respect for the
+government and for those who administered it, had in a great measure
+restrained.
+
+The manner in which the several states entered into and conducted the
+war of the revolution, will be recollected. Acting in some respects
+separately, and in others conjointly, for the attainment of a common
+object, their resources were exerted, sometimes under the authority of
+congress, sometimes under the authority of the local government, to
+repel the enemy wherever he appeared. The debt incurred in support of
+the war was therefore, in the first instance, contracted partly by the
+continent, and partly by the states. When the system of requisitions
+was adopted, the transactions of the union were carried on, almost
+entirely, through the agency of the states; and when the measure of
+compensating the army for the depreciation of their pay became
+necessary, this burden, under the recommendation of congress, was
+assumed by the respective states. Some had funded this debt, and paid
+the interest upon it. Others had made no provision for the interest;
+but all, by taxes, paper money, or purchase, had, in some measure,
+reduced the principal. In their exertions some degree of inequality
+had obtained; and they looked anxiously to a settlement of accounts,
+for the ascertainment of claims which each supposed itself to have
+upon the union. Measures to effect this object had been taken by the
+former government; but they were slow in their progress, and intrinsic
+difficulties were found in the thing itself, not easily to be
+overcome.
+
+The secretary of the treasury proposed to assume these debts, and to
+fund them in common with that which continued to be the proper debt of
+the union.
+
+The resolution which comprehended this principle of the report, was
+vigorously opposed.
+
+It was contended that the general government would acquire an undue
+influence, and that the state governments would be annihilated by the
+measure. Not only would all the influence of the public creditors be
+thrown into the scale of the former, but it would absorb all the
+powers of taxation, and leave to the latter only the shadow of a
+government. This would probably terminate in rendering the state
+governments useless, and would destroy the system so recently
+established. The union, it was said, had been compared to a rope of
+sand; but gentlemen were cautioned not to push things to the opposite
+extreme. The attempt to strengthen it might be unsuccessful, and the
+cord might be strained until it should break.
+
+The constitutional authority of the federal government to assume the
+debts of the states was questioned. Its powers, it was said, were
+specified, and this was not among them.
+
+The policy of the measure, as it affected merely the government of the
+union, was controverted, and its justice was arraigned.
+
+On the ground of policy it was objected, that the assumption would
+impose on the United States a burden, the weight of which was
+unascertained, and which would require an extension of taxation beyond
+the limits which prudence would prescribe. An attempt to raise the
+impost would be dangerous; and the excise added to it would not
+produce funds adequate to the object. A tax on real estate must be
+resorted to, objections to which had been made in every part of the
+union. It would be more adviseable to leave this source of revenue
+untouched in the hands of the state governments, who could apply to it
+with more facility, with a better understanding of the subject, and
+with less dissatisfaction to individuals, than could possibly be done
+by the government of the United States.
+
+There existed no necessity for taking up this burden. The state
+creditors had not required it. There was no petition from them upon
+the subject. There was not only no application from the states, but
+there was reason to believe that they were seriously opposed to the
+measure. Many of them would certainly view it with a jealous,--a
+jaundiced eye. The convention of North Carolina, which adopted the
+constitution, had proposed, as an amendment to it, to deprive congress
+of the power of interfering between the respective states and their
+creditors: and there could be no obligation to assume more than the
+balances which on a final settlement would be found due to creditor
+states.
+
+That the debt by being thus accumulated would be perpetuated was also
+an evil of real magnitude. Many of the states had already made
+considerable progress in extinguishing their debts, and the process
+might certainly be carried on more rapidly by them than by the union.
+A public debt seemed to be considered by some as a public blessing;
+but to this doctrine they were not converts. If, as they believed, a
+public debt was a public evil, it would be enormously increased by
+adding those of the states to that of the union.
+
+The measure was unwise too as it would affect public credit. Such an
+augmentation of the debt must inevitably depreciate its value; since
+it was the character of paper, whatever denomination it might assume,
+to diminish in value in proportion to the quantity in circulation.
+
+It would also increase an evil which was already sensibly felt. The
+state debts when assumed by the continent, would, as that of the union
+had already done, accumulate in large cities; and the dissatisfaction
+excited by the payment of taxes, would be increased by perceiving that
+the money raised from the people flowed into the hands of a few
+individuals. Still greater mischief was to be apprehended. A great
+part of this additional debt would go into the hands of foreigners;
+and the United States would be heavily burdened to pay an interest
+which could not be expected to remain in the country.
+
+The measure was unjust, because it was burdening those states which
+had taxed themselves highly to discharge the claims of their
+creditors, with the debts of those which had not made the same
+exertions. It would delay the settlement of accounts between the
+individual states and the United States; and the supporters of the
+measure were openly charged with intending to defeat that settlement.
+
+It was also said that, in its execution, the scheme would be found
+extremely embarrassing, perhaps impracticable. The case of a partial
+accession to the measure by the creditors, a case which would probably
+occur, presented a difficulty for which no provision was made, and of
+which no solution had been given. Should the creditors in some states
+come into the system, and those in others refuse to change their
+security, the government would be involved in perplexities from which
+no means of extricating itself had been shown. Nor would it be
+practicable to discriminate between the debts contracted for general
+and for local objects.
+
+In the course of the debate, severe allusions were made to the conduct
+of particular states; and the opinions advanced in favour of the
+measure, were ascribed to local interests.
+
+In support of the assumption, the debts of the states were traced to
+their origin. America, it was said, had engaged in a war, the object
+of which was equally interesting to every part of the union. It was
+not the war of a particular state, but of the United States. It was
+not the liberty and independence of a part, but of the whole, for
+which they had contended, and which they had acquired. The cause was a
+common cause. As brethren, the American people had consented to hazard
+property and life in its defence. All the sums expended in the
+attainment of this great object, whatever might be the authority under
+which they were raised or appropriated, conduced to the same end.
+Troops were raised, and military stores purchased, before congress
+assumed the command of the army, or the control of the war. The
+ammunition which repulsed the enemy at Bunker's Hill, was purchased by
+Massachusetts; and formed a part of the debt of that state.
+
+Nothing could be more erroneous than the principle which had been
+assumed in argument, that the holders of securities issued by
+individual states were to be considered merely as state creditors;--as
+if the debt had been contracted on account of the particular state. It
+was contracted on account of the union, in that common cause in which
+all were equally interested.
+
+From the complex nature of the political system which had been adopted
+in America, the war was, in a great measure, carried on through the
+agency of the state governments; and the debts were, in truth, the
+debts of the union, for which the states had made themselves
+responsible. Except the civil list, the whole state expenditure was in
+the prosecution of the war; and the state taxes had undeniably
+exceeded the provision for their civil list. The foundation for the
+several classes of the debt was reviewed in detail; and it was
+affirmed to be proved from the review, and from the books in the
+public offices, that, in its origin, a great part of it, even in form,
+and the whole, in fact, was equitably due from the continent. The
+states individually possessing all the resources of the nation, became
+responsible to certain descriptions of the public creditors. But they
+were the agents of the continent in contracting the debt; and its
+distribution among them for payment, arose from the division of
+political power which existed under the old confederation. A new
+arrangement of the system had taken place, and a power over the
+resources of the nation was conferred on the general government. With
+the funds, the debt also ought to be assumed. This investigation of
+its origin demonstrated that the assumption was not the creation of a
+new debt, but the reacknowledgment of liability for an old one, the
+payment of which had devolved on those members of the system, who, at
+the time, were alone capable of paying it. And thence was inferred,
+not only the justice of the measure, but a complete refutation of the
+arguments drawn from the constitution. If, in point of fact, the debt
+was in its origin continental, and had been transferred to the states
+for greater facility of payment, there could be no constitutional
+objection to restoring its original and real character.
+
+The great powers of war, of taxation, and of borrowing money, which
+were vested in congress to pay the debts, and provide for the common
+defence and general welfare of the United States, comprised that in
+question. There could be no more doubt of their right to charge
+themselves with the payment of a debt contracted in the past war, than
+to borrow money for the prosecution of a future war. The impolicy of
+leaving the public creditors to receive payment from different sources
+was also strongly pressed; and the jealousy which would exist between
+the creditors of the union and of the states, was considered as a
+powerful argument in favour of giving them one common interest. This
+jealousy, it was feared, might be carried so far, as even to create an
+opposition to the laws of the union.
+
+If the states should provide for their creditors, the same sum of
+money must be collected from the people, as would be required if the
+debt should be assumed; and it would probably be collected in a manner
+more burdensome, than if one uniform system should be established. If
+all should not make such provision, it would be unjust to leave the
+soldier of one state unpaid, while the services of the man who fought
+by his side were amply compensated; and, after having assumed the
+funds, it would dishonour the general government to permit a creditor
+for services rendered, or property advanced for the continent, to
+remain unsatisfied, because his claim had been transferred to the
+state, at a time when the state alone possessed the means of payment.
+By the injured and neglected creditor, such an arrangement might
+justly be considered as a disreputable artifice.
+
+Instead of delaying, it was believed to be a measure which would
+facilitate the settlement of accounts between the states. Its
+advocates declared that they did not entertain, and never had
+entertained any wish to procrastinate a settlement. On the contrary,
+it was greatly desired by them. They had themselves brought forward
+propositions for that purpose; and they invited their adversaries to
+assist in improving the plan which had been introduced.
+
+The settlement between the states, it was said, either would or would
+not be made. Should it ever take place, it would remedy any
+inequalities which might grow out of the assumption. Should it never
+take place, the justice of the measure became the more apparent. That
+the burdens in support of a common war, which from various causes had
+devolved unequally on the states, ought to be apportioned among them,
+was a truth too clear to be controverted; and this, if the settlement
+should never be accomplished, could be effected only by the measure
+now proposed. Indeed, in any event, it would be the only certain, as
+well as only eligible plan. For how were the debtor states to be
+compelled to pay the balances which should be found against them?
+
+If the measure was recommended by considerations which rendered its
+ultimate adoption inevitable, the present was clearly preferable to
+any future time. It was desirable immediately to quiet the minds of
+the public creditors by assuring them that justice would be done; to
+simplify the forms of public debt; and to put an end to that
+speculation which had been so much reprobated, and which could be
+terminated only by giving the debt a real and permanent value.
+
+That the assumption would impair the just influence of the states was
+controverted with great strength of argument. The diffusive
+representation in the state legislatures, the intimate connexion
+between the representative and his constituents, the influence of the
+state legislatures over the members of one branch of the national
+legislature, the nature of the powers exercised by the state
+governments which perpetually presented them to the people in a point
+of view calculated to lay hold of the public affections, were
+guarantees that the states would retain their due weight in the
+political system, and that a debt was not necessary to the solidity or
+duration of their power.
+
+But the argument it was said proved too much. If a debt was now
+essential to the preservation of state authority, it would always be
+so. It must therefore never be extinguished, but must be perpetuated,
+in order to secure the existence of the state governments. If, for
+this purpose, it was indispensable that the expenses of the
+revolutionary war should be borne by the states, it would not be less
+indispensable that the expenses of future wars should be borne in the
+same manner. Either the argument was unfounded, or the constitution
+was wrong; and the powers of the sword and the purse ought not to have
+been conferred on the government of the union. Whatever speculative
+opinions might be entertained on this point, they were to administer
+the government according to the principles of the constitution as it
+was framed. But, it was added, if so much power follows the assumption
+as the objection implies, is it not time to ask--is it safe to forbear
+assuming? if the power is so dangerous, it will be so when exercised
+by the states. If assuming tends to consolidation, is the reverse,
+tending to disunion, a less weighty objection? if it is answered that
+the non-assumption will not necessarily tend to disunion; neither, it
+may be replied, does the assumption necessarily tend to consolidation.
+
+It was not admitted that the assumption would tend to perpetuate the
+debt. It could not be presumed that the general government would be
+less willing than the local governments to discharge it; nor could it
+be presumed that the means were less attainable by the former than the
+latter.
+
+It was not contended that a public debt was a public blessing. Whether
+a debt was to be preferred to no debt was not the question. The debt
+was already contracted: and the question, so far as policy might be
+consulted, was, whether it was more for the public advantage to give
+it such a form as would render it applicable to the purposes of a
+circulating medium, or to leave it a mere subject of speculation,
+incapable of being employed to any useful purpose. The debt was
+admitted to be an evil; but it was an evil from which, if wisely
+modified, some benefit might be extracted; and which, in its present
+state, could have only a mischievous operation.
+
+If the debt should be placed on adequate funds, its operation on
+public credit could not be pernicious: in its present precarious
+condition, there was much more to be apprehended in that respect.
+
+To the objection that it would accumulate in large cities, it was
+answered it would be a monied capital, and would be held by those who
+chose to place money at interest; but by funding the debt, the present
+possessors would be enabled to part with it at its nominal value,
+instead of selling it at its present current rate. If it should centre
+in the hands of foreigners, the sooner it was appreciated to its
+proper standard, the greater quantity of specie would its transfer
+bring into the United States.
+
+To the injustice of charging those states which had made great
+exertions for the payment of their debts with the burden properly
+belonging to those which had not made such exertions, it was answered,
+that every state must be considered as having exerted itself to the
+utmost of its resources; and that if it could not, or would not make
+provision for creditors to whom the union was equitably bound, the
+argument in favour of an assumption was the stronger.
+
+The arguments drawn from local interests were repelled, and retorted,
+and a great degree of irritation was excited on both sides.
+
+After a very animated discussion of several days, the question was
+taken, and the resolution was carried by a small majority. Soon after
+this decision, while the subject was pending before the house, the
+delegates from North Carolina took their seats, and changed the
+strength of parties. By a majority of two voices, the resolution was
+recommitted; and, after a long and ardent debate, was negatived by the
+same majority.
+
+This proposition continued to be supported with a degree of
+earnestness which its opponents termed pertinacious, but not a single
+opinion was changed. It was brought forward in the new and less
+exceptionable form of assuming specific sums from each state. Under
+this modification of the principle, the extraordinary contributions of
+particular states during the war, and their exertions since the peace,
+might be regarded; and the objections to the measure, drawn from the
+uncertainty of the sum to be assumed, would be removed. But these
+alterations produced no change of sentiment; and the bill was sent up
+to the senate with a provision for those creditors only whose
+certificates of debt purported to be payable by the union.
+
+In this state of things, the measure is understood to have derived aid
+from another, which was of a nature strongly to interest particular
+parts of the union.
+
+From the month of June, 1783, when congress was driven from
+Philadelphia by the mutiny of a part of the Pennsylvania line, the
+necessity of selecting some place for a permanent residence, in which
+the government of the union might exercise sufficient authority to
+protect itself from violence and insult, had been generally
+acknowledged. Scarcely any subject had occupied more time, or had more
+agitated the members of the former congress than this.
+
+[Sidenote: Bill for fixing the permanent seat of government.]
+
+In December, 1784, an ordinance was passed for appointing
+commissioners to purchase land on the Delaware, in the neighbourhood
+of its falls, and to erect thereon the necessary public buildings for
+the reception of congress, and the officers of government; but the
+southern interest had been sufficiently strong to arrest the execution
+of this ordinance by preventing an appropriation of funds, which
+required the assent of nine states. Under the existing government,
+this subject had received the early attention of congress; and many
+different situations from the Delaware to the Potomac inclusive, had
+been earnestly supported; but a majority of both houses had not
+concurred in favour of any one place. With as little success, attempts
+had been made to change the temporary residence of congress. Although
+New York was obviously too far to the east, so many conflicting
+interests were brought into operation whenever the subject was
+touched, that no motion designating a more central place, could
+succeed. At length, a compact respecting the temporary and permanent
+seat of government was entered into between the friends of
+Philadelphia, and the Potomac, stipulating that congress should
+adjourn to and hold its sessions in Philadelphia, for ten years,
+during which time, buildings for the accommodation of the government
+should be erected at some place on the Potomac, to which the
+government should remove at the expiration of the term. This compact
+having united the representatives of Pennsylvania and Delaware with
+the friends of the Potomac, in favour both of the temporary and
+permanent residence which had been agreed on between them, a majority
+was produced in favour of the two situations, and a bill which was
+brought into the senate in conformity with this previous arrangement,
+passed both houses by small majorities. This act was immediately
+followed by an amendment to the bill then pending before the senate
+for funding the debt of the union. The amendment was similar in
+principle to that which had been unsuccessfully proposed in the house
+of representatives. By its provisions, twenty-one millions five
+hundred thousand dollars of the state debts were assumed in specified
+proportions; and it was particularly enacted that no certificate
+should be received from a state creditor which could be "ascertained
+to have been issued for any purpose other than compensations and
+expenditures for services or supplies towards the prosecution of the
+late war, and the defence of the United States, or of some part
+thereof, during the same."
+
+When the question was taken in the house of representatives on this
+amendment, two members representing districts on the Potomac, who, in
+all the previous stages of the business, had voted against the
+assumption, declared themselves in its favour; and thus the majority
+was changed.[45]
+
+     [Footnote 45: It has ever been understood that these members
+     were, on principle, in favour of the assumption as modified
+     in the amendment made by the senate; but they withheld their
+     assent from it when originally proposed in the house of
+     representatives, in the opinion that the increase of the
+     national debt, added to the necessity of giving to the
+     departments of the national government a more central
+     residence. It is understood that a greater number would have
+     changed had it been necessary.]
+
+Thus was a measure carried, which was supported and opposed with a
+degree of zeal and earnestness not often manifested; and which
+furnished presages, not to be mistaken, that the spirit with which the
+opposite opinions had been maintained, would not yield, contentedly,
+to the decision of a bare majority. This measure has constituted one
+of the great grounds of accusation against the first administration of
+the general government; and it is fair to acknowledge, that though, in
+its progress, it derived no aid from the President, whose opinion
+remained in his own bosom, it received the full approbation of his
+judgment.
+
+A bill, at length, passed both houses, funding the debt upon
+principles which lessened considerably the weight of the public
+burdens, and was entirely satisfactory to the public creditors. The
+proceeds of the sales of the lands lying in the western territory,
+and, by a subsequent act of the same session, the surplus product of
+the revenue after satisfying the appropriations which were charged
+upon it, with the addition of two millions, which the President was
+authorized to borrow at five per centum, constituted a sinking fund to
+be applied to the reduction of the debt.
+
+The effect of this measure was great and rapid. The public paper
+suddenly rose, and was for a short time above par. The immense wealth
+which individuals acquired by this unexpected appreciation, could not
+be viewed with indifference. Those who participated in its advantages,
+regarded the author of a system to which they were so greatly
+indebted, with an enthusiasm of attachment to which scarcely any
+limits were assigned. To many others, this adventitious collection of
+wealth in particular hands, was a subject rather of chagrin than of
+pleasure; and the reputation which the success of his plans gave to
+the secretary of the treasury, was not contemplated with unconcern. As
+if the debt had been created by the existing government, not by a war
+which gave liberty and independence to the United States, its being
+funded was ascribed by many, not to a sense of justice, and to a
+liberal and enlightened policy, but to the desire of bestowing on the
+government an artificial strength, by the creation of a monied
+interest which would be subservient to its will.
+
+The effects produced by giving the debt a permanent value, justified
+the predictions of those whose anticipations had been most favourable.
+The sudden increase of monied capital derived from it, invigorated
+commerce, and gave a new stimulus to agriculture.
+
+About this time, there was a great and visible improvement in the
+circumstances of the people. Although the funding system was certainly
+not inoperative in producing this improvement, it can not be justly
+ascribed to any single cause. Progressive industry had gradually
+repaired the losses sustained by the war; and the influence of the
+constitution on habits of thinking and acting, though silent, was
+considerable. In depriving the states of the power to impair the
+obligation of contracts, or to make any thing but gold and silver a
+tender in payment of debts, the conviction was impressed on that
+portion of society which had looked to the government for relief from
+embarrassment, that personal exertions alone could free them from
+difficulties; and an increased degree of industry and economy was the
+natural consequence of this opinion.
+
+[Sidenote: Adjournment of congress.]
+
+On the 12th of August, after an arduous session, congress adjourned,
+to meet in Philadelphia the first Monday in the following December.
+
+While the discussions in the national legislature related to subjects,
+and were conducted in a temper, well calculated to rouse the active
+spirit of party, the external relations of the United States wore an
+aspect not perfectly serene. To the hostile temper manifested by the
+Indians on the western and southern frontiers, an increased degree of
+importance was given by the apprehension that their discontents were
+fomented by the intrigues of Britain and of Spain. From Canada, the
+Indians of the north-west were understood to be furnished with the
+means of prosecuting a war which they were stimulated to continue;
+and, to the influence of the governor of the Floridas had been partly
+attributed the failure of the negotiation with the Creeks. That this
+influence would still be exerted to prevent a friendly intercourse
+with that nation was firmly believed; and it was feared that Spain
+might take a part in the open hostilities threatened by the irritable
+dispositions of individuals in both countries. From the intimate
+connexion subsisting between the members of the house of Bourbon, this
+event was peculiarly deprecated; and the means of avoiding it were
+sought with solicitude. These considerations determined the President
+to make another effort at negotiation; but, to preserve the respect of
+these savages for the United States, it was at the same time resolved
+that the agent to be employed should visit the country on other
+pretexts, and should carry a letter of introduction to M'Gillivray,
+blending with other subjects a strong representation of the miseries
+which a war with the United States would bring upon his people; and an
+earnest exhortation to repair with the chiefs of his nation to the
+seat of the federal government, in order to effect a solid and
+satisfactory peace. Colonel Willett was selected for this service; and
+he acquitted himself so well of the duty assigned to him, as to induce
+the chiefs of the nation, with M'Gillivray at their head, to repair to
+New York, where negotiations were opened which terminated in a treaty
+of peace,[46] signed on the 7th day of August.[47]
+
+     [Footnote 46: On the first information at St. Augustine that
+     M'Gillivray was about to repair to New York, the
+     intelligence was communicated to the governor at the
+     Havanna, and the secretary of East Florida came to New York,
+     with a large sum of money to purchase flour, as it was said;
+     but to embarrass the negotiations with the Creeks was
+     believed to be his real design. He was closely watched, and
+     measures were taken to render any attempts he might make
+     abortive.]
+
+     [Footnote 47: See note, No. IV. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty with the Creek Indians.]
+
+The pacific overtures made to the Indians of the Wabash and the Miamis
+not having been equally successful, the western frontiers were still
+exposed to their destructive incursions. A long course of experience
+had convinced the President that, on the failure of negotiation, sound
+policy and true economy, not less than humanity, required the
+immediate employment of a force which should carry death and
+destruction into the heart of the hostile settlements. Either not
+feeling the same impressions, or disposed to indulge the wishes of the
+western people, who declared openly their preference for desultory
+military expeditions, congress did not adopt measures corresponding
+with the wishes of the executive, and the military establishment[48]
+was not equal to the exigency. The distresses of the frontier
+establishment, therefore, still continued; and the hostility they had
+originally manifested to the constitution, sustained no diminution.
+
+     [Footnote 48: On giving his assent to the bill "regulating
+     the military establishment of the United States," the
+     President subjoined to the entry in his diary the remark,
+     that although he gave it his sanction, "he did not conceive
+     that the military establishment was adequate to the
+     exigencies of the government, and to the protection it was
+     intended to afford." It consisted of one regiment of
+     infantry, and one battalion of artillery, amounting in the
+     total, exclusive of commissioned officers, to twelve hundred
+     and sixteen men.]
+
+[Sidenote: United States in relations with Great Britain and Spain.]
+
+No progress had been made in adjusting the points of controversy with
+Spain and Britain. With the former power, the question of boundary
+remained unsettled; and the cabinet of Madrid discovered no
+disposition to relax the rigour of its pretensions respecting the
+navigation of the Mississippi. Its general conduct furnished no
+foundation for a hope that its dispositions towards the United States
+were friendly, or that it could view their growing power without
+jealousy.
+
+The non-execution of the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th articles of the treaty
+of peace, still furnished the United States and Great Britain with
+matter for reciprocal crimination, which there was the more difficulty
+in removing, because no diplomatic intercourse was maintained between
+them. The cabinet of St. James having never appointed a minister to
+the United States, and Mr. Adams having returned from London without
+effecting the object of his mission, the American government felt some
+difficulty in repeating advances which had been treated with neglect.
+Yet there was much reason to desire full explanations with the English
+government, and to understand perfectly its views and intentions. The
+subjects for discussion were delicate in their nature, and could not
+be permitted to remain in their present state, without hazarding the
+most serious consequences. The detention of a part of the territory of
+the United States, was a circumstance of much importance to the
+honour, as well as to the interests of the nation, and the commercial
+intercourse between the two countries was so extensive, as to require
+amicable and permanent regulations. The early attention of the
+President had been directed to these subjects; and, in October, 1789,
+he had resolved on taking informal measures to sound the British
+cabinet, and to ascertain its views respecting them. This negotiation
+was entrusted to Mr. Gouverneur Morris, who had been carried by
+private business to Europe; and he conducted it with ability and
+address, but was unable to bring it to a happy conclusion. The result
+of his conferences with the Duke of Leeds, and with Mr. Pitt, was a
+conviction that the British government, considering the posts they
+occupied on the southern side of the great lakes as essential to their
+monopoly of the fur trade, would surrender them reluctantly, and was
+not desirous of entering into a commercial treaty. Those ministers
+expressed a wish to be on the best terms with America; but repeated
+the complaints which had been previously made by Lord Carmarthen, of
+the non-execution of the treaty of peace on the part of the United
+States. To the observations made by Mr. Morris, that the constitution
+lately adopted, and the courts established under it, amounted to a
+full compliance with that treaty on the part of the American
+government, it was answered, that losses had already been sustained in
+consequence of the obstructions given by the states to the fair
+operation of that instrument, which rendered a faithful observance of
+it, at present, impossible; and, in a note, the Duke of Leeds avowed
+the intention, if the delay on the part of the American government to
+fulfil its engagements made in the treaty should have rendered their
+final completion impracticable, to retard the fulfilment of those
+which depended entirely on Great Britain, until redress should be
+granted to the subjects of his majesty on the specific points of the
+treaty itself, or a fair and just compensation obtained for the
+non-performance of those stipulations which the United States had
+failed to observe. Though urged by Mr. Morris to state explicitly in
+what respects, and to what degree, he considered the final completion
+of those engagements to which the United States were bound, as having
+been rendered impracticable, no such statement was given; and the
+British government seemed inclined to avoid, for the present, those
+full and satisfactory explanations, which were sought on the part of
+the United States.
+
+After detailing the motives which in his opinion influenced the
+English cabinet in wishing to suspend for a time all discussions with
+America, Mr. Morris observed, "perhaps there never was a moment in
+which this country felt herself greater; and consequently, it is the
+most unfavourable moment to obtain advantageous terms from her in any
+bargain."
+
+Whilst these negotiations were pending, intelligence was received at
+London of the attack made on the British settlement at Nootka Sound;
+and preparations were instantly made to resent the insult alleged to
+have been offered to the nation. The high ground taken on this
+occasion by the government, and the vigour with which it armed in
+support of its pretensions, furnished strong reasons for the opinion
+that a war with Spain, and probably with France, would soon be
+commenced.
+
+In America, this was considered as a favourable juncture for urging
+the claims of the United States to the free navigation of the
+Mississippi. Mr. Carmichael, their charge d'affaires at the court of
+Madrid, was instructed not only to press this point with earnestness,
+but to use his utmost endeavours to secure the unmolested use of that
+river in future, by obtaining a cession of the island of New Orleans,
+and of the Floridas. A full equivalent for this cession would be
+found, it was said, in the sincere friendship of the United States,
+and in the security it would give to the territories of Spain, west of
+the Mississippi.
+
+Mr. Carmichael was also instructed to point the attention of the
+Spanish government to the peculiar situation of the United States. To
+one half of their territory, the use of the Mississippi was
+indispensable. No efforts could prevent their acquiring it. That they
+would acquire it, either by acting separately, or in conjunction with
+Great Britain, was one of those inevitable events against which human
+wisdom could make no provision. To the serious consideration of the
+Spanish government, therefore, were submitted the consequences which
+must result to their whole empire in America, either from hostilities
+with the United States, or from a seizure of Louisiana by Great
+Britain.
+
+The opinion, that in the event of war between Great Britain and Spain,
+Louisiana would be invaded from Canada, was not a mere suggestion for
+the purpose of aiding the negotiations at Madrid. It was seriously
+adopted by the American government; and the attention of the executive
+was turned to the measures which it would be proper to take, should
+application be made for permission to march a body of troops, through
+the unsettled territories of the United States, into the dominions of
+Spain; or should the attempt be made to march them, without
+permission.
+
+Among the circumstances which contributed to the opinion that, in the
+event of war, the arms of Great Britain would be directed against the
+settlements of Spain in America, was the continuance of Lord
+Dorchester in the government of Canada. This nobleman had intimated a
+wish to visit New York on his return to England; but the prospect of a
+rupture with Spain had determined him to remain in Canada. Under the
+pretext of making his acknowledgments for the readiness with which his
+desire to pass through New York had been acceded to, his lordship
+despatched Major Beck with, a member of his family, to sound the
+American government, and if possible, to ascertain its dispositions
+towards the two nations. Alluding to the negotiations which had been
+commenced in London, this gentleman endeavoured to assign a
+satisfactory cause for the delays which had intervened. It was not
+improbable, he said, that these delays, and some other circumstances,
+might have impressed Mr. Morris with an idea of backwardness on the
+part of the British ministry. His lordship, however, had directed him
+to say, that an inference of this sort would not, in his opinion, be
+well founded, as he had reason to believe that the British cabinet was
+inclined not only towards a friendly intercourse, but towards an
+alliance with the United States.
+
+Major Beckwith represented the particular ground of quarrel as one
+which ought to interest all commercial nations in favour of the views
+of Great Britain; and, from that circumstance, he presumed that,
+should a war ensue, the United States would find their interest in
+taking part with Britain, rather than with Spain.
+
+After expressing the concern with which Lord Dorchester had heard of
+the depredations of the savages on the western frontier of the United
+States, he declared that his lordship, so far from countenancing these
+depredations, had taken every proper opportunity to impress upon the
+Indians a pacific disposition; and that, on his first hearing of the
+outrages lately committed, he had sent a messenger to endeavour to
+prevent them. Major Beckwith further intimated, that the perpetrators
+of the late murders were banditti, composed chiefly of Creeks and
+Cherokees, in the Spanish interest, over whom the governor of Canada
+possessed no influence.
+
+These communications were laid before the President, and appeared to
+him to afford an explanation of the delays experienced by Mr. Morris.
+He was persuaded that a disposition existed in the cabinet of London
+to retain things in their actual situation, until the intentions of
+the American government should be ascertained with respect to the war
+supposed to be approaching. If the United States would enter into an
+alliance with Great Britain, and would make a common cause with her
+against Spain, the way would be smoothed to the attainment of all
+their objects: but if America should be disinclined to such a
+connexion, and especially, if she should manifest any partiality
+towards Spain, no progress would be made in the attempt to adjust the
+point of difference between the two nations. Taking this view of the
+subject, he directed that the further communications of Mr. Beckwith
+should be heard civilly, and that their want of official authenticity
+should be hinted delicately, without using any expressions which
+might, in the most remote degree, impair the freedom of the United
+States, to pursue, without reproach, in the expected war, such a line
+of conduct as their interests or honour might dictate.
+
+In the opinion that it would not only be useless but dishonourable
+further to press a commercial treaty, or the exchange of ministers,
+and that the subject of the western posts ought not again to be moved
+on the part of the United States, until they should be in a condition
+to speak a decisive language, the powers given to Mr. Morris were
+withdrawn. Should the interest of Britain produce a disposition
+favourable to an amicable arrangement of differences, and to a liberal
+commercial intercourse secured by compact, it was believed that she
+would make the requisite advances; until then, or until some other
+change of circumstances should require a change of conduct, things
+were to remain in their actual situation.
+
+About the time of adopting this resolution, the dispute between
+Britain and Spain was adjusted. Finding France unwilling to engage in
+his quarrel, his Catholic Majesty, too weak to encounter alone the
+force of the British empire, yielded every point in controversy; and
+thus were terminated for the present, both the fear of inconveniences,
+and the hope of advantages which might result to America from
+hostilities between the two powers, whose dominions were in her
+neighbourhood, and with each of whom she was already engaged in
+controversies not easily to be accommodated.
+
+[Sidenote: The president visits Mount Vernon.]
+
+Incessant application to public business, and the consequent change of
+active for sedentary habits, had greatly impaired the constitution of
+the President; and, during the last session of congress, he had, for
+the second time since entering on the duties of his present station,
+been attacked by a severe disease which reduced him to the brink of
+the grave. Exercise and a temporary relief from the cares of office
+being essential to the restoration of his health, he determined, for
+the short interval afforded by the recess of the legislature, to
+retire to the tranquil shades of Mount Vernon. After returning from a
+visit to Rhode Island,[49] which state not having then adopted the
+American constitution, had not been included in his late tour through
+New England, he took leave of New York; and hastened to that peaceful
+retreat, and those rural employments, his taste for which neither
+military glory, nor political power, could ever diminish.
+
+     [Footnote 49: Rhode Island had adopted the constitution in
+     the preceding May, and had thus completed the union.]
+
+After a short indulgence in these favourite scenes, it became
+necessary to repair to Philadelphia, in order to meet the national
+legislature.
+
+[Sidenote: The president's speech.]
+
+In the speech delivered to congress at the commencement of their third
+session, the President expressed much satisfaction at the favourable
+prospect of public affairs; and particularly noticed the progress of
+public credit, and the productiveness of the revenue.
+
+Adverting to foreign nations,[50] he said, "the disturbed situation of
+Europe, and particularly the critical posture of the great maritime
+powers, whilst it ought to make us more thankful for the general peace
+and security enjoyed by the United States, reminds us at the same time
+of the circumspection with which it becomes us to preserve these
+blessings. It requires also, that we should not overlook the tendency
+of a war, and even of preparations for war among the nations most
+concerned in active commerce with this country, to abridge the means,
+and thereby at least to enhance the price, of transporting its
+valuable productions to their proper market." To the serious
+reflection of congress was recommended the prevention of
+embarrassments from these contingencies, by such encouragement to
+American navigation as would render the commerce and agriculture of
+the United States less dependent on foreign bottoms.
+
+     [Footnote 50: In a more confidential message to the senate,
+     all the objects of the negotiation in which Mr. Morris had
+     been employed were detailed, and the letters of that
+     gentleman, with the full opinion of the President were
+     communicated.]
+
+After expressing to the house of representatives his confidence
+arising from the sufficiency of the revenues already established, for
+the objects to which they were appropriated, he added, "allow me
+moreover to hope that it will be a favourite policy with you not
+merely to secure a payment of the interest of the debt funded, but as
+far, and as fast as the growing resources of the country will permit,
+to exonerate it of the principal itself." Many subjects relative to
+the interior government were succinctly and briefly mentioned; and the
+speech concluded with the following impressive and admonitory
+sentiment. "In pursuing the various and weighty business of the
+present session, I indulge the fullest persuasion that your
+consultations will be marked with wisdom, and animated by the love of
+country. In whatever belongs to my duty, you shall have all the
+co-operation which an undiminished zeal for its welfare can inspire.
+It will be happy for us both, and our best reward, if by a successful
+administration of our respective trusts, we can make the established
+government more and more instrumental in promoting the good of our
+fellow citizens, and more and more the object of their attachment and
+confidence."
+
+The addresses of the two houses, in answer to the speech, proved that
+the harmony between the executive and legislative departments, with
+which the government had gone into operation, had sustained no
+essential interruption. But in the short debate which took place on
+the occasion, in the house of representatives, a direct disapprobation
+of one of the measures of the executive government was, for the first
+time, openly expressed.
+
+In the treaty lately concluded with the Creeks, an extensive territory
+claimed by Georgia, under treaties, the validity of which was
+contested by the Indian chiefs, had been entirely, or in great part,
+relinquished. This relinquishment excited serious discontents in that
+state; and was censured by General Jackson with considerable warmth,
+as an unjustifiable abandonment of the rights and interests of
+Georgia. No specific motion, however, was made, and the subject was
+permitted to pass away for the present.
+
+Scarcely were the debates on the address concluded, when several
+interesting reports were received from the secretary of the treasury,
+suggesting such further measures as were deemed necessary for the
+establishment of public credit.
+
+It will be recollected that in his original report on this subject,
+the secretary had recommended the assumption of the state debts; and
+had proposed to enable the treasury to meet the increased demand upon
+it, which this measure would occasion, by an augmentation of the
+duties on imported wines, spirits, tea, and coffee, and by imposing
+duties on spirits distilled within the country. The assumption not
+having been adopted until late in the session, the discussion on the
+revenue which would be required for this portion of the public debt
+did not commence, until the house had become impatient for an
+adjournment. As much contrariety of opinion was disclosed, and the
+subject did not press,[51] it was deferred to the ensuing session; and
+an order was made, requiring the secretary of the treasury to prepare
+and report such further provision as might, in his opinion, be
+necessary for establishing the public credit. In obedience to this
+order, several reports had been prepared, the first of which repeated
+the recommendation of an additional impost on foreign distilled
+spirits, and of a duty on spirits distilled within the United States.
+The estimated revenue from these sources was eight hundred and
+seventy-seven thousand five hundred dollars, affording a small excess
+over the sum which would be required to pay the interest on the
+assumed debt. The policy of the measure was discussed in a well
+digested and able argument, detailing many motives, in addition to
+those assigned in his original report, for preferring the system now
+recommended, to accumulated burdens on commerce, or to a direct tax on
+lands.
+
+     [Footnote 51: The interest on the assumed debt was to
+     commence with the year 1792.]
+
+A new tax is the certain rallying point for all those who are
+unfriendly to the administration, or to the minister by whom it is
+proposed. But that recommended by the secretary, contained intrinsic
+causes of objection which would necessarily add to the number of its
+enemies. All that powerful party in the United States, which attached
+itself to the local, rather than to the general government, would
+inevitably contemplate any system of internal revenue with jealous
+disapprobation. They considered the imposition of a tax by congress on
+any domestic manufacture, as the intrusion of a foreign power into
+their particular concerns, which excited serious apprehensions for
+state importance, and for liberty. In the real or supposed interests
+of many individuals was also found a distinct motive for hostility to
+the measure. A large portion of the American population, especially
+that which had spread itself over the extensive regions of the west,
+consuming imported articles to a very inconsiderable amount, was not
+much affected by the impost on foreign merchandize. But the duty on
+spirits distilled within the United States reached them, and
+consequently rendered them hostile to the tax.
+
+{1791}
+
+[Sidenote: Debate on the excise law.]
+
+A bill, which was introduced in pursuance of the report, was opposed
+with great vehemence by a majority of the southern and western
+members. By some of them it was insisted that no sufficient testimony
+had yet been exhibited, that the taxes already imposed would not be
+equal to the exigencies of the public. But, admitting the propriety of
+additional burdens on the people, it was contended that other sources
+of revenue, less exceptionable and less odious than this, might be
+explored. The duty was branded with the hateful epithet of an excise,
+a species of taxation, it was said, so peculiarly oppressive as to be
+abhorred even in England; and which was totally incompatible with the
+spirit of liberty. The facility with which it might be extended to
+other objects, was urged against its admission into the American
+system; and declarations made against it by the congress of 1775, were
+quoted in confirmation of the justice with which inherent vices were
+ascribed to this mode of collecting taxes. So great was the hostility
+manifested against it in some of the states, that the revenue officers
+might be endangered from the fury of the people; and, in all, it would
+increase a ferment which had been already extensively manifested.
+Resolutions of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, reprobating the
+assumption, were referred to as unequivocal evidences of growing
+dissatisfaction; and the last mentioned state had even expressed its
+decided hostility to any law of excise. The legislature of North
+Carolina had rejected with scorn, a proposal for taking an oath to
+support the constitution of the United States; had refused to admit
+persons sentenced to imprisonment under the laws of the United States
+into their jails; and another circumstance was alluded to, but not
+explained, which was said to exhibit a temper still more hostile to
+the general government than either of those which had been stated.
+
+When required to produce a system in lieu of that which they so much
+execrated, the opponents of the bill alternately mentioned an
+increased duty on imported articles generally, a particular duty on
+molasses, a direct tax, a tax on salaries, pensions, and lawyers; a
+duty on newspapers, and a stamp act.
+
+The friends of the bill contended, that the reasons for believing the
+existing revenue would be insufficient to meet the engagements of the
+United States, were as satisfactory as the nature of the case would
+admit, or as ought to be required. The estimates were founded on the
+best data which were attainable, and the funds already provided, had
+been calculated by the proper officer to pay the interest on that part
+of the debt only for which they were pledged. Those estimates were
+referred to as documents, from which it would be unsafe to depart.
+They were also in possession of official statements, showing the
+productiveness of the taxes from the time the revenue bill had been in
+operation; and arguments were drawn from these, demonstrating the
+danger to which the infant credit of the United States would be
+exposed, by relying on the existing funds for the interest on the
+assumed debt. It was not probable that the proposed duties would yield
+a sum much exceeding that which would be necessary; but should they
+fortunately do so, the surplus revenue might be advantageously
+employed in extinguishing a part of the principal. They were not, they
+said, of opinion, that a public debt was a public blessing, or that it
+ought to be perpetuated.
+
+An augmentation of the revenue being indispensable to the solidity of
+the public credit, a more eligible system than that proposed in the
+bill, could not, it was believed, be devised. Still further to burden
+commerce, would be a hazardous experiment which might afford no real
+supplies to the treasury. Until some lights should be derived from
+experience, it behoved the legislature to be cautious not to lay such
+impositions upon trade as might probably introduce a spirit of
+smuggling, which, with a nominal increase, would occasion a real
+diminution of revenue. In the opinion of the best judges, the impost
+on the mass of foreign merchandise could not safely be carried further
+for the present. The extent of the mercantile capital of the United
+States would not justify the attempt. Forcible arguments were also
+drawn from the policy and the justice of multiplying the subjects of
+taxation, and diversifying them by a union of internal with external
+objects.
+
+Neither would a direct tax be adviseable. The experience of the world
+had proved, that a tax on consumption was less oppressive, and more
+productive, than a tax on either property or income. Without
+discussing the principles on which the fact was founded, the fact
+itself was incontestable, that, by insensible means, much larger sums
+might be drawn from any class of men, than could be extracted from
+them by open and direct taxes. To the latter system there were still
+other objections. The difficulty of carrying it into operation, no
+census having yet been taken, would not be inconsiderable; and the
+expense of collection through a country thinly settled, would be
+enormous. Add to this, that public opinion was believed to be more
+decidedly and unequivocally opposed to it, than to a duty on ardent
+spirits. North Carolina had expressed her hostility to the one as well
+as to the other, and several other states were known to disapprove of
+direct taxes. From the real objections which existed against them, and
+for other reasons suggested in the report of the secretary, they
+ought, it was said, to remain untouched, as a resource when some great
+emergency should require an exertion of all the faculties of the
+United States.
+
+Against the substitution of a duty on internal negotiations, it was
+said, that revenue to any considerable extent could be collected from
+them only by means of a stamp act, which was not less obnoxious to
+popular resentment than an excise, would be less certainly productive
+than the proposed duties, and was, in every respect, less eligible.
+
+The honour, the justice, and the faith of the United States were
+pledged, it was said, to that class of creditors for whose claims the
+bill under consideration was intended to provide. No means of making
+the provision had been suggested, which, on examination, would be
+found equally eligible with a duty on ardent spirits. Much of the
+public prejudice which appeared in certain parts of the United States
+against the measure, was to be ascribed to their hostility to the term
+"excise," a term which had been inaccurately applied to the duty in
+question. When the law should be carried into operation, it would be
+found not to possess those odious qualities which had excited
+resentment against a system of excise. In those states where the
+collection of a duty on spirits distilled within the country had
+become familiar to the people, the same prejudices did not exist. On
+the good sense and virtue of the nation they could confidently rely
+for acquiescence in a measure which the public exigencies rendered
+necessary, which tended to equalize the public burdens, and which in
+its execution would not be oppressive.
+
+A motion made by Mr. Jackson, to strike out that section which imposed
+a duty on domestic distilled spirits, was negatived by thirty-six to
+sixteen; and the bill was carried by thirty-five to twenty-one.
+
+Some days after the passage of this bill, another question was brought
+forward, which was understood to involve principles of deep interest
+to the government.
+
+[Sidenote: On a national bank.]
+
+The secretary of the treasury had been the uniform advocate of a
+national bank. Believing that such an institution would be "of primary
+importance to the prosperous administration of the finances; and of
+the greatest utility in the operations connected with the support of
+public credit," he had earnestly recommended its adoption in the first
+general system which he presented to the view of congress; and, at the
+present session, had repeated that recommendation in a special report,
+containing a copious and perspicuous argument on the policy of the
+measure. A bill conforming to the plan he suggested was sent down from
+the senate, and was permitted to proceed, unmolested, in the house of
+representatives, to the third reading. On the final question, a great,
+and, it would seem, an unexpected opposition was made to its passage.
+Mr. Madison, Mr. Giles, Mr. Jackson, and Mr. Stone spoke against it.
+The general utility of banking systems was not admitted, and the
+particular bill before the house was censured on its merits; but the
+great strength of the argument was directed against the constitutional
+authority of congress to pass an act for incorporating a national
+bank.
+
+The government of the United States, it was said, was limited; and the
+powers which it might legitimately exercise were enumerated in the
+constitution itself. In this enumeration, the power now contended for
+was not to be found. Not being expressly given, it must be implied
+from those which were given, or it could not be vested in the
+government. The clauses under which it could be claimed were then
+reviewed and critically examined; and it was contended that, on fair
+construction, no one of these could be understood to imply so
+important a power as that of creating a corporation.
+
+The clause which enables congress to pass all laws necessary and
+proper to execute the specified powers, must, according to the natural
+and obvious force of the terms and the context, be limited to means
+_necessary_ to the _end_ and _incident_ to the _nature_ of the
+specified powers. The clause, it was said, was in fact merely
+declaratory of what would have resulted by unavoidable implication, as
+the appropriate, and as it were technical means of executing those
+powers. Some gentlemen observed, that "the true exposition of a
+necessary mean to produce a given end was that mean without which the
+end could not be produced."
+
+The bill was supported by Mr. Ames, Mr. Sedgwick, Mr. Smith, of South
+Carolina, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Gerry, and Mr. Vining.
+
+The utility of banking institutions was said to be demonstrated by
+their effects. In all commercial countries they had been resorted to
+as an instrument of great efficacy in mercantile transactions; and
+even in the United States, their public and private advantages had
+been felt and acknowledged.
+
+Respecting the policy of the measure, no well founded doubt could be
+entertained; but the objections to the constitutional authority of
+congress deserved to be seriously considered.
+
+That the government was limited by the terms of its creation was not
+controverted; and that it could exercise only those powers which were
+conferred on it by the constitution, was admitted. If, on examination,
+that instrument should be found to forbid the passage of the bill, it
+must be rejected, though it would be with deep regret that its friends
+would suffer such an opportunity of serving their country to escape
+for the want of a constitutional power to improve it.
+
+In asserting the authority of the legislature to pass the bill,
+gentlemen contended, that incidental as well as express powers must
+necessarily belong to every government: and that, when a power is
+delegated to effect particular objects, all the known and usual means
+of effecting them, must pass as incidental to it. To remove all doubt
+on this subject, the constitution of the United States had recognized
+the principle, by enabling congress to make all laws which may be
+necessary and proper for carrying into execution the powers vested in
+the government. They maintained the sound construction of this grant
+to be a recognition of an authority in the national legislature, to
+employ all the known and usual means for executing the powers vested
+in the government. They then took a comprehensive view of those
+powers, and contended that a bank was a known and usual instrument by
+which several of them were exercised.
+
+After a debate of great length, which was supported on both sides with
+ability, and with that ardour which was naturally excited by the
+importance attached by each party to the principle in contest, the
+question was put, and the bill was carried in the affirmative by a
+majority of nineteen voices.
+
+[Sidenote: The opinions of the cabinet on the constitutionality of
+this last law.]
+
+The point which had been agitated with so much zeal in the house of
+representatives, was examined with equal deliberation by the
+executive. The cabinet was divided upon it. The secretary of state,
+and the attorney general, conceived that congress had clearly
+transcended their constitutional powers; while the secretary of the
+treasury, with equal clearness, maintained the opposite opinion. The
+advice of each minister, with his reasoning in support of it, was
+required in writing, and their arguments were considered by the
+President with all that attention which the magnitude of the question,
+and the interest taken in it by the opposing parties, so eminently
+required. This deliberate investigation of the subject terminated in a
+conviction, that the constitution of the United States authorized the
+measure;[52] and the sanction of the executive was given to the act.
+
+     [Footnote 52: See note, No. V. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Progress of parties.]
+
+The judgment is so much influenced by the wishes, the affections, and
+the general theories of those by whom any political proposition is
+decided, that a contrariety of opinion on this great constitutional
+question ought to excite no surprise. It must be recollected that the
+conflict between the powers of the general and state governments was
+coeval with those governments. Even during the war, the preponderance
+of the states was obvious; and, in a very few years after peace, the
+struggle ended in the utter abasement of the general government. Many
+causes concurred to produce a constitution which was deemed more
+competent to the preservation of the union, but its adoption was
+opposed by great numbers; and in some of the large states especially,
+its enemies soon felt and manifested their superiority. The old line
+of division was still as strongly marked as ever. Many retained the
+opinion that liberty could be endangered only by encroachments upon
+the states; and that it was the great duty of patriotism to restrain
+the powers of the general government within the narrowest possible
+limits.
+
+In the other party, which was also respectable for its numbers, many
+were found who had watched the progress of American affairs, and who
+sincerely believed that the real danger which threatened the republic
+was to be looked for in the undue ascendency of the states. To them it
+appeared, that the substantial powers, and the extensive means of
+influence, which were retained by the local sovereignties, furnished
+them with weapons for aggression which were not easily to be resisted,
+and that it behoved all those who were anxious for the happiness of
+their country, to guard the equilibrium established in the
+constitution, by preserving unimpaired, all the legitimate powers of
+the union. These were more confirmed in their sentiments, by observing
+the temper already discovered in the legislatures of several states,
+respecting the proceedings of congress.
+
+To this great and radical division of opinion, which would necessarily
+affect every question on the authority of the national legislature,
+other motives were added, which were believed to possess considerable
+influence on all measures connected with the finances.
+
+As an inevitable effect of the state of society, the public debt had
+greatly accumulated in the middle and northern states, whose
+inhabitants had derived, from its rapid appreciation, a proportional
+augmentation of their wealth. This circumstance could not fail to
+contribute to the complacency with which the plans of the secretary
+were viewed by those who had felt their benefit, nor to the irritation
+with which they were contemplated by others who had parted with their
+claims on the nation. It is not impossible, that personal
+considerations also mingled themselves with those which were merely
+political.
+
+With so many causes to bias the judgment, it would not have been
+wonderful if arguments less plausible than those advanced by either
+party had been deemed conclusive on its adversary; nor was it a matter
+of surprise that each should have denied to those which were urged in
+opposition, the weight to which they were certainly entitled. The
+liberal mind which can review them without prejudice, will charge
+neither the supporters nor the opponents of the bill with insincerity,
+nor with being knowingly actuated by motives which might not have been
+avowed.
+
+This measure made a deep impression on many members of the
+legislature; and contributed, not inconsiderably, to the complete
+organization of those distinct and visible parties, which, in their
+long and dubious conflict for power, have since shaken the United
+States to their centre.
+
+Among the last acts of the present congress, was an act to augment the
+military establishment of the United States.
+
+[Sidenote: War with the Indians.]
+
+The earnest endeavours of the President to give security to the
+north-western frontiers, by pacific arrangements, having been entirely
+unavailing, it became his duty to employ such other means as were
+placed in his hands, for the protection of the country. Confirmed by
+all his experience in the opinion that vigorous offensive operations
+alone could bring an Indian war to a happy conclusion, he had planned
+an expedition against the hostile tribes north-west of the Ohio, as
+soon as the impracticability of effecting a treaty with them had been
+ascertained.
+
+General Harmar, a veteran of the revolution, who had received his
+appointment under the former government, was placed at the head of the
+federal troops. On the 30th of September, he marched from fort
+Washington with three hundred and twenty regulars. The whole army when
+joined by the militia of Pennsylvania and Kentucky amounted to
+fourteen hundred and fifty-three men. About the middle of October,
+Colonel Harden, who commanded the Kentucky militia, and who had been
+also a continental officer of considerable merit, was detached at the
+head of six hundred men, chiefly militia, to reconnoitre the ground,
+and to ascertain the intentions of the enemy. On his approach, the
+Indians set fire to their principal village, and fled with
+precipitation to the woods. As the object of the expedition would be
+only half accomplished, unless the savages could be brought to action
+and defeated, Colonel Harden was again detached at the head of two
+hundred and ten men, thirty of whom were regulars. About ten miles
+west of Chilicothe, where the main body of the army lay, he was
+attacked by a party of Indians. The Pennsylvanians, who composed his
+left column, had previously fallen in the rear; and the Kentuckians,
+disregarding the exertions of their colonel, and of a few other
+officers, fled on the first appearance of an enemy. The small corps of
+regulars commanded by Lieutenant Armstrong made a brave resistance.
+After twenty-three of them had fallen in the field, the surviving
+seven made their escape and rejoined the army.
+
+[Sidenote: Defeat of Harmar.]
+
+Notwithstanding this check, the remaining towns on the Scioto were
+reduced to ashes, and the provisions laid up for the winter were
+entirely destroyed. This service being accomplished, the army
+commenced its march towards fort Washington. Being desirous of wiping
+off the disgrace which his arms had sustained, General Harmar halted
+about eight miles from Chilicothe, and once more detached Colonel
+Harden with orders to find the enemy and bring on an engagement. His
+command consisted of three hundred and sixty men, of whom sixty were
+regulars commanded by Major Wyllys. Early the next morning, this
+detachment reached the confluence of the St. Joseph and St. Mary,
+where it was divided into three columns. The left division, commanded
+by Colonel Harden in person, crossed the St. Joseph, and proceeded up
+its western bank. The centre, consisting of the federal troops, was
+led by Major Wyllys up the eastern side of that river; and the right,
+under the command of Major M'Millan, marched along a range of heights
+which commanded the right flank of the centre division. The columns
+had proceeded but a short distance, when each was met by a
+considerable body of Indians, and a severe engagement ensued. The
+militia retrieved their reputation, and several of their bravest
+officers fell. The heights on the right having been, from some cause
+not mentioned, unoccupied by the American troops, the savages seized
+them early in the action, and attacked the right flank of the centre
+with great fury. Although Major Wyllys was among the first who fell,
+the battle was maintained by the regulars with spirit, and
+considerable execution was done on both sides. At length, the scanty
+remnant of this small band, quite overpowered by numbers, was driven
+off the ground, leaving fifty of their comrades, exclusive of Major
+Wyllys and Lieutenant Farthingham, dead upon the field. The loss
+sustained by the militia was also considerable. It amounted to upwards
+of one hundred men, among whom were nine officers. After an engagement
+of extreme severity, the detachment joined the main army, which
+continued its march to fort Washington.
+
+General Harmar, with what propriety it is not easy to discern, claimed
+the victory. He conceived, not entirely without reason, that the loss
+of a considerable number of men, would be fatal to the Indians,
+although a still greater loss should be sustained by the Americans,
+because the savages did not possess a population from which they could
+replace the warriors who had fallen. The event, however, did not
+justify this opinion.
+
+The information respecting this expedition was quickly followed by
+intelligence stating the deplorable condition of the frontiers. An
+address from the representatives of all the counties of Kentucky, and
+those of Virginia bordering on the Ohio, was presented to the
+President, praying that the defence of the country might be committed
+to militia unmixed with regulars, and that they might immediately be
+drawn out to oppose "the exulting foe." To this address, the President
+gave a conciliatory answer, but he understood too well the nature of
+the service, to yield to the request it contained. Such were his
+communications to the legislature, that a regiment was added to the
+permanent military establishment, and he was authorized to raise a
+body of two thousand men, for six months, and to appoint a major
+general, and a brigadier general, to continue in command so long as he
+should think their services necessary.
+
+[Sidenote: Adjournment of congress.]
+
+With the 3d of March, 1791, terminated the first congress elected
+under the constitution of the United States. The party denominated
+federal having prevailed at the elections, a majority of the members
+were steadfast friends of the constitution, and were sincerely
+desirous of supporting a system they had themselves introduced, and on
+the preservation of which, in full health and vigour, they firmly
+believed the happiness of their fellow citizens, and the
+respectability of the nation, greatly to depend. To organize a
+government, to retrieve the national character, to establish a system
+of revenue, and to create public credit, were among the arduous duties
+which were imposed upon them by the political situation of their
+country. With persevering labour, guided by no inconsiderable portion
+of virtue and intelligence, these objects were, in a great degree,
+accomplished. Out of the measures proposed for their attainment,
+questions alike intricate and interesting unavoidably arose. It is not
+in the nature of man to discuss such questions without strongly
+agitating the passions, and exciting irritations which do not readily
+subside. Had it even been the happy and singular lot of America to see
+its national legislature assemble uninfluenced by those prejudices
+which grew out of the previous divisions of the country, the many
+delicate points which they were under the necessity of deciding, could
+not have failed to disturb this enviable state of harmony, and to
+mingle some share of party spirit with their deliberations. But when
+the actual state of the public mind was contemplated, and due weight
+was given to the important consideration that, at no very distant day,
+a successor to the present chief magistrate must be elected, it was
+still less to be hoped that the first congress could pass away,
+without producing strong and permanent dispositions in parties, to
+impute to each other designs unfriendly to the public happiness. As
+yet, however, these imputations did not extend to the President. His
+character was held sacred, and the purity of his motives was admitted
+by all. Some divisions were understood to have found their way into
+the cabinet. It was insinuated that between the secretaries of state
+and of the treasury, very serious differences had arisen; but these
+high personages were believed, to be equally attached to the
+President, who was not suspected of undue partiality to either. If his
+assent to the bill for incorporating the national bank produced
+discontent, the opponents of that measure seemed disposed to ascribe
+his conduct, in that instance, to his judgment, rather than to any
+prepossession in favour of the party by whom it was carried. The
+opposition, therefore, in congress, to the measures of the government,
+seemed to be levelled at the secretary of the treasury, and at the
+northern members by whom those measures were generally supported, not
+at the President by whom they were approved. By taking this direction,
+it made its way into the public mind, without being encountered by
+that devoted affection which a great majority of the people felt for
+the chief magistrate of the union. In the mean time, the national
+prosperity was in a state of rapid progress; and the government was
+gaining, though slowly, in the public opinion. But in several of the
+state assemblies, especially in the southern division of the
+continent, serious evidences of dissatisfaction were exhibited, which
+demonstrated the jealousy with which the local sovereignties
+contemplated the powers exercised by the federal legislature.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+     General St. Clair appointed Commander-in-chief.... The
+     President makes a tour through the southern states....
+     Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... Debate on the
+     bill for apportioning representatives.... Militia law....
+     Defeat of St. Clair.... Opposition to the increase of the
+     army.... Report of the Secretary of the Treasury for raising
+     additional supplies.... Congress adjourns.... Strictures on
+     the conduct of administration, with a view of parties....
+     Disagreement between the Secretaries of State and
+     Treasury.... Letters from General Washington.... Opposition
+     to the excise law.... President's proclamation....
+     Insurrection and massacre in the island of St. Domingo....
+     General Wayne appointed to the command of the army....
+     Meeting of Congress.... President's speech.... Resolutions
+     implicating the Secretary of the Treasury rejected....
+     Congress adjourns.... Progress of the French revolution, and
+     its effects on parties in the United States.
+
+
+{1791}
+
+More ample means for the protection of the frontiers having been
+placed in the hands of the executive, the immediate attention of the
+President was directed to this interesting object.
+
+[Sidenote: General St. Clair appointed commander-in-chief of the
+army.]
+
+Major General Arthur St. Clair, governor of the territory north-west
+of the Ohio, was appointed Commander-in-chief of the forces to be
+employed in the meditated expedition. This gentleman had served
+through the war of the revolution with reputation, though it had never
+been his fortune to distinguish himself. The evacuation of Ticonderoga
+had indeed, at one time, subjected him to much public censure; but it
+was found, upon inquiry, to be unmerited. Other motives, in addition
+to the persuasion of his fitness for the service, conduced to his
+appointment. With the sword, the olive branch was still to be
+tendered; and it was thought adviseable to place them in the same
+hands. The governor, having been made officially the negotiator with
+the tribes inhabiting the territories over which he presided, being a
+military man, acquainted with the country into which the war was to be
+carried, possessing considerable influence with the inhabitants of the
+frontiers, and being so placed as to superintend the preparations for
+the expedition advantageously, seemed to have claims to the station
+which were not to be overlooked. It was also a consideration of some
+importance, that the high rank he had held in the American army, would
+obviate those difficulties in filling the inferior grades with men of
+experience, which might certainly be expected, should a person who had
+acted in a less elevated station, be selected for the chief command.
+
+[Illustration: Tomb of Mary, Mother of Washington
+
+_This is the original monument as it appeared before the present
+granite obelisk was erected over the grave of George Washington's
+mother in Fredericksburg, Virginia. It was in Fredericksburg that she
+made her home during her declining years, and it was on the Kenmore
+estate of her daughter, Elizabeth, and son-in-law, Fielding Lewis,
+that she was buried, September, 1789, having survived her husband,
+Augustine Washington, forty-six years._]
+
+[Sidenote: The president makes a tour through the southern states.]
+
+After making the necessary arrangements for recruiting the army, the
+President prepared to make his long contemplated tour through the
+southern states.[53] In passing through them, he was received
+universally with the same marks of affectionate attachment, which he
+had experienced in the northern and central parts of the union. To the
+sensibilities which these demonstrations of the regard and esteem of
+good men could not fail to inspire, was added the high gratification
+produced by observing the rapid improvements of the country, and the
+advances made by the government, in acquiring the confidence of the
+people. The numerous letters written by him after his return to
+Philadelphia, attest the agreeable impressions made by these causes.
+"In my late tour through the southern states," said he, in a letter of
+the 28th of July, to Mr. Gouverneur Morris, "I experienced great
+satisfaction in seeing the good effects of the general government in
+that part of the union. The people at large have felt the security
+which it gives, and the equal justice which it administers to them.
+The farmer, the merchant, and the mechanic, have seen their several
+interests attended to, and from thence they unite in placing a
+confidence in their representatives, as well as in those in whose
+hands the execution of the laws is placed. Industry has there taken
+place of idleness, and economy of dissipation. Two or three years of
+good crops, and a ready market for the produce of their lands, have
+put every one in good humour; and, in some instances, they even impute
+to the government what is due only to the goodness of Providence.
+
+     [Footnote 53: He stopped several days on the Potomac, where
+     he executed finally the powers vested in him by the
+     legislature for fixing on a place which should become the
+     residence of congress, and the metropolis of the United
+     States.]
+
+"The establishment of public credit is an immense point gained in our
+national concerns. This, I believe, exceeds the expectation of the
+most sanguine among us; and a late instance, unparalleled in this
+country, has been given of the confidence reposed in our measures, by
+the rapidity with which the subscriptions to the bank of the United
+States were filled. In two hours after the books were opened by the
+commissioners, the whole number of shares was taken up, and four
+thousand more applied for than were allowed by the institution. This
+circumstance was not only pleasing as it related to the confidence in
+government, but also as it exhibited an unexpected proof of the
+resources of our citizens."
+
+This visit had undoubtedly some tendency to produce the good
+disposition which the President observed with so much pleasure. The
+affections are perhaps more intimately connected with the judgment
+than we are disposed to admit; and the appearance of the chief
+magistrate of the union, who was the object of general love and
+reverence, could not be without its influence in conciliating the
+minds of many to the government he administered, and to its measures.
+But this progress towards conciliation was, perhaps, less considerable
+than was indicated by appearances. The hostility to the government,
+which was coeval with its existence, though diminished, was far from
+being subdued; and under this smooth exterior was concealed a mass of
+discontent, which, though it did not obtrude itself on the view of the
+man who united almost all hearts, was active in its exertions to
+effect its objects.
+
+The difficulties which must impede the recruiting service in a country
+where coercion is not employed, and where the common wages of labour
+greatly exceed the pay of a soldier, protracted the completion of the
+regiments to a late season of the year; but the summer was not
+permitted to waste in total inaction.
+
+The act passed at the last session for the defence of the frontiers,
+in addition to its other provisions, had given to the President an
+unlimited power to call mounted militia into the field. Under this
+authority, two expeditions had been conducted against the villages on
+the Wabash, in which a few of the Indian warriors were killed, some of
+their old men, women, and children, were made prisoners, and several
+of their towns and fields of corn were destroyed. The first was led by
+General Scott, in May, and the second by General Wilkinson, in
+September. These desultory incursions had not much influence on the
+war.
+
+It was believed in the United States, that the hostility of the
+Indians was kept up by the traders living in their villages. These
+persons had, generally, resided in the United States; and, having been
+compelled to leave the country in consequence of the part they had
+taken during the war of the revolution, felt the resentments which
+banishment and confiscation seldom fail to inspire. Their enmities
+were ascribed by many, perhaps unjustly, to the temper of the
+government in Canada; but some countenance seemed to be given to this
+opinion by intelligence that, about the commencement of the preceding
+campaign, large supplies of ammunition had been delivered from the
+British posts on the lakes, to the Indians at war with the United
+States. While the President was on his southern tour, he addressed a
+letter to the secretary of state, to be communicated to Colonel
+Beckwith, who still remained in Philadelphia as the informal
+representative of his nation, in which he expressed his surprise and
+disappointment at this interference, by the servants or subjects of a
+foreign state, in a war prosecuted by the United States for the sole
+purpose of procuring peace and safety for the inhabitants of their
+frontiers.
+
+On receiving this communication, Colonel Beckwith expressed his
+disbelief that the supplies mentioned had been delivered; but on being
+assured of the fact, he avowed the opinion that the transaction was
+without the knowledge of Lord Dorchester, to whom he said he should
+communicate, without delay, the ideas of the American government on
+the subject.
+
+[Sidenote: Meeting of congress.]
+
+[Sidenote: President's speech.]
+
+On the 24th of October the second congress assembled in Philadelphia.
+In his speech at the opening of the session, the President expressed
+his great satisfaction at the prosperous situation of the country, and
+particularly mentioned the rapidity with which the shares in the bank
+of the United States were subscribed, as "among the striking and
+pleasing evidences which presented themselves, not only of confidence
+in the government, but of resources in the community."
+
+Adverting to the measures which had been taken in execution of the
+laws and resolutions of the last session, "the most important of
+which," he observed, "respected the defence and security of the
+western frontiers," he had, he said, "negotiated provisional treaties,
+and used other proper means to attach the wavering, and to confirm in
+their friendship the well disposed tribes of Indians. The means which
+he had adopted for a pacification with those of a hostile description
+having proved unsuccessful, offensive operations had been directed,
+some of which had proved completely successful, and others were still
+pending. Overtures of peace were still continued to the deluded
+tribes; and it was sincerely to be desired that all need of coercion
+might cease, and that an intimate intercourse might succeed,
+calculated to advance the happiness of the Indians, and to attach them
+firmly to the United States."
+
+In marking the line of conduct which ought to be maintained for the
+promotion of this object, he strongly recommended "justice to the
+savages, and such rational experiments for imparting to them the
+blessings of civilization, as might from time to time suit their
+condition;" and then concluded this subject with saying--"A system
+corresponding with the mild principles of religion and philanthropy
+towards an unenlightened race of men whose happiness materially
+depends on the conduct of the United States, would be as honourable to
+the national character, as conformable to the dictates of sound
+policy."
+
+After stating that measures had been taken for carrying into execution
+the act laying duties on distilled spirits, he added--"The impressions
+with which this law has been received by the community have been, upon
+the whole, such as were to have been expected among enlightened and
+well disposed citizens, from the propriety and necessity of the
+measure. The novelty, however, of the tax, in a considerable part of
+the United States, and a misconception of some of its provisions, have
+given occasion, in particular places, to some degree of discontent.
+But it is satisfactory to know that this disposition yields to proper
+explanations, and more just apprehensions of the true nature of the
+law. And I entertain a full confidence that it will, in all, give way
+to motives which arise out of a just sense of duty, and a virtuous
+regard to the public welfare.
+
+"If there are any circumstances in the law, which, consistently with
+its main design may be so varied as to remove any well intentioned
+objections that may happen to exist, it will comport with a wise
+moderation to make the proper variations. It is desirable on all
+occasions, to unite with a steady and firm adherence to constitutional
+and necessary acts of government, the fullest evidence of a
+disposition, as far as may be practicable, to consult the wishes of
+every part of the community, and to lay the foundations of the public
+administration in the affections of the people."
+
+The answers of the two houses noticed, briefly and generally, the
+various topics of the speech; and, though perhaps less warm than those
+of the preceding congress, manifested great respect for the executive
+magistrate, and an undiminished confidence in his patriotic exertions
+to promote the public interests.
+
+[Sidenote: Debate on the bill "for apportioning representatives among
+the people of the states according to the first enumeration."]
+
+Among the first subjects of importance which engaged the attention of
+the legislature, was a bill "for apportioning representatives among
+the people of the several states according to the first enumeration."
+The constitution, in its original form, had affixed no other limits to
+the power of congress over the numbers of which the house of
+representatives might consist, than that there should not be more than
+one member for every thirty thousand persons; but that each state
+should be entitled to at least one. Independent of the general
+considerations in favour of a more or less numerous representation in
+the popular branch of the legislature, there was one of a local
+nature, whose operation, though secret, was extensive, which gave to
+this question a peculiar interest. To whatever number of persons a
+representative might be allotted, there would still remain a fraction,
+which would be greater or less in each state, according to the ratio
+which congress should adopt between representation and population. The
+relative power of states, in one branch of the legislature, would
+consequently be affected by this ratio; and to questions of that
+description, few members can permit themselves to be inattentive.
+
+This bill, as originally introduced into the house of representatives,
+gave to each state one member for every thirty thousand persons. On a
+motion to strike out the number thirty thousand, the debate turned
+chiefly on the policy and advantage of a more or less numerous house
+of representatives; but with the general arguments suggested by the
+subject, strong and pointed allusions to the measures of the preceding
+congress were interspersed, which indicated much more serious
+hostility to the administration than had hitherto been expressed.
+Speaking of the corruption which he supposed to exist in the British
+house of commons, Mr. Giles said that causes essentially different
+from their numbers, had produced this effect. "Among these, were the
+frequent mortgages of the funds, and the immense appropriations at the
+disposal of the executive."
+
+"An inequality of circumstances," he observed, "produces revolutions
+in governments, from democracy, to aristocracy, and monarchy. Great
+wealth produces a desire of distinctions, rank, and titles. The
+revolutions of property, in this country, have created a prodigious
+inequality of circumstances. Government has contributed to this
+inequality. The bank of the United States is a most important machine
+in promoting the objects of this monied interest. This bank will be
+the most powerful engine to corrupt this house. Some of the members
+are directors of this institution; and it will only be by increasing
+the representation, that an adequate barrier can be opposed to this
+monied interest." He next adverted to certain ideas, which, he said,
+had been disseminated through the United States. "The legislature," he
+took occasion to observe, "ought to express some disapprobation of
+these opinions. The strong executive of this government," he added,
+"ought to be balanced by a full representation in this house."
+
+Similar sentiments were advanced by Mr. Findley.
+
+After a long and animated discussion, the amendment was lost, and the
+bill passed in its original form.
+
+In the senate, it was amended by changing the ratio, so as to give one
+representative for every thirty-three thousand persons in each state;
+but this amendment was disagreed to by the house of representatives;
+and each house adhering to its opinion, the bill fell; but was again
+introduced into the house of representatives, under a different title,
+and in a new form, though without any change in its substantial
+provisions. After a debate in which the injustice of the fractions
+produced by the ratio it adopted was strongly pressed, it passed that
+house. In the senate, it was again amended, not by reducing, but by
+enlarging the number of representatives.
+
+The constitution of the United States declares that "representatives
+and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which
+may be included within this union according to their respective
+numbers;" and that "the number of representatives shall not exceed one
+for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one
+representative." Construing the constitution to authorize a process by
+which the whole number of representatives should be ascertained on the
+whole population of the United States, and afterwards "apportioned
+among the several states according to their respective numbers," the
+senate applied the number thirty thousand as a _divisor_ to the total
+population, and taking the _quotient_, which was one hundred and
+twenty, as the number of representatives given by the ratio which had
+been adopted in the house where the bill had originated, they
+apportioned that number among the several states by that ratio, until
+as many representatives as it would give were allotted to each. The
+residuary members were then distributed among the states having the
+highest fractions. Without professing the principle on which this
+apportionment was made, the amendment of the senate merely allotted to
+the states respectively, the number of members which the process just
+mentioned would give. The result was a more equitable apportionment of
+representatives to population, and had the rule of construing that
+instrument been correct, the amendment removed objections which were
+certainly well founded. But the rule was novel, and overturned
+opinions which had been generally assumed, and were supposed to be
+settled. In one branch of the legislature it had already been
+rejected; and in the other, the majority in its favour was only one.
+
+In the house of representatives, the amendment was supported with
+considerable ingenuity.
+
+After an earnest debate, however, it was disagreed to, and a
+conference took place without producing an accommodation among the
+members composing the committee. But finally, the house of
+representatives receded from their disagreement; and, by a majority of
+two voices, the bill passed as amended in the senate.
+
+On the President, the solemn duty of deciding, whether an act of the
+legislature consisted with the constitution; for the bill, if
+constitutional, was unexceptionable.
+
+In his cabinet, also, a difference of opinion is understood to have
+existed; the secretary of state and the attorney general were of
+opinion that the act was at variance with the constitution; the
+secretary of war was rather undecided; and the secretary of the
+treasury, thinking that, from the vagueness of expression in the
+clause relating to the subject, neither construction could be
+absolutely rejected, was in favour of acceding to the interpretation
+given by the legislature.
+
+After weighing the arguments which were urged on each side of the
+question, the President was confirmed in the opinion that the
+population of each state, and not the total population of the United
+States, must give the numbers to which alone the process by which the
+number of representatives was to be ascertained could be applied.
+Having formed this opinion, to a correct and independent mind the
+course to be pursued was a plain one. Duty required the exercise of a
+power which a President of the United States will always find much
+difficulty in employing; and he returned the bill to the house in
+which it originated, accompanied with his objections[54] to it. In
+observance of the forms prescribed in the constitution, the question
+was then taken on its passage by ayes and noes, and it was rejected. A
+third bill was soon afterwards introduced, apportioning the
+representatives on the several states at a ratio of one for every
+thirty-three thousand persons in each state, which passed into a law.
+Thus was this interesting part of the American constitution finally
+settled.
+
+     [Footnote 54: The following is the message which he
+     delivered on this occasion.
+
+     _Gentlemen of the house of representatives--_
+
+     I have maturely considered the act passed by the two houses,
+     entitled "an act for the apportionment of representatives
+     among the several states according to the first
+     enumeration," and I return it to your house, wherein it
+     originated, with the following objections.
+
+     First. The constitution has prescribed that representatives
+     shall be apportioned among the several states according to
+     their respective numbers, and there is no proportion or
+     divisor which, applied to the respective numbers of the
+     states, will yield the number and allotment of
+     representatives proposed by the bill.
+
+     Secondly. The constitution has also provided, that the
+     number of representatives shall not exceed one for thirty
+     thousand, which restriction is by the context, and by fair
+     and obvious construction, to be applied to the separate and
+     respective numbers of the states, and the bill has allotted
+     to eight of the states more than one for thirty thousand.]
+
+[Sidenote: Militia law.]
+
+During this session of congress, an act passed for establishing a
+uniform militia.
+
+The President had manifested, from the commencement of his
+administration, a peculiar degree of solicitude on this subject, and
+had repeatedly urged it on congress.
+
+In his speech at the opening of the present session, he again called
+the attention of the legislature to it; and, at length, a law was
+enacted which, though less efficacious than the plan reported by the
+secretary of war, will probably, not soon, be carried into complete
+execution.
+
+[Sidenote: Defeat of St. Clair.]
+
+In December, intelligence was received by the President, and
+immediately communicated to congress, that the American army had been
+totally defeated on the fourth of the preceding month.
+
+Although the most prompt and judicious measures had been taken to
+raise the troops, and to march them to the frontiers, they could not
+be assembled in the neighbourhood of fort Washington until the month
+of September, nor was the establishment even then completed.
+
+The immediate objects of the expedition were, to destroy the Indian
+villages on the Miamis, to expel the savages from that country, and to
+connect it with the Ohio by a chain of posts which would prevent their
+return during the war.
+
+On the seventh of September, the regulars moved from their camp in the
+vicinity of fort Washington, and marching directly north, towards the
+object of their destination, established two intermediate posts[55] at
+the distance of rather more than forty miles from each other, as
+places of deposite, and of security either for convoys of provision
+which might follow the army, or for the army itself should any
+disaster befall it. The last of these works, fort Jefferson, was not
+completed until the 24th of October, before which time reinforcements
+were received of about three hundred and sixty militia. After placing
+garrisons in the forts, the effective number of the army, including
+militia, amounted to rather less than two thousand men. With this
+force, the general continued his march, which was rendered both slow
+and laborious by the necessity of opening a road. Small parties of
+Indians were frequently seen hovering about them, and some unimportant
+skirmishes took place. As the army approached the country in which
+they might expect to meet an enemy, about sixty of the militia
+deserted in a body. This diminution of force was not, in itself, an
+object of much concern. But there was reason to fear that the example,
+should those who set it be permitted to escape with impunity, would be
+extensively followed; and it was reported to be the intention of the
+deserters, to plunder convoys of provisions which were advancing at
+some distance in the rear. To prevent mischiefs of so serious a
+nature, the general detached Major Hamtranck with the first regiment
+in pursuit of the deserters, and directed him to secure the provisions
+under a strong guard.
+
+     [Footnote 55: Forts Hamilton and Jefferson.]
+
+The army, consisting of about fourteen hundred effective rank and
+file, continued its march; and, on the third of November, encamped
+about fifteen miles south of the Miamis villages. The right wing under
+the command of General Butler formed the first line, and lay with a
+creek, about twelve yards wide, immediately in its front. The left
+wing commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Darke, formed the second; and
+between the two lines, was an interval of about seventy yards.[56] The
+right flank was supposed to be secured by the creek, by a steep bank,
+and by a small body of troops; the left was covered by a party of
+cavalry, and by piquets. The militia crossed the creek, and advanced
+about a quarter of a mile in front, where they also encamped in two
+lines. On their approach, a few Indians who had shown themselves on
+the opposite side of the creek, fled with precipitation.
+
+     [Footnote 56: In his official letter, General St. Clair says
+     that the ground would not admit a larger interval.]
+
+At this place, the general intended to throw up a slight work for the
+security of the baggage; and, after being joined by Major Hamtranck,
+to march as unincumbered, and as expeditiously as possible, to the
+villages he purposed to destroy.
+
+In both these designs he was anticipated. About half an hour before
+sun rise the next morning, just after the troops had been dismissed
+from the parade, an unexpected attack was made upon the militia, who
+fled in the utmost confusion, and rushing into camp through the first
+line of continental troops, which had been formed the instant the
+first gun was discharged, threw them too into disorder. The exertions
+of the officers to restore order were not entirely successful. The
+Indians pressed close upon the heels of the flying militia, and
+engaged General Butler with great intrepidity. The action instantly
+became extremely warm; and the fire of the assailants, passing round
+both flanks of the first line, was, in a few minutes, poured with
+equal fury on the rear division. Its greatest weight was directed
+against the centre of each wing, where the artillery was posted; and
+the artillerists were mowed down in great numbers. Firing from the
+ground, and from the shelter which the woods afforded, the assailants
+were scarcely seen but when springing from one cover to another, in
+which manner they advanced close up to the American lines, and to the
+very mouths of the field pieces. They fought with the daring courage
+of men whose trade is war, and who are stimulated by all those
+passions which can impel the savage mind to vigorous exertions.
+
+Under circumstances thus arduous, raw troops may be expected to
+exhibit that inequality which is found in human nature. While some of
+the American soldiers performed their duty with the utmost resolution,
+others seemed dismayed and terrified. Of this conduct the officers
+were, as usual, the victims. With a fearlessness which the occasion
+required, they exposed themselves to the most imminent dangers; and,
+in their efforts to change the face of affairs, fell in great numbers.
+
+For several days, the Commander-in-chief had been afflicted with a
+severe disease, under which he still laboured, and which must have
+greatly affected him; but, though unable to display that activity
+which would have been useful in this severe conflict, neither the
+feebleness of his body, nor the peril of his situation, could prevent
+his delivering his orders with judgment and with self possession.[57]
+
+     [Footnote 57: The following extract from the official letter
+     of the Commander-in-chief is inserted, as showing both his
+     own situation and his opinion of the behaviour of his
+     troops. "I have nothing, sir, to lay to the charge of the
+     troops but their want of discipline, which, from the short
+     time they had been in service, it was impossible they should
+     have acquired; and which rendered it very difficult when
+     they were thrown into confusion, to reduce them again to
+     order; and is one reason why the loss has fallen so heavily
+     upon the officers who did every thing in their power to
+     effect it. Neither were my own exertions wanting; but worn
+     down with illness, and suffering under a painful disease,
+     unable either to mount, or dismount a horse without
+     assistance, they were not so great as they otherwise would,
+     or perhaps ought to have been."]
+
+It was soon perceived that the American fire could produce, on a
+concealed enemy, no considerable effect; and that the only hope of
+victory was placed in the bayonet. At the head of the second regiment,
+which formed the left of the left wing, Lieutenant Colonel Darke made
+an impetuous charge upon the enemy, forced them from their ground with
+some loss, and drove them about four hundred yards. He was followed by
+that whole wing; but the want of a sufficient number of riflemen to
+press this advantage, deprived him of the benefit which ought to have
+been derived from this effort; and, as soon as he gave over the
+pursuit, the Indians renewed their attack. In the mean time General
+Butler was mortally wounded, the left of the right wing was broken,
+the artillerists almost to a man killed, the guns seized, and the camp
+penetrated by the enemy. With his own regiment, and with the
+battalions commanded by Majors Butler[58] and Clarke, Darke was
+ordered again to charge with the bayonet. These orders were executed
+with intrepidity and momentary success. The Indians were driven out of
+the camp, and the artillery recovered. But while they were pressed in
+one point by the bravest of the American troops, their fire was kept
+up from every other with fatal effect. Several times particular corps
+charged them, always with partial success, but no universal effort
+could be made, and in every charge a great loss of officers was
+sustained, the consequences of which were severely felt. Instead of
+keeping their ranks, and executing the orders which were given, a
+great proportion of the soldiers flocked together in crowds, and were
+shot down without resistance. To save the remnant of his army was all
+that remained to be done; and, about half past nine in the morning,
+General St. Clair ordered Lieutenant Colonel Darke with the second
+regiment, to charge a body of Indians who had intercepted their
+retreat, and to gain the road. Major Clarke with his battalion was
+directed to cover the rear. These orders were executed, and a
+disorderly flight commenced. The pursuit was kept up about four miles,
+when, fortunately for the surviving Americans, that avidity for
+plunder which is a ruling passion among savages, called back the
+victorious Indians to the ramp, where the spoils of their vanquished
+foes were to be divided. The routed troops continued their flight to
+fort Jefferson, a distance of about thirty miles, throwing away their
+arms on the road. At this place they met Major Hamtranck with the
+first regiment; and a council of war was called to deliberate on the
+course to be pursued. As this regiment was far from restoring the
+strength of the morning, it was determined not to attempt to retrieve
+the fortune of the day: and, leaving the wounded at fort Jefferson,
+the army continued its retreat to fort Washington.
+
+     [Footnote 58: Although his leg had been broken by a ball,
+     Major Butler, mounted on horseback, led his battalion to the
+     charge.]
+
+In this disastrous battle, the loss on the part of the Americans was
+very great when compared with the numbers engaged. Thirty-eight
+commissioned officers were killed upon the field, and five hundred and
+ninety-three non-commissioned officers and privates were slain and
+missing. Twenty-one commissioned officers, several of whom afterwards
+died of their wounds, and two hundred and forty-two non-commissioned
+officers and privates were wounded. Among the dead was the brave and
+much lamented General Butler. This gallant officer had served through
+the war of the revolution; and had, on more than one occasion,
+distinguished himself in a remarkable manner. In the list of those who
+shared his fate, were the names of many other excellent officers who
+had participated in all the toils, the dangers, and the glory, of that
+long conflict which terminated in the independence of their country.
+At the head of the list of wounded were Lieutenant Colonels Gibson and
+Darke, Major Butler, and Adjutant General Sargent, all of whom were
+veteran officers of great merit, who displayed their accustomed
+bravery on this unfortunate day. General St. Clair, in his official
+letter, observed: "the loss the public has sustained by the fall of so
+many officers, particularly of General Butler and Major Ferguson, can
+not be too much regretted; but it is a circumstance that will
+alleviate the misfortune in some measure, that all of them fell most
+gallantly doing their duty."
+
+From the weight of the fire, and the circumstance of his being
+attacked nearly at the same time in front and rear, General St. Clair
+was of opinion that he was overpowered by numbers. The intelligence
+afterwards collected would make the Indian force to consist of from
+one thousand to fifteen hundred warriors. Of their loss, no estimate
+could be made; the probability is, that it bore no proportion to that
+sustained by the American army.
+
+Nothing could be more unexpected than this severe disaster. The public
+had confidently anticipated a successful campaign, and could not
+believe, that the general who had been unfortunate, had not been
+culpable.
+
+{1792}
+
+The Commander-in-chief requested with earnestness that a court martial
+should sit on his conduct; but this request could not be granted,
+because the army did not furnish a sufficient number of officers of a
+grade to form a court for his trial on military principles. Late in
+the session, a committee of the house of representatives was appointed
+to inquire into the cause of the failure of the expedition, whose
+report, in explicit terms, exculpated the Commander-in-chief. This
+inquiry, however, was instituted rather for the purpose of
+investigating the conduct of civil than of military officers; and was
+not conducted by military men. More satisfactory testimony in favour
+of St. Clair is furnished by the circumstance, that he still retained
+the undiminished esteem and good opinion of the President.
+
+The Indian war now assumed a still more serious aspect. There was
+reason to fear that the hostile tribes would derive a great accession
+of strength from the impression which their success would make upon
+their neighbours; and the reputation of the government was deeply
+concerned in retrieving the fortune of its arms, and affording
+protection to its citizens. The President, therefore, lost no time in
+causing the estimates for a competent force to be prepared and laid
+before congress. In conformity with a report made by the secretary of
+war, a bill was brought into the house of representatives, directing
+three additional regiments of infantry, and a squadron of cavalry to
+be raised, to serve for three years, if not sooner discharged. The
+whole military establishment, if completed, would amount to about five
+thousand men. The additional regiments, however, were to be disbanded
+as soon as peace should be concluded with the Indians; and the
+President was authorized to discharge, or to forbear to raise, any
+part of them, "in case events should, in his judgment, render his so
+doing consistent with the public safety."
+
+[Sidenote: Opposition to the increase of the army.]
+
+This bill met with great opposition. A motion was made to strike out
+the section which authorized an augmentation of force. By those who
+argued in favour of the motion, the justice of the war was arraigned,
+and the practicability of obtaining peace at a much less expense than
+would be incurred in its further prosecution, was urged with
+vehemence. An extension of the present frontier was said not to be
+desirable, and if the citizens of the United States were recalled
+within their proper boundaries, hostilities would cease. At any rate,
+it was an idle waste of blood and treasure, to carry the war beyond
+the line of forts already established. It was only exposing their arms
+to disgrace, betraying their own weakness, and lessening the public
+confidence in the government, to send forth armies to be butchered in
+the forests, while the British were suffered to keep possession of
+posts within the territory of the United States. To this cause was to
+be ascribed any disposition which might exist on the part of the
+Indians to continue hostilities, and to its removal the efforts of the
+government ought to be directed.
+
+But, admitting the war to have been just in its commencement, and its
+continuance to be required by the honour and interest of the nation,
+yet as an invasion of the Indian country ought not to be attempted,
+this augmentation of the military establishment could not be
+necessary. Regular troops could only be useful as garrisons for posts
+to which the militia might resort for protection or supplies.
+Experience had proved that the sudden desultory attacks of the
+frontier militia and rangers were productive of more valuable
+consequences, than the methodical operations of a regular force. But,
+should it even be conceded that invasion and conquest were to be
+contemplated, the existing establishment, if completed, would be
+sufficiently great; and it was still insisted that, even for the
+purposes of conquest, the frontier militia were superior to any
+regulars whatever.
+
+The expense of such an army as the bill contemplated was said to be an
+object worthy of serious attention; and members were requested to
+observe the progress of this business, and to say where it would stop.
+At first, only a single regiment had been raised, and the expense was
+about one hundred thousand dollars; a second was afterwards added,
+which swelled the expense to three hundred thousand; and now a
+standing force of five thousand one hundred and sixty-eight men is
+contemplated, at an annual expense of above a million and a quarter.
+They were preparing to squander away money by millions; and no one,
+except those who were in the secrets of the cabinet, knew why the war
+had been thus carried on for three years.
+
+Against the motion for striking out, it was urged that the justice of
+the war could not be questioned by any man who would allow that self
+preservation, and indispensable necessity, could furnish sufficient
+motives for taking up arms. It was proved by unquestionable documents,
+that from the year 1783 to 1790, there had been not less than fifteen
+hundred persons, either the inhabitants of Kentucky, or emigrants on
+their way to that country, who had been massacred by the savages, or
+dragged into captivity; and there was reason to believe that on the
+frontiers of Virginia, and of Pennsylvania, the murdered and the
+prisoners would furnish a list almost equally numerous.
+
+The conciliatory disposition of the government was stated, and its
+repeated efforts to obtain a peace were enumerated. It was
+particularly observed that in 1790, when a treaty was proposed at the
+Miamis villages, the Indians at first refused to treat;--they next
+required thirty days to deliberate;--this request was acceded to; and,
+in the interim, offensive operations were expressly prohibited by the
+President. Yet, notwithstanding this forbearance on the part of the
+whites, not less than one hundred and twenty persons were killed and
+captured by the savages, and several prisoners were roasted alive,
+during that short period; at the expiration of which, the Indians
+refused to give any answer to the proposition which had been made to
+them.
+
+But it was now too late to inquire into the justice of the principles
+on which the war was originally undertaken. The nation was involved in
+it, and could not recede without exposing many innocent persons to be
+butchered by the enemy. Should the government determine to discontinue
+the war, would the Indians also consent to a cessation of hostilities?
+The government could not, without impeachment, both of its justice and
+humanity, abandon the inhabitants of the frontiers to the rage of
+their savage enemies; and although the excise might be unpopular,
+although money might still be wanted, what was the excise, what was
+money, when put in competition with the lives of their friends and
+brethren? A sufficient force must be raised for their defence, and the
+only question was what that force should be.
+
+The calculations of the best informed men were in favour of employing
+an army not inferior to that proposed in the bill. When the known
+attachment of Indians to war and plunder was adverted to, and the
+excitements to that attachment which were furnished by the trophies
+acquired in the last two campaigns were considered, no man would
+venture to pronounce with confidence how extensive the combination
+against the United States might become, or what numbers they would
+have to encounter. It certainly behoved them to prepare in time for a
+much more vigorous effort than had hitherto been made. The objections
+drawn from the increased expense which such an effort would require,
+must entirely vanish before the eyes of any man, who looks forward to
+the consequences of another unsuccessful campaign. Such a disaster
+would eventually involve the nation in much greater expense than that
+which is now made the ground of opposition. Better therefore is it, to
+make at once a vigorous and effectual exertion to bring the contest to
+a close, than to continue gradually draining the treasury, by dragging
+on the war, and renewing hostility from year to year.
+
+The supporters of the bill also appealed to experience for the
+superiority of regular troops over militia, in accomplishing all the
+purposes, even of Indian war; and those arguments were urged in favour
+of this theory, which the subject readily suggests.
+
+The motion for striking out the section was lost; and the bill was
+carried for the augmentation of force required by the executive.
+
+The treasury was not in a condition to meet the demands upon it, which
+the increased expenses of the war would unavoidably occasion; and
+sources of additional revenue were to be explored. A select committee
+to whom this subject was referred, brought in a resolution directing
+the secretary of the treasury to report his opinion to the house on
+the best mode of raising those additional supplies which the public
+service might require for the current year.
+
+This proposition gave rise to a very animated debate.
+
+It will be recollected that when the act for establishing the treasury
+department was under consideration, the clause which rendered it the
+duty of the secretary to digest and report plans for the improvement
+and management of the revenue, and for the support of public credit,
+was earnestly opposed. A large majority, however, was in favour of the
+principle; and, after being so modified, as only to admit a report if
+required by the house, it was retained in the bill. In complying with
+the various resolutions of congress, calling for reports on subjects
+connected with his department, the secretary had submitted plans
+which, having been profoundly considered, were well digested, and
+accompanied by arguments, the force of which it was difficult to
+resist. His measures were generally supported by a majority of
+congress; and, while the high credit of the United States was believed
+to attest their wisdom, the masterly manner in which his reports were
+drawn contributed to raise still higher, that reputation for great
+talents which he had long possessed. To the further admission of these
+reports, it was determined, on this occasion, to make a vigorous
+resistance.
+
+But the opposition was not successful. On taking the question, the
+resolution was carried; thirty-one members voting in its favour, and
+twenty-seven against it.
+
+[Sidenote: Report of the secretary of the treasury for raising
+additional supplies.]
+
+The report[59] made by the secretary in pursuance of this resolution,
+recommended certain augmentations of the duties on imports; and was
+immediately referred to the consideration of a committee of the whole
+house. Resolutions were then passed which were to form the basis of a
+bill; and which adopted, not only the principles, but, with the
+exception of a few unimportant alterations, the minute details of the
+report.
+
+     [Footnote 59: See note, No. VI. at the end of the volume.]
+
+Before the question was taken on the bill, a motion was made to limit
+its duration, the vote upon which strongly marked the progress of
+opinion in the house respecting those systems of finance which were
+believed to have established the credit of the United States.
+
+The secretary of the treasury had deemed it indispensable to the
+creation of public credit, that the appropriations of funds for the
+payment of the interest, and the gradual redemption of the principal
+of the national debt, should be not only sufficient, but permanent
+also. A party was found in the first congress who opposed this
+principle; and were in favour of retaining a full power over the
+subject in each branch of the legislature, by making annual
+appropriations. The arguments which had failed in congress appear to
+have been more successfully employed with the people. Among the
+multiplied vices which were ascribed to the funding system, it was
+charged with introducing a permanent and extensive mortgage of funds,
+which was alleged to strengthen unduly the hands of the executive
+magistrate, and to be one of the many evidences which existed, of
+monarchical propensities in those who administered the government.
+
+The report lately made by the secretary of the treasury, and the bill
+founded on that report, contemplated a permanent increase of the
+duties on certain specified articles; and a permanent appropriation of
+the revenue arising from them, to the purposes of the national debt.
+Thirty-one members were in favour of the motion for limiting the
+duration of the bill, and only thirty against it. By the rules of the
+house, the speaker has a right first to vote as a member; and, if the
+numbers should then be equally divided, to decide as speaker. Being
+opposed to the limitation, the motion was lost by his voice.
+
+On the eighth of May, after an active and interesting session,
+congress adjourned to the first Monday in November.
+
+The asperity which, on more than one occasion, discovered itself in
+debate, was a certain index of the growing exasperation of parties;
+and the strength of the opposition on those questions which brought
+into review the points on which the administration was to be attacked,
+denoted the impression which the specific charges brought against
+those who conducted public affairs, had made on the minds of the
+people, in an extensive division of the continent. It may conduce to a
+more perfect understanding of subsequent transactions, to present, in
+this place, a sketch of those charges.
+
+[Sidenote: Strictures on the conduct of administration, with a view of
+parties.]
+
+It was alleged that the public debt was too great to be paid before
+other causes of adding to it would occur. This accumulation of debt
+had been artificially produced by the assumption of what was due from
+the states. Its immediate effect was to deprive the government of its
+power over those easy sources of revenue, which, applied to its
+ordinary necessities and exigencies, would have answered them
+habitually, and thereby have avoided those burdens on the people which
+occasioned such murmurs against taxes, and tax gatherers. As a
+consequence of it, although the calls for money had not been greater
+than must be expected for the same or equivalent exigencies, yet
+congress had been already obliged, not only to strain the impost until
+it produced clamour, and would produce evasion, and war on their own
+citizens to collect it, but even to resort to an _excise_ law, of
+odious character with the people, partial in its operation,
+unproductive unless enforced by arbitrary and vexatious means, and
+committing the authority of the government in parts where resistance
+was most probable, and coercion least practicable.
+
+That the United States, if left free to act at their discretion, might
+borrow at two-thirds of the interest contracted to be paid to the
+public creditors, and thus discharge themselves from the principal in
+two-thirds of the time: but from this they were precluded by the
+irredeemable quality of the debt; a quality given for the avowed
+purpose of inviting its transfer to foreign countries. This transfer
+of the principal when completed would occasion an exportation of three
+millions of dollars annually for the interest, a drain of coin without
+example, and of the consequences of which no calculation could be
+made.
+
+The banishment of coin would be completed by ten millions of paper
+money in the form of bank bills, which were then issuing into
+circulation. Nor would this be the only mischief resulting from the
+institution of the bank. The ten or twelve per cent, annual profit
+paid to the lenders of this paper medium would take out of the pockets
+of the people, who would have had, without interest, the coin it was
+banishing. That all the capital employed in paper speculation is
+barren and useless, producing like that on a gaming table no accession
+to itself, and is withdrawn from commerce and agriculture, where it
+would have produced addition to the common mass. The wealth therefore
+heaped upon individuals by the funding and banking systems, would be
+productive of general poverty and distress. That in addition to the
+encouragement these measures gave to vice and idleness, they had
+furnished effectual means of corrupting such a portion of the
+legislature as turned the balance between the honest voters. This
+corrupt squad, deciding the voice of the legislature, had manifested
+their dispositions to get rid of the limitations imposed by the
+constitution; limitations on the faith of which the states acceded to
+that instrument. They were proceeding rapidly in their plan of
+absorbing all power, invading the rights of the states, and converting
+the federal into a consolidated government.
+
+That the ultimate object of all this was to prepare the way for a
+change from the present republican form of government to that of a
+monarchy, of which the English constitution was to be the model. So
+many of the friends of monarchy were in the legislature, that aided by
+the corrupt squad of paper dealers who were at their devotion, they
+made a majority in both houses. The republican party, even when united
+with the anti-federalists, continued a minority.
+
+That of all the mischiefs resulting from the system of measures which
+was so much reprobated, none was so afflicting, so fatal to every
+honest hope, as the corruption of the legislature. As it was the
+earliest of these measures, it became the instrument for producing the
+rest, and would be the instrument for producing in future, a king,
+lords, and commons; or whatever else those who directed it might
+choose. Withdrawn such a distance from the eye of their constituents,
+they would form the most corrupt government on earth, if the means of
+their corruption were not prevented.
+
+These strictures on the conduct of administration were principally
+directed against measures which had originated with the secretary of
+the treasury, and had afterwards received the sanction of the
+legislature. In the southern division of the continent, that officer
+was unknown, except to a few military friends, and to those who had
+engaged in the legislative or executive departments of the former or
+present government. His systems of revenue having been generally
+opposed by the southern members, and the original opposition to the
+constitution having been particularly great in Virginia and North
+Carolina, the aspersions on his views, and on the views of the eastern
+members by whom his plans had been generally supported, were seldom
+controverted. The remote tendency of particular systems, and the
+motives for their adoption, are so often subjects of conjecture, that
+the judgment, when exercised upon them, is peculiarly exposed to the
+influence of the passions; and where measures are in themselves
+burdensome, and the necessity for their adoption has not been
+appreciated, suspicions of their unknown advocates, can seldom be
+unsuccessfully urged by persons, in whom the people have placed their
+confidence. It is not therefore cause of astonishment, that the dark
+motives ascribed to the authors of tax laws, should be extensively
+believed.
+
+Throughout the United States, the party opposed to the constitution
+had charged its supporters with a desire to establish a monarchy on
+the ruins of republican government; and the constitution itself was
+alleged to contain principles which would prove the truth of this
+charge. The leaders of that party had, therefore, been ready from the
+instant the government came into operation, to discover, in all its
+measures, those monarchical tendencies which they had perceived in the
+instrument they opposed.
+
+The salaries allowed to public officers, though so low[60] as not to
+afford a decent maintenance to those who resided at the seat of
+government, were declared to be so enormously high, as clearly to
+manifest a total disregard of that simplicity and economy which were
+the characteristics of republics.
+
+     [Footnote 60: The salary of the secretary of state, which
+     was the highest, was three thousand five hundred dollars.]
+
+The levees of the President, and the evening parties of Mrs.
+Washington, were said to be imitations of regal institutions, designed
+to accustom the American people to the pomp and manners of European
+courts. The Vice President too was said to keep up the state and
+dignity of a monarch, and to illustrate, by his conduct, the
+principles which were inculcated in his political works.
+
+The Indian war they alleged was misconducted, and unnecessarily
+prolonged for the purposes of expending the public money, and of
+affording a pretext for augmenting the military establishment, and
+increasing the revenue.
+
+All this prodigal waste of the money of the people was designed to
+keep up the national debt, and the influence it gave the government,
+which, united with standing armies, and immense revenues, would enable
+their rulers to rivet the chains which they were secretly forging.
+Every prediction which had been uttered respecting the anti-republican
+principles of the government, was said to be rapidly verifying, and
+that which was disbelieved as prophecy, was daily becoming history. If
+a remedy for these ills was not found in the increased representation
+of the people which would take place at the ensuing elections, they
+would become too monstrous to be borne; and when it was recollected
+that the division of opinion was marked by a geographical line, there
+was reason to fear that the union would be broken into one or more
+confederacies.
+
+These irritable symptoms had assumed appearances of increased
+malignity during the session of congress which had just terminated;
+and, to the President, who firmly believed that the union and the
+liberty of the states depended on the preservation of the government,
+they were the more unpleasant and the more alarming, because they were
+displayed in full force in his cabinet.
+
+[Sidenote: Disagreement between the secretaries of state and
+treasury.]
+
+Between the secretaries of the state and treasury departments, a
+disagreement existed, which seems to have originated in an early stage
+of the administration, and to have acquired a regular accession of
+strength from circumstances which were perpetually occurring, until it
+grew into open and irreconcileable hostility.
+
+Without tracing this disagreement to those motives, which, in elective
+governments especially, often produce enmities between distinguished
+personages, neither of whom acknowledges the superiority of the other,
+such radical differences of opinion, on points which would essentially
+influence the course of the government, were supposed to exist between
+the secretaries, as, in a great measure, to account for this
+unextinguishable enmity. These differences of opinion were, perhaps,
+to be ascribed, in some measure, to a difference in the original
+structure of their minds, and, in some measure, to the difference of
+the situations in which they had been placed.
+
+Until near the close of the war, Mr. Hamilton had served his country
+in the field; and, just before its termination, had passed from the
+camp into congress, where he remained for some time after peace had
+been established. In the former station, the danger to which the
+independence of his country was exposed from the imbecility of the
+government was perpetually before his eyes; and, in the latter, his
+attention was forcibly directed towards the loss of its reputation,
+and the sacrifice of its best interests, which were to be ascribed to
+the same cause. Mr. Hamilton, therefore, was the friend of a
+government which should possess, in itself, sufficient powers and
+resources to maintain the character, and defend the integrity of the
+nation. Having long felt and witnessed the mischiefs produced by the
+absolute sovereignty of the states, and by the control which they were
+enabled and disposed separately to exercise over every measure of
+general concern, he was particularly apprehensive of danger from that
+quarter; which he, probably, believed was to be the more dreaded,
+because the habits and feelings of the American people were calculated
+to inspire state, rather than national prepossessions. Under the
+influence of these impressions, he is understood to have avowed
+opinions in the convention favourable to a system in which the
+executive and senate, though elective, were to be rather more
+permanent, than they were rendered in that which was actually
+proposed. He afterwards supported the constitution, as framed, with
+great ability, and contributed essentially to its adoption. But he
+still retained, and openly avowed, the opinion, that the greatest
+hazards to which it was exposed arose from its weakness, and that
+American liberty and happiness had much more to fear from the
+encroachments of the great states, than from those of the general
+government.
+
+Mr. Jefferson had retired from congress before the depreciation of the
+currency had produced an entire dependence of the general on the local
+governments; after which he filled the highest offices in the state of
+which he was a citizen. About the close of the war he was re-elected
+to congress; but, being soon afterwards employed on a mission to the
+court of Versailles, where he remained, while the people of France
+were taking the first steps of that immense revolution which has
+astonished and agitated two quarters of the world. In common with all
+his countrymen, he felt a strong interest in favour of the reformers;
+and it is not unreasonable to suppose, that while residing at that
+court, and associating with those who meditated some of the great
+events which have since taken place, his mind might be warmed with the
+abuses of the monarchy which were perpetually in his view, and he
+might be led to the opinion that liberty could sustain no danger but
+from the executive power. Mr. Jefferson, therefore, seems to have
+entertained no apprehensions from the debility of the government; no
+jealousy of the state sovereignties; and no suspicion of their
+encroachments. His fears took a different direction, and all his
+precautions were used to check and limit the exercise of the powers
+vested in the government of the United States. Neither could he
+perceive danger to liberty except from that government, and especially
+from the executive department.
+
+He did not feel so sensibly, as those who had continued in the United
+States, the necessity of adopting the constitution; and had, at one
+time, avowed a wish that it might be rejected by such a number of
+states as would secure certain alterations which he thought essential.
+His principal objections seem to have been, the want of a bill of
+rights, and the re-eligibility of the President. From this opinion,
+however, in favour of a partial rejection, he is understood to have
+receded, after seeing the plan pursued by the convention of
+Massachusetts, and followed by other states; which was to adopt
+unconditionally, and to annex a recommendation of the amendments which
+were desired.[61]
+
+     [Footnote 61: See Mr. Jefferson's correspondence.]
+
+To these causes of division, another was superadded, the influence of
+which was soon felt in all the political transactions of the
+government.
+
+The war which was terminated in 1783, had left in the bosoms of the
+American people, a strong attachment to France, and enmity to Great
+Britain. These feelings, in a greater or less degree, were perhaps
+universal; and had been prevented from subsiding by circumstances to
+which allusions have already been made. They had evinced themselves,
+in the state legislatures, by commercial regulations; and were
+demonstrated by all those means by which the public sentiment is
+usually displayed. They found their way also into the national
+councils, where they manifested themselves in the motions respecting
+the favours which ought to be shown to nations having commercial
+treaties with the United States.
+
+Although affection for France, and jealousy of Britain, were
+sentiments common to the people of America, the same unanimity did not
+exist respecting the influence which ought to be allowed to those
+sentiments, over the political conduct of the nation. While many
+favoured such discriminations as might eventually turn the commerce of
+the United States into new channels, others maintained that, on this
+subject, equality ought to be observed; that trade ought to be guided
+by the judgment of individuals, and that no sufficient motives existed
+for that sacrifice of general and particular interests, which was
+involved in the discriminations proposed;--discriminations which, in
+their view, amounted to a tax on American agriculture, and a bounty on
+the navigation and manufactures of a favoured foreign nation.
+
+The former opinion was taken up with warmth by the secretary of state;
+and the latter was adopted with equal sincerity by the secretary of
+the treasury. This contrariety of sentiment respecting commercial
+regulations was only a part of a general system. It extended itself to
+all the relations which might subsist between America and those two
+great powers.
+
+In all popular governments, the press is the most ready channel by
+which the opinions and the passions of the few are communicated to the
+many; and of the press, the two great parties forming in the United
+States, sought to avail themselves. The Gazette of the United States
+supported the systems of the treasury department, while other papers
+enlisted themselves under the banners of the opposition. Conspicuous
+among these, was the National Gazette, a paper edited by a clerk in
+the department of state. The avowed purpose for which the secretary
+patronized this paper, was to present to the eye of the American
+people, European intelligence derived from the Leyden gazette, instead
+of English papers; but it soon became the vehicle of calumny against
+the funding and banking systems, against the duty on home-made
+spirits, which was denominated an excise, and against the men who had
+proposed and supported those measures. With perhaps equal asperity,
+the papers attached to the party which had defended these systems,
+assailed the motives of the leaders of the opposition.
+
+[Sidenote: Letters from Washington on this subject.]
+
+This schism in his cabinet was a subject of extreme mortification to
+the President. Entertaining a high respect for the talents, and a real
+esteem for the characters, of both gentlemen, he was unwilling to part
+with either; and exerted all the influence he possessed to effect a
+reconciliation between them. In a letter of the 23d of August,
+addressed to the secretary of state, after reviewing the critical
+situation of the United States with respect to its external relations,
+he thus expressed himself on this delicate subject. "How unfortunate
+and how much is it to be regretted then, that, while we are
+encompassed on all sides with avowed enemies, and insidious friends,
+internal dissensions should be harassing and tearing our vitals. The
+last, to me, is the most serious, the most alarming, and the most
+afflicting of the two; and, without more charity for the opinions of
+one another in governmental matters, or some more infallible criterion
+by which the truth of speculative opinions, before they have undergone
+the test of experience, are to be forejudged, than has yet fallen to
+the lot of fallibility, I believe it will be difficult, if not
+impracticable, to manage the reins of government, or to keep the parts
+of it together: for if, instead of laying our shoulders to the
+machine, after measures are decided on, one pulls this way, and
+another that, before the utility of the thing is fairly tried, it must
+inevitably be torn asunder; and, in my opinion, the fairest prospect
+of happiness and prosperity that ever was presented to man will be
+lost, perhaps, for ever.
+
+"My earnest wish and my fondest hope therefore is, that instead of
+wounding suspicions, and irritating charges, there may be liberal
+allowances, mutual forbearances, and temporizing yielding on all
+sides. Under the exercise of these, matters will go on smoothly; and
+if possible, more prosperously. Without them, every thing must rub;
+the wheels of government will clog; our enemies will triumph; and, by
+throwing their weight into the disaffected scale, may accomplish the
+ruin of the goodly fabric we have been erecting."
+
+"I do not mean to apply this advice, or these observations, to any
+particular person or character. I have given them in the same general
+terms to other officers[62] of the government, because the
+disagreements which have arisen from difference of opinions, and the
+attacks which have been made upon almost all the measures of
+government, and most of its executive officers, have for a long time
+past filled me with painful sensations, and can not fail, I think, of
+producing unhappy consequences, at home and abroad."
+
+     [Footnote 62: See note, No. VII. at the end of the volume.]
+
+In a subsequent letter to the same gentleman, in answer to one which
+enclosed some documents designed to prove that, though desirous of
+amending the constitution, he had favoured its adoption, the President
+said--"I did not require the evidence of the extracts which you
+enclosed me, to convince me of your attachment to the constitution of
+the United States, or of your disposition to promote the general
+welfare of this country; but I regret, deeply regret, the difference
+of opinion which has arisen, and divided you and another principal
+officer of the government--and wish devoutly there could be an
+accommodation of them by mutual yieldings.
+
+"A measure of this sort would produce harmony and consequent good in
+our public councils; and the contrary will inevitably produce
+confusion and serious mischiefs--and for what? because mankind can not
+think alike, but would adopt different means to attain the same end.
+For I will frankly and solemnly declare that I believe the views of
+both to be pure and well meant, and that experience only will decide
+with respect to the salubrity of the measures which are the subjects
+of this dispute.
+
+"Why then, when some of the best citizens of the United States--men of
+discernment--uniform and tried patriots--who have no sinister views to
+promote, but are chaste in their ways of thinking and acting, are to
+be found some on one side, and some on the other of the questions
+which have caused these agitations--why should either of you be so
+tenacious of your opinions as to make no allowance for those of the
+other?
+
+"I could, and indeed was about to add more on this interesting
+subject, but will forbear, at least for the present, after expressing
+a wish that the cup which has been presented to us may not be snatched
+from our lips by a discordance of action, when I am persuaded there is
+no discordance in your views. I have a great, a sincere esteem and
+regard for you both; and ardently wish that some line could be marked
+out by which both of you could walk."
+
+These earnest endeavours to sooth the angry passions, and to
+conciliate the jarring discords of the cabinet, were unsuccessful. The
+hostility which was so much and so sincerely lamented sustained no
+diminution, and its consequences became every day more diffusive.
+
+Among the immediate effects of these internal dissensions, was the
+encouragement they afforded to a daring and criminal resistance which
+was made to the execution of the laws imposing a duty on spirits
+distilled within the United States.
+
+To the inhabitants of that part of Pennsylvania which lies west of the
+Alleghany mountains, this duty was, from local considerations,
+peculiarly odious; nor was their hostility to the measure diminished
+by any affection for the source in which it originated. The
+constitution itself had encountered the most decided opposition from
+that part of the state; and that early enmity to the government which
+exerted every faculty to prevent its adoption, had sustained no
+abatement. Its measures generally, and the whole system of finance
+particularly, had been reprobated with peculiar bitterness by many of
+the most popular men of that district. With these dispositions, a tax
+law, the operation of which was extended to them, could not be
+favourably received, however generally it might be supported in other
+parts of the union. But when, to this pre-existing temper, were
+superadded the motives which arose from perceiving that the measure
+was censured on the floor of congress as unnecessary and tyrannical;
+that resistance to its execution was treated as probable; that a
+powerful and active party, pervading the union, arraigned with extreme
+acrimony the whole system of finance as being hostile to liberty; and,
+with all the passionate vehemence of conviction, charged its advocates
+with designing to subvert the republican institutions of America; we
+ought not to be surprised that the awful impressions, which usually
+restrain combinations to resist the laws, were lessened; and that the
+malcontents were emboldened to hope that those combinations might be
+successful.
+
+[Sidenote: Opposition to the excise law.]
+
+Some discontents had been manifested in several parts of the union on
+the first introduction of the act; but the prudence and firmness of
+the government and its officers had dissipated them; and the law had
+been carried into general operation. But in the western district of
+Pennsylvania, the resistance wore the appearance of system, and was
+regularly progressive. In its commencement, it manifested itself by
+the circulation of opinions calculated to increase the odium in which
+the duty was held, and by endeavours to defeat its collection by
+directing the public resentments against those who were inclined
+either to comply with the law, or to accept the offices through which
+it was to be executed. These indications of ill temper were succeeded
+by neighbourhood meetings, in which resolutions of extreme violence
+were adopted, and by acts of outrage against the persons of revenue
+officers. At length, in September, 1791, a meeting of delegates from
+the malcontent counties was held at Pittsburg, in which resolutions
+were adopted breathing the same spirit with those which had previously
+been agreed to in county assemblies. Unfortunately, the deputy
+marshal, who was entrusted with the process against those who had
+committed acts of violence on the persons of revenue officers, was so
+intimidated by the turbulent spirit which was generally displayed,
+that he returned without performing his duty; and thus added to the
+confidence felt by the disaffected in their strength. Appearances were
+such as to justify apprehensions, that the judiciary would be found
+unable to punish the violators of the laws; and the means of obtaining
+aid from the executive had not been furnished by the legislature. This
+state of things was the more embarrassing, because the prejudices
+which had been widely disseminated, and the misconceptions of the act
+which had been extensively diffused, authorized some fears respecting
+the support which the law, while yet in the infancy of its operation,
+would receive from the people. These considerations, added to that
+repugnance which was felt by the government to the employment of harsh
+means, induced a forbearance to notice further these riotous
+proceedings, until the measure, by being carried into full effect in
+other parts of the union, should be better understood; and until
+congress should assemble, and modify the system in such a manner as to
+remove any real objections to it, the existence of which might be
+suggested by experience. Accordingly, in the legislature which
+convened in October, 1791, this subject was taken up in pursuance of
+the recommendation of the President, and an amendatory act was passed
+in May, 1792, in which the whole system was revised, and great pains
+were taken to alter such parts of it as could be deemed exceptionable.
+
+This conciliatory measure did not produce the desired effect. No
+abatement took place in the violence and outrage with which the
+resistance to the law was conducted. To carry it into execution,
+officers of inspection were necessary in every county. The
+malcontents, for a considerable time, deterred every person from
+consenting to permit an office to be held at his house; and when at
+length this difficulty was supposed to be overcome, those who had been
+prevailed on to accede to the propositions of the supervisor in this
+respect, were compelled, by personal violence, and by threats of the
+destruction of property, and even of death, to retract the consent
+they had given.
+
+A meeting was again convened at Pittsburg, in which, among other very
+exceptionable resolutions, committees were established to correspond
+with any committees of a similar nature that might be appointed in
+other parts of the United States. By this meeting it was declared,
+that they would persist in every legal measure to obstruct the
+execution of the law, and would consider those who held offices for
+the collection of the duty as unworthy of their friendship; that they
+would have no intercourse or dealings with them; would withdraw from
+them every assistance, and withhold all the comforts of life which
+depend upon those duties which, as men and fellow citizens, they owed
+to each other; and would, upon all occasions, treat them with
+contempt. It was at the same time earnestly recommended to the people
+at large to adopt the same line of conduct.
+
+[Sidenote: President's proclamation.]
+
+No man could be more sensible than the President of the dangerous
+tendency of these measures, nor more indignant at the outrage thus
+offered to the government of the United States. But his prudence, and
+his high respect for the laws restrained him within the narrow limits
+which the legislature had prescribed. A proclamation[63] was issued
+exhorting and admonishing all persons to desist from any combinations
+or proceedings whatsoever, tending to obstruct the execution of the
+laws, and requiring the interference of the civil magistrate; and
+prosecutions against the offenders were directed to be instituted in
+every case in which they could be supported.
+
+     [Footnote 63: In his letter enclosing the proclamation to
+     the secretary of the treasury, the President observed, "I
+     have no doubt but that the proclamation will undergo many
+     strictures; and, as the effect proposed may not be answered
+     by it, it will be necessary to look forward in time to
+     ulterior arrangements. And here, not only the constitution
+     and laws must strictly govern, but the employment of the
+     regular troops avoided, if it be possible to effect order
+     without their aid; yet if no other means will effectually
+     answer, and the constitution and laws will authorize these,
+     they must be used as the dernier ressort."]
+
+This proclamation produced no salutary effect. Many of the civil
+magistrates were themselves concerned in stimulating the excesses they
+were required to suppress; and those who had not embarked in the
+criminal enterprise, found themselves totally unable to maintain the
+sovereignty of the laws.
+
+With a laudable solicitude to avoid extremities, the government still
+sought for means to recall these misguided people to a sense of duty,
+without the employment of a military force. To obtain this desirable
+object, the following system was digested and pursued:
+
+Prosecutions were instituted against delinquents in those cases in
+which it was believed that they could be maintained. The spirits
+distilled in the non-complying counties were intercepted on their way
+to market, and seized by the officers of the revenue; and the agents
+for the army were directed to purchase only those spirits on which the
+duty had been paid. By thus acting on the interests of the distillers,
+the hope was indulged that they might be induced to comply with the
+law. Could they have obeyed their wishes, these measures would have
+produced the desired effect; but they were no longer masters of their
+own conduct. Impelled by a furious multitude, they found it much more
+dangerous to obey the laws than to resist them. The efficacy of this
+system too was diminished by a circumstance, which induced the
+necessity of a second application to the legislature. The act had not
+been extended to the territory north-west of the Ohio, in which great
+part of the army lay; and the distillers eluded the vigilance of the
+government by introducing their spirits into that territory.
+
+While from causes which were incessant and active in their operation,
+some of which seem too strongly fixed in the human mind ever to be
+removed, a broad foundation was thus laid for those party struggles
+whose fury is generally proportioned to the magnitude of the objects
+to be attained, and to the means which may be employed in attaining
+them, the external affairs of the United States sustained no material
+change.
+
+Of the good understanding which was preserved with France, a fresh
+proof had been recently given by the employment of Mr. Ternan, a
+person peculiarly acceptable to the American government, to succeed
+the Count de Moustiers, as minister plenipotentiary of his Most
+Christian Majesty; and in turn, Mr. Gouverneur Morris, who was
+understood to have rendered himself agreeable to the French
+government, was appointed to represent the United States at the court
+of Versailles.
+
+In addition to these interchanges of civility, a melancholy occasion
+had presented itself for giving much more substantial evidence of the
+alacrity with which the American administration would embrace any
+proper opportunity of manifesting its disposition to promote the
+interests of France.
+
+[Sidenote: Insurrection and massacre in the island of St. Domingo.]
+
+Early and bitter fruits of that malignant philosophy, which,
+disregarding the actual state of the world, and estimating at nothing
+the miseries of a vast portion of the human race, can coolly and
+deliberately pursue, through oceans of blood, abstract systems for the
+attainment of some fancied untried good, were gathered in the French
+West Indies. Instead of proceeding in the correction of any abuses
+which might exist, by those slow and cautious steps which gradually
+introduce reform without ruin, which may prepare and fit society for
+that better state of things designed for it; and which, by not
+attempting impossibilities, may enlarge the circle of happiness, the
+revolutionists of France formed the mad and wicked project of
+spreading their doctrines of equality among persons, between whom
+distinctions and prejudices exist to be subdued only by the grave. The
+rage excited by the pursuit of this visionary and baneful theory,
+after many threatening symptoms, burst forth on the 23d day of August
+1791, with a fury alike destructive and general. In one night, a
+preconcerted insurrection of the blacks took place throughout the
+colony of St. Domingo; and the white inhabitants of the country, while
+sleeping in their beds, were involved in one indiscriminate massacre,
+from which neither age nor sex could afford an exemption. Only a few
+females, reserved for a fate more cruel than death, were intentionally
+spared; and not many were fortunate enough to escape into the
+fortified cities. The insurgents then assembled in vast numbers, and a
+bloody war commenced between them and the whites inhabiting the towns.
+The whole French part of the island was in imminent danger of being
+totally lost to the mother country. The minister of his Most Christian
+Majesty applied to the executive of the United States for a sum of
+money which would enable him to preserve this valuable colony, to be
+deducted out of the debt to his sovereign; and the request was granted
+in a manner evincing the interest taken by the administration in
+whatever might concern France.
+
+On the part of Spain, a desire had been expressed to adjust the
+subjects in controversy between the two nations by negotiations to be
+carried on at Madrid; and Mr. Carmichael, and Mr. Short, had been
+appointed commissioners, with powers equal to the object. In the mean
+time, the officers of that nation persisted in measures which were
+calculated to embroil the United States with the southern Indians. By
+their intrigues with the Creeks, the treaty formed in 1790 with
+M'Gillivray, was prevented from being ratified, and the boundary line
+then agreed upon was not permitted to be run. The indefinite claim of
+territory set up by Spain was alleged to constitute a sufficient
+objection to any new line of demarcation, until that claim should be
+settled; and her previous treaties and relations with the Creeks were
+declared to be infringed by their stipulation, acknowledging
+themselves to be under the protection of the United States.
+
+An official diplomatic intercourse had at length been opened with
+Great Britain also. Mr. Hammond, the minister plenipotentiary of that
+nation to the United States, arrived at Philadelphia in the autumn of
+1791; upon which, Mr. Thomas Pinckney, a gentleman of South Carolina,
+who was highly and justly respected, had been charged with the
+interests of his country at the court of London.[64] Soon after the
+arrival of Mr. Hammond, the non-execution of the treaty of peace
+became the subject of a correspondence between him and the secretary
+of state, in which the complaints of their respective nations were
+urged in terms manifesting clearly the sense entertained by each of
+the justice of those complaints, without furnishing solid ground for
+the hope that they would be immediately removed on either side.
+
+     [Footnote 64: In consequence of these nominations of foreign
+     ministers, a motion was made in the senate on a point which
+     is of some importance in settling the principles of the
+     American government. It was contended that the power of that
+     body over the appointment of a foreign minister gave the
+     right to inquire into the policy of making any appointment
+     whatever; and that in exercising this power, they were not
+     to confine themselves to a consideration of the fitness of
+     the person nominated, but were to judge of the propriety of
+     the mission; and were consequently to be informed of the
+     motives which had decided the President to adopt the
+     measure. This opinion was overruled by a small majority.]
+
+Mr. Hammond's powers on the subject of a commercial treaty were far
+from being satisfactory. To the inquiries of Mr. Jefferson on this
+point, he replied, that he was authorized to enter into a negotiation
+respecting the commercial intercourse between the two countries, and
+to discuss those principles which might serve as a basis for a treaty,
+but not to _conclude_ any definitive arrangements. In fact, there was
+much reason to believe that the obstacles to a commercial treaty
+between the two countries would not be soon or easily surmounted. In
+America, such an alteration in the law of nations as would permit the
+goods of an enemy to pass freely in the bottom of a neutral, was a
+favourite project; and a full participation of the colonial trade was
+also most earnestly desired. That the latter of these objects would
+not be readily conceded by Great Britain did not admit of a doubt; but
+many intelligent men, possessing great political influence, had
+embraced the opinion that she could be forced out of that colonial
+system which every European power having settlements in America had
+adopted, by regulations restricting her navigation and commerce with
+the United States. To those who entertained this opinion, no
+commercial treaty could be acceptable, which did not contain the
+concessions they required.
+
+In addition to a general knowledge of the sentiments of the British
+cabinet on these points, particular evidence had lately been received
+of its positive decision respecting them. A comprehensive report on
+American affairs had been made to the privy council by a committee of
+that body, which was laid before the king. A few copies of it had been
+printed for the members of the cabinet, which were soon called in by a
+sudden order of council; but one of these copies was obtained, and
+transmitted to the secretary of state of the United States. This
+report manifested a willingness to form a commercial treaty with the
+American government on principles of perfect equality, both with
+respect to navigation and commerce, so far as regarded the dominions
+of his Britannic Majesty in Europe; but it also discovered a
+determination, to adhere inflexibly to the existing regulations for
+the colonies; and to reject the principle that free bottoms make free
+goods.
+
+In this state paper the opinion was advanced, that several important
+articles of exportation from the United States, especially tobacco,
+had been peculiarly favoured in Great Britain; but that these friendly
+regulations were not reciprocated by America. The means of retaliating
+injuries which might be inflicted on British commerce were stated, but
+those means, it was said, ought not hastily to be adopted, the more
+especially, as the existing government of the United States had
+discovered dispositions more favourable to a liberal and fair
+intercourse between the two countries, than had been manifested by the
+respective states. For several reasons it was deemed adviseable not
+suddenly to disturb the existing state of things, but to regulate the
+trade of the two nations by a treaty, the stipulations of which should
+be equal, and mutually beneficial, provided such a treaty could be
+formed without a departure from those principles which were considered
+as fundamental.
+
+[Sidenote: General Wayne appointed to the command of the army.]
+
+No abatement of hostility having taken place among the north-western
+Indians, the preparations for terminating the war by the sword were
+earnestly pressed. Major General Wayne was appointed to succeed
+General St. Clair, who resigned the command of the army; and the
+utmost exertions were made to complete it to the establishment; but
+the laws furnished such small inducements to engage in the service,
+that the highest military grades, next to that of Commander-in-chief,
+were declined by many to whom they were offered; and the recruiting
+business advanced too slowly to authorize a hope that the decisive
+expedition which was meditated, could be prudently undertaken in the
+course of the present year. Meanwhile, the public clamour against the
+war continued to be loud and violent. It was vehemently asserted, that
+if the intentions of the government respecting the savages were just
+and humane, those intentions were unknown to them, and that their
+resentments were kept up by the aggressions of whites, and by the
+opinion that their expulsion from the country they occupied was the
+object of the hostilities carried on against them. However satisfied
+the President might be of the fallacy of these opinions, they were too
+extensively maintained not to be respected, as far as was compatible
+with a due regard to the real interests of the nation. While,
+therefore, the preparations for offensive operations were hastened by
+a vigorous exertion of the means at the disposal of the executive, it
+was thought adviseable to make another effort to terminate the war by
+a direct communication of the pacific views of the United States.--The
+failure of these attempts was still less to be lamented than the fate
+of those who were employed in them. Colonel Harden and Major Trueman,
+two brave officers and valuable men, were severally despatched with
+propositions of peace, and each was murdered by the savages.
+
+[Sidenote: Meeting of congress.]
+
+[Sidenote: President's speech.]
+
+On the 5th of November congress again convened. In the speech
+delivered at the commencement of the session, Indian affairs were
+treated at considerable length, and the continuance of the war was
+mentioned as a subject of much regret. "The reiterated endeavours," it
+was said, "which had been made to effect a pacification, had hitherto
+issued in new and outrageous proofs of persevering hostility on the
+part of the tribes with whom the United States were in contest.
+
+"A detail of the measures that had been pursued, and of their
+consequences, which would be laid before congress, while it would
+confirm the want of success thus far, would evince that means as
+proper and as efficacious as could have been devised, had been
+employed. The issue of some of them was still pending; but a
+favourable one, though not to be despaired of, was not promised by any
+thing that had yet happened."
+
+That a sanction, commonly respected even among savages, had been found
+insufficient to protect from massacre the emissaries of peace, was
+particularly noticed; and the families of those valuable citizens who
+had thus fallen victims to their zeal for the public service, were
+recommended to the attention of the legislature.
+
+That unprovoked aggression had been made by the southern Indians, and
+that there was just cause for apprehension that the war would extend
+to them also, was mentioned as a subject of additional concern.
+
+"Every practicable exertion had been made to be prepared for the
+alternative of prosecuting the war, in the event of a failure of
+pacific overtures. A large proportion of the troops authorized to be
+raised, had been recruited, though the numbers were yet incomplete;
+and pains had been taken to discipline them, and put them in a
+condition for the particular kind of service to be performed. But a
+delay of operations, besides being dictated by the measures that were
+pursuing towards a pacific termination of the war, had been in itself
+deemed preferable to immature efforts."
+
+The humane system which has since been successfully pursued, of
+gradually civilizing the savages by improving their condition, of
+diverting them in some degree from hunting to domestic and
+agricultural occupations by imparting to them some of the most simple
+and useful acquisitions of society, and of conciliating them to the
+United States by a beneficial and well regulated commerce, had ever
+been a favourite object with the President, and the detailed view
+which was now taken of Indian affairs, was concluded with a repetition
+of his recommendations of these measures.
+
+The subject next adverted to in the speech, was the impediments which
+in some places continued to embarrass the collection of the duties on
+spirits distilled within the United States. After observing that these
+impediments were lessening in local extent, but that symptoms of such
+increased opposition had lately manifested themselves in certain
+places as, in his judgment, to render his special interposition
+adviseable, the President added,--"Congress may be assured that
+nothing within constitutional and legal limits which may depend on me,
+shall be wanting to assert and maintain the just authority of the
+laws. In fulfilling this trust, I shall count entirely on the full
+co-operation of the other departments of government, and upon the
+zealous support of all good citizens."
+
+After noticing various objects which would require the attention of
+the legislature, the President addressed himself particularly to the
+house of representatives, and said, "I entertain a strong hope that
+the state of the national finances is now sufficiently matured to
+enable you to enter upon a systematic and effectual arrangement for
+the regular redemption and discharge of the public debt, according to
+the right which has been reserved to the government. No measure can be
+more desirable, whether viewed with an eye to its intrinsic
+importance, or to the general sentiments and wish of the nation."
+
+The addresses of the two houses in answer to the speech, were, as
+usual, respectful and affectionate. The several subjects recommended
+to the attention of congress were noticed either in general terms, or
+in a manner to indicate a coincidence of sentiment between the
+legislative and executive departments. The turbulent spirit which had
+manifested itself in certain parts of the union was mentioned by both
+houses with a just degree of censure, and the measures adopted by the
+President, as well as the resolution he expressed to compel obedience
+to the laws, were approved; and the house of representatives, in the
+most unqualified terms, declared opinions in favour of systematic and
+effectual arrangements for discharging the public debt. But the
+subsequent proceedings of the legislature did not fulfil the
+expectations excited by this auspicious commencement of the session.
+
+At an early day, in a committee of the whole house on the President's
+speech, Mr. Fitzsimmons moved "that measures for the reduction of so
+much of the public debt as the United States have a right to redeem,
+ought to be adopted: and that the secretary of the treasury be
+directed to report a plan for that purpose."
+
+This motion was objected to by Mr. Madison as being premature. The
+state of the finances, he thought, was not sufficiently understood to
+authorize the adoption of the measure it contemplated. The debate
+however soon took a different direction. That part of the resolution
+which proposed a reference to the secretary of the treasury was
+particularly opposed; and an ardent discussion ensued, in which,
+without much essential variation, the arguments which had before been
+urged on the same subject were again employed. After a vehement
+contest, the motion to amend the resolution by striking out the
+proposed reference was overruled, and it was carried in its original
+form.
+
+{1793}
+
+In obedience to this order, the secretary made a report, in which he
+proposed a plan for the annual redemption of that portion of the debt,
+the payment of which was warranted by the contract between the United
+States and their creditors. But the expenses of the Indian war
+rendering it, in his opinion, unsafe to rest absolutely on the
+existing revenue, he proposed to extend the internal taxes to pleasure
+horses, or pleasure carriages, as the legislature might deem most
+eligible. The consideration of this report was deferred on various
+pretexts; and a motion was made to reduce the military establishment.
+The debate on this subject was peculiarly earnest; and, in its
+progress, the mode of conducting the Indian war, the relative merits
+and expensiveness of militia and of regular troops, and the danger to
+liberty from standing armies, were elaborately discussed. It was not
+until the fourth of January that the motion was rejected. While that
+question remained undecided, the report of the secretary was
+unavoidably postponed, because, on its determination would depend, in
+the opinion of many, the necessity of additional taxes. It would seem
+not improbable that the opponents of the American system of finances,
+who constituted rather a minority of the present congress, but who
+indulged sanguine hopes of becoming the majority in the next, were
+desirous of referring every question relating to the treasury
+department to the succeeding legislature, in which there would be a
+more full representation of the people. Whatever might be the
+operating motives for delay, neither the extension of the law imposing
+a duty on spirits distilled within the United States to the territory
+north-west of the river Ohio, nor the plan for redeeming the public
+debt, which was earnestly pressed by the administration, could be
+carried through the present congress. Those who claimed the favour and
+confidence of the people as a just reward for their general attachment
+to liberty, and especially for their watchfulness to prevent every
+augmentation of debt, were found in opposition to a system for its
+diminution, which was urged by men who were incessantly charged with
+entertaining designs for its excessive accumulation, in order to
+render it the corrupt instrument of executive influence. It might be
+expected that the public attention would be attracted to such a
+circumstance. But when party passions are highly inflamed, reason
+itself submits to their control, and becomes the instrument of their
+will. The assertion that the existing revenues, if not prodigally or
+corruptly wasted, were sufficient for the objects contemplated by the
+President in his speech, would constitute an ample apology for the
+impediments thrown in the way of a system which could not be directly
+disapproved, and would justify a continuance of the charge that the
+supporters of the fiscal system were friends to the augmentation of
+the public debt.
+
+Soon after the motion for the reduction of the military establishment
+was disposed of, another subject was introduced, which effectually
+postponed, for the present session, every measure connected with the
+finances of the nation.
+
+An act of congress, which passed on the fourth of August, 1790,
+authorized the President to cause to be borrowed any sum not exceeding
+twelve millions of dollars, to be applied in payment of the foreign
+debt of the United States.
+
+A subsequent act, which passed on the 12th of the same month,
+authorized another loan not exceeding two millions, to be applied, in
+aid of the sinking fund, towards the extinguishment of the domestic
+debt.
+
+A power to make these loans was delegated by the President to the
+secretary of the treasury by a general commission referring to the
+acts. This commission was accompanied by written instructions,
+directing the payment of such parts of the foreign debt as should
+become due at the end of the year 1791; but leaving the secretary,
+with respect to the residue, to be regulated by the interests of the
+United States.
+
+Under this commission two loans were negotiated in 1790, and others at
+subsequent periods.
+
+As many considerations of convenience opposed such an arrangement as
+would appropriate all the monies arising from either of these loans to
+one object, to the total exclusion of the other; and no motive was
+perceived for thus unnecessarily fettering the operations of the
+treasury; each loan was negotiated under both laws; and consequently
+the monies produced by each were applicable to both objects, in such
+proportions as the President might direct. It has been already
+observed that his written instructions had ordered the payment of
+those instalments of the foreign debt which should become due before
+the first of January, 1792; but no further sums on that account were
+to be borrowed until supplemental orders to that effect should be
+given, unless a loan could be made on such terms as would render it
+advantageous to the United States to anticipate the payments to their
+foreign creditors. It being the opinion of both the President and
+secretary that the official powers of the latter authorized him to
+draw the monies borrowed for domestic purposes into the treasury,
+where they would form a part of the sinking fund, and be applicable to
+the objects of that fund in conformity with the laws of appropriation,
+no written instructions were given respecting that part of the
+subject; but in the progress of the business, every material step
+which was taken was communicated to the President, and his directions
+obtained upon it. While the chief magistrate remained at the seat of
+government, these communications were verbal; when absent, they were
+made by letter.
+
+At this period, the domestic debt bore a low price in the market, and
+foreign capital was pouring into the United States for its purchase.
+The immediate application of the sinking fund to this object would
+consequently acquire a large portion of the debt, and would also
+accelerate its appreciation. The best interests of the United States,
+and his own fame, thus impelling the secretary to give the operations
+of the sinking fund the utmost activity of which it was susceptible,
+he had, with the approbation of the President, directed a part of the
+first loan to be paid in discharge of the instalments of the foreign
+debt which were actually due, and had drawn a part of it into the
+public treasury in aid of the sinking fund.
+
+In May, 1791, instructions were given to the agent of the United
+States in Europe, to apply the proceeds of future loans, as they
+should accrue, in payments to France, except such sums as should be
+previously and specially reserved. In the execution of these
+instructions, some delay intervened, which was to be ascribed, among
+other causes, to representations made by the French minister of marine
+that a plan would be adopted, to which a decree of the national
+assembly was requisite, for converting a large sum into supplies for
+St. Domingo: and to a desire on the part of the agent to settle,
+previously to further payments, a definitive rule by which the monies
+paid should be liquidated, and credited to the United States. The
+disordered state of French affairs protracted both the one and the
+other of these causes of delay, to a later period than had been
+expected; and, in the mean time, the secretary continued to draw into
+the United States such portions of these loans, as were destined to be
+brought in aid of the sinking fund. Such was the state of this
+transaction, when the commencement of those calamities, which have
+finally overwhelmed St. Domingo, induced the American government, on
+the urgent application of the French minister, to furnish supplies to
+that ill fated colony, in payment of the debt to France. This being a
+mode of payment which, to a certain extent, was desired by the
+creditor, and was advantageous to the debtor, a consequent disposition
+prevailed to use it so far as might comport with the wish of the
+French government; and a part of the money designed for foreign
+purposes, was drawn into the United States. In the course of these
+operations, a portion of the instalments actually due to France, had
+been permitted to remain unsatisfied.
+
+A part of the money borrowed in Europe being thus applicable to the
+extinguishment of the domestic debt, and a part of the domestic
+revenue being applicable to the payment of interest due on the loans
+made in Europe, the secretary of the treasury had appropriated a part
+of the money arising from foreign loans to the payment of interest due
+abroad, which had been replaced by the application of money in the
+treasury arising from domestic resources, to the purchase of the
+domestic debt.
+
+The secretary had not deemed it necessary to communicate these
+operations in detail to the legislature: but some hints respecting
+them having been derived either from certain papers which accompanied
+a report made to the house of representatives early in the session, or
+from some other source, Mr. Giles, on the 23d of January, moved
+several resolutions, requiring information, among other things, on the
+various points growing out of these loans, and the application of the
+monies arising from them, and respecting the unapplied revenues of the
+United States, and the places in which the sums so unapplied were
+deposited. In the speech introducing these resolutions, observations
+were made which very intelligibly implied charges of a much more
+serious nature than inattention to the exact letter of an
+appropriation law. Estimates were made to support the position that a
+large balance of public money was unaccounted for.
+
+The resolutions were agreed to without debate; and, in a few days, the
+secretary transmitted a report containing the information that was
+required.
+
+This report comprehended a full exposition of the views and motives
+which had regulated the conduct of the department, and a very able
+justification of the measures which had been adopted; but omitted to
+state explicitly that part of the money borrowed in Europe had been
+drawn into the United States with the sanction of the President.--It
+is also chargeable with some expressions which can not be pronounced
+unexceptionable, but which may find their apology in the feelings of a
+mind conscious of its own uprightness, and wounded by the belief that
+the proceedings against him had originated in a spirit hostile to fair
+inquiry.
+
+These resolutions, the observations which accompanied them, and the
+first number of the report, were the signals for a combined attack on
+the secretary of the treasury, through the medium of the press. Many
+anonymous writers appeared, who assailed the head of that department
+with a degree of bitterness indicative of the spirit in which the
+inquiry was to be conducted.
+
+[Sidenote: Resolutions implicating the secretary of the treasury
+rejected.]
+
+On the 27th of February, not many days after the last number of the
+report was received, Mr. Giles moved sundry resolutions which were
+founded on the information before the house. The idea of a balance
+unaccounted for was necessarily relinquished; but the secretary of the
+treasury was charged with neglect of duty in failing to give congress
+official information of the monies drawn by him from Europe into the
+United States; with violating the law of the 4th of August, 1790, by
+applying a portion of the principal borrowed under it to the payment
+of interest, and by drawing a part of the same monies into the United
+States, without instructions from the President; with deviating from
+the instructions of the President in other respects; with negotiating
+a loan at the bank, contrary to the public interest, while public
+monies to a greater amount than were required, lay unemployed in the
+bank; and with an indecorum to the house, in undertaking to judge of
+its motives in calling for information which was demandable of him
+from the constitution of his office; and in failing to give all the
+necessary information within his knowledge relative to subjects on
+which certain specified references had been previously made to him.
+
+These resolutions were followed by one, directing that a copy of them
+should be transmitted to the President of the United States.
+
+The debate on this subject, which commenced on the 28th of February,
+was continued to the 1st of March, and was conducted with a spirit of
+acrimony towards the secretary, demonstrating the soreness of the
+wounds that had been given and received in the political and party
+wars which had been previously waged.[65] It terminated in a rejection
+of all the resolutions. The highest number voting in favour of any one
+of them was sixteen.
+
+     [Footnote 65: See note, No. VIII. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Congress adjourns.]
+
+On the 3d of March, a constitutional period was put to the existence
+of the present congress. The members separated with obvious symptoms
+of extreme irritation. Various causes, the most prominent of which
+have already been noticed, had combined to organize two distinct
+parties in the United States, which were rapidly taking the form of a
+ministerial and an opposition party. By that in opposition, the
+President was not yet openly renounced. His personal influence was too
+great to be encountered by a direct avowal that he was at the head of
+their adversaries; and his public conduct did not admit of a suspicion
+that he could allow himself to rank as the chief of a party. Nor could
+public opinion be seduced to implicate him in the ambitious plans and
+dark schemes for the subversion of liberty, which were ascribed to a
+part of the administration, and to the leading members who had
+supported the measures of finance adopted by the legislature.
+
+Yet it was becoming apparent that things were taking a course which
+must inevitably involve him in the political conflicts which were
+about to take place. It was apparent that the charges against the
+secretary of the treasury would not be relinquished, and that they
+were of a nature to affect the chief magistrate materially, should his
+countenance not be withdrawn from that officer. It was equally
+apparent that the fervour of democracy, which was perpetually
+manifesting itself in the papers, in invectives against levees,
+against the trappings of royalty, and against the marks of peculiar
+respect[66] which were paid to the President, must soon include him
+more pointedly in its strictures.
+
+     [Footnote 66: On the 22d of February, the birthday of the
+     President, a motion was made to adjourn for half an hour. It
+     was perfectly understood that this motion was made to give
+     the members an opportunity of waiting on the chief
+     magistrate to make the compliments adapted to the occasion.
+
+     This was seriously opposed, and the ayes and noes called
+     upon the question. The adjournment was carried by forty-one
+     to eighteen. The day was celebrated by several companies,
+     and some toasts were published manifesting the deep sense
+     which was entertained of the exalted services of this
+     illustrious citizen. These circumstances gave great umbrage
+     to some of those who could perceive monarchical tendencies
+     in every act of respect, and the offenders were rebuked in
+     the National Gazette for setting up an idol who might become
+     dangerous to liberty, and for the injustice of neglecting
+     all his compatriots of the revolution, and ascribing to him
+     the praise which was due to others.]
+
+These divisions, which are inherent in the nature of popular
+governments, by which the chief magistrate, however unexceptionable
+his conduct, and however exalted his character, must, sooner or later,
+be more or less affected, were beginning to be essentially influenced
+by the great events of Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: Progress of the French revolution and its effects on
+parties in the United States.]
+
+That revolution which has been the admiration, the wonder, and the
+terror of the civilized world, had, from its commencement, been viewed
+in America with the deepest interest. In its first stage, but one
+sentiment respecting it prevailed; and that was a belief, accompanied
+with an ardent wish, that it would improve the condition of France,
+extend the blessings of liberty, and promote the happiness of the
+human race. When the labours of the convention had terminated in a
+written constitution, this unanimity of opinion was in some degree
+impaired. By a few who had thought deeply on the science of
+government, and who, if not more intelligent, certainly judged more
+dispassionately than their fellow citizens, that instrument was
+believed to contain the principles of self destruction. It was feared
+that a system so ill balanced could not be permanent. A deep
+impression was made on the same persons by the influence of the
+galleries over the legislature, and of mobs over the executive; by the
+tumultuous assemblages of the people, and their licentious excesses
+during the short and sickly existence of the regal authority. These
+did not appear to be the symptoms of a healthy constitution, or of
+genuine freedom. Persuaded that the present state of things could not
+last, they doubted, and they feared for the future.
+
+In total opposition to this sentiment was that of the public. There
+seems to be something infectious in the example of a powerful and
+enlightened nation verging towards democracy, which imposes on the
+human mind, and leads human reason in fetters. Novelties, introduced
+by such a nation, are stripped of the objections which had been
+preconceived against them; and long settled opinions yield to the
+overwhelming weight of such dazzling authority. It wears the semblance
+of being the sense of mankind, breaking loose from the shackles which
+had been imposed by artifice, and asserting the freedom, and the
+dignity, of his nature.
+
+The constitution of France, therefore, was generally received with
+unqualified plaudits. The establishment of a legislature consisting of
+a single body, was defended not only as being adapted to the
+particular situation of that country, but as being right in itself.
+Certain anonymous writers, who supported the theory of a balanced
+government, were branded as the advocates of royalty, and of
+aristocracy. To question the duration of the present order of things
+was thought to evidence an attachment to unlimited monarchy, or a
+blind prejudice in favour of British institutions; and the partiality
+of America in favour of a senate was visibly declining.
+
+In this stage of the revolution, however, the division of sentiment
+was not marked with sufficient distinctness, nor the passions of the
+people agitated with sufficient violence, for any powerful effect to
+be produced on the two parties in America. But when the monarchy was
+completely overthrown, and a republic decreed,[67] the people of the
+United States seemed electrified by the measure, and its influence was
+felt by the whole society. The war in which the several potentates of
+Europe were engaged against France, although in almost every instance
+declared by that power, was pronounced to be a war for the extirpation
+of human liberty, and for the banishment of free government from the
+face of the earth. The preservation of the constitution of the United
+States was supposed to depend on its issue; and the coalition against
+France was treated as a coalition against America also.
+
+     [Footnote 67: This event was announced to the President by
+     the minister plenipotentiary of France at Philadelphia, in
+     February, 1793. Through the secretary of state, an answer
+     was returned, of which the following is an extract, "the
+     President receives with great satisfaction this attention of
+     the executive council, and the desire they have manifested
+     of making known to us the resolution entered into by the
+     national convention even before a definitive regulation of
+     their new establishment could take place. Be assured, sir,
+     that the government and the citizens of the United States,
+     view with the most sincere pleasure, every advance of your
+     nation towards its happiness, an object essentially
+     connected with its liberty, and they consider the union of
+     principles and pursuits between our two countries as a link
+     which binds still closer their interests and affections.
+
+     "We earnestly wish, on our part, that these our mutual
+     dispositions may be improved to mutual good, by establishing
+     our commercial intercourse on principles as friendly to
+     natural right and freedom as are those of our governments."]
+
+A cordial wish for the success of the French arms, or rather that the
+war might terminate without any diminution of French power, and in
+such a manner as to leave the people of that country free to choose
+their own form of government, was, perhaps, universal; but, respecting
+the probable issue of their internal conflicts, perfect unanimity of
+opinion did not prevail. By some few individuals, the practicability
+of governing by a system formed on the republican model, an immense,
+populous, and military nation, whose institutions, habits, and morals,
+were adapted to monarchy, and which was surrounded by armed
+neighbours, was deemed a problem which time alone could solve. The
+circumstances under which the abolition of royalty was declared, the
+massacres which preceded it, the scenes of turbulence and violence
+which were acted in every part of the nation, appeared to them, to
+present an awful and doubtful state of things, respecting which no
+certain calculations could be made; and the idea that a republic was
+to be introduced and supported by force, was, to them, a paradox in
+politics. Under the influence of these appearances, the apprehension
+was entertained that, if the ancient monarchy should not be restored,
+a military despotism would be established. By the many, these
+unpopular doubts were deemed unpardonable heresies; and the few to
+whom they were imputed, were pronounced hostile to liberty. A
+suspicion that the unsettled state of things in France had contributed
+to suspend the payment of the debt to that nation, had added to the
+asperity with which the resolutions on that subject were supported;
+and the French revolution will be found to have had great influence on
+the strength of parties, and on the subsequent political transactions
+of the United States.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES.
+
+
+NOTE--No. I. _See Page 98._
+
+The following is an extract from the orders of the preceding day. "The
+Commander-in-chief orders the cessation of hostilities between the
+United States of America and the king of Great Britain to be publicly
+proclaimed to-morrow at twelve at the new building; and that the
+proclamation which will be communicated herewith, be read to-morrow
+evening at the head of every regiment, and corps of the army; after
+which the chaplains with the several brigades will render thanks to
+Almighty God for all his mercies, particularly for his overruling the
+wrath of man to his own glory, and causing the rage of war to cease
+among the nations.
+
+"Although the proclamation before alluded to, extends only to the
+prohibition of hostilities and not to the annunciation of a general
+peace, yet it must afford the most rational and sincere satisfaction
+to every benevolent mind, as it puts a period to a long and doubtful
+contest, stops the effusion of human blood, opens the prospect to a
+more splendid scene, and like another morning star, promises the
+approach of a brighter day than hath hitherto illuminated the western
+hemisphere. On such a happy day, which is the harbinger of peace, a
+day which completes the eighth year of the war, it would be
+ingratitude not to rejoice; it would be insensibility not to
+participate in the general felicity.
+
+"The Commander-in-chief, far from endeavouring to stifle the feelings
+of joy in his own bosom, offers his most cordial congratulations on
+the occasion to all the officers of every denomination, to all the
+troops of the United States in general, and in particular to those
+gallant and persevering men, who had resolved to defend the rights of
+their invaded country, so long as the war should continue. For these
+are the men who ought to be considered as the pride and boast of the
+American Army; and who, crowned with well-earned laurels, may soon
+withdraw from the field of glory, to the more tranquil walks of civil
+life.
+
+"While the general recollects the almost infinite variety of scenes
+through which we have passed with a mixture of pleasure, astonishment
+and gratitude; while he contemplates the prospect before us with
+rapture, he can not help wishing that all the brave men (of whatever
+condition they may be,) who have shared in the toils and dangers of
+effecting this glorious revolution, of rescuing millions from the hand
+of oppression, and of laying the foundation of a great empire, might
+be impressed with a proper idea of the dignified part they have been
+called to act (under the smiles of Providence) on the stage of human
+affairs. For happy, thrice happy shall they be pronounced hereafter,
+who have contributed any thing; who have performed the meanest office
+in erecting this stupendous _fabric of freedom_ and empire on the
+broad basis of independency; who have assisted in protecting the
+rights of human nature, and establishing an asylum for the poor and
+oppressed of all nations and religions. The glorious task for which we
+first flew to arms being thus accomplished, the liberties of our
+country being fully acknowledged and firmly secured by the smiles of
+heaven, on the purity of our cause, and on the honest exertions of a
+feeble people determined to be free, against a powerful nation
+disposed to oppress them, and the character of those who have
+persevered through every extremity of hardship, suffering, and danger,
+being immortalized by the illustrious appellation of the _patriot
+army_, nothing now remains but for the actors of this mighty scene to
+preserve a perfect unvarying consistency of character through the very
+last act; to close the drama with applause, and to retire from the
+military theatre with the same approbation of angels and men which has
+crowned all their former virtuous actions. For this purpose, no
+disorder or licentiousness must be tolerated: every considerate and
+well disposed soldier must remember, it will be absolutely necessary
+to wait with patience until peace shall be declared, or congress shall
+be enabled to take proper measures for the security of the public
+stores, &c. As soon as these arrangements shall be made, the general
+is confident there will be no delay in discharging with every mark of
+distinction and honour all the men enlisted for the war who will then
+have faithfully performed their engagements with the public. The
+general has already interested himself in their behalf, and he thinks
+he need not repeat the assurances of his disposition to be useful to
+them on the present and every other proper occasion. In the mean time,
+he is determined that no military neglects or excesses shall go
+unpunished while he retains the command of the army."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. II. _See Page 106._
+
+On his way, he stopped a few days at Philadelphia, for the purpose of
+settling his accounts with the comptroller. The following account of
+this part of his duty is extracted from Mr. Gordon; "while in the city
+he delivered in his accounts to the comptroller, down to December the
+13th, all in his own hand writing, and every entry made in the most
+particular manner, stating the occasion of each charge, so as to give
+the least trouble in examining and comparing them with the vouchers
+with which they were attended.
+
+"The heads as follows, copied from the folio manuscript paper book in
+the file of the treasury office, number 3700, being a black box of tin
+containing, under lock and key, both that and the vouchers."
+
+Total of expenditures from 1775 to 1783,
+exclusive of provisions from commissaries
+and contractors, and of liquors, &c. from
+them and others,                                        3,387 14 4
+
+Secret intelligence and service,                        1,982 10 0
+
+Spent in reconnoitring and travelling,                  1,874  8 0
+
+Miscellaneous charges,                                  2,952 10 1
+
+Expended besides, dollars according to the
+scale of depreciation,                                  6,114 14 0
+                                               -------------------
+                                                  _l._ 16,311 17 1
+                                               -------------------
+
+"Two hundred guineas advanced to General M'Dougal are not included in
+the _l._ 1982 10 0 not being yet settled, but included in some of the
+other charges, and so reckoned in the general sum.
+
+"Note; 104,364, of the dollars were received after March, 1780, and
+although credited at forty for one, many did not fetch at the rate of
+a hundred for one; while 27,775 of them are returned without deducting
+any thing from the above account (and, therefore, actually made a
+present of to the public)."
+
+General Washington's account from
+June, 1778 to the end of June, 1783,                   16,311 17 1
+
+Expenditure from July 1, 1783, to December 13,          1,717  5 4
+
+Added afterward from thence to December 28,               213  8 4
+
+Mrs. Washington's travelling expenses in
+coming to the general and returning,                    1,064  1 0
+                                                    --------------
+                                                  _l._ 19,306 11 9
+                                                    --------------
+
+Lawful money of Virginia, the same as
+Massachusetts, or sterling,                       _l._ 14,479 18 9 3-4
+
+The general entered in his book--"I find upon the final adjustment of
+these accounts, that I am a considerable loser, my disbursements
+falling a good deal short of my receipts, and the money I had upon
+hand of my own: for besides the sums I carried with me to Cambridge in
+1775, I received monies afterwards on private account in 1777, and
+since, which (except small sums, that I had occasion now and then to
+apply to private uses) were all expended in the public service:
+through hurry, I suppose, and the perplexity of business, (for I know
+not how else to account for the deficiency) I have omitted to charge
+the same, whilst every debit against me is here credited."
+
+July 1st, 1783.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. III. _See Page 179._
+
+The year 1784 had nearly passed away before the determination of the
+British cabinet not to evacuate the western posts was known to the
+government of the United States. In the spring of that year, General
+Knox, who commanded the troops still retained in the service of the
+United States, was directed to "open a correspondence with the
+Commander-in-chief of his Britannic majesty's forces in Canada, in
+order to ascertain the precise time when each of the posts within the
+territories of the United States then occupied by the British troops
+should be delivered up." The measures produced by this resolution
+exhibit a curious specimen of the political opinions on the subject of
+federal powers, which then prevailed in congress.
+
+It being at that time believed that the British garrisons would
+certainly be withdrawn, it became necessary to provide for occupying
+the posts when surrendered, with troops belonging to the United
+States. A number deemed sufficient for the purpose not having been
+retained in service, a motion was made for raising seven hundred men,
+by requisitions on the states for that and other objects specified in
+the resolution. The power of congress to make these requisitions was
+seriously contested, and it was gravely urged that such a power,
+connected with the rights to borrow money, and to emit bills of
+credit, would be dangerous to liberty, and alarming to the states. The
+motion for raising this small number of regulars did not prevail; and
+an order was made that except twenty-five privates to guard the stores
+at fort Pitt, and fifty-five to guard those at West Point and other
+magazines, with a proportionable number of officers, no one to exceed
+the rank of captain, the troops already in service should be
+discharged, unless congress, before its recess, should dispose of them
+in some other manner. For the purpose of garrisoning the posts, seven
+hundred militia were required from Connecticut, New York, New Jersey
+and Pennsylvania, who should serve twelve months. While the
+discussions on this subject were pending, instructions from the
+legislature of New York to their delegates were laid before congress,
+requesting that body in terms of great strength, in pursuance of the
+confederation, to declare the number of troops of which the garrisons
+of those posts which were within the limits of that state should
+consist. The resolutions asserted a constitutional right to demand
+from congress a declaration upon this point, and avowed a
+determination to raise the troops should such declaration be withheld.
+After the determination of the British government not to surrender the
+posts was known, the militia ordered to be raised to garrison them,
+who were not in actual service, were discharged.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. IV. _See Page 370._
+
+In the formation of this treaty, a question came on to be considered
+and decided which involved a principle that on an after occasion, and
+in a different case, excited a ferment never to be forgotten by those
+who took an active part in the politics of the day.
+
+The whole commerce of the Creek nation was in the hands of
+M'Gillivray, who received his supplies from a company of British
+merchants, free from duty, through the territories belonging to Spain.
+This circumstance constituted no inconsiderable impediment to the
+progress of the negotiation. M'Gillivray derived emoluments from the
+arrangement which he would not consent to relinquish; and was not
+without apprehensions, that Spain, disgusted by his new connexions
+with the United States, might throw embarrassments in the way of this
+profitable traffic. In addition to this consideration, it was, on the
+part of the United States, desirable to alter the channel through
+which the Indians should receive their supplies, and thereby to render
+them more dependent on the American government. But it would be
+necessary to exempt the goods designed for the Indian nation from the
+duties imposed by law on imported articles, and the propriety of such
+an exemption might well be questioned.
+
+With that cautious circumspection which marked his political course,
+the president took this point into early consideration, and required
+the opinion of his constitutional advisers respecting it. The
+secretary of state was of opinion that the stipulation for importing
+his goods through the United States, duty free, might safely be made.
+"A treaty made by the president with the concurrence of two-thirds of
+the senate, was," he said, "a law of the land," and a law of superior
+order, because it not only repeals past laws, but can not itself be
+repealed by future ones. The treaty then will legally control the duty
+act, and the act for licensing traders in this particular instance.
+From this opinion there is no reason to suppose that any member of the
+cabinet dissented. A secret article providing for the case was
+submitted to the senate, and it has never been understood that in
+advising and consenting to it, that body was divided.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. V. _See Page 394._
+
+This question was investigated with great labour, and being one
+involving principles of the utmost importance to the United States, on
+which the parties were divided, the subject was presented in all the
+views of which it was susceptible. A perusal of the arguments used on
+the occasion would certainly afford much gratification to the curious,
+and their insertion at full length would perhaps be excused by those
+who recollect the interest which at the time was taken in the measure
+to which they related, and the use which was made of it by the
+opponents of the then administration; but the limits prescribed for
+this work will not permit the introduction of such voluminous papers.
+It may, however, be expected that the outline of that train of
+reasoning with which each opinion was supported, and on which the
+judgment of the president was most probably formed, should be briefly
+stated.
+
+To prove that the measure was not sanctioned by the constitution, the
+general principle was asserted, that the foundation of that instrument
+was laid on this ground, "that all powers not delegated to the United
+States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are
+reserved to the states or to the people." To take a single step beyond
+the boundaries thus specially drawn around the powers of congress, is
+to take possession of a boundless field of power, no longer
+susceptible of definition.
+
+The power in question was said not to be among those which were
+specially enumerated, nor to be included within either of the general
+phrases which are to be found in the constitution.
+
+The article which contains this enumeration was reviewed; each
+specified power was analyzed; and the creation of a corporate body was
+declared to be distinct from either of them.
+
+The general phrases are,
+
+1st. To lay taxes to provide for the general welfare of the United
+States. The power here conveyed, it was observed, was "to lay taxes,"
+the purpose was "the general welfare." Congress could not lay taxes
+_ad libitum_, but could only lay them for the general welfare; nor did
+this clause authorize that body to provide for the general welfare
+otherwise than by laying taxes for that purpose.
+
+2dly. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for
+carrying into execution the enumerated powers.
+
+But they can all be carried into execution without a bank. A bank,
+therefore, is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this
+phrase.
+
+It had been much urged that a bank would give great facility or
+convenience in the collection of taxes. Suppose this were true; yet
+the constitution allows only the means which are necessary, not those
+which are convenient. If such a latitude of construction be allowed
+this phrase, as to give any non-enumerated power, it will go to every
+one; for there is no one which ingenuity may not torture into a
+_convenience, in some way or other, to some one_ of so long a list of
+enumerated powers. It would swallow up all the list of enumerated
+powers, and reduce the whole to one phrase. Therefore it was that the
+constitution restrained them to _necessary_ means, that is to say, to
+those means without which the grant of the power must be nugatory.
+
+The convenience was then examined. This had been stated in the report
+of the secretary of the treasury to congress, to consist in the
+augmentation of the circulation medium, and in preventing the
+transportation and retransportation of money between the states and
+the treasury.
+
+The first was considered as a demerit. The second, it was said, might
+be effected by other means. Bills of exchange and treasury drafts
+would supply the place of bank notes. Perhaps indeed bank bills would
+be a more convenient vehicle than treasury orders; but a little
+difference in the degree of convenience can not constitute the
+_necessity_ which the constitution makes the ground for assuming any
+non-enumerated power.
+
+Besides, the existing state banks would, without doubt, enter into
+arrangements for lending their agency. This expedient alone suffices
+to prevent the existence of that _necessity_ which may justify the
+assumption of a non-enumerated power as a means for carrying into
+effect an enumerated one.
+
+It may be said that a bank whose bills would have a currency all over
+the states, would be more convenient than one whose currency is
+limited to a single state. So it would be still more convenient that
+there should be a bank whose bills should have a currency all over the
+world; but it does not follow from this superior conveniency, that
+there exists any where a power to establish such a bank, or that the
+world may not go on very well without it.
+
+For a shade or two of convenience, more or less, it can not be
+imagined that the constitution intended to invest congress with a
+power so important as that of erecting a corporation.
+
+In supporting the constitutionality of the act, it was laid down as a
+general proposition, "that every power vested in a government is in
+its nature _sovereign_," and includes by _force_ of the _term_, a
+right to employ all the _means_ requisite and _fairly applicable to_
+the attainment of the _ends_ of such power; and which are not
+precluded by restrictions and exceptions specified in the
+constitution, are not immoral, are not contrary to the essential ends
+of political society.
+
+This principle, in its application to government in general, would be
+admitted as an axiom; and it would be incumbent on those who might
+refuse to acknowledge its influence in American affairs to _prove_ a
+distinction; and to show that a rule which, in the general system of
+things, is essential to the preservation of the social order, is
+inapplicable to the United States.
+
+The circumstance that the powers of sovereignty are divided between
+the national and state governments, does not afford the distinction
+required. It does not follow from this, that each of the portions of
+power delegated to the one or to the other, is not sovereign with
+regard to its _proper objects_. It will only follow from it, that each
+has sovereign power as to certain things, and not as to other things.
+If the government of the United States does not possess sovereign
+power as to its declared purposes and trusts, because its power does
+not extend to all cases, neither would the several states possess
+sovereign power in any case; for their powers do not extend to every
+case. According to the opinion intended to be combated, the United
+States would furnish the singular spectacle of _a political society_
+without _sovereignty_, or a people _governed_ without a _government_.
+
+If it could be necessary to bring proof of a proposition so clear as
+that which affirms that the powers of the federal government, _as to
+its objects_, were sovereign, there is a clause in the constitution
+which is decisive. It is that which declares the constitution of the
+United States, the laws made in pursuance of it, and the treaties made
+under its authority to be the supreme law of the land. The power which
+can create the supreme law in any case, is doubtless sovereign as to
+such case.
+
+This general and indisputable principle puts an end to the abstract
+question, whether the United States have power to erect a corporation:
+for it is unquestionably incident to sovereign power to erect
+corporations, and consequently to that of the United States, in
+relation to the objects intrusted to the management of the government.
+The difference is this: where the authority of the government is
+general, it can create corporations _in all cases_; where it is
+confined to certain branches of legislation, it can create
+corporations only _in those cases_.
+
+That the government of the United States can exercise only those
+powers which are delegated by the constitution, is a proposition not
+to be controverted; neither is it to be denied on the other hand, that
+there are implied as well as express powers, and that the former are
+as effectually delegated as the latter. For the sake of accuracy it
+may be observed, that there are also _resulting_ powers. It will not
+be doubted that if the United States should make a conquest of any of
+the territories of its neighbours, they would possess sovereign
+jurisdiction over the conquered territory. This would rather be a
+result of the whole mass of the powers of the government, and from the
+nature of political society, than a consequence of either of the
+powers specially enumerated. This is an extensive case in which the
+power of erecting corporations is either implied in, or would result
+from some or all of the powers vested in the national government.
+
+Since it must be conceded that implied powers are as completely
+delegated as those which are expressed, it follows that, as a power of
+erecting a corporation may as well be implied as any other thing, it
+may as well be employed as an _instrument_ or _mean_ of carrying into
+execution any of the specified powers as any other _instrument_ or
+_mean_ whatever. The question in this as in every other case must be,
+whether the mean to be employed has a natural relation to any of the
+acknowledged objects or lawful ends of the government. Thus a
+corporation may not be created by congress for superintending the
+police of the city of Philadelphia, because they are not authorized to
+regulate the police of that city; but one may be created in relation
+to the collection of the taxes, or to the trade with foreign
+countries, or between the states, or with the Indian tribes, because
+it is in the province of the federal government to regulate those
+objects; and because it is incident to a general sovereign or
+legislative power to regulate a thing, to employ all the means which
+relate to its regulation, to the best and greatest advantage.
+
+A strange fallacy seems to have crept into the manner of thinking and
+reasoning upon this subject. The imagination has presented an
+incorporation as some great, _independent, substantive_ thing--as a
+political end of peculiar magnitude and moment; whereas it is truly to
+be considered as a quality, capacity, or mean to an end. Thus a
+mercantile company is formed with a certain capital for the purpose of
+carrying on a particular branch of business. The business to be
+prosecuted is the _end_. The association in order to form the
+requisite capital is the primary _mean_. Let an incorporation be
+added, and you only add a new quality to that association which
+enables it to prosecute the business with more safety and convenience.
+The association when incorporated still remains the _mean_, and can
+not become the _end_.
+
+To this reasoning respecting the inherent right of government to
+employ all the means requisite to the execution of its specified
+powers, it is objected, that none but _necessary_ and _proper_ means
+can be employed; and none can be _necessary_, but those without which
+the grant of the power would be nugatory. So far has this restrictive
+interpretation been pressed as to make the case of _necessity_ which
+shall warrant the constitutional exercise of a power, to depend on
+casual and temporary circumstances; an idea, which alone confutes the
+construction. The expedience of exercising a particular power, at a
+particular time, must indeed depend on circumstances, but the
+constitutional right of exercising it must be uniform and invariable.
+All the arguments, therefore, drawn from the accidental existence of
+certain state banks which happen to exist to-day, and for aught that
+concerns the government of the United States may disappear to-morrow,
+must not only be rejected as fallacious, but must be viewed as
+demonstrative that there is a radical source of error in the
+reasoning.
+
+But it is essential to the being of the government that so erroneous a
+conception of the meaning of the word _necessary_ should be exploded.
+
+It is certain that neither the grammatical nor popular sense of the
+term requires that construction. According to both, _necessary_ often
+means no more than _needful, requisite, incidental, useful_, or
+_conducive to_. It is a common mode of expression to say that it is
+necessary for a government or a person to do this or that thing, where
+nothing more is intended or understood than that the interests of the
+government or person require, or will be promoted by doing this or
+that thing.
+
+This is the true sense in which the word is used in the constitution.
+The whole turn of the clause containing it indicates an intent to give
+by it a liberal latitude to the exercise of the specified powers. The
+expressions have peculiar comprehensiveness. They are "to make _all
+laws_ necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing
+powers, and _all other_ powers vested by the constitution in the
+government of the United States, or in any _department_ or _office_
+thereof." To give the word "necessary" the restrictive operation
+contended for, would not only depart from its obvious and popular
+sense, but would give it the same force as if the word _absolutely_ or
+_indispensably_ had been prefixed to it.
+
+Such a construction would beget endless uncertainty and embarrassment.
+The cases must be palpable and extreme in which it could be pronounced
+with certainty that a measure was absolutely necessary, or one without
+which a given power would be nugatory. There are few measures of any
+government which would stand so severe a test. To insist upon it would
+be to make the criterion of the exercise of an implied power _a case
+of extreme necessity_; which is rather a rule to justify the
+overleaping the bounds of constitutional authority than to govern the
+ordinary exercise of it.
+
+The degree in which a measure is necessary can never be a test of the
+legal right to adopt it. The relation between the _measure_ and the
+_end_; between the nature of the _mean_ employed towards the execution
+of a power, and the object of that power must be the criterion of
+constitutionality, not the more or less _necessity_ or _utility_.
+
+The means by which national exigencies are to be provided for,
+national inconveniences obviated, and national prosperity promoted,
+are of such infinite variety, extent, and complexity, that here must
+of necessity be great latitude of discretion in the selection and
+application of those means. Hence the necessity and propriety of
+exercising the authority intrusted to a government on principles of
+liberal construction.
+
+While on the one hand, the restrictive interpretation of the word
+_necessary_ is deemed inadmissible, it will not be contended on the
+other, that the clause in question gives any new and independent
+power. But it gives an explicit sanction to the doctrine of implied
+powers, and is equivalent to an admission of the proposition that the
+government, _as to its specified powers and objects_, has plenary and
+sovereign authority.
+
+It is true that the power to create corporations is not granted in
+terms. Neither is the power to pass any particular law, nor to employ
+any of the means by which the ends of the government are to be
+attained. It is not expressly given in cases in which its existence is
+not controverted. For by the grant of a power to exercise exclusive
+legislation in the territory which may be ceded by the states to the
+United States, it is admitted to pass; and in the power "to make all
+needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other
+property of the United States," it is acknowledged to be implied. In
+virtue of this clause, has been implied the right to create a
+government; that is, to create a body politic or corporation of the
+highest nature; one that, in its maturity, will be able itself to
+create other corporations. Thus has the constitution itself refuted
+the argument which contends that, had it been designed to grant so
+important a power as that of erecting corporations, it would have been
+mentioned. But this argument is founded on an exaggerated and
+erroneous conception of the nature of the power. It is not of so
+transcendent a kind as the reasoning supposes. Viewed in a just light,
+it is a _mean_ which ought to have been left to implication, rather
+than an _end_ which ought to have been expressly granted.
+
+The power of the government then to create corporations in certain
+cases being shown, it remained to inquire into the right to
+incorporate a banking company, in order to enable it the more
+effectually to accomplish _ends_ which were in themselves lawful.
+
+To establish such a right it would be necessary to show the relation
+of such an institution to one or more of the specified powers of
+government.
+
+It was then affirmed to have a relation more or less direct to the
+power of collecting taxes, to that of borrowing money, to that of
+regulating trade between the states, to those of raising, supporting,
+and maintaining fleets and armies; and in the last place to that which
+authorizes the making of all needful rules and regulations concerning
+the property of the United States, as the same had been practised upon
+by the government.
+
+The secretary of the treasury next proceeded, by a great variety of
+arguments and illustrations, to prove the position that the measure in
+question was a proper mean for the execution of the several powers
+which were enumerated, and also contended that the right to employ it
+resulted from the whole of them taken together. To detail those
+arguments would occupy too much space, and is the less necessary,
+because their correctness obviously depends on the correctness of the
+principles which have been already stated.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. VI. _See Page 434._
+
+The officer to whom the management of the finances was confided was so
+repeatedly charged with a desire to increase the public debt and to
+render it perpetual, and this charge had such important influence in
+the formation of parties, that an extract from this report can not be
+improperly introduced.
+
+After stating the sum to be raised, the secretary says, "three
+expedients occur to the option of the government for providing this:
+
+"One, to dispose of the interest to which the United States are
+entitled in the bank of the United States. This at the present market
+price of bank stock would yield a clear gain to the government much
+more than adequate to the sum required.
+
+"Another, to borrow the money upon an establishment of funds either
+merely commensurate with the interest to be paid, or affording a
+surplus which will discharge the principal by instalments within a
+short term.
+
+"The third is to raise the amount by taxes."
+
+After stating his objections to the first and second expedients, the
+report proceeds thus, "but the result of mature reflection is, in the
+mind of the secretary, a strong conviction that the last of the three
+expedients which have been mentioned, is to be preferred to either of
+the other two.
+
+"Nothing can more interest the national credit and prosperity than a
+constant and systematic attention to husband all the means previously
+possessed for extinguishing the present debt, and to avoid, as much as
+possible, the incurring of any new debt.
+
+"Necessity alone, therefore, can justify the application of any of the
+public property, other than the annual revenues, to the current
+service, or the temporary and casual exigencies; or the contracting of
+an additional debt by loans, to provide for those exigencies.
+
+"Great emergencies indeed might exist, in which loans would be
+indispensable. But the occasions which will justify them must be truly
+of that description.
+
+"The present is not of such a nature. The sum to be provided is not of
+magnitude enough to furnish the plea of necessity.
+
+"Taxes are never welcome to a community. They seldom fail to excite
+uneasy sensations more or less extensive. Hence a too strong
+propensity in the governments of nations, to anticipate and mortgage
+the resources of posterity, rather than to encounter the
+inconveniencies of a present increase of taxes.
+
+"But this policy, when not dictated by very peculiar circumstances, is
+of the worst kind. Its obvious tendency is, by enhancing the permanent
+burdens of the people, to produce lasting distress, and its natural
+issue is in national bankruptcy."
+
+It will be happy if the councils of this country, sanctioned by the
+voice of an enlightened community, shall be able to pursue a different
+course.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. VII. _See Page 450._
+
+     _About the same time a letter was addressed to the attorney
+     general on the same subject. The following extract is taken
+     from one of the twenty-sixth of August to the secretary of
+     the treasury._
+
+"Differences in political opinions are as unavoidable as, to a certain
+point, they may be necessary; but it is exceedingly to be regretted
+that subjects can not be discussed with temper, on the one hand, or
+decisions submitted to on the other, without improperly implicating
+the motives which led to them; and this regret borders on chagrin when
+we find that men of abilities, zealous patriots, having the same
+_general_ objects in view, and the same upright intentions to
+prosecute them, will not exercise more charity in deciding on the
+opinions and actions of each other. When matters get to such lengths,
+the natural inference is that both sides have strained the cords
+beyond their bearing, that a middle course would be found the best
+until experience shall have decided on the right way; or, which is not
+to be expected, because it is denied to mortals, until there shall be
+some infallible rule by which to forejudge events.
+
+"Having premised these things, I would fain hope that liberal
+allowances will be made for the political opinions of each other; and
+instead of those wounding suspicions, and irritating charges with
+which some of our gazettes are so strongly impregnated, and which can
+not fail, if persevered in, of pushing matters to extremity, and
+thereby tearing the machine asunder, that there might be mutual
+forbearance and temporising yieldings on _all sides_. Without these, I
+do not see how the reins of government are to be managed, or how the
+union of the states can be much longer preserved.
+
+"How unfortunate would it be if a fabric so goodly, erected under so
+many providential circumstances, after acquiring in its first stages,
+so much respectability, should, from diversity of sentiment, or
+internal obstructions to some of the acts of government (for I can not
+prevail on myself to believe that these measures are as yet the acts
+of a determined party) be brought to the verge of dissolution.
+Melancholy thought! But while it shows the consequences of diversified
+opinions, where pushed with too much tenacity, it exhibits evidence
+also of the necessity of accommodation, and of the propriety of
+adopting such healing measures as may restore harmony to the
+discordant members of the union, and the governing powers of it.
+
+"I do not mean to apply this advice to any measures which are passed,
+or to any particular character. I have given it, in the same _general_
+terms, to other officers of the government. My earnest wish is that
+balm may be poured into _all_ the wounds which have been given, to
+prevent them from gangrening, and to avoid those fatal consequences
+which the community may sustain if it is withheld. The friends of the
+union must wish this: those who are not, but who wish to see it
+rended, will be disappointed; and all things I hope will go well."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. VIII. _See Page 479._
+
+The gazettes of the day contain ample proofs on this subject. All the
+bitterness of party spirit had poured itself out in the most severe
+invectives against the heads of the state and treasury departments.
+
+The secretary of the treasury was represented as the advocate of
+"aristocracy, monarchy, hereditary succession, a titled order of
+nobility, and all the other mock pageantry of kingly government." He
+was arraigned at the bar of the public for holding principles
+unfavourable to the sovereignty of the people, and with inculcating
+doctrines insinuating their inability to rule themselves. The theory
+of the British monarchy was said to have furnished his model for a
+perfect constitution; and all his systems of finance, which were
+represented as servile imitations of those previously adopted by
+England, were held up to public execration as being intended to
+promote the favourite project of assimilating the government of the
+United States to that of Great Britain. With this view, he had
+entailed upon the nation a heavy debt, and perpetual taxes; had
+created an artificial monied interest which had corrupted, and would
+continue to corrupt the legislature; and was endeavouring to prostrate
+the local authorities as a necessary step towards erecting that great
+consolidated monarchy which he contemplated.
+
+To support some of these charges, sentences and parts of sentences
+were selected from his reports, which expressed the valuable purposes
+to which a funded debt might be applied, and were alleged to affirm,
+as an abstract principle, "that a public debt was a public blessing."
+He was, it was added, the inveterate enemy of Mr. Jefferson, because,
+in the republican principles of that gentleman, he perceived an
+invincible obstacle to his views.
+
+If the counter charges exhibited against the secretary of state were
+less capable of alarming the fears of the public for liberty, and of
+directing the resentments of the people against that officer as the
+enemy of their rights, they were not less calculated to irritate his
+personal friends, and to wound his own feelings.
+
+The adversaries of this gentleman said, that he had been originally
+hostile to the constitution of the United States, and adverse to its
+adoption; and "that his avowed opinions tended to national disunion,
+national insignificance, public disorder, and discredit." Under the
+garb of democratic simplicity, and modest retiring philosophy, he
+covered an inordinate ambition which grasped unceasingly at power, and
+sought to gratify itself, by professions of excessive attachment to
+liberty, and by traducing and lessening in the public esteem, every
+man in whom he could discern a rival. To this aspiring temper they
+ascribed, not only "those pestilent whispers which, clandestinely
+circulating through the country, had, as far as was practicable,
+contaminated some of its fairest and worthiest characters," but also
+certain publications affecting the reputation of prominent individuals
+whom he might consider as competitors with himself for the highest
+office in the state. A letter written by Mr. Jefferson to a printer,
+transmitting for publication the first part of "the rights of man,"
+which letter was prefixed to the American edition of that pamphlet,
+contained allusions to certain "political heresies" of the day, which
+were understood to imply a serious censure on the opinions of the vice
+president: and the great object of the national gazette, a paper known
+to be edited by a clerk in the department of state, was "to calumniate
+and blacken public characters, and, particularly, to destroy the
+public confidence in the secretary of the treasury, who was to be
+hunted down for the unpardonable sin of having been the steady and
+invariable friend of broad principles of national government." It was
+also said that his connexions with this paper, and the patronage he
+afforded it, authorized the opinion that it might fairly be considered
+"the mirror of his views," and thence was adduced an accusation not
+less serious in its nature than that which has been already stated.
+
+The national gazette was replete with continual and malignant
+strictures on the leading measures of the administration, especially
+those which were connected with the finances. "If Mr. Jefferson's
+opposition to these measures had ceased when they had received the
+sanction of law, nothing more could have been said than that he had
+transgressed the rules of official decorum in entering the lists with
+the head of another department, and had been culpable in pursuing a
+line of conduct which was calculated to sow the seeds of discord in
+the executive branch of the government in the infancy of its
+existence. But when his opposition extended beyond that point, when it
+was apparent that he wished to _render odious_, and of course to
+_subvert_ (for in a popular government these are convertible terms)
+all those deliberate and solemn acts of the legislature which had
+become the pillars of the public credit, his conduct deserved to be
+regarded with a still severer eye." It was also said to be peculiarly
+unfit for a person remaining at the head of one of the great executive
+departments, openly to employ all his influence in exciting the public
+rage against the laws and the legislature of the union, and in giving
+circulation to calumnies against his colleagues in office, from the
+contamination of which the chief magistrate himself could not hope
+entirely to escape.
+
+
+END OF VOLUME IV.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of George Washington, Vol. 4
+(of 5), by John Marshall
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Life of George Washington, vol. 4, by John Marshall.
+    </title>
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of George Washington, Vol. 4 (of 5), by 
+John Marshall
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Life of George Washington, Vol. 4 (of 5)
+       Commander in Chief of the American Forces During the War
+              which Established the Independence of his Country and First
+              President of the United States
+
+Author: John Marshall
+
+Release Date: June 15, 2006 [EBook #18594]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Linda Cantoni and  David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#CONTENTS">Table of Contents</a></h3>
+<h3><a href="#ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a></h3>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;<img src="images/spines.jpg" width="727" height="633" alt="book spines" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a name="image01">
+<img src="images/frontispiece4.jpg" width="320" height="429" alt="George Washington" /></a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;<b>George Washington</b></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>From the painting by James Sharples</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><i>Sharples is distinguished for having painted what the Washington
+family regarded as the most faithful likenesses of the Father of His
+Country. This portrait in particular is the best resemblance we have
+of Washington during the period between his resignation as
+Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and his inauguration as
+First President of the United States. The Sharples portraits of
+Washington were commissioned by Robert Cary, a London merchant and
+admirer of our First President, who sent the artist on a special trip
+to America to do the work. This and other portraits by Sharples of
+Washington and his compeers long remained in England, but are now in
+the Collection of Herbert L. Pratt, New York.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h3>THE</h3>
+
+<h1>LIFE</h1>
+
+<h3>OF</h3>
+
+<h1>GEORGE WASHINGTON,</h1>
+
+<h3>COMMANDER IN CHIEF</h3>
+
+<h3>OF THE</h3>
+
+<h2>AMERICAN FORCES,</h2>
+
+<h3>DURING THE WAR WHICH ESTABLISHED THE INDEPENDENCE OF HIS COUNTRY,</h3>
+
+<h3>AND</h3>
+
+<h2>FIRST PRESIDENT</h2>
+
+<h3>OF THE</h3>
+
+<h2>UNITED STATES.</h2>
+
+<h3>COMPILED UNDER THE INSPECTION OF</h3>
+
+<h3>THE HONOURABLE BUSHROD WASHINGTON,</h3>
+
+<h3>FROM</h3>
+
+<h3><i>ORIGINAL PAPERS</i></h3>
+
+<h3>BEQUEATHED TO HIM BY HIS DECEASED RELATIVE, AND NOW IN POSSESSION OF
+THE AUTHOR.</h3>
+
+<h3>TO WHICH IS PREFIXED,</h3>
+
+<h2>AN INTRODUCTION,</h2>
+
+<h3>CONTAINING A COMPENDIOUS VIEW OF THE COLONIES PLANTED BY THE ENGLISH
+ON THE</h3>
+
+<h3>CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA,</h3>
+
+<h3>FROM THEIR SETTLEMENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THAT WAR WHICH TERMINATED
+IN THEIR</h3>
+
+<h2>INDEPENDENCE.</h2>
+
+
+<h2>BY JOHN MARSHALL.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>VOL. IV.</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+THE CITIZENS' GUILD<br />
+OF WASHINGTON'S BOYHOOD HOME<br />
+FREDERICKSBURG, VA.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">1926</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">Printed in the U.S.A.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/titlepage4.jpg" width="441" height="690" alt="title page" /></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/subscription.jpg" width="508" height="803" alt="subscription" /></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></h3>
+
+<p>Greene invests Camden.... Battle of Hobkirk's Hill.... Progress of
+Marion and Lee.... Lord Rawdon retires into the lower country....
+Greene invests Ninety Six.... Is repulsed.... Retires from that
+place.... Active movements of the two armies.... After a short repose
+they resume active operations.... Battle of Eutaw.... The British army
+retires towards Charleston.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></h3>
+
+<p>Preparations for another campaign.... Proceedings in the Parliament of
+Great Britain. Conciliatory conduct of General Carleton....
+Transactions in the south.... Negotiations for peace.... Preliminary
+and eventual articles agreed upon between the United States and Great
+Britain.... Discontents of the American army.... Peace.... Mutiny of a
+part of the Pennsylvania line.... Evacuation of New York.... General
+Washington resigns his commission and retires to Mount Vernon.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></h3>
+
+<p>General Washington devotes his time to rural pursuits.... to the
+duties of friendship.... and to institutions of public utility....
+Resolves of Congress and of the Legislature of Virginia for erecting
+statues to his honour.... Recommends improvement in inland
+navigation.... Declines accepting a donation made to him by his native
+state.... The society of the Cincinnati.... He is elected
+President.... The causes which led to a change of the government of
+the United States.... Circular letter of General Washington to the
+governors of the several states.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></h3>
+
+<p>Differences between Great Britain and the United States.... Mr. Adams
+appointed minister to Great Britain.... Discontents excited by the
+commercial regulations of Britain.... Parties in the United States....
+The convention at Annapolis.... Virginia appoints deputies to a
+convention at Philadelphia.... General Washington chosen one of
+them.... Insurrection at Massachusetts.... Convention at
+Philadelphia.... A form of government submitted to the respective
+states, as ratified by eleven of them.... Correspondence of General
+Washington respecting the chief magistracy.... He is elected
+president.... Meeting of the first congress.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></h3>
+
+<p>The election of General Washington officially announced to him.... His
+departure for the seat of government.... Marks of affection shown him
+on his journey.... His inauguration and speech to Congress.... His
+system of intercourse with the world.... Letters on this and other
+subjects.... Answers of both houses of Congress to the speech....
+Domestic and foreign relations of the United States.... Debates on the
+impost and tonnage bills.... On the power of removal from office....
+On the policy of the secretary of the treasury reporting plans of
+revenue.... On the style of the President.... Amendments to the
+constitution.... Appointment of executive officers, and of the
+judges.... Adjournment of the first session of congress.... The
+President visits New England.... His reception.... North Carolina
+accedes to the union.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></h3>
+
+<p>Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... Report of the secretary
+of the treasury on public credit.... Debate thereon.... Bill for
+fixing the permanent seat of government.... Adjournment of
+congress.... Treaty with the Creek Indians.... Relations of the United
+States with Great Britain and Spain.... The President visits Mount
+Vernon.... Session of congress.... The President's speech.... Debates
+on the excise.... On a national bank.... The opinions of the cabinet
+on the law.... Progress of parties.... War with the Indians.... Defeat
+of Harmar.... Adjournment of congress.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></h3>
+
+<p>General St. Clair appointed Commander-in-chief.... The President makes
+a tour through the southern states.... Meeting of congress....
+President's speech.... Debate on the bill for apportioning
+representatives.... Military law.... Defeat of St. Clair....
+Opposition to the increase of the army.... Report of the Secretary of
+the Treasury for raising additional supplies.... Congress adjourns....
+Strictures on the conduct of administration, with a view of
+parties.... Disagreement between the Secretaries of State and
+Treasury.... Letters from General Washington.... Opposition to the
+excise law.... President's proclamation.... Insurrection and massacre
+in the island of St. Domingo.... General Wayne appointed to the
+command of the army.... Meeting of congress.... President's speech....
+Resolutions implicating the Secretary of the Treasury, rejected....
+Congress adjourns.... Progress of the French revolution, and its
+effects on parties in the United States.</p>
+
+<h3><a href="#NOTES">NOTES.</a></h3>
+
+<h3><a href="#FOOTNOTES">Footnotes.</a></h3>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</a></h2>
+
+<h3><a href="#image01">George Washington</a></h3>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#image02">Livingston Manor, Dobbs Ferry, New York</a></h3>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#image03">The Long Room in Fraunces' Tavern, New York City</a></h3>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#image04">The Old Senate Chamber at Annapolis, Maryland, Where Washington
+Resigned His Commission</a></h3>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#image05">The Room in Which the First Constitutional Convention Met in
+Philadelphia</a></h3>
+
+
+<h3><a href="#image06">Washington Taking the Oath of Office</a></h3>
+
+<h3><a href="#image07">View of the Old City or Federal Hall, New York, in 1789</a></h3>
+
+<h3><a href="#image08">Tomb of Mary, Mother of Washington</a></h3>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE LIFE</h2>
+
+<h3>OF</h3>
+
+<h2>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><b>Greene invests Camden.... Battle of Hobkirk's Hill....
+Progress of Marion and Lee.... Lord Rawdon retires into the
+lower country.... Greene invests Ninety Six.... Is
+repulsed.... Retires from that place.... Active movements of
+the two armies.... After a short repose they resume active
+operations.... Battle of Eutaw.... The British army retires
+towards Charleston.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1781</div>
+
+<p><span class="lgsmcap">In</span> South Carolina and Georgia, the campaign of 1781 was uncommonly
+active. The importance of the object, the perseverance with which it
+was pursued, the talents of the generals, the courage, activity, and
+sufferings of the armies, and the accumulated miseries of the
+inhabitants, gave to the contest for these states, a degree of
+interest seldom bestowed on military transactions, in which greater
+numbers have not been employed.</p>
+
+<p>When Lord Cornwallis entered North Carolina, the military operations
+in the more southern states were committed to Lord Rawdon. For the
+preservation of his power, a line of posts slightly fortified had been
+continued from Charleston, by the way of Camden and Ninety Six, to
+Augusta, in Georgia. The spirit of resistance was still kept up in the
+north-western and north-eastern parts of the state, by Generals
+Sumpter and Marion, who respectively commanded a corps of militia.
+Their exertions, though great, seem not to have been successful; and
+they excited no alarm, because no addition to their strength was
+apprehended.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the situation of the country when General Greene formed the
+bold resolution of endeavouring to reannex it to the American union.
+His army consisted of about eighteen hundred men. The prospect of
+procuring subsistence was unpromising, and the chance of
+reinforcements precarious. He was apprized of the dangers to be
+encountered, but believed it to be for the public interest to meet
+them. &quot;I shall take every measure,&quot; said this gallant officer, in a
+letter communicating his plan of operations to General Washington, &quot;to
+avoid a misfortune. But necessity obliges me to commit myself to
+chance, and if any accident should attend me, I trust my friends will
+do justice to my reputation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The extensive line of posts maintained by Lord Rawdon, presented to
+Greene many objects, at which, it was probable he might strike with
+advantage. The day preceding his march from the camp on Deep river, he
+detached Lee to join General Marion, and communicated his intention of
+entering South Carolina to General Pickens with a request that he
+would assemble the western militia, and lay siege to Ninety Six, and
+Augusta.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">April.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Green invests Camden.</div>
+
+<p>Having made these arrangements, he moved from Deep river on the
+seventh of April, and encamped before Camden on the nineteenth of the
+same month, within half a mile of the British works. Lord Rawdon had
+received early notice of his approach, and was prepared for his
+reception.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">April 24.</div>
+
+<p>Camden stands on a gentle elevation, and is covered on the south and
+south-west by the Wateree,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and on the east by Pine-tree creek. A
+strong chain of redoubts, extending from the river to the creek,
+protected the north and west sides of the town. Being unable to storm
+the works or to invest them on all sides, Greene contented himself
+with lying before the place in the hope of being reinforced by
+militia, or of some event which might bring on an action in the open
+field. With this view he retired a small distance, and encamped on
+Hobkirk's hill, about a mile and a half from the town. While in this
+situation, he received information that Colonel Watson was marching up
+the Santee with about four hundred men. A junction between these two
+divisions of the British army, could be prevented only by intercepting
+Watson while at a distance from Camden. For this purpose, he crossed
+Sand-hill creek and encamped east of Camden, on the road leading to
+Charleston. It being impracticable to transport the artillery and
+baggage over the deep marshes adjoining the creek, Colonel Carrington
+with the North Carolina militia was directed to convey them to a place
+of safety, and to guard them till farther orders. The army continued a
+few days in its new encampment, during which the troops subsisted on
+the scanty supplies furnished by the neighbourhood. Greene was
+compelled at length, by the want of provisions, to relinquish this
+position. About the same time he received intelligence which induced
+him to doubt the approach of Watson. On which he ordered Lieutenant
+Colonel Carrington to rejoin him; and on the 24th, returned to the
+north side of the town, and again encamped on Hobkirk's hill, a ridge
+covered with uninterrupted wood through which the great Waxhaw road
+passes. The army was encamped in order of battle, its left covered by
+the swamp of Pine-tree creek.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">April 25.</div>
+
+<p>A drummer, who deserted on the morning after Greene's return, and
+before he was rejoined by Lieutenant Colonel Carrington, gave
+information to Lord Rawdon that the artillery and militia had been
+detached. His lordship determined to seize this favourable occasion
+for fighting his enemy to advantage, and, at the head of nine hundred
+men, marched out of town on the morning of the twenty-fifth to attack
+the American army.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Colonel Carrington had arrived in camp that morning, and
+brought with him a supply of provisions which had been issued to the
+troops, some of whom were employed in cooking and others in washing
+their clothes. Notwithstanding those occupations, they were in reach
+of their arms, and were in readiness to take their ground and engage
+at a moment's warning.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Hobkirk's Hill.</div>
+
+<p>By keeping close to the swamp, and making a circuit of some distance,
+Lord Rawdon gained the American left without being perceived; and
+about eleven, his approach was announced by the fire of the advanced
+piquets, who were half a mile in front of Greene's encampment. Orders
+were instantly given to form the American line of battle.</p>
+
+<p>The Virginia brigade commanded by General Huger, consisting of two
+regiments under Campbell and Hawes, was drawn up on the right of the
+great road. The Maryland brigade commanded by Colonel Williams,
+consisting also of two regiments, under Gunby and Ford, was on the
+left, and the artillery was placed in the centre. The North Carolina
+militia under Colonel Read formed a second line; and Captain Kirkwood
+with the light infantry was placed in front for the purpose of
+supporting the piquets, and retarding the advance of the enemy.
+General Greene remained on the right, with Campbell's regiment.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Morgan of Virginia, and Captain Benson of Maryland, who
+commanded the piquets, gave the enemy a warm reception; but were soon
+compelled to retire. Captain Kirkwood also was driven in, and the
+British troops appeared in view. Rawdon continued his march through
+the wood along the low ground in front of the Maryland brigade which
+was in the act of forming, until he reached the road, where he
+displayed his column.</p>
+
+<p>Perceiving that the British advanced with a narrow front, Greene
+ordered Colonel Ford, whose regiment was on the extreme left, and
+Lieutenant Colonel Campbell, whose regiment was on the extreme right,
+severally to attack their flanks, while Gunby and Hawes should advance
+upon their front with charged bayonets. To complete their destruction
+by cutting off their retreat to the town, Lieutenant Colonel
+Washington was ordered to pass their left flank and charge them in the
+rear.</p>
+
+<p>The regiments commanded by Ford and Campbell, being composed chiefly
+of new levies, did not change their ground, and perform the evolutions
+necessary for the duty assigned to them, with the requisite rapidity
+and precision; in consequence of which Rawdon, who instantly perceived
+the danger that threatened his flanks, had time to extend his front by
+bringing the volunteers of Ireland into his line.</p>
+
+<p>This judicious movement disconcerted the design on his flanks, and
+brought the two armies into action fronting each other. But the
+regiments of Ford and Campbell were thrown into some confusion by the
+abortive attempt to gain the flanks of the British.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel Washington too was compelled by the thick underwood and felled
+trees which obstructed his direct course, to make so extensive a
+circuit, that he came into the rear of the British at a greater
+distance from the scene of action than was intended, in consequence of
+which he fell in with their medical and other staff, and with a number
+of the followers of the army and idle spectators, who took no part in
+the action. Too humane to cut his way through this crowd, he employed
+so much time in taking their verbal parole, that he could not reach
+the rear of the British line until the battle was ended. These
+casualties disappointed this very interesting part of Greene's
+intended operations.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>The artillery, however, played on the enemy with considerable effect;
+and the regiments of Gunby and Hawes advanced on the British front
+with resolution. Some companies on the right of the Maryland regiment
+returned the fire of the enemy, and their example was followed by the
+others. Notwithstanding this departure from orders, they continued to
+advance with intrepidity, and Greene entertained sanguine hopes of
+victory. His prospects were blasted by one of those incidents against
+which military prudence can make no provision.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Beaty, who commanded on the right of Gunby's regiment, was
+killed, upon which his company with that adjoining it got into
+confusion and dropped out of the line. Gunby ordered the other
+companies, which were still advancing, to fall back, and form, with
+the two companies, behind the hill which the British were ascending.
+This retrograde movement was mistaken for a retreat, and the regiment
+gave way. Encouraged by this circumstance, the British pressed forward
+with increased ardour, and all the efforts of Colonel Williams, and of
+Gunby and Howard, to rally the regiment were, for a time, ineffectual.
+This veteran regiment, distinguished alike for its discipline and
+courage, which with the cavalry of Washington, had won the battle of
+the Cowpens, and nearly won that at Guilford court house, was seized
+with an unaccountable panic which, for a time, resisted all the
+efforts of their officers.</p>
+
+<p>The flight of the first Maryland regiment increased the confusion
+which the change of ground had produced in the second; and, in
+attempting to restore order, Colonel Ford was mortally wounded. Lord
+Rawdon improved these advantages to the utmost. His right gained the
+summit of the hill, forced the artillery to retire, and turned the
+flank of the second Virginia regiment, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel
+Hawes, which had advanced some distance down the hill. By this time
+the first Virginia regiment, which Greene had endeavoured to lead in
+person against the left flank of the British, being also in some
+disorder, began to give ground. Perceiving this reverse in his
+affairs, and knowing that he could not rely on his second line, Greene
+thought it most adviseable to secure himself from the hazard of a
+total defeat by withdrawing the second Virginia regiment from the
+action.</p>
+
+<p>The Maryland brigade was in part rallied; but Lord Rawdon had gained
+the hill, and it was thought too late to retrieve the fortune of the
+day. Greene determined to reserve his troops for a more auspicious
+moment, and ordered a retreat.</p>
+
+<p>Finding that the infantry had retreated, Colonel Washington also
+retired with the loss of only three men, bringing with him about fifty
+prisoners, among whom were all the surgeons belonging to the British
+army.</p>
+
+<p>The Americans retreated in good order about four miles from the field
+of battle, and proceeded, next day, to Rugeley's mills. The pursuit
+was continued about three miles. In the course of it, some sharp
+skirmishing took place, which was terminated by a vigorous charge made
+by Colonel Washington on a corps of British horse who led their van.
+This corps being broken and closely pursued, the infantry in its rear
+retreated precipitately into Camden.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">April 26.</div>
+
+<p>The number of continental troops engaged in this action amounted to
+about twelve hundred<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> men, and the loss in killed, wounded, and
+missing, to two hundred and sixty-six. Among the killed was Captain
+Beaty, of Maryland, who was mentioned by General Greene as an ornament
+to his profession; and among the wounded was Colonel Ford, of
+Maryland, a gallant officer, whose wounds proved mortal. The militia
+attached to the army amounted to two hundred and sixty-six, of whom
+two were missing. The total loss sustained by the British army has
+been stated at two hundred and fifty-eight, of whom thirty-eight were
+killed in the field.</p>
+
+<p>The plan which the strength of Camden and his own weakness had induced
+General Greene originally to adopt, was still substantially pursued.
+He remained in the vicinity of that place, and by the activity of his
+cavalry, straightened the communication of the garrison with the
+neighbouring country. Their distress for provisions had been
+considerably increased by the progress of Marion and Lee.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Several British posts taken.</div>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Colonel Lee joined Marion a few days after he was detached
+from the camp on Deep river; and these two officers commenced their
+operations against the line of communication between Camden and
+Charleston, by laying siege to fort Watson, which capitulated in a few
+days. The acquisition of this fort afforded the means of interrupting
+the intercourse between Camden and Charleston, and opposed an obstacle
+to the retreat of Lord Rawdon which he would have found it difficult
+to surmount.</p>
+
+<p>From the increasing perils of his situation, his lordship was relieved
+by the arrival of Colonel Watson.</p>
+
+<p>In attempting to obey the orders, which were given by Lord Rawdon on
+the approach of Greene, to join him at Camden, that officer found
+himself opposed by Marion and Lee, who had seized the passes over the
+creeks in his route; and had thus completely arrested his march. To
+elude these vigilant adversaries, Watson returned down the Santee, and
+crossing that river near its mouth, marched up its southern side, and
+recrossing it above the American detachment, and, eluding all the
+measures taken to intercept him, accomplished his object with much
+toil and hazard.</p>
+
+<p>This reinforcement gave the British general a decided superiority; and
+Greene entertained no doubt of its being immediately employed. On the
+day of its arrival, therefore, he withdrew from the neighbourhood of
+Camden, and took a strong position behind Sawney's creek.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">May 7.</div>
+
+<p>On the night of the seventh, as had been conjectured, Rawdon passed
+the Wateree at Camden ferry, intending to turn the flank of his enemy,
+and to attack his rear, where the ground was less difficult than in
+front. On being informed that the American army had changed its
+position, he followed it to its new encampment. This was so
+judiciously chosen that he despaired of being able to force it; and,
+after some ineffectual manoeuvres to draw Greene from it, returned to
+Camden.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">Eighth.</div>
+
+<p>Lord Rawdon had been induced to relinquish, thus hastily, his designs
+upon Greene, by the insecurity of his situation. The state of the
+British power in South Carolina was such as to require a temporary
+surrender of the upper country. Marion and Lee, after completely
+destroying his line of communication on the north side of the Santee,
+had crossed that river, and permitted no convoy from Charleston to
+escape their vigilance. On the eighth of May, after Watson had passed
+them, they laid siege to a post at Motte's house, on the south side of
+the Congaree, near its junction with the Wateree, which had been made
+the depot of all the supplies designed for Camden.</p>
+
+<p>From the energy of this party as well as from the defection of the
+inhabitants, Lord Rawdon had reason to apprehend the loss of all his
+lower posts, unless he should take a position which would support
+them. He had therefore determined to evacuate Camden, unless the issue
+of a battle with Greene should be such as to remove all fears of
+future danger from that officer.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Lord Rawdon retires into the lower country.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">May 12.</div>
+
+<p>Having failed in his hope of bringing on a general engagement, he
+evacuated Camden, and marched down the river on its north side to
+Neilson's ferry. Among the objects to be obtained by this movement was
+the security of the garrison at Motte's house. But the siege of that
+place had been so vigorously prosecuted that, on crossing the river,
+his lordship received the unwelcome intelligence that it had
+surrendered on the twelfth, and that its garrison, consisting of one
+hundred and sixty-five men, had become prisoners. On the preceding
+day, the post at Orangeburg had surrendered to Sumpter.</p>
+
+<p>On the evening of the fourteenth, Lord Rawdon moved from Neilson's
+ferry, and marched to Monk's Corner, a position which enabled him to
+cover those districts from which Charleston drew its supplies.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">May.</div>
+
+<p>While the British army was thus under the necessity of retiring, the
+American force was exerted with a degree of activity which could not
+be surpassed. After the post at Motte's house had fallen, Marion
+proceeded against Georgetown, on the Black river, which place he
+reduced; and Lee marched against fort Granby, a post on the south of
+the Congaree, which was garrisoned by three hundred and fifty-two men,
+principally militia. The place was invested on the evening of the
+fourteenth, and the garrison capitulated the next morning.</p>
+
+<p>The late movement of the British army had left the garrison of Ninety
+Six and of Augusta exposed to the whole force of Greene, and he
+determined to direct his operations against them. Lee was ordered to
+proceed against the latter, while the general should march in person
+to the former.</p>
+
+<p>The post at Ninety Six was fortified. The principal work, which, from
+its form, was called the Star, and which was on the right of the
+village, consisted of sixteen salient and reentering angles, and was
+surrounded by a dry ditch, fraize, and abattis. On the left was a
+valley, through which ran a rivulet that supplied the place with
+water. This valley was commanded on one side by the town prison, which
+had been converted into a block-house, and on the other by a stockade
+fort, in which a block-house had been erected. The garrison, commanded
+by Lieutenant Colonel Cruger, was ample for the extent of the place,
+but was furnished with only three pieces of artillery.</p>
+
+<p>On evacuating Camden, Lord Rawdon had given directions that the
+garrison of Ninety Six should retire to Augusta; but his messengers
+were intercepted; and Cruger, remaining without orders, determined to
+put his post in the best possible state of defence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Greene invests Ninety Six.</div>
+
+<p>On the 22nd of May the American army, consisting of about one thousand
+continental troops, appeared before the town, and encamped in a wood,
+within cannon shot of the place. On the following night they broke
+ground, within seventy yards of the British works; but the besieged
+having mounted several guns in the star, made a vigorous sally under
+their protection, and drove the advanced party of the besiegers from
+their trenches, put several of them to the bayonet, and brought off
+their intrenching tools.</p>
+
+<p>This sortie was made with such rapidity, that, though General Greene
+put his whole army in motion, the party making it had accomplished the
+object and retired into the fort, before he could support his troops
+in the trenches. After this check, the siege was conducted with more
+caution, but with indefatigable industry.</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of June, Lee rejoined the army with the troops under his
+command.</p>
+
+<p>The day after the fall of fort Granby, that active officer proceeded
+with great celerity to join General Pickens, and lay siege to Augusta.
+On the march, he took possession of fort Golphin, on the northern bank
+of the Savannah, which surrendered on the 21st of May; immediately
+after which the operations against Augusta were commenced.</p>
+
+<p>The place was bravely defended by Lieutenant Colonel Brown; but the
+approaches of the besiegers were so well conducted, that on the 5th of
+June he was reduced to the necessity of capitulating; and the
+prisoners, amounting to about three hundred, were conducted by Lee to
+the main army.</p>
+
+<p>This reinforcement enabled General Greene, who had till then made his
+approaches solely against the star, to commence operations against the
+works on the left also. The direction of the advances to be made in
+that quarter was entrusted to Lieutenant Colonel Lee. While the
+besiegers urged their approaches in the confidence that the place must
+soon capitulate, Lord Rawdon received a reinforcement which enabled
+him once more to overrun the state of South Carolina.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">June 7.</div>
+
+<p>On the third of June three regiments arrived from Ireland; and, on the
+seventh of that month, Lord Rawdon marched at the head of two thousand
+men to the relief of Ninety Six. Greene received intelligence of his
+approach on the eleventh, and ordered Sumpter, to whose aid the
+cavalry was detached, to continue in his front, and to impede his
+march by turning to the best account every advantage afforded by the
+face of the country. But Lord Rawdon passed Sumpter below the junction
+of the Saluda and Broad rivers, after which that officer was probably
+unable to regain his front.</p>
+
+<p>Greene had also intended to meet the British and fight them at some
+distance from Ninety Six, but found it impossible to draw together
+such aids of militia as would enable him to execute that intention
+with any prospect of success. The only remaining hope was to press the
+siege so vigorously as to compel a surrender before Lord Rawdon could
+arrive.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">June 17.</div>
+
+<p>In the execution of this plan, the garrison was reduced to
+extremities, when the near approach of his lordship was communicated
+to Cruger, by a loyalist who passed through the American lines, and
+extinguished every hope of carrying the place otherwise than by storm.
+Unwilling to relinquish a prize he was on the point of obtaining,
+Greene resolved to essay every thing which could promise success; but
+the works were so strong that it would be madness to assault them,
+unless a partial attempt to make a lodgement on one of the curtains of
+the star redoubt, and at the same time to carry the fort on the left,
+should the first succeed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">June 18.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Is repulsed and retires from before that place.</div>
+
+<p>The proper dispositions for this partial assault being made,
+Lieutenant Colonel Lee, at the head of the legion infantry and
+Kirkwood's company, was ordered to assault the works on the left of
+the town; while Lieutenant Colonel Campbell was to lead the first
+regiment of Maryland, and the first of Virginia, against the star
+redoubt. The lines of the third parallel were manned, and all the
+artillery opened on the besieged. About noon the detachments on this
+service marched cheerfully to the assault. Lee's attack on the left
+was successful. He forced the works in that quarter and took
+possession of them. But the resistance on the right was more
+determined, and Campbell, though equally brave, was less fortunate.
+Lieutenants Duval of Maryland, and Selden of Virginia, led the forlorn
+hope, and entered the ditch with great intrepidity; but its depth, and
+the height of the parapet opposed obstructions which could not be
+surmounted. After a severe conflict of more than half an hour, during
+which Lieutenants Duval and Selden were both badly wounded, and nearly
+all the forlorn hope were either killed or wounded, the assault was
+relinquished, and the few who remained alive were recalled from the
+ditch. The next day, Greene raised the siege, and, crossing the
+Saluda, encamped on Little River. The loss of the besieging army, in
+killed and wounded, amounted to one hundred and fifty-five men, among
+the former of whom was Captain Armstrong of Maryland. That of the
+garrison has been stated at eighty-five.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the 21st of June, Lord Rawdon arrived at Ninety Six;
+and, on the evening of the same day, marched in quest of the American
+army. In the preceding operations of the campaign, he had felt the
+want of cavalry so severely that, while at Monk's Corner, and in
+Charleston, he had formed a corps of one hundred and fifty horse.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Active movements of the two armies.</div>
+
+<p>Greene, foreseeing that his active adversary would avail himself to
+the utmost of his superiority, had sent his sick and wounded
+northward; and, as soon as Rawdon had crossed the Saluda, he retreated
+towards Virginia. Lord Rawdon pursued him to the Eunora, whence he
+returned to Ninety Six.</p>
+
+<p>The retreat ceased with the pursuit. General Greene halted near the
+cross roads, on the north of Broad River.</p>
+
+<p>As Rawdon retired, he was followed close by the legion as far as
+Ninety Six, at which place he remained but two days. Still retaining
+the opinion that circumstances required him to contract his posts, he
+left the principal part of his army, under the command of Lieutenant
+Colonel Cruger, to protect the loyalists while removing within those
+limits which were to be maintained by the British forces; and, at the
+head of less than one thousand men, marched in person towards the
+Congaree.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing that his adversary intended to preserve the post at Ninety
+Six, where the royalists were numerous, and to establish one or two on
+the Congaree, where provisions were more plentiful than in any other
+part of the state, Greene determined to interrupt the execution of the
+plan which he believed to have been formed. Leaving his sick and
+baggage at Wynnsborough, to be conducted to Camden, he marched with
+the utmost expedition for Friday's ferry on the Congaree, at which
+place Lord Rawdon had arrived two days before him. As Greene drew near
+to his enemy, a detachment from the legion under the command of
+Captain Eggleston, announced his approach by attacking a foraging
+party within a mile of the British camp, and bringing off a troop
+consisting of forty-five men, with their officers and horses. Rawdon
+retreated the next day to Orangeburg, where he formed a junction with
+a detachment from Charleston, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Stuart.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">July 11.</div>
+
+<p>On the Congaree, Greene was reinforced by Sumpter and Marion with
+about one thousand men; and, on the 11th of July, marched towards
+Orangeburg with the intention of attacking the British army at that
+place. He arrived there the next day, but found it so strongly posted
+as to be unassailable. He offered battle, but prudence restrained him
+from attacking the enemy in his camp.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">July 13.</div>
+
+<p>At this place, intelligence was received of the evacuation of Ninety
+Six, and that Lieutenant Colonel Cruger was marching down to
+Orangeburg. The north branch of the Edisto, which, for thirty miles,
+was passable only at the place occupied by Rawdon, interposed an
+insuperable obstacle to any attempt on Cruger; and Greene thought it
+most adviseable to force the British out of the upper country by
+threatening their lower posts at Monk's corner and at Dorchester.
+Sumpter, Marion, and Lee, were detached on this service; and, on the
+same day, Greene moved towards the high hills of Santee, a healthy
+situation, where he purposed to give some refreshment and repose to
+his harassed army, and where he hoped to be joined by a few
+continental troops and militia from North Carolina.</p>
+
+<p>The detachments ordered against the posts in the north-eastern parts
+of the state, under the command of Sumpter, were not so completely
+successful as their numbers, courage, and enterprise deserved. The
+several corps took distinct routes, intending to fall on the different
+posts between Ashley and Cooper rivers, at the same time. That at
+Dorchester was broken up, on the approach of Lee, who captured horses,
+military stores, and baggage to a considerable amount, and obtained
+some trivial successes over the flying enemy. Lieutenant Colonel Wade
+Hampton, of the state cavalry, fell in with a body of mounted
+refugees, dispersed the whole, and made forty or fifty prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>Sumpter advanced against Monk's corner. This post was defended by
+Lieutenant Colonel Coates with the 19th British regiment, and a troop
+of horse. He had taken possession of a brick church at a bridge over
+Biggin creek, the most northern of the water courses which form the
+west branch of Cooper river. After passing Biggin, the road to
+Charleston crosses first Wattoo, and then Quinby creek; neither of
+which is passable except at the bridges over which the road leads, and
+at a ferry over Quinby.</p>
+
+<p>On the sixteenth, Sumpter approached Monk's corner, but, not supposing
+himself strong enough to hazard an attack until all his detachments
+should be collected, sent a party to seize the bridge over Wattoo, and
+either to hold or to destroy it. This party being attacked by a
+superior force, retired from the bridge without completing its
+destruction, and without informing Sumpter that his orders had not
+been fully executed.</p>
+
+<p>Marion had joined Sumpter. Lee arrived late in the evening, and the
+resolution was taken to attack Coates early next morning.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the night he set fire to the church, in order to
+destroy the stores which were collected in it, and commenced his march
+to Charleston, by the road east of Cooper. Having repaired the bridge
+over Wattoo, he met with no obstruction; and proceeded with his
+infantry on the road leading to Quinby bridge, directed his cavalry to
+take a road turning to the right, and crossing the creek at the ferry.</p>
+
+<p>About three next morning, the flames bursting through the roof of the
+church announced the retreat of the British; and the pursuit was
+immediately commenced. Sumpter was preceded by the legion, supported
+by the state cavalry. A detachment from this regiment followed the
+British horse, in the vain hope of overtaking the troop at the ferry,
+while Lee pursued the infantry. Within a short distance of the bridge,
+which is eighteen miles from Monk's corner, he perceived the rear
+guard of the British, consisting of about one hundred men, commanded
+by Captain Campbell, which the cavalry charged, sword in hand. They
+threw down their arms, and begged for quarter; upon which they were
+placed under the care of a few militia horsemen, and the American
+cavalry resumed the pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>They had not proceeded far, when Lee was called to the rear, by
+information that the prisoners had been ordered to resume their arms.
+At this critical moment, Armstrong, at the head of the leading
+section, came in sight of Coates, who having passed the bridge, and
+loosened the planks, lay, unapprehensive of danger, intending to
+destroy it as soon as his rear guard should cross the creek.
+Armstrong, in obedience to orders, given in the expectation that he
+would overtake Coates before passing the creek, dashed over the bridge
+on the guard stationed at the opposite end with a howitzer, which he
+seized. In this operation, his horses threw off some of the loosened
+planks, and made a chasm, over which the following section, led by
+Lieutenant Carrington, leaped with difficulty. In doing this some
+other planks were thrown off, and the horses of the third section
+refused to take the leap. At this time Lee came up, and every effort
+was made to replace the planks, but without success. The creek was too
+deep and miry to afford foot hold to those who attempted to raise them
+from the water.</p>
+
+<p>This halt revived the courage of the British soldiers, who returned to
+the support of their commander, then engaged in an equal conflict with
+the cavalry who had passed the bridge. These gallant men<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> finding
+themselves overpowered by numbers, and that their comrades could not
+support them, pressed over the causeway, and wheeling into the woods,
+made their escape.</p>
+
+<p>After finding the impracticability of replacing the planks on the
+bridge, in attempting which, Doctor Irvin, surgeon of the legion
+cavalry, and several of the troopers were wounded, Lee withdrew from
+the contest, and moved some distance up the creek, to a ford where he
+was soon joined by the infantry of the legion.</p>
+
+<p>Coates then completed the demolition of the bridge, and retired to an
+adjoining plantation, where he took possession of the dwelling house
+and out buildings that surrounded it.</p>
+
+<p>As the Americans were obliged to make a considerable circuit, Sumpter,
+who unfortunately left his artillery behind, did not arrive on the
+ground till three in the afternoon, and at four the house was
+attacked. The fire was kept up chiefly by Marion's division, from a
+fence near the house, till evening, when the ammunition was exhausted,
+and the troops were called off. In the course of the night, it was
+perceived that the loss had fallen almost entirely on Marion. Great
+discontent prevailed, and many of the men left him. The infection was
+communicated to Sumpter's troops, and there being reason to fear the
+approach of Lord Rawdon, the enterprise was abandoned. Sumpter crossed
+the Santee; and the legion rejoined the army, then encamped at the
+high hills of that river.</p>
+
+<p>The intense heat of this sultry season demanded some relaxation from
+the unremitting toils which the southern army had encountered. From
+the month of January, it had been engaged in one course of incessant
+fatigue, and of hardy enterprise. All its powers had been strained,
+nor had any interval been allowed to refresh and recruit the almost
+exhausted strength and spirits of the troops.</p>
+
+<p>The continued labours and exertions of all were highly meritorious;
+but the successful activity of one corps will attract particular
+attention. The legion, from its structure, was peculiarly adapted to
+the partisan war of the southern states; and, by being detached
+against the weaker posts of the enemy, had opportunities for
+displaying with advantage all the energies it possessed. In that
+extensive sweep which it made from the Santee to Augusta, which
+employed from the 15th of April to the 5th of June, this corps, acting
+in conjunction, first with Marion, afterwards with Pickens, and
+sometimes alone, had constituted an essential part of the force which
+carried five British posts, and made upwards of eleven hundred
+prisoners. Its leader, in the performance of these services, displayed
+a mind of so much fertility of invention and military resource, as to
+add greatly to his previous reputation as a partisan.</p>
+
+<p>The whole army had exhibited a degree of activity, courage, and
+patient suffering, surpassing any expectation that could have been
+formed of troops composed chiefly of new levies; and its general had
+manifested great firmness, enterprise, prudence, and skill.</p>
+
+<p>The suffering sustained in this ardent struggle for the southern
+states was not confined to the armies. The inhabitants of the country
+felt all the miseries which are inflicted by war in its most savage
+form. Being almost equally divided between the two contending parties,
+reciprocal injuries had gradually sharpened their resentments against
+each other, and had armed neighbour against neighbour, until it became
+a war of extermination. As the parties alternately triumphed,
+opportunities were alternately given for the exercise of their
+vindictive passions. They derived additional virulence from the
+examples occasionally afforded by the commanders of the British
+forces. After overrunning Georgia and South Carolina, they seem to
+have considered those states as completely reannexed to the British
+empire; and they manifested a disposition to treat those as rebels,
+who had once submitted and again taken up arms, although the temporary
+ascendency of the continental troops should have induced the measure.
+One of these executions, that of Colonel Hayne, took place on the
+third of August, while Lord Rawdon<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> was in Charleston, preparing to
+sail for Europe. The American army being at this time in possession of
+great part of the country, the punishment inflicted on this gentleman
+was taken up very seriously by General Greene, and was near producing
+a system of retaliation. The British officers, pursuing this policy,
+are stated to have executed several of the zealous partisans of the
+revolution who fell into their hands. These examples had
+unquestionably some influence in unbridling the revengeful passions of
+the royalists, and letting loose the spirit of slaughter which was
+brooding in their bosoms. The disposition to retaliate to the full
+extent of their power, if not to commit original injury, was equally
+strong in the opposite party. When fort Granby surrendered, the
+militia attached to the legion manifested so strong a disposition to
+break the capitulation, and to murder the most obnoxious among the
+prisoners who were inhabitants of the country, as to produce a solemn
+declaration from General Greene, that any man guilty of so atrocious
+an act should be executed. When fort Cornwallis surrendered, no
+exertions could have saved Colonel Brown, had he not been sent to
+Savannah protected by a guard of continental troops. Lieutenant
+Colonel Grierson, of the royal militia, was shot by unknown marksmen;
+and, although a reward of one hundred guineas was offered to any
+person who would inform against the perpetrator of the crime, he could
+never be discovered. &quot;The whole country,&quot; said General Greene in one
+of his letters, &quot;is one continued scene of blood and slaughter.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Greene was too humane, as well as too judicious, not to discourage
+this exterminating spirit. Perceiving in it the total destruction of
+the country, he sought to appease it by restraining the excesses of
+those who were attached to the American cause.</p>
+
+<p>At the high hills of Santee the reinforcements expected from North
+Carolina were received. The American army, counting every person
+belonging to it, was augmented to two thousand six hundred men; but
+its effective force did not exceed sixteen hundred.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Active movements of the two armies.</div>
+
+<p>After the retreat of General Greene from Orangeburg, Lord Rawdon was
+induced by ill health to avail himself of a permit to return to Great
+Britain, and the command of the British forces in South Carolina
+devolved on Lieutenant Colonel Stuart. He again advanced to the
+Congaree; and encamping near its junction with the Wateree, manifested
+a determination to establish a permanent post at that place. Though
+the two armies were within sixteen miles of each other on a right
+line, two rivers ran between them which could not be crossed without
+making a circuit of seventy miles; in consequence of which Lieutenant
+Colonel Stuart felt himself so secure, that his foraging parties were
+spread over the country. To restrain them, and to protect the
+inhabitants, General Greene detached Marion towards Combahee ferry,
+and Washington over the Wateree. Frequent skirmishes ensued, which,
+from the superior courage and activity of the American cavalry,
+uniformly terminated in their favour.</p>
+
+<p>Finding that Lieutenant Colonel Stuart designed to maintain his
+important position on the Congaree, Greene prepared to recommence
+active operations. Breaking up his camp at the high hills of Santee,
+he crossed the Wateree near Camden, and marched towards Friday's
+ferry.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">After a short repose, they resume active operations.</div>
+
+<p>On being informed of his approach, the British army retired to Eutaw,
+where it was reinforced by a detachment from Charleston. Greene
+followed by slow and easy marches, for the double purpose of
+preserving his soldiers from the effects of fatigue under a hot sun,
+and of giving Marion, who was returning from a critical expedition to
+the Edisto, time to rejoin him. In the afternoon of the seventh that
+officer arrived; and it was determined to attack the British camp next
+day.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">September 8.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Eutaw.</div>
+
+<p>At four in the morning of the eighth, the American army moved from its
+ground, which was seven miles from Eutaw, in the following order: The
+legion of Lee and the state troops of South Carolina formed the
+advance. The militia moved next, and were followed by the regulars.
+The cavalry of Washington and the infantry of Kirkwood brought up the
+rear. The artillery moved between the columns.</p>
+
+<p>At eight in the morning, about four miles from the British camp, the
+van fell in with a body of horse and foot, who were escorting an
+unarmed foraging party, and a brisk action ensued. The British were
+instantly routed. The cavalry made their escape at the sight of the
+legion dragoons, and the infantry were killed or taken. About forty,
+including their captain, were made prisoners. The foraging party which
+followed in the rear saved themselves by flight, on hearing the first
+musket. Supposing this party to be the van of the English, Greene
+arranged his army in order of battle.</p>
+
+<p>The militia, commanded by Generals Marion and Pickens, composed the
+first line. The second was formed of the continental infantry. The
+North Carolina brigade, commanded by General Sumner, was placed on the
+right; the Virginians, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Campbell,
+formed the centre; and the Marylanders, commanded by Colonel Williams,
+the left. The legion of Lee was to cover the right flank; the state
+troops of South Carolina, commanded by Colonel Henderson, the left;
+and the cavalry of Washington, with the infantry of Kirkwood, formed
+the reserve. Captain Lieutenant Gaines, with two three-pounders, was
+attached to the first line; and Captain Brown, with two sixes, to the
+second.</p>
+
+<p>The British line also was immediately formed. It was drawn up across
+the road, in an oblique direction, in a wood, on the heights near the
+Eutaw springs, having its right flank on Eutaw creek. This flank was
+also covered by a battalion commanded by Major Majoribanks, which was
+posted in a thicket, in a line forming an obtuse angle with the main
+body. The left flank was protected by the cavalry commanded by Major
+Coffin, and by a body of infantry held in reserve. A detachment of
+infantry was pushed forward about a mile, with a field piece to employ
+the Americans until his arrangements should be completed.</p>
+
+<p>The American van continuing to move forward, encountered the British
+advanced party; upon which Captain Lieutenant Gaines came up with his
+field pieces, which opened on the enemy with considerable effect.
+General Greene also ordered up his first line with directions to move
+on briskly, and to advance as they fired. As this line came into
+action, the legion formed on its right flank, and the state troops of
+South Carolina on its left.</p>
+
+<p>The British advanced party was soon driven in; and the Americans,
+continuing to press forward, were engaged with the main body.
+Lieutenant Colonel Stuart, perceiving the materials of which this line
+was composed, and probably anticipating its speedy discomfiture, to
+avoid exposing his flanks to the American cavalry, had directed his
+troops not to change their position. His design was to meet the
+American regulars without any alteration of the arrangement originally
+made. But the militia, many of whom had frequently faced an enemy,
+being commanded by generals of experience and courage, exhibited a
+degree of firmness not common to that species of force, and maintained
+their ground with unexpected obstinacy. In the ardour of action, the
+order not to advance was disregarded, and the British pressed forward
+as the militia retired. The artillery which was placed in the road was
+well served on both sides, and did great execution till both the
+three-pounders commanded by Captain Lieutenant Gaines were dismounted.
+About the same time, one of the British shared the same fate.</p>
+
+<p>When the militia gave way, Lee and Henderson still maintained the
+engagement on the flanks, General Sumner was ordered up to fill the
+place from which Marion and Pickens were receding; and his brigade,
+ranging itself with the legion infantry, and the state regiment of
+South Carolina, came into action with great intrepidity. The British,
+who had advanced upon the militia, fell back to their first ground,
+upon which Stuart ordered the corps of infantry posted in the rear of
+his left wing into the line, and directed Major Coffin with his
+cavalry to guard that flank. About this time Henderson received a
+wound which disabled him from keeping the field, and the command of
+his corps devolved on Lieutenant Colonel Hampton.</p>
+
+<p>After sustaining the fire of the enemy with considerable resolution,
+Sumner's brigade began to give way, and the British rushed forward in
+some disorder. Greene then directed Williams and Campbell to charge
+with the bayonet, and at the same time ordered Washington to bring up
+the reserve, and to act on his left. Williams charged without firing a
+musket; but the soldiers of Campbell's regiment, being chiefly new
+levies, returned the fire of the enemy as they advanced. In this
+critical moment, Lee, perceiving that the American right extended
+beyond the British left, ordered Captain Rudolph, of the legion
+infantry, to turn their flank and give them a raking fire. This order
+was instantly executed with precision and effect. Charged thus both in
+front and flank, 'the British broke successively on the left, till the
+example was followed by all that part of the line. The Marylanders
+under Williams, had already used the bayonet, and before the troops
+opposed to them gave way, several had fallen on both sides, transfixed
+with that weapon.</p>
+
+<p>The British left, when driven off the field, retreated through their
+encampment towards Eutaw creek, near which stood a three story brick
+house, surrounded with offices, and connected with a strongly enclosed
+garden, into which Major Sheridan, in pursuance of orders previously
+given by Lieutenant Colonel Stuart, threw himself with the New York
+volunteers. The Americans pursued them closely, and took three hundred
+prisoners and two pieces of cannon. Unfortunately for their hopes of
+victory, the refreshments found in camp furnished a temptation too
+strong to be resisted; and many of the soldiers left their ranks, and,
+under cover of the tents, seized the spirits and food within their
+view. The legion infantry, however, pressed the rear so closely as to
+make a serious struggle to enter the house with the British. The door
+was forcibly shut in their faces, and several British officers and men
+were excluded. These were made prisoners, and mixed with the
+Americans, so as to save them from the fire of the house while
+retiring from it.</p>
+
+<p>As the British left gave way, Washington was directed to charge their
+right. He advanced with his accustomed impetuosity, but found it
+impossible, with cavalry, to penetrate the thicket occupied by
+Majoribanks. Perceiving an interval between the British right and the
+creek, he determined to pass through it round their flank and to
+charge them in the rear. In making the attempt, he received a fire
+which did immense execution. The British occupied a thicket almost
+impervious to horse. In attempting to force it, Lieutenant Stuart who
+commanded the leading section was badly wounded, his horse killed
+under him, and every man in his section killed or wounded. Captain
+Watts, the second in command, fell pierced with two balls. Colonel
+Washington was wounded, and his horse was killed. They fell together;
+and, before he could extricate himself, he was made a prisoner.</p>
+
+<p>After nearly all the officers, and a large portion of the men were
+killed or wounded, the residue of the corps was drawn off by Captain
+Parsons, assisted by Lieutenant Gordon. Soon after the repulse of
+Washington, Lieutenant Colonel Hampton and Captain Kirkwood with his
+infantry, came up and renewed the attack on Majoribanks. Great efforts
+were made to dislodge him, but they were ineffectual. Finding it
+impracticable to employ horse to advantage on that ground, Hampton
+drew off his troops and retired to the road.</p>
+
+<p>The corps commanded by Sheridan kept up a continual and destructive
+fire from the house in which they had taken shelter; and Greene
+ordered up the artillery to batter it. The guns were too light to make
+a breach in the walls, and, having been brought within the range of
+the fire from the house, almost every artillerist was killed, and the
+pieces were abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>The firm stand made by Majoribanks, and the disorder which had taken
+place among a part of the Americans, gave Stuart an opportunity of
+rallying his broken regiments, and bringing them again into action.
+They were formed between the thicket occupied by Majoribanks, and the
+house in possession of Sheridan.</p>
+
+<p>Major Coffin, who had repulsed the legion cavalry about the time the
+British infantry was driven off the field, still maintained a
+formidable position on their left; and no exertions could dislodge
+Majoribanks or Sheridan from the cover under which they fought.
+Perceiving that the contest was maintained on ground, and under
+circumstances extremely disadvantageous to the Americans, Greene
+withdrew them a small distance, and formed them again in the wood in
+which the battle had been fought. Thinking it unadviseable to renew
+the desperate attempt which had just failed, he collected his wounded,
+and retired with his prisoners to the ground from which he had marched
+in the morning, determined again to fight the British army when it
+should retreat from the Eutaws.</p>
+
+<p>Every corps engaged in this hard fought battle received the applause
+of the general. Almost every officer whose situation enabled him to
+attract notice was named with distinction. &quot;Never,&quot; he said, &quot;was
+artillery better served;&quot; but, &quot;he thought himself principally
+indebted for the victory he had gained, to the free use made of the
+bayonet by the Virginians and Marylanders, and by the infantry of the
+legion and of Kirkwood.&quot; To Colonel Williams he acknowledged himself
+to be particularly indebted. He gave that praise too to the valour of
+his enemy which it merited. &quot;They really fought,&quot; he said, &quot;with
+courage worthy a better cause.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The loss on both sides bore a great proportion to the numbers engaged.
+That of the Americans was five hundred and fifty-five, including sixty
+officers. One hundred and thirty were killed on the spot. Seventeen
+commissioned officers were killed, and four mortally wounded. &quot;This
+loss of officers,&quot; said their general, &quot;is still more heavy on account
+of their value than their numbers.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Among the slain was Lieutenant Colonel Campbell, who received a mortal
+wound while leading the Virginia brigade to that bold and decisive
+charge which broke the adverse line.</p>
+
+<p>The loss of the British army was stated by themselves at six hundred
+and ninety-three men, of whom only eighty-five were killed in the
+field. If this statement be correct,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> the American dead greatly
+exceeded that of the adversary, which was probably the fact, as the
+carnage of the former, during their unavailing efforts to dislodge the
+latter from the house and strong adjoining ground, was immense.</p>
+
+<p>Each party had pretensions to the victory, and each claimed the merit
+of having gained it with inferior numbers. The truth probably is that
+their numbers were nearly equal.</p>
+
+<p>Nor can the claim of either to the victory be pronounced unequivocal.
+Unconnected with its consequences, the fortune of the day was nearly
+balanced. But if the consequences be taken into the account, the
+victory unquestionably belonged to Greene. The result of this, as of
+the two preceding battles fought by him in the Carolinas, was the
+expulsion of the hostile army from the territory which was the
+immediate object of contest.</p>
+
+<p>Four six-pounders, two of which had been taken in the early part of
+the day, were brought to play upon the house, and, being pushed so
+near as to be within the command of its fire, were unavoidably
+abandoned; but a three-pounder which had been also taken, was brought
+off by Captain Lieutenant Gaines, whose conduct was mentioned with
+distinction by General Greene. Thus the trophies of victory were
+divided.</p>
+
+<p>The thanks of congress were voted to every corps in the army; and a
+resolution was passed for &quot;presenting to Major General Greene, as an
+honourable testimony of his merit, a British standard, and a golden
+medal, emblematic of the battle and of his victory.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">September 9.</div>
+
+<p>On the day succeeding the action, Lieutenant Colonel Stuart marched
+from Eutaw to meet Major M'Arthur, who was conducting a body of troops
+from Charleston. The junction was effected about fourteen miles from
+Eutaw; and this movement saved M'Arthur from Marion and Lee, who had
+been detached on the morning of the same day to intercept any
+reinforcement which might be coming from below. Stuart continued his
+retreat to Monk's corner, to which place he was followed by Greene,
+who, on finding that the numbers and position of the British army were
+such as to render an attack unadviseable, returned to the high hills
+of Santee.</p>
+
+<p>The ravages of disease were added to the loss sustained in battle, and
+the army remained for some time in too feeble a condition for active
+enterprise.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">Nov. 18.</div>
+
+<p>The capitulation at Yorktown was soon followed by the evacuation of
+Wilmington, in North Carolina, and the British seemed to limit their
+views in the south to the country adjacent to the sea coast. As the
+cool season approached, the diseases of the American army abated; and
+Greene, desirous of partaking in the abundance of the lower country,
+marched from the high hills of Santee towards the Four Holes, a branch
+of the Edisto. <span class="sidenoteb">Nov. 28.</span>Leaving the army to be conducted by Colonel Williams,
+he proceeded in person at the head of his cavalry, supported by about
+two hundred infantry, towards the British posts at Dorchester, where
+six hundred and fifty regular troops and two hundred royal militia
+were understood to be stationed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The British army retires towards Charleston.</div>
+
+<p>Though his march was conducted with the utmost secrecy, the country
+through which he passed contained so many disaffected, that it was
+impossible to conceal this movement; and intelligence of his approach
+was communicated to the officer commanding in Dorchester, the night
+before he reached that place. The advance, commanded by Lieutenant
+Colonel Hampton, met a small party, which he instantly charged, and,
+after killing and taking several, drove the residue over the bridge
+under cover of their works. In the course of the following night, the
+stores at Dorchester were burnt, and the garrison retired to the
+Quarter House, where their principal force was encamped. Greene
+returned to the army at the Round O, at which place he purposed to
+await the arrival of the reinforcements marching from the north under
+the command of General St. Clair. In the mean time, General Marion and
+Lieutenant Colonel Lee were stationed on each side of Ashley, so as to
+cover the country between the Cooper and the Edisto; thus confining
+the influence of the British arms to Charleston neck, and the adjacent
+islands.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>While in his camp at the Round O, General Greene was informed that
+large reinforcements from Ireland and from New York were expected by
+the army in Charleston. This intelligence excited the more alarm,
+because the term of service for which the levies from Virginia were
+engaged was about expiring, and no adequate measures had been taken
+for supplying their places. It proved untrue; but such was its
+impression, that the general addressed a letter to the governors of
+South Carolina, in which, after taking a serious view of the state of
+his army, he recommended that it should be recruited from the slaves.
+The governor thought the proposition of sufficient importance to be
+laid before the legislature, which was soon afterwards convened; but
+the measure was not adopted.</p>
+
+<p>On the fourth of January, General St. Clair, who conducted the
+reinforcement from the north, arrived in camp, and, five days
+afterward, General Wayne,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> with his brigade, and the remnant of the
+third regiment of dragoons, commanded by Colonel White, was detached
+over the Savannah for the recovery of Georgia.</p>
+
+<p>General Greene crossed the Edisto and took post six miles in advance
+of Jacksonborough, on the road leading to Charleston, for the purpose
+of covering the state legislature, which assembled at that place on
+the eighteenth. Thus was civil government re-established in South
+Carolina, and that state restored to the union.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to review this active and interesting campaign
+without feeling that much is due to General Greene; and that he amply
+justified the favourable opinion of the Commander-in-chief. He found
+the country completely conquered, and defended by a regular army
+estimated at four thousand men. The inhabitants were so divided, as to
+leave it doubtful to which side the majority was attached. At no time
+did the effective continental force which he could bring into the
+field, amount to two thousand men; and of these a considerable part
+were raw troops. Yet he could keep the field without being forced into
+action; and by a course of judicious movement, and of hardy
+enterprise, in which invincible constancy was displayed, and in which
+courage was happily tempered with prudence, he recovered the southern
+states. It is a singular fact, well worthy of notice, which marks
+impressively the soundness of his judgment, that although he never
+gained a decisive victory, he obtained, to a considerable extent, even
+when defeated, the object for which he fought.</p>
+
+<p>A just portion of the praise deserved by these achievements, is
+unquestionably due to the troops he commanded. These real patriots
+bore every hardship and privation<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> with a degree of patience and
+constancy which can not be sufficiently admired. And never was a
+general better supported by his inferior officers. Not shackled by men
+who, without merit, held stations of high rank obtained by political
+influence, he commanded young men of equal spirit and intelligence,
+formed under the eye of Washington, and trained in the school
+furnished in the severe service of the north, to all the hardships and
+dangers of war.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar importance was given to these successes in the south by the
+opinion that a pacific temper was finding its way into the cabinets of
+the belligerent powers of Europe. The communications from the court of
+Versailles rendered it probable that negotiations for peace would take
+place in the course of the ensuing winter; and dark hints had been
+given on the part of Great Britain to the minister of his most
+Christian Majesty, that all the American states could not reasonably
+expect to become independent, as several of them were subdued.
+Referring to the precedent of the low countries, it was observed that
+of the seventeen provinces originally united against the Spanish
+crown, only seven obtained their independence.</p>
+
+<p>Additional motives for exertion were furnished by other communications
+from the French monarch. These were that, after the present campaign,
+no farther pecuniary or military aids were to be expected from France.
+The situation of affairs in Europe would, it was said, demand all the
+exertions which that nation was capable of making; and the forces of
+his most Christian Majesty might render as much real service to the
+common cause elsewhere as in America.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Preparations for another campaign.... Proceedings in the
+Parliament of Great Britain.... Conciliatory conduct of
+General Carleton.... Transactions in the south....
+Negotiations for peace.... Preliminary and eventual articles
+agreed upon between the United States and Great Britain....
+Discontents of the American army.... Peace.... Mutiny of a
+part of the Pennsylvania line.... Evacuation of New York....
+General Washington resigns his commission and retires to
+Mount Vernon.</b></p></div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1782</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Preparations for another campaign.</div>
+
+<p><span class="lgsmcap">The</span> splendid success of the allied arms in Virginia, and the great
+advantages obtained still farther south, produced no disposition in
+General Washington to relax those exertions which might be necessary
+to secure the great object of the contest. &quot;I shall attempt to
+stimulate congress,&quot; said he, in a letter to General Greene written at
+Mount Vernon, &quot;to the best improvement of our late success, by taking
+the most vigorous and effectual measures to be ready for an early and
+decisive campaign the next year. My greatest fear is, that viewing
+this stroke in a point of light which may too much magnify its
+importance, they may think our work too nearly closed, and fall into a
+state of languor and relaxation. To prevent this error, I shall employ
+every means in my power, and, if unhappily we sink into this fatal
+mistake, no part of the blame shall be mine.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On the 27th of November he reached Philadelphia, and congress passed a
+resolution granting him an audience on the succeeding day. On his
+appearance the President addressed him in a short speech, informing
+him that a committee was appointed to state the requisitions to be
+made for the proper establishment of the army, and expressing the
+expectation that he would remain in Philadelphia, in order to aid the
+consultations on that important subject.</p>
+
+<p>The secretary of war, the financier, and the secretary of foreign
+affairs, assisted at these deliberations; and the business was
+concluded with unusual celerity.</p>
+
+<p>A revenue was scarcely less necessary than an army; and it was obvious
+that the means for carrying on the war must be obtained, either by
+impressment, or by a vigorous course of taxation. But both these
+alternatives depended on the states; and the government of the union
+resorted to the influence of the Commander-in-chief in aid of its
+requisitions.</p>
+
+<p>But no exertions on the part of America alone could expel the invading
+army. A superiority at sea was indispensable to the success of
+offensive operations against the posts which the British still held
+within the United States. To obtain this superiority, General
+Washington pressed its importance on the minister of France and
+commanding officers of the French troops, as well as on the Marquis de
+Lafayette, who was about to return to his native country.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Proceedings in the British parliament.</div>
+
+<p>The first intelligence from Europe was far from being calculated to
+diminish the anxieties still felt in America by the enlightened
+friends of the revolution. The parliament of Great Britain reassembled
+in November. The speech from the throne breathed a settled purpose to
+continue the war; and the addresses from both houses, which were
+carried by large majorities, echoed the sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the animated debates which these addresses
+occasioned, an intention was indeed avowed by some members of the
+administration to change their system. The plan indicated for the
+future was to direct the whole force of the nation against France and
+Spain; and to suspend offensive operations in the interior of the
+United States, until the strength of those powers should be broken. In
+the mean time, the posts then occupied by their troops were to be
+maintained.</p>
+
+<p>This development of the views of administration furnished additional
+motives to the American government for exerting all the faculties of
+the nation, to expel the British garrisons from New York and
+Charleston. The efforts of the Commander-in-chief to produce these
+exertions were earnest and unremitting, but not successful. The state
+legislatures declared the inability of their constituents to pay
+taxes. Instead of filling the continental treasury, some were devising
+means to draw money from it; and some of those who passed bills
+imposing heavy taxes, directed that the demands of the state should be
+first satisfied, and that the residue only should be paid to the
+continental receiver. By the unwearied attention and judicious
+arrangements of the minister of finance, the expenses of the nation
+had been greatly reduced. The bank established in Philadelphia, and
+his own high character, had enabled him to support in some degree a
+system of credit, the advantages of which were incalculably great.</p>
+
+<p>He had through the Chevalier de la Luzerne obtained permission from
+his most Christian Majesty to draw for half a million of livres
+monthly, until six millions should be received. To prevent the
+diversion of any part of this sum from the most essential objects, he
+had concealed the negotiation even from congress, and had communicated
+it only to the Commander-in-chief; yet, after receiving the first
+instalment, it was discovered that Doctor Franklin had anticipated the
+residue of the loan, and had appropriated it to the purposes of the
+United States. At the commencement of the year 1782, not a dollar
+remained in the treasury; and, although congress had required the
+payment of two millions on the 1st of April, not a cent had been
+received on the twenty-third of that month; and, so late as the 1st of
+June, not more than twenty thousand dollars had reached the treasury.
+Yet to the financier every eye was turned; to him the empty hand of
+every public creditor was stretched forth; and against him, instead of
+the state governments, the complaints and imprecations of every
+unsatisfied claimant were directed. In July, when the second quarter
+annual payment of taxes ought to have been received, the minister of
+finance was informed by some of his agents, that the collection of the
+revenue had been postponed in some of the states, in consequence of
+which the month of December would arrive before any money could come
+into the hands of the continental receivers. In a letter communicating
+this unpleasant intelligence to the Commander-in-chief, he added,
+&quot;with such gloomy prospects as this letter affords, I am tied here to
+be baited by continual clamorous demands; and for the forfeiture of
+all that is valuable in life, and which I hoped at this moment to
+enjoy, I am to be paid by invective. Scarce a day passes in which I am
+not tempted to give back into the hands of congress the power they
+have delegated, and to lay down a burden which presses me to the
+earth. Nothing prevents me but a knowledge of the difficulties I am
+obliged to struggle under. What may be the success of my efforts God
+only knows; but to leave my post at present, would, I know, be
+ruinous. This candid state of my situation and feelings I give to your
+bosom, because you who have already felt and suffered so much, will be
+able to sympathize with me.&quot;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a name="image02">
+<img src="images/052.jpg" width="582" height="341" alt="Livingston Manor" /></a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>Livingston Manor, Dobbs Ferry, New York</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><i>A monument erected by the Sons of the Revolution on the lawn of this
+historic mansion, overlooking the Hudson River, states that here, on
+July 6, 1781, the French allies under Rochambeau joined the American
+Army. Here also, on August 14, 1781, Washington planned the Yorktown
+campaign which brought to a triumphant end the War for American
+Independence; and here, on May 6, 1783, Washington and Sir Guy
+Carleton arranged for the evacuation of American soil by the British.
+A concluding paragraph reads: &quot;And opposite this point, May 8, 1783, a
+British sloop of war fired 17 guns in honor of the American
+Commander-in-Chief, the first salute by Great Britain to the United
+States of America.&quot;</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately for the United States, the temper of the British nation on
+the subject of continuing the war did not accord with that of its
+sovereign. That war, into which the people had entered with at least
+as much eagerness as the minister, had become almost universally
+unpopular.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">February 27.</div>
+
+<p>Motions against the measures of administration respecting America were
+repeated by the opposition; and, on every experiment, the strength of
+the minority increased. At length, on the 27th of February, General
+Conway moved in the house of commons, &quot;that it is the opinion of this
+house that a farther prosecution of offensive war against America
+would, under present circumstances, be the means of weakening the
+efforts of this country against her European enemies, and tend to
+increase the mutual enmity so fatal to the interests both of Great
+Britain and America.&quot; The whole force of administration was exerted to
+get rid of this resolution, but was exerted in vain; and it was
+carried. An address to the king, in the words of the resolution, was
+immediately voted, and was presented by the whole house. <span class="sidenoteb">March 4.</span>The answer of
+the crown being deemed inexplicit, it was on the 4th of March
+resolved, &quot;that the house will consider as enemies to his majesty and
+the country, all those who should advise, or attempt a farther
+prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North America.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>These votes were soon followed by a change of ministers, and by
+instructions to the officers commanding the forces in America, which
+conformed to them.</p>
+
+<p>While General Washington was employed in addressing circular letters
+to the state governments, suggesting all those motives which might
+stimulate them to exertions better proportioned to the exigency,
+English papers containing the debates in parliament on the various
+propositions respecting America, reached the United States. Alarmed at
+the impression these debates might make, he introduced the opinions it
+was deemed prudent to inculcate respecting them, into the letters he
+was then about to transmit to the governors of the several states. &quot;I
+have perused these debates,&quot; he said, &quot;with great attention and care,
+with a view, if possible, to penetrate their real design; and upon the
+most mature deliberation I can bestow, I am obliged to declare it as
+my candid opinion, that the measure, in all its views, so far as it
+respects America, is merely delusory, having no serious intention to
+admit our independence upon its true principles, but is calculated to
+produce a change of ministers to quiet the minds of their own people,
+and reconcile them to a continuance of the war, while it is meant to
+amuse this country with a false idea of peace, to draw us from our
+connexion with France, and to lull us into a state of security and
+inactivity, which taking place, the ministry will be left to prosecute
+the war in other parts of the world with greater vigour and effect.
+Your excellency will permit me on this occasion to observe, that, even
+if the nation and parliament are really in earnest to obtain peace
+with America, it will undoubtedly be wisdom in us to meet them with
+great caution and circumspection, and by all means to keep our arms
+firm in our hands, and instead of relaxing one iota in our exertions,
+rather to spring forward with redoubled vigour, that we may take the
+advantage of every favourable opportunity, until our wishes are fully
+obtained. No nation yet suffered in treaty by preparing (even in the
+moment of negotiation) most vigorously for the field.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The industry which the enemy is using to propagate their pacific
+reports, appears to me a circumstance very suspicious; and the
+eagerness with which the people, as I am informed, are catching at
+them, is, in my opinion, equally dangerous.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">May.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conciliatory conduct of General Carleton.</div>
+
+<p>Early in May, Sir Guy Carleton, who had succeeded Sir Henry Clinton in
+the command of all the British forces in the United States, arrived at
+New York. Having been also appointed in conjunction with Admiral
+Digby, a commissioner to negotiate a peace, he lost no time in
+conveying to General Washington copies of the votes of the British
+Parliament, and of a bill which had been introduced on the part of
+administration, authorizing his Majesty to conclude a peace or truce
+with those who were still denominated &quot;the revolted colonies of North
+America.&quot; These papers, he said, would manifest the dispositions
+prevailing with the government and people of England towards those of
+America; and, if the like pacific temper should prevail in this
+country, both inclination and duty would lead him to meet it with the
+most zealous concurrence. He had addressed to congress, he said, a
+letter containing the same communications, and he solicited a passport
+for the person who should convey it.</p>
+
+<p>At this time, the bill enabling the British monarch to conclude a
+peace or truce with America had not become a law; nor was any
+assurance given that the present commissioners were empowered to offer
+other terms than those which had been formerly rejected. General
+Carleton therefore could not hope that negotiations would commence on
+such a basis; nor be disappointed at the refusal of the passports he
+requested by congress, to whom the application was, of course,
+referred. The letter may have been written for the general purpose of
+conciliation, and of producing a disposition in the United States on
+the subject of hostilities, corresponding with that which had been
+expressed in the House of Commons. But the situation of the United
+States justified a suspicion of different motives; and prudence
+required that their conduct should be influenced by that suspicion.
+The repugnance of the king to a dismemberment of the empire was
+understood; and it was thought probable that the sentiments expressed
+in the House of Commons might be attributable rather to a desire of
+changing ministers, than to any fixed determination to relinquish the
+design of reannexing America to the crown.</p>
+
+<p>Under these impressions, the overtures now made were considered as
+opiates, administered to lull the spirit of vigilance which the
+guardians of the public safety laboured to keep up, into a state of
+fatal repose; and to prevent those measures of security which it might
+yet be necessary to adopt.</p>
+
+<p>This jealousy was nourished by all the intelligence received from
+Europe. The utmost address of the British cabinet had been employed to
+detach the belligerents from each other. The mediation of Russia had
+been accepted to procure a separate peace with Holland; propositions
+had been submitted both to France and Spain, tending to an
+accommodation of differences with each of those powers singly; and
+inquiries had been made of Mr. Adams, the American minister at the
+Hague, which seemed to contemplate the same object with regard to the
+United States. These political manoeuvres furnished additional motives
+for doubting the sincerity of the English cabinet. Whatever views
+might actuate the court of St. James on this subject, the resolution
+of the American government to make no separate treaty was
+unalterable.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the public votes which have been stated, and probably his private
+instructions, restrained Sir Guy Carleton from offensive war; and the
+state of the American army disabled General Washington from making any
+attempt on the posts in possession of the British. The campaign of
+1782 consequently passed away without furnishing any military
+operations of moment between the armies under the immediate direction
+of the respective commanders-in-chief.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">August.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Negotiations for peace.</div>
+
+<p>Early in August a letter was received by General Washington from Sir
+Guy Carleton and Admiral Digby, which, among other communications
+manifesting a pacific disposition on the part of England, contained
+the information that Mr. Grenville was at Paris, invested with full
+powers to treat with all the parties at war, that negotiations for a
+general peace were already commenced, and that his Majesty had
+commanded his minister to direct Mr. Grenville, that the independence
+of the thirteen provinces should be proposed by him in the first
+instance, instead of being made a condition of a general treaty. But
+that this proposition would be made in the confidence that the
+loyalists would be restored to their possessions, or a full
+compensation made them for whatever confiscations might have taken
+place.</p>
+
+<p>This letter was, not long afterwards, followed by one from Sir Guy
+Carleton, declaring that he could discern no further object of
+contest, and that he disapproved of all farther hostilities by sea or
+land, which could only multiply the miseries of individuals, without a
+possible advantage to either nation. In pursuance of this opinion, he
+had, soon after his arrival in New York, restrained the practice of
+detaching parties of Indians against the frontiers of the United
+States, and had recalled those which were previously engaged in those
+bloody incursions.</p>
+
+<p>These communications appear to have alarmed the jealousy of the
+minister of France. To quiet his fears, congress renewed the
+resolution &quot;to enter into no discussion of any overtures for
+pacification, but in confidence and in concert with his most Christian
+Majesty;&quot;<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> and again recommend to the several states to adopt such
+measures as would most effectually guard against all intercourse with
+any subjects of the British crown during the war.</p>
+
+<p>The same causes which produced this inactivity in the north, operated
+to a considerable extent with the armies of the south.</p>
+
+<p>When General Wayne entered Georgia, the British troops in that state
+retired to the town of Savannah; and the Americans advanced to
+Ebenezer. Though inferior to their enemy in numbers, they interrupted
+his communications with the country, and even burned some magazines
+which had been collected and deposited under the protection of his
+guns.</p>
+
+<p>Not receiving the aids from the militia which he had expected, Wayne
+pressed Greene for reinforcements, which that officer was unable to
+furnish, until Lieutenant Colonel Posey arrived from Virginia with
+about two hundred men. He proceeded immediately to Georgia, and
+reached the camp at Ebenezer on the 1st of April.</p>
+
+<p>These troops, though new levies, were veteran soldiers, who, having
+served the times for which they enlisted, had become the substitutes
+of men who were designated, by lot, for tours of duty they were
+unwilling to perform. Being commanded by old officers of approved
+courage and experience, the utmost confidence was to be placed in
+them; and Wayne, though still inferior to his enemy in numbers, sought
+for opportunities to employ them.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians, who occupied the southern and western parts of Georgia,
+were in the habit of assembling annually at Augusta, for the purpose
+of receiving those presents which were indispensable to the
+preservation of British influence over them. The usual time for
+holding these meetings was arrived; but the Americans being in
+possession of Augusta, it was necessary to transfer them to a British
+post, and the Indians were invited to keep down the south side of the
+Altamaha to its mouth, whence they were to be conveyed through the
+inland passage to Savannah. Arrangements had been made for bringing a
+strong party of Creeks and Choctaws, assembled on the south side of
+Altamaha, to Harris's bridge, on the Ogechee, about seven miles from
+that town, and Colonel Brown marched at the head of a strong
+detachment to convoy them into it. The Indians having quarrelled,
+instead of proceeding to Ogechee, returned home, and Brown marched
+back his detachment.</p>
+
+<p>Wayne received intelligence of this movement; and, determining to
+avail himself of the opportunity given by this division of his enemy
+to fight him in detail, immediately put his army in motion. He was
+soon informed that Brown was on his return, and would reach Savannah
+that night. Disregarding the danger of throwing himself with inferior
+numbers between the two divisions of the British army, he determined
+on hazarding an action, and his advance, consisting of a troop of
+Virginia cavalry, commanded by Captain Hughes and Lieutenant Boyer,
+and a light company of Virginia infantry, commanded by Captain Parker,
+entered the road along which Brown was marching about twelve at night,
+just as his front appeared in view. A vigorous charge was instantly
+made, which, being entirely unexpected, was completely successful. The
+British, struck with a panic, dispersed among the thickets and fled in
+all directions. Colonel Douglass and about forty men were killed,
+wounded, or taken. The American loss was five men killed and two
+wounded. The next day, after parading in view of Savannah, Wayne
+resumed his position at Ebenezer.</p>
+
+<p>The resolution of Parliament against the farther prosecution of active
+war in America was followed by instructions to the officers commanding
+the armies of Britain, in consequence of which propositions for the
+suspension of hostilities were made in the southern department, about
+the time that they were rejected in the north. The same motives
+continuing to influence congress, they were rejected in the south
+also, and the armies still continued to watch each other with
+vigilance. To avoid surprise, Wayne frequently changed his ground, and
+was continually on the alert. While his whole attention was directed
+towards Savannah, an enemy entirely unlooked for came upon his rear,
+entered his camp in the night, and, had not his army been composed of
+the best materials, must have dispersed it.</p>
+
+<p>A strong party of Creeks, led by a gallant warrior, Emistasigo, or
+Guristersego, instead of moving down on the south side of the
+Altamaha, passed through the centre of Georgia with the determination
+of engaging the American posts. Marching entirely in the night,
+through unfrequented ways, subsisting on meal made of parched corn,
+and guided by white men, they reached the neighbourhood of the
+American army then encamped at Gibbon's plantation, near Savannah,
+without being perceived, and made arrangements to attack it. In the
+night they emerged from the deep swamp in which they had been
+concealed, and, approaching the rear of the American camp with the
+utmost secrecy, reached it about three in the morning. The sentinel
+was killed before he could sound the alarm, and the first notice was
+given by the fire and the yell of the enemy. The Indians rushed into
+the camp, and, killing the few men they fell in with, seized the
+artillery. Fortunately some time was wasted in the attempt to turn the
+pieces on the Americans. Captain Parker, who commanded the light
+company, had been employed on a very fatiguing tour of duty near
+Savannah, and had returned that evening to camp. To allow his harassed
+soldiers some repose, he was placed in the rear near the artillery,
+and was asleep when the Indians entered the camp. Roused by the fire,
+and perceiving that the enemy was amidst them, he judiciously drew off
+his men in silence, and formed them with the quarter guard behind the
+house in which the general was quartered. Wayne was instantly on
+horseback, and, believing the whole garrison from Savannah to be upon
+him, determined to repulse the enemy or die in the attempt. Parker was
+directed to charge immediately with the bayonet, and orders were
+despatched to Posey, the commanding officer in camp, to bring up the
+troops without delay. The orders to Parker were so promptly executed,
+that Posey, although he moved with the utmost celerity, could not
+reach the scene of action in time to join in it. The light troops and
+quarter guard under Parker drove every thing before them at the point
+of the bayonet. The Indians, unable to resist the bayonet, soon fled,
+leaving their chief, his white guides, and seventeen of his warriors
+dead upon the spot. Wayne, who accompanied his light troops, now first
+discovered the character of his enemy, and adapted his pursuit to it.
+Yet only twelve prisoners were made. The general's horse was shot
+under him, and twelve privates were killed and wounded.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>This sharp conflict terminated the war in Georgia. Information was
+soon given of the determination to withdraw the British troops from
+Savannah; and arrangements being made, with the sanction of the civil
+government, for the security of such individuals as might remain in
+town, the place was evacuated. The regular troops retired to
+Charleston, and Colonel Brown conducted his loyalists through the
+islands into Florida. Wayne was directed to rejoin General Greene.</p>
+
+<p>In South Carolina the American army maintained its position in front
+of Jacksonborough, and that of the British was confined to Charleston
+and its immediate vicinity. The situation of the ground as well as the
+condition of his army, was unfavourable to offensive operations on the
+part of General Greene; and General Leslie, who commanded in
+Charleston, was not strong enough to attempt the recovery of the lower
+country. While the two armies continued to watch each other,
+occasional enterprises were undertaken by detachments, in some of
+which a considerable degree of merit was displayed. In one of them,
+the corps of Marion, its general being attending in the legislature,
+was surprised and dispersed by the British Colonel Thompson; and in
+another, an English guard galley, mounting twelve guns, and manned
+with forty-three seamen, was captured by Captain Rudolph, of the
+legion.</p>
+
+<p>From the possession of the lower country of South Carolina, which was
+known to contain considerable quantities of rice and beef cattle, the
+army had anticipated more regular and more abundant supplies of food
+than it had been accustomed to receive. This hope was disappointed by
+the measures of the government.</p>
+
+<p>The generals, and other agents acting under the authority of congress,
+had been accustomed in extreme cases, which too frequently occurred,
+to seize provisions for the use of the armies. This questionable power
+had been exercised with forbearance, most commonly in concert with the
+government of the state, and under the pressure of such obvious
+necessity as carried its justification with it.</p>
+
+<p>The war being transferred to the south at a time when the depreciation
+of paper money had deprived congress of its only fund, it became
+indispensably necessary to resort more generally to coercive means in
+order to procure subsistence for the troops. Popular discontent was
+the natural consequence of this odious measure, and the feelings of
+the people were communicated to their representatives. After the
+termination of the very active campaign of 1781 in Virginia, the
+legislature of that state passed a law prohibiting all impressment,
+&quot;unless it be by warrant from the executive in time of actual
+invasion;&quot; and the assembly of South Carolina, during the session at
+Jacksonborough, also passed a law forbidding impressment, and
+enacting, &quot;that no other persons than those who shall be appointed by
+the governor for that purpose, shall be allowed or permitted to
+procure supplies for the army.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The effect of this measure was soon felt. The exertions of the agent
+appointed by the governor failed to procure subsistence for the
+troops, and General Greene, after a long course of suffering, was
+compelled to relieve his urgent wants by an occasional recurrence to
+means forbidden by the law.</p>
+
+<p>Privations, which had been borne without a murmur under the excitement
+of active military operations, produced great irritation during the
+leisure which prevailed after the enemy had abandoned the open field;
+and, in the Pennsylvania line, which was composed chiefly of
+foreigners, the discontent was aggravated to such a point as to
+produce a treasonable intercourse with the enemy, in which a plot is
+understood to have been laid for seizing General Greene and delivering
+him to a detachment of British troops, which would move out of
+Charleston for the purpose of favouring the execution of the design.
+It was discovered when it is supposed to have been on the point of
+execution; and a sergeant Gornell, believed to be the chief of the
+conspiracy, was condemned to death by a court martial, and executed on
+the 22nd of April. Some others, among whom were two domestics in the
+general's family, were brought before the court on suspicion of being
+concerned in the plot, but the testimony was not sufficient to convict
+them; and twelve deserted the night after it was discovered. There is
+no reason to believe that the actual guilt of this transaction
+extended farther.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">July 11.</div>
+
+<p>Charleston was held until the 14th of December. Previous to its
+evacuation, General Leslie had proposed a cessation of hostilities,
+and that his troops might be supplied with fresh provisions, in
+exchange for articles of the last necessity in the American camp. The
+policy of government being adverse to this proposition, General Greene
+was under the necessity of refusing his assent to it, and the British
+general continued to supply his wants by force. This produced several
+skirmishes with foraging parties, to one of which importance was given
+by the death of Lieutenant Colonel Laurens, whose loss was universally
+lamented.</p>
+
+<p>This gallant and accomplished young gentleman had entered into the
+family of the Commander-in-chief at an early period of the war, and
+had always shared a large portion of his esteem. Brave to excess, he
+sought every occasion to render service to his country, and to acquire
+that military fame which he pursued with the ardour of a young
+soldier, whose courage seems to have partaken largely of that romantic
+spirit which youth and enthusiasm produce in a fearless mind. No small
+addition to the regrets occasioned by his loss was derived from the
+reflection that he fell unnecessarily, in an unimportant skirmish, in
+the last moments of the war, when his rash exposure to the danger
+which proved fatal to him could no longer be useful to his country.</p>
+
+<p>From the arrival of Sir Guy Carleton at New York, the conduct of the
+British armies on the American continent was regulated by the spirit
+then recently displayed in the house of commons; and all the
+sentiments expressed by their general were pacific and conciliatory.
+But to these nattering appearances it was dangerous to yield implicit
+confidence. With a change of men, a change of measures might also take
+place; and, in addition to the ordinary suggestions of prudence, the
+military events in the West Indies were calculated to keep alive the
+attention, and to continue the anxieties of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>After the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, the arms of France and Spain
+in the American seas had been attended with such signal success, that
+the hope of annihilating the power of Great Britain in the West Indies
+was not too extravagant to be indulged. Immense preparations had been
+made for the invasion of Jamaica; and, early in April, Admiral Count
+de Grasse sailed from Martinique with a powerful fleet, having on
+board the land forces and artillery which were to be employed in the
+operations against that island. His intention was to form a junction
+with the Spanish Admiral Don Solano, who lay at Hispaniola; after
+which the combined fleet, whose superiority promised to render it
+irresistible, was to proceed on the important enterprise which had
+been concerted. On his way to Hispaniola, De Grasse was overtaken by
+Rodney, and brought to an engagement, in which he was totally
+defeated, and made a prisoner. This decisive victory disconcerted the
+plans of the combined powers, and gave security to the British
+islands. In the United States, it was feared that this alteration in
+the aspect of affairs might influence the councils of the English
+cabinet on the question of peace; and these apprehensions increased
+the uneasiness with which all intelligent men contemplated the state
+of the American finances.</p>
+
+<p>It was then in contemplation to reduce the army, by which many of the
+officers would be discharged. While the general declared, in a
+confidential letter to the secretary of war, his conviction of the
+alacrity with which they would retire into private life, could they be
+placed in a situation as eligible as they had left to enter into the
+service, he added&#8212;&quot;Yet I cannot help fearing the result of the
+measure, when I see such a number of men goaded by a thousand stings
+of reflection on the past, and of anticipation on the future, about to
+be turned on the world, soured by penury, and what they call the
+ingratitude of the public; involved in debts, without one farthing of
+money to carry them home, after having spent the flower of their days,
+and, many of them, their patrimonies, in establishing the freedom and
+independence of their country; and having suffered every thing which
+human nature is capable of enduring on this side of death. I repeat
+it, when I reflect on these irritating circumstances, unattended by
+one thing to soothe their feelings, or brighten the gloomy prospect, I
+cannot avoid apprehending that a train of evils will follow of a very
+serious and distressing nature.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I wish not to heighten the shades of the picture so far as the real
+life would justify me in doing, or I would give anecdotes of
+patriotism and distress which have scarcely ever been paralleled,
+never surpassed, in the history of mankind. But you may rely upon it,
+the patience and long sufferance of this army are almost exhausted,
+and there never was so great a spirit of discontent as at this
+instant. While in the field, I think it may be kept from breaking out
+into acts of outrage; but when we retire into winter quarters (unless
+the storm be previously dissipated) I can not be at ease respecting
+the consequences. It is high time for a peace.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>To judge rightly of the motives which produced this uneasy temper in
+the army, it will be necessary to recollect that the resolution of
+October, 1780, granting half pay for life to the officers, stood on
+the mere faith of a government possessing no funds enabling it to
+perform its engagements. From requisitions alone, to be made on
+sovereign states, the supplies were to be drawn which should satisfy
+these meritorious public creditors; and the ill success attending
+these requisitions while the dangers of war were still impending,
+furnished melancholy presages of their unproductiveness in time of
+peace. In addition to this reflection, of itself sufficient to disturb
+the tranquillity which the passage of the resolution had produced,
+were other considerations of decisive influence. The dispositions
+manifested by congress itself were so unfriendly to the half pay
+establishment as to extinguish the hope that any funds the government
+might acquire, would be applied to that object. Since the passage of
+the resolution, the articles of confederation, which required the
+concurrence of nine states to any act appropriating public money, had
+been adopted; and nine states had never been in favour of the measure.
+Should the requisitions of congress therefore be respected, or should
+permanent funds be granted by the states, the prevailing sentiment of
+the nation was too hostile to the compensation which had been
+stipulated, to leave a probability that it would be substantially
+made. This was not merely the sentiment of the individuals then
+administering the government, which might change with a change of men.
+It was known to be the sense of the states they represented; and
+consequently the hope could not be indulged that, on this subject, a
+future congress would be more just, or would think more liberally. As
+therefore the establishment of that independence for which they had
+fought and suffered appeared to become more certain,&#8212;as the end of
+their toils approached&#8212;the officers became more attentive to their
+own situation; and the inquietude of the army increased with the
+progress of the negotiation.</p>
+
+<p>In October, the French troops marched to Boston, in order to embark
+for the West Indies; and the Americans retired into winter quarters.
+The apparent indisposition of the British general to act offensively,
+the pacific temper avowed by the cabinet of London, and the strength
+of the country in which the American troops were cantoned, gave ample
+assurance that no military operations would be undertaken during the
+winter, which could require the continuance of General Washington in
+camp. But the irritable temper of the army furnished cause for serious
+apprehension; and he determined to forego every gratification to be
+derived from a suspension of his toils, in order to watch its
+discontents.</p>
+
+<p>While the situation of the United States thus loudly called for peace,
+the negotiations in Europe were protracted by causes which, in
+America, were almost unknown, and which it would have been dangerous
+to declare. Although, so far as respected the dismemberment of the
+British empire, the war had been carried on with one common design,
+the ulterior views of the belligerent powers were not only different,
+but, in some respects, incompatible with each other. To depress a
+proud and hated rival was so eagerly desired by the house of Bourbon,
+that France and Spain might be disposed to continue hostilities for
+the attainment of objects in which America could feel no common
+interest. This circumstance, of itself, furnished motives for
+prolonging the war, after the causes in which it originated were
+removed; and additional delays were produced by the discordant views
+which were entertained in regard to those claims which were the
+subject of negotiation. These were, the boundaries which should be
+assigned to the United States, and the participation which should be
+allowed them in the fisheries. On both these points, the wishes of
+France and Spain were opposed to those of America; and the cabinets
+both of Versailles and Madrid, seemed disposed to intrigue with that
+of London, to prevent such ample concessions respecting them, as the
+British minister might be inclined to make.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Preliminary and eventual articles agreed upon between the
+United States and Great Britain.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">Nov. 30.</div>
+
+<p>After an intricate negotiation, in which the penetration, judgment,
+and firmness, of the American commissioners were eminently displayed,
+eventual and preliminary articles were signed on the 30th of November.
+By this treaty every reasonable wish of America, especially on the
+questions of boundary and of the fisheries, was gratified.</p>
+
+<p>The liberality of the articles on these points attests the success
+which attended the endeavours of the plenipotentiaries of the United
+States, to prove that the real interests of England required that
+America should become independent in fact, as well as name; and that
+every cause of future discord between the two nations should be
+removed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1783</div>
+
+<p>The effect of this treaty was suspended until peace should be
+concluded between France and Great Britain. The connexions between
+their most Christian and Catholic Majesties not admitting of a
+separate peace on the part of either, the negotiations between the
+belligerent powers of Europe had been protracted by the persevering
+endeavours of Spain to obtain the cession of Gibraltar. At length, the
+formidable armament which had invested that fortress was repulsed with
+immense slaughter; after which the place was relieved by Lord Howe,
+and the besiegers abandoned the enterprise in despair. Negotiations
+were then taken up with sincerity; and preliminary articles of peace
+between Great Britain, France, and Spain, were signed on the 20th of
+January, 1783.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Discontents of the American Army.</div>
+
+<p>In America, the approach of peace, combined with other causes,
+produced a state of things alike interesting and critical. The
+officers who had wasted their fortunes and their prime of life in
+unrewarded service, fearing, with reason, that congress possessed
+neither the power nor the inclination to comply with its engagements
+to the army, could not look with unconcern at the prospect which was
+opening to them. In December, soon after going into winter quarters,
+they presented a petition to congress, respecting the money actually
+due to them, and proposing a commutation of the half pay stipulated by
+the resolutions of October, 1780, for a sum in gross, which, they
+nattered themselves, would encounter fewer prejudices than the half
+pay establishment. Some security that the engagements of the
+government would be complied with was also requested. A committee of
+officers was deputed to solicit the attention of congress to this
+memorial, and to attend its progress through the house.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most distinguished members of the federal government, were
+persons sincerely disposed to do ample justice to the public creditors
+generally, and to that class of them particularly whose claims were
+founded in military service. But many viewed the army with jealous
+eyes, acknowledged its merit with unwillingness, and betrayed,
+involuntarily, their repugnance to a faithful observance of the public
+engagements. With this question, another of equal importance was
+connected, on which congress was divided almost in the same manner.
+One party was attached to a state, the other to a continental system.
+The latter laboured to fund the public debts on solid continental
+security, while the former opposed their whole weight to measures
+calculated to effect that object.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of these divisions on points of the deepest interest,
+the business of the army advanced slowly, and the important question
+respecting the commutation of their half pay remained undecided, when
+intelligence was received of the signature of the preliminary and
+eventual articles of peace between the United States and Great
+Britain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Anonymous letters and the proceedings in consequence
+thereof.</div>
+
+<p>The officers, soured by their past sufferings, their present wants,
+and their gloomy prospects&#8212;exasperated by the neglect which they
+experienced, and the injustice which they apprehended, manifested an
+irritable and uneasy temper, which required only a slight impulse to
+give it activity. To render this temper the more dangerous, an opinion
+had been insinuated that the Commander-in-chief was restrained, by
+extreme delicacy, from supporting their interests with that zeal which
+his feelings and knowledge of their situation had inspired. Early in
+March, a letter was received from their committee in Philadelphia,
+showing that the objects they solicited had not been obtained. On the
+10th of that month, an anonymous paper was circulated, requiring a
+meeting of the general and field officers at the public building on
+the succeeding day at eleven in the morning; and announcing the
+expectation that an officer from each company, and a delegate from the
+medical staff would attend. The object of the meeting was avowed to
+be, &quot;to consider the late letter from their representatives in
+Philadelphia, and what measures (if any) should be adopted to obtain
+that redress of grievances which they seemed to have solicited in
+vain.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On the same day an address to the army was privately circulated, which
+was admirably well calculated to work on the passions of the moment,
+and to lead to the most desperate resolutions. Full justice can not be
+done to this eloquent paper without inserting it entire.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;To the officers of the army.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Gentlemen,</p>
+
+<p>&quot;A fellow soldier, whose interests and affections bend him strongly to
+you, whose past sufferings have been as great, and whose future
+fortune may be as desperate as yours, would beg leave to address you.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Age has its claims, and rank is not without its pretensions, to
+advise; but though unsupported by both, he flatters himself that the
+plain language of sincerity and experience will neither be unheard nor
+unregarded.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Like many of you, he loved private life, and left it with regret. He
+left it, determined to retire from the field with the necessity that
+called him to it, and not until then&#8212;not until the enemies of his
+country, the slaves of power, and the hirelings of injustice, were
+compelled to abandon their schemes, and acknowledge America as
+terrible in arms as she had been humble in remonstrance. With this
+object in view, he has long shared in your toils, and mingled in your
+dangers. He has felt the cold hand of poverty without a murmur, and
+has seen the insolence of wealth without a sigh. But too much under
+the direction of his wishes, and sometimes weak enough to mistake
+desire for opinion, he has until lately&#8212;very lately&#8212;believed in the
+justice of his country. He hoped that, as the clouds of adversity
+scattered, and as the sunshine of peace and better fortune broke in
+upon us, the coldness and severity of government would relax, and that
+more than justice, that gratitude would blaze forth upon those hands
+which had upheld her in the darkest stages of her passage from
+impending servitude to acknowledged independence. But faith has its
+limits, as well as temper, and there are points beyond which neither
+can be stretched without sinking into cowardice, or plunging into
+credulity. This, my friends, I conceive to be your situation. Hurried
+to the very verge of both, another step would ruin you for ever. To be
+tame and unprovoked when injuries press hard upon you, is more than
+weakness; but to look up for kinder usage without one manly effort of
+your own, would fix your character, and show the world how richly you
+deserve those chains you broke. To guard against this evil, let us
+take a review of the ground upon which we now stand, and from thence
+carry our thoughts forward for a moment into the unexplored field of
+expedient.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;After a pursuit of seven long years, the object for which we set out
+is at length brought within our reach.&#8212;Yes, my friends, that
+suffering courage of yours was active once.&#8212;It has conducted the
+United States of America through a doubtful and a bloody war.&#8212;It has
+placed her in the chair of independency; and peace returns again to
+bless&#8212;whom?&#8212;A country willing to redress your wrongs, cherish your
+worth, and reward your services? A country courting your return to
+private life with tears of gratitude and smiles of admiration&#8212;longing
+to divide with you that independency which your gallantry has given,
+and those riches which your wounds have preserved? Is this the case?
+Or is it rather a country that tramples upon your rights, disdains
+your cries, and insults your distresses? Have you not more than once
+suggested your wishes and made known your wants to congress? Wants and
+wishes which gratitude and policy would have anticipated rather than
+evaded; and have you not lately, in the meek language of entreating
+memorials, begged from their justice what you could no longer expect
+from their favour? How have you been answered? Let the letter which
+you are called to consider to-morrow reply.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;If this then be your treatment while the swords you wear are
+necessary for the defence of America, what have you to expect from
+peace, when your voice shall sink, and your strength dissipate by
+division? When those very swords, the instruments and companions of
+your glory, shall be taken from your sides, and no remaining mark of
+military distinction left but your wants, infirmities, and scars? Can
+you then consent to be the only sufferers by this revolution, and,
+retiring from the field, grow old in poverty, wretchedness, and
+contempt? Can you consent to wade through the vile mire of dependency,
+and owe the miserable remnant of that life to charity which has
+hitherto been spent in honour? If you can&#8212;go&#8212;and carry with you the
+jest of tories, and the scorn of whigs;&#8212;the ridicule, and, what is
+worse, the pity of the world. Go,&#8212;starve and be forgotten. But if
+your spirit should revolt at this; if you have sense enough to
+discover, and spirit enough to oppose, tyranny under whatever garb it
+may assume; whether it be the plain coat of republicanism, or the
+splendid robe of royalty; if you have yet learned to discriminate
+between a people and a cause, between men and principles,&#8212;awake;
+attend to your situation, and redress yourselves. If the present
+moment be lost, every future effort is in vain; and your threats then
+will be as empty as your entreaties now.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I would advise you therefore to come to some final opinion upon what
+you can bear, and what you will suffer. If your determination be in
+any proportion to your wrongs, carry your appeal from the justice to
+the fears of the government. Change the milk-and-water style of your
+last memorial. Assume a bolder tone,&#8212;decent, but lively, spirited,
+and determined; and suspect the man who would advise to more
+moderation and longer forbearance. Let two or three men who can feel
+as well as write, be appointed to draw up your <i>last remonstrance</i>;
+for I would no longer give it the sueing, soft, unsuccessful epithet
+of memorial. Let it be represented in language that will neither
+dishonour you by its rudeness, nor betray you by its fears, what has
+been promised by congress, and what has been performed;&#8212;how long and
+how patiently you have suffered;&#8212;how little you have asked, and how
+much of that little has been denied. Tell them that, though you were
+the first, and would wish to be the last to encounter danger; though
+despair itself can never drive you into dishonour, it may drive you
+from the field;&#8212;that the wound often irritated and never healed, may
+at length become incurable; and that the slightest mark of indignity
+from congress now must operate like the grave, and part you forever;
+that in any political event, the army has its alternative. If peace,
+that nothing shall separate you from your arms but death; if war, that
+courting the auspices, and inviting the directions of your illustrious
+leader, you will retire to some unsettled country, smile in your turn,
+and 'mock when their fear cometh on.' But let it represent also that,
+should they comply with the request of your late memorial, it would
+make you more happy and them more respectable. That while war should
+continue you would follow their standard into the field; and when it
+came to an end, you would withdraw into the shade of private life, and
+give the world another subject of wonder and applause;&#8212;an army
+victorious over its enemies, victorious over itself.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Persuaded as the officers in general were of the indisposition of
+government to remunerate their services, this eloquent and impassioned
+address, dictated by genius and by feeling, found in almost every
+bosom a kindred though latent sentiment prepared to receive its
+impression. Quick as the train to which a torch is applied, the
+passions caught its flame, and nothing seemed to be required but the
+assemblage proposed for the succeeding day, to communicate the
+conflagration to the combustible mass, and to produce an explosion
+ruinous to the army and to the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, the Commander-in-chief was in camp. His characteristic
+firmness and decision did not forsake him in this crisis. The occasion
+required that his measures should be firm, but prudent and
+conciliatory,&#8212;evincive of his fixed determination to oppose any rash
+proceedings, but calculated to assuage the irritation which was
+excited, and to restore confidence in government.</p>
+
+<p>Knowing well that it was much easier to avoid intemperate measures
+than to correct them, he thought it of essential importance to prevent
+the immediate meeting of the officers; but, knowing also that a sense
+of injury and a fear of injustice had made a deep impression on them,
+and that their sensibilities were all alive to the proceedings of
+congress on their memorial, he thought it more adviseable to guide
+their deliberations on that interesting subject, than to
+discountenance them.</p>
+
+<p>With these views, he noticed in his orders, the anonymous paper
+proposing a meeting of the officers, and expressed his conviction that
+their good sense would secure them from paying any &quot;attention to such
+an irregular invitation; but his own duty, he conceived, as well as
+the reputation and true interest of the army, required his
+disapprobation of such disorderly proceedings. At the same time, he
+requested the general and field officers, with one officer from each
+company, and a proper representation from the staff of the army, to
+assemble at twelve on Saturday, the 15th, at the new building, to hear
+the report of the committee deputed by the army to congress. After
+mature deliberation they will devise what farther measures ought to be
+adopted as most rational and best calculated to obtain the just and
+important object in view.&quot; The senior officer in rank present was
+directed to preside, and report the result of the deliberations to the
+Commander-in-chief.</p>
+
+<p>The day succeeding that on which these orders were published, a second
+anonymous address appeared, from the same pen which had written the
+first. Its author, acquainted with the discontents of the army, did
+not seem to despair of impelling the officers to the desired point. He
+affected to consider the orders in a light favourable to his
+views:&#8212;&quot;as giving system to their proceedings, and stability to their
+resolves.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>But Washington would not permit himself to be misunderstood. The
+interval between his orders and the general meeting they invited, was
+employed in impressing on those officers individually who possessed
+the greatest share of the general confidence, a just sense of the true
+interests of the army; and the whole weight of his influence was
+exerted to calm the agitations of the moment, and conduct them to a
+happy termination. This was a work of no inconsiderable difficulty. So
+convinced were many that government designed to deal unfairly by them,
+that only the reliance they placed on their general, and their
+attachment to his person and character, could have moderated their
+resentments so far as to induce them to adopt the measures he
+recommended.</p>
+
+<p>On the 15th, the convention of officers assembled, and General
+Gates<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> took the chair. The Commander-in-chief then addressed them
+in the following terms.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Gentlemen,&#8212;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;By an anonymous summons, an attempt has been made to convene you
+together. How inconsistent with the rules of propriety, how
+unmilitary, and how subversive of all order and discipline, let the
+good sense of the army decide.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;In the moment of this summons, another anonymous production was sent
+into circulation, addressed more to the feelings and passions than to
+the judgment of the army. The author of the piece is entitled to much
+credit for the goodness of his pen; and I could wish he had as much
+credit for the rectitude of his heart; for as men see through
+different optics, and are induced by the reflecting faculties of the
+mind, to use different means to attain the same end, the author of the
+address should have had more charity, than to mark for suspicion the
+man who should recommend moderation and longer forbearance; or, in
+other words, who should not think as he thinks, and act as he advises.
+But he had another plan in view, in which candour and liberality of
+sentiment, regard to justice, and love of country, have no part; and
+he was right to insinuate the darkest suspicion to effect the blackest
+design. That the address was drawn with great art, and is designed to
+answer the most insidious purposes; that it is calculated to impress
+the mind with an idea of premeditated injustice, in the sovereign
+power of the United States, and rouse all those resentments which must
+unavoidably flow from such a belief; that the secret mover of this
+scheme, whoever he may be, intended to take advantage of the passions,
+while they were warmed by the recollection of past distresses, without
+giving time for cool deliberate thinking, and that composure of mind
+which is so necessary to give dignity and stability to measures, is
+rendered too obvious by the mode of conducting the business to need
+other proof than a reference to the proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Thus much, gentlemen, I have thought it incumbent on me to observe to
+you, to show upon what principles I opposed the irregular and hasty
+meeting which was proposed to have been held on Tuesday last, and not
+because I wanted a disposition to give you every opportunity
+consistent with your own honour, and the dignity of the army, to make
+known your grievances. If my conduct heretofore has not evinced to
+you, that I have been a faithful friend to the army, my declaration of
+it at this time would be equally unavailing and improper. But as I was
+among the first who embarked in the cause of our common country; as I
+have never left your side one moment but when called from you on
+public duty; as I have been the constant companion and witness of your
+distresses, and not among the last to feel and acknowledge your
+merits; as I have ever considered my own military reputation as
+inseparably connected with that of the army; as my heart has ever
+expanded with joy when I have heard its praises, and my indignation
+has arisen when the mouth of detraction has been opened against it; it
+can scarcely be supposed, at this last stage of the war, that I am
+indifferent to its interests. But how are they to be promoted? The way
+is plain, says the anonymous addresser.&#8212;If war continues, remove into
+the unsettled country; there establish yourselves, and leave an
+ungrateful country to defend itself! But who are they to defend? Our
+wives, our children, our farms and other property which we leave
+behind us? Or, in this state of hostile separation, are we to take the
+two first (the latter can not be removed) to perish in a wilderness
+with hunger, cold, and nakedness?</p>
+
+<p>&quot;'If peace takes place, never sheath your swords,' says he, 'until you
+have obtained full and ample justice.' This dreadful alternative of
+either deserting our country in the extremest hour of her distress, or
+turning our arms against it, which is the apparent object, unless
+Congress can be compelled into instant compliance, has something so
+shocking in it, that humanity revolts at the idea. My God! what can
+this writer have in view by recommending such measures. Can he be a
+friend to the army? Can he be a friend to this country? Rather is he
+not an insidious foe: some emissary, perhaps, from New York, plotting
+the ruin of both, by sowing the seeds of discord and separation
+between the civil and military powers of the continent? And what a
+compliment does he pay to our understandings, when he recommends
+measures, in either alternative, impracticable in their nature? But
+here, gentlemen, I will drop the curtain, because it would be as
+imprudent in me to assign my reasons for this opinion, as it would be
+insulting to your conception to suppose you stood in need of them. A
+moment's reflection will convince every dispassionate mind of the
+physical impossibility of carrying either proposal into execution.
+There might, gentlemen, be an impropriety in my taking notice, in this
+address to you, of an anonymous production,&#8212;but the manner in which
+that performance has been introduced to the army, together with some
+other circumstances, will amply justify my observations on the
+tendency of that writing.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;With respect to the advice given by the author, to suspect the man
+who shall recommend moderate measures and longer forbearance, I spurn
+it, as every man who regards that liberty, and reveres that justice
+for which we contend, undoubtedly must; for if men are to be precluded
+from offering their sentiments on a matter which may involve the most
+serious and alarming consequences that can invite the consideration of
+mankind, reason is of no use to us. The freedom of speech may be taken
+away, and dumb and silent, we may be led like sheep to the slaughter.
+I can not in justice to my own belief, and what I have great reason to
+conceive is the intention of congress, conclude this address, without
+giving it as my decided opinion, that that honourable body entertain
+exalted sentiments of the services of the army, and, from a full
+conviction of its merits and sufferings, will do it complete justice.
+That their endeavours to discover and establish funds for this purpose
+have been unwearied, and will not cease until they have succeeded, I
+have not a doubt.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;But, like all other large bodies, where there is a variety of
+different interests to reconcile, their determinations are slow. Why
+then should we distrust them? And, in consequence of that distrust,
+adopt measures which may cast a shade over that glory which has been
+so justly acquired, and tarnish the reputation of an army which is
+celebrated through all Europe for its fortitude and patriotism? And
+for what is this done? To bring the object we seek nearer? No: most
+certainly, in my opinion, it will cast it at a greater distance. For
+myself, (and I take no merit in giving the assurance, being induced to
+it from principles of gratitude, veracity, and justice, and a grateful
+sense of the confidence you have ever placed in me,) a recollection of
+the cheerful assistance, and prompt obedience I have experienced from
+you, under every vicissitude of fortune, and the sincere affection I
+feel for an army I have so long had the honour to command, will oblige
+me to declare in this public and solemn manner, that in the attainment
+of complete justice for all your toils and dangers, and in the
+gratification of every wish, so far as may be done consistently with
+the great duty I owe my country, and those powers we are bound to
+respect, you may freely command my services to the utmost extent of my
+abilities.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;While I give these assurances, and pledge myself in the most
+unequivocal manner to exert whatever abilities I am possessed of in
+your favour, let me entreat you, gentlemen, on your part, not to take
+any measures which, viewed in the calm light of reason, will lessen
+the dignity, and sully the glory you have hitherto maintained. Let me
+request you to rely on the plighted faith of your country, and place a
+full confidence in the purity of the intentions of congress;&#8212;that,
+previous to your dissolution as an army, they will cause all your
+accounts to be fairly liquidated, as directed in the resolutions which
+were published to you two days ago; and that they will adopt the most
+effectual measures in their power to render ample justice to you for
+your faithful and meritorious services. And let me conjure you, in the
+name of our common country, as you value your own honour, as you
+respect the rights of humanity, and as you regard the military and
+national character of America, to express your utmost horror and
+detestation of the man who wishes, under any specious pretences, to
+overturn the liberties of our country, and who wickedly attempts to
+open the flood gates of civil discord, and deluge our rising empire in
+blood.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;By thus determining, and thus acting, you will pursue the plain and
+direct road to the attainment of your wishes; you will defeat the
+insidious designs of our enemies, who are compelled to resort from
+open force to secret artifice. You will give one more distinguished
+proof of unexampled patriotism and patient virtue, rising superior to
+the pressure of the most complicated sufferings; and you will by the
+dignity of your conduct, afford occasion for posterity to say, when
+speaking of the glorious example you have exhibited to mankind, had
+this day been wanting, the world had never seen the last stage of
+perfection to which human nature is capable of attaining.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>These sentiments from a person whom the army had been accustomed to
+love, to revere, and to obey; the solidity of whose judgment, and the
+sincerity of whose zeal for their interests, were alike unquestioned,
+could not fail to be irresistible. No person was hardy enough to
+oppose the advice he had given; and the general impression was
+apparent. A resolution moved by General Knox, and seconded by
+Brigadier General Putnam, &quot;assuring him that the officers reciprocated
+his affectionate expressions with the greatest sincerity of which the
+human heart is capable,&quot; was unanimously voted. On the motion of
+General Putnam, a committee consisting of General Knox, Colonel
+Brooks, and Captain Howard was then appointed, to prepare resolutions
+on the business before them, and to report in half an hour. The report
+of the committee being brought in and considered, the following
+resolutions were passed.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Resolved unanimously, that at the commencement of the present war,
+the officers of the American army engaged in the service of their
+country from the purest love and attachment to the rights and
+privileges of human nature; which motives still exist in the highest
+degree; and that no circumstances of distress or danger shall induce a
+conduct that may tend to sully the reputation and glory which they
+have acquired at the price of their blood, and eight years faithful
+services.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Resolved unanimously, that the army continue to have an unshaken
+confidence in the justice of congress and their country, and are fully
+convinced that the representatives of America will not disband or
+disperse the army until their accounts are liquidated, the balances
+accurately ascertained, and adequate funds established for payment;
+and in this arrangement, the officers expect that the half pay, or a
+commutation for it, shall be efficaciously comprehended.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Resolved unanimously, that his excellency the Commander-in-chief, be
+requested to write to his excellency the president of congress,
+earnestly entreating the most speedy decision of that honourable body
+upon the subject of our late address, which was forwarded by a
+committee of the army, some of whom are waiting upon congress for the
+result. In the alternative of peace or war, this event would be highly
+satisfactory, and would produce immediate tranquillity in the minds of
+the army, and prevent any farther machinations of designing men, to
+sow discord between the civil and military powers of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;On motion, resolved unanimously, that the officers of the American
+army view with abhorrence and reject with disdain, the infamous
+propositions contained in a late anonymous address to the officers of
+the army, and resent with indignation the secret attempts of some
+unknown person to collect the officers together in a manner totally
+subversive of all discipline and good order.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Resolved unanimously, that the thanks of the officers of the army be
+given to the committee who presented to congress the late address of
+the army; for the wisdom and prudence with which they have conducted
+that business; and that a copy of the proceedings of this day be
+transmitted by the president to Major General M'Dougal; and that he be
+requested to continue his solicitations at congress until the objects
+of his mission are accomplished.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The storm which had been raised so suddenly and unexpectedly being
+thus happily dissipated, the Commander-in-chief exerted all his
+influence in support of the application the officers had made to
+congress. The following letter, written by him on the occasion, will
+show that he was not impelled to this measure by the engagements he
+had entered into more strongly than by his feelings.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The result of the proceedings of the grand convention of the
+officers, which I have the honour of enclosing to your excellency for
+the inspection of congress, will, I flatter myself, be considered as
+the last glorious proof of patriotism which could have been given by
+men who aspired to the distinction of a patriot army; and will not
+only confirm their claim to the justice, but will increase their title
+to the gratitude of their country.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Having seen the proceedings on the part of the army terminate with
+perfect unanimity, and in a manner entirely consonant to my wishes,
+being impressed with the liveliest sentiments of affection for those
+who have so long, so patiently, and so cheerfully, suffered and fought
+under my direction; having from motives of justice, duty, and
+gratitude, spontaneously offered myself as an advocate for their
+rights; and having been requested to write to your excellency,
+earnestly entreating the most speedy decision of congress upon the
+subjects of the late address from the army to that honourable body; it
+now only remains for me to perform the task I have assumed, and to
+intercede in their behalf, as I now do, that the sovereign power will
+be pleased to verify the predictions I have pronounced of, and the
+confidence the army have reposed in, the justice of their country.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;And here I humbly conceive it is altogether unnecessary (while I am
+pleading the cause of an army which have done and suffered more than
+any other army ever did in the defence of the rights and liberties of
+human nature) to expatiate on their claims to the most ample
+compensation for their meritorious services, because they are
+perfectly known to the whole world, and because (although the topics
+are inexhaustible) enough has already been said on the subject. To
+prove these assertions, to evince that my sentiments have ever been
+uniform, and to show what my ideas of the rewards in question have
+always been, I appeal to the archives of congress, and call on those
+sacred deposites to witness for me. And in order that my observations
+and arguments in favour of a future adequate provision for the
+officers of the army may be brought to remembrance again, and
+considered in a single point of view, without giving congress the
+trouble of having recourse to their files, I will beg leave to
+transmit herewith an extract from a representation made by me to a
+committee of congress, so long ago as the 20th of January, 1778, and
+also the transcript of a letter to the president of congress, dated
+near Passaic falls, October the 11th, 1780.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;That in the critical and perilous moment when the last mentioned
+communication was made, there was the utmost danger a dissolution of
+the army would have taken place unless measures similar to those
+recommended had been adopted, will not admit a doubt. That the
+adoption of the resolution granting half pay for life has been
+attended with all the happy consequences I foretold, so far as
+respected the good of the service, let the astonishing contrast
+between the state of the army at this instant and at the former
+period, determine. And that the establishment of funds, and security
+of the payment of all the just demands of the army, will be the most
+certain means of preserving the national faith, and future
+tranquillity of this extensive continent, is my decided opinion.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;By the preceding remarks, it will readily be imagined that, instead
+of retracting and reprehending (from farther experience and
+reflection) the mode of compensation so strenuously urged in the
+enclosures, I am more and more confirmed in the sentiment; and if in
+the wrong, suffer me to please myself in the grateful delusion. For
+if, besides the simple payment of their wages, a farther compensation
+is not due to the sufferings and sacrifices of the officers, then have
+I been mistaken indeed. If the whole army have not merited whatever a
+grateful people can bestow, then have I been beguiled by prejudice,
+and built opinion on the basis of error. If this country should not in
+the event perform every thing which has been requested in the late
+memorial to congress, then will my belief become vain, and the hope
+that has been excited void of foundation. 'And if (as has been
+suggested for the purpose of inflaming their passions) the officers of
+the army are to be the only sufferers by this revolution; if, retiring
+from the field, they are to grow old in poverty, wretchedness, and
+contempt; if they are to wade through the vile mire of dependency, and
+owe the miserable remnant of that life to charity which has hitherto
+been spent in honour,' then shall I have learned what ingratitude is;
+then shall I have realized a tale which will embitter every moment of
+my future life.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;But I am under no such apprehensions. A country rescued by their arms
+from impending ruin, will never leave unpaid the debt of gratitude.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Should any intemperate and improper warmth have mingled itself among
+the foregoing observations, I must entreat your excellency and
+congress that it may be attributed to the effusions of an honest zeal
+in the best of causes, and that my peculiar situation may be my
+apology; and I hope I need not, on this momentous occasion, make any
+new protestations of disinterestedness, having ever renounced for
+myself the idea of pecuniary reward. The consciousness of having
+attempted faithfully to discharge my duty, and the approbation of my
+country, will be a sufficient recompense for my services.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenoteb">March 24.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peace concluded.</div>
+
+<p><a name="p98">These</a> proceedings of the army produced a concurrence of nine states in
+favour of a resolution commuting the half pay into a sum in gross
+equal to five years full pay; immediately after the passage of which,
+the fears still entertained in America that the war might continue,
+were dissipated by a letter from the Marquis de Lafayette, announcing
+a general peace. This intelligence, though not official, was certain;
+and orders were immediately issued, recalling all armed vessels
+cruising under the authority of the United States. <span class="sidenoteb">April 19.</span>Early in April, the
+copy of a declaration published in Paris, and signed by the American
+commissioners, announcing the exchange of ratifications of the
+preliminary articles between Great Britain and France, was received;
+and on the 19th of that month, the cessation<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> of hostilities was
+proclaimed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Measures for disbanding the army.</div>
+
+<p>The attention of congress might now be safely turned to the reduction
+of the army. This, in the empty state of the treasury, was a critical
+operation. In addition to the anxieties which the officers would
+naturally feel respecting their provision for the future, which of
+necessity remained unsecured, large arrears of pay were due to them,
+the immediate receipt of part of which was required by the most urgent
+wants. To disband an army to which the government was greatly
+indebted, without furnishing the individuals who composed it with the
+means of conveyance to their respective homes, was a perilous measure;
+and congress was unable to advance the pay of a single month.</p>
+
+<p>Although eight millions had been required for the year 1782, the
+payments into the public treasury had amounted to only four hundred
+and twenty thousand and thirty-one dollars, and twenty-nine
+ninetieths; and the foreign loans had not been sufficient to defray
+expenses it was impossible to avoid, at the close of that year, the
+expenditures of the superintendent of the finances had exceeded his
+receipts four hundred and four thousand seven hundred and thirteen
+dollars and nine ninetieths; and the excess continued to increase
+rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>Congress urged the states to comply so far with the requisitions as to
+enable the superintendent of the finances to advance a part of the
+arrears due to the soldiers; but, as the foreign danger diminished,
+they became still less attentive to these demands; and the financier
+was under the necessity of making farther anticipations of the
+revenue. Measures were taken to advance three months pay in his notes;
+but, before they could be prepared, orders were issued for complying
+with a resolution of Congress for granting unlimited furloughs to the
+non-commissioned officers and privates who were engaged to serve
+during the war. These orders produced a serious alarm. The generals,
+and officers commanding regiments and corps cantoned on the Hudson,
+assembled, and presented an address to the Commander-in-chief, in
+which the most ardent affection to his person, and confidence in his
+attachment to the interests of the army, were mingled with expressions
+of profound duty and respect for the government. But they declared
+that, after the late explanation on their claims, they had confidently
+expected that their accounts would be liquidated, the balances
+ascertained, and adequate funds for the payment of those balances
+provided, before they should be dispersed or disbanded.</p>
+
+<p>Bound to the army by the strongest ties of affection and gratitude,
+intimately convinced of the justice of their claims, and of the
+patriotic principles by which they were influenced, the General was
+induced by sentiment not less than by prudence, to regard this
+application. He returned an answer, on the succeeding day, in which,
+after declaring &quot;that as no man could possibly be better acquainted
+than himself with the past merits and services of the army, so no one
+could possibly be more strongly impressed with their present
+ineligible situation; feel a keener sensibility at their distresses;
+or more ardently desire to alleviate or remove them.&quot; He added,
+&quot;although the officers of the army very well know my official
+situation, that I am only a servant of the public, and that it is not
+for me to dispense with orders which it is my duty to carry into
+execution, yet as furloughs in all services are considered as a matter
+of indulgence, and not of compulsion; as congress, I am persuaded,
+entertain the best disposition towards the army; and as I apprehend in
+a very short time, the two principal articles of complaint will be
+removed; until the farther pleasure of congress can be known, I shall
+not hesitate to comply with the wishes of the army, under these
+reservations only, that officers sufficient to conduct the men who
+choose to receive furloughs, will attend them, either on furlough or
+by detachment.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This answer satisfied the officers. The utmost good temper was
+manifested; and the arrangements for retiring on furlough were made
+without a murmur. In the course of the summer, a considerable
+proportion of the troops enlisted for three years were also permitted
+to return to their homes; and, in October, a proclamation was issued
+by congress, declaring all those who had engaged for the war to be
+discharged on the third of December.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a name="image03">
+<img src="images/100.jpg" width="580" height="337" alt="Fraunces Tavern" /></a></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>The Long Room in Fraunces' Tavern, New York City</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><i>It was here that Washington took formal leave of his officers,
+preparatory to resigning his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the
+Continental Army. Controlling his emotion with difficulty, the General
+arose, at the conclusion of a light repast, and proposed the following
+health: &quot;With a heart full of love and gratitude I must now take my
+leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as
+prosperous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and
+honorable.&quot; The toast was drunk in silence, and Washington added: &quot;I
+cannot come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be obliged to
+you if each will come and take me by the hand.&quot;</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mutiny of a part of the Pennsylvania line.</div>
+
+<p>While these excellent dispositions were manifested by the veterans
+serving under the immediate eye of their patriot chief, the government
+was exposed to insult and outrage from the mutinous spirit of a small
+party of new levies. About eighty men of this description belonging to
+Pennsylvania, were stationed at Lancaster. Revolting against the
+authority of their officers, they marched in a body to Philadelphia,
+with the avowed purpose of obtaining redress of their grievances from
+the executive council of the state. The march of these insolent
+mutineers was not obstructed; and, after arriving in Philadelphia,
+their numbers were augmented by the junction of some troops quartered
+in the barracks. They then marched in military parade, with fixed
+bayonets, to the state-house, in which congress and the executive
+council of the state were sitting; and, after placing sentinels at the
+doors, sent in a written message, threatening the executive of the
+state with the vengeance of an enraged soldiery, if their demands were
+not gratified in twenty minutes. Although these threats were not
+directed particularly against congress, the government of the union
+was grossly insulted, and those who administered it were blockaded for
+several hours by licentious soldiers. After remaining in this
+situation about three hours, the members separated, having agreed to
+reassemble at Princeton.</p>
+
+<p>On receiving information of this outrage, the Commander-in-chief
+detached fifteen hundred men under the command of Major General Howe,
+to suppress the mutiny. His indignation at this insult to the civil
+authority, and his mortification at this misconduct of any portion of
+the American troops, were strongly marked in his letter to the
+president of congress.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;While,&quot; said he, &quot;I suffer the most poignant distress in observing
+that a handful of men, contemptible in numbers, and equally so in
+point of service, (if the veteran troops from the southward have not
+been seduced by their example,) and who are not worthy to be called
+soldiers, should disgrace themselves and their country as the
+Pennsylvania mutineers have done by insulting the sovereign authority
+of the United States, and that of their own, I feel an inexpressible
+satisfaction, that even this behaviour can not stain the name of the
+American soldiery. It can not be imputed to, or reflect dishonour on,
+the army at large; but, on the contrary, it will, by the striking
+contrast it exhibits, hold up to public view the other troops in the
+most advantageous point of light. Upon taking all the circumstances
+into consideration, I can not sufficiently express my surprise and
+indignation at the arrogance, the folly, and the wickedness of the
+mutineers; nor can I sufficiently admire the fidelity, the bravery,
+and patriotism, which must forever signalize the unsullied character
+of the other corps of our army. For when we consider that these
+Pennsylvania levies, who have now mutinied, are recruits, and soldiers
+of a day, who have not borne the heat and burden of the war, and who
+can have in reality very few hardships to complain of; and when we at
+the same time recollect that those soldiers, who have lately been
+furloughed from this army, are the veterans who have patiently endured
+hunger, nakedness, and cold; who have suffered and bled without a
+murmur, and who, with perfect good order, have retired to their homes,
+without a settlement of their accounts, or a farthing of money in
+their pockets; we shall be as much astonished at the virtues of the
+latter, as we are struck with horror and detestation at the
+proceedings of the former, and every candid mind, without indulging
+ill-grounded prejudices, will undoubtedly make the proper
+discrimination.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Before the detachment from the army could reach Philadelphia, the
+disturbances were, in a great degree, quieted without bloodshed; but
+General Howe was ordered by congress to continue his march into
+Pennsylvania, &quot;in order that immediate measures might be taken to
+confine and bring to trial all such persons belonging to the army as
+have been principally active in the late mutiny; to disarm the
+remainder; and to examine fully into all the circumstances relating
+thereto.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The interval between the treaty with Great Britain and his retiring
+into private life, was devoted by the Commander-in-chief to objects of
+permanent utility.</p>
+
+<p>The independence of his country being established, he looked forward
+with anxiety to its future destinies. These might greatly depend on
+the systems to be adopted on the return of peace, and to those systems
+much of his attention was directed. The future peace establishment of
+the United States was one of the many interesting subjects which
+claimed the consideration of congress. As the experience of General
+Washington would certainly enable him to suggest many useful ideas on
+this important point, his opinions respecting it were requested by the
+committee to whom it was referred. His letter on this occasion, which
+was deposited, it is presumed, in the archives of state, will long
+deserve the attention of those to whom the interests of the United
+States may be confided. His strongest hopes of securing the future
+tranquillity, dignity and respectability of his country were placed on
+a well regulated and well disciplined militia, and his sentiments on
+this subject are entitled to the more regard, as a long course of
+severe experience had enabled him to mark the total incompetency of
+the existing system to the great purposes of national defence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Evacuation of New York.</div>
+
+<p>At length the British troops evacuated New York, and a detachment from
+the American army took possession of that town.</p>
+
+<p>Guards being posted for the security of the citizens, General
+Washington, accompanied by Governor Clinton, and attended by many
+civil and military officers, and a large number of respectable
+inhabitants on horseback, made his public entry into the city; where
+he was received with every mark of respect and attention. His military
+course was now on the point of terminating; and he was about to bid
+adieu to his comrades in arms. This affecting interview took place on
+the 4th of December. At noon, the principal officers of the army
+assembled at Frances' tavern, soon after which, their beloved
+commander entered the room. His emotions were too strong to be
+concealed. Filling a glass, he turned to them and said, &quot;With a heart
+full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you; I most devoutly
+wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy, as your
+former ones have been glorious and honourable.&quot; Having drunk, he
+added, &quot;I can not come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be
+obliged if each of you will come and take me by the hand.&quot; General
+Knox, being nearest, turned to him. Washington, incapable of
+utterance, grasped his hand, and embraced him. In the same
+affectionate manner he took leave of each succeeding officer. The tear
+of manly sensibility was in every eye; and not a word was articulated
+to interrupt the dignified silence, and the tenderness of the scene.
+Leaving the room, he passed through the corps of light infantry, and
+walked to White Hall, where a barge waited to convey him to Powles
+Hook. The whole company followed in mute and solemn procession, with
+dejected countenances, testifying feelings of delicious melancholy,
+which no language can describe. Having entered the barge, he turned to
+the company, and, waving his hat, bid them a silent adieu. They paid
+him the same affectionate compliment; and, after the barge had left
+them, returned in the same solemn manner to the place where they had
+assembled.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="p106">Congress</a> was then in session at Annapolis, in Maryland, to which place
+General Washington repaired, for the purpose of resigning into their
+hands the authority with which they had invested him.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> He arrived
+on the 19th of December. The next day he informed that body of his
+intention to ask leave to resign the commission he had the honour of
+holding in their service; and requested to know whether it would be
+their pleasure that he should offer his resignation in writing, or at
+an audience.</p>
+
+<p>To give the more dignity to the act, they determined that it should be
+offered at a public audience on the following Tuesday, at twelve.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General Washington resigns his commission and retires to
+Mount Vernon.</div>
+
+<p>When the hour arrived for performing a ceremony so well calculated to
+recall the various interesting scenes which had passed since the
+commission now to be returned was granted, the gallery was crowded
+with spectators, and several persons of distinction were admitted on
+the floor of congress. The members remained seated and covered. The
+spectators were standing, and uncovered. The general was introduced by
+the secretary, and conducted to a chair. After a short pause, the
+president<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> informed him that &quot;The United States in congress
+assembled were prepared to receive his communications.&quot; With native
+dignity improved by the solemnity of the occasion, the general rose
+and delivered the following address.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Mr. President,</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The great events on which my resignation depended, having at length
+taken place, I have now the honour of offering my sincere
+congratulations to congress, and of presenting myself before them, to
+surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to claim the
+indulgence of retiring from the service of my country.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and
+pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming a
+respectable nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I
+accepted with diffidence; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish
+so arduous a task, which however was superseded by a confidence in the
+rectitude of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the union,
+and the patronage of heaven.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The successful termination of the war has verified the most sanguine
+expectations; and my gratitude for the interposition of Providence,
+and the assistance I have received from my countrymen, increases with
+every review of the momentous contest.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;While I repeat my obligations to the army in general, I should do
+injustice to my own feelings not to acknowledge in this place, the
+peculiar services and distinguished merits of the gentlemen who have
+been attached to my person during the war. It was impossible the
+choice of confidential officers to compose my family should have been
+more fortunate. Permit me, sir, to recommend in particular, those who
+have continued in the service to the present moment, as worthy of the
+favourable notice and patronage of congress.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I consider it as an indispensable duty to close this last act of my
+official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to
+the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence
+of them to his holy keeping.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great
+theatre of action, and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this
+august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my
+commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After advancing to the chair and delivering his commission to the
+president, he returned to his place, and received standing the
+following answer of congress, which was delivered by the president.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Sir,</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The United States in congress assembled, receive with emotions too
+affecting for utterance, the solemn resignation of the authorities
+under which you have led their troops with success through a perilous
+and a doubtful war. Called upon by your country to defend its invaded
+rights, you accepted the sacred charge, before it had formed
+alliances, and whilst it was without funds or a government to support
+you. You have conducted the great military contest with wisdom and
+fortitude, invariably regarding the rights of the civil power, through
+all disasters and changes. You have by the love and confidence of your
+fellow citizens, enabled them to display their martial genius, and
+transmit their fame to posterity. You have persevered until these
+United States, aided by a magnanimous king and nation, have been
+enabled under a just Providence, to close the war in freedom, safety,
+and independence; on which happy event we sincerely join you in
+congratulations.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Having defended the standard of liberty in this new world, having
+taught a lesson useful to those who inflict and to those who feel
+oppression, you retire from the great theatre of action with the
+blessings of your fellow citizens. But the glory of your virtues will
+not terminate with your military command; it will continue to animate
+remotest ages.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;We feel with you our obligations to the army in general, and will
+particularly charge ourselves with the interests of those confidential
+officers who have attended your person to this affecting moment.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;We join you in commending the interests of our dearest country to the
+protection of Almighty God, beseeching him to dispose the hearts and
+minds of its citizens, to improve the opportunity afforded them of
+becoming a happy and respectable nation. And for you, we address to
+him our earnest prayers that a life so beloved, may be fostered with
+all his care; that your days may be as happy as they have been
+illustrious; and that he will finally give you that reward which this
+world can not give.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This scene being closed, a scene rendered peculiarly interesting by
+the personages who appeared in it, by the great events it recalled to
+the memory, and by the singularity of the circumstances under which it
+was displayed, the American chief withdrew from the hall of congress,
+leaving the silent and admiring spectators deeply impressed with those
+sentiments which its solemnity and dignity were calculated to inspire.</p>
+
+<p>Divested of his military character, General Washington retired to
+Mount Vernon, followed by the enthusiastic love, esteem, and
+admiration of his countrymen. Relieved from the agitations of a
+doubtful contest, and from the toils of an exalted station, he
+returned with increased delight to the duties and the enjoyments of a
+private citizen. He indulged the hope that, in the shade of
+retirement, under the protection of a free government, and the
+benignant influence of mild and equal laws, he might taste that
+felicity which is the reward of a mind at peace with itself, and
+conscious of its own purity.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General Washington devotes his time to rural pursuits.... to
+the duties of friendship.... and to institutions of public
+utility.... Resolves of Congress and of the Legislature of
+Virginia for erecting statues to his honour.... Recommends
+improvement in inland navigation.... Declines accepting a
+donation made to him by his native state.... The society of
+the Cincinnati.... He is elected President.... The causes
+which led to a change of the government of the United
+States.... Circular letter of General Washington to the
+governors of the several states.</b></p></div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1783 to 1787</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">After retiring to private life, General Washington devotes
+his time to rural pursuits, to the duties of friendship, and to
+institutions of public utility.</div>
+
+<p><span class="lgsmcap">When</span> an individual, long in possession of great power, and almost
+unlimited influence, retires from office with alacrity, and resumes
+the character of a private citizen with pleasure, the mind is
+gratified in contemplating the example of virtuous moderation, and
+dwells upon it with approving satisfaction. We look at man in his most
+estimable character; and this view of him exalts our opinion of human
+nature. Such was the example exhibited by General Washington to his
+country and to the world. His deportment, and his language, equally
+attest that he returned with these feelings to the employments of
+private life. In a letter to Governor Clinton, written only three days
+after his arrival at Mount Vernon, he says, &quot;The scene is at length
+closed. I feel myself eased of a load of public care, and hope to
+spend the remainder of my days in cultivating the affections of good
+men, and in the practice of the domestic virtues.&quot; &quot;At length, my dear
+marquis,&quot; said he to his noble and highly valued friend, Lafayette, &quot;I
+have become a private citizen on the banks of the Potomac; and under
+the shadow of my own vine, and my own fig tree, free from the bustle
+of a camp, and the busy scenes of public life, I am solacing myself
+with those tranquil enjoyments, of which the soldier who is ever in
+pursuit of fame&#8212;the statesman whose watchful days and sleepless
+nights are spent in devising schemes to promote the welfare of his
+own&#8212;perhaps the ruin of other countries, as if this globe was
+insufficient for us all&#8212;and the courtier who is always watching the
+countenance of his prince in the hope of catching a gracious
+smile&#8212;can have very little conception. I have not only retired from
+all public employments, but am retiring within myself, and shall be
+able to view the solitary walk, and tread the paths of private life,
+with heartfelt satisfaction. Envious of none, I am determined to be
+pleased with all; and this, my dear friend, being the order of my
+march, I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with
+my fathers.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>But a mind accustomed to labour for a nation's welfare, does not
+immediately divest itself of ancient habits. That custom of thinking
+on public affairs, and that solicitude respecting them, which belong
+to the patriot in office, follow him into his retreat. In a letter to
+General Knox, written soon after his resignation, General Washington
+thus expressed the feelings attendant upon this sudden transition from
+public to private pursuits. &quot;I am just beginning to experience the
+ease and freedom from public cares, which, however desirable, takes
+some time to realize; for strange as it may seem, it is nevertheless
+true, that it was not until lately, I could get the better of my usual
+custom of ruminating, as soon as I awoke in the morning, on the
+business of the ensuing day; and of my surprise at finding, after
+revolving many things in my mind, that I was no longer a public man,
+or had any thing to do with public transactions. I feel now, however,
+as I conceive a wearied traveller must do, who, after treading many a
+painful step with a heavy burden on his shoulders, is eased of the
+latter, having reached the haven to which all the former were
+directed; and from his house-top is looking back, and tracing with an
+eager eye, the meanders by which he escaped the quick-sands and mires
+which lay in his way, and into which none but the all powerful Guide
+and Dispenser of human events could have prevented his falling.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>For several months after arriving at Mount Vernon, almost every day
+brought him the addresses of an affectionate and grateful people. The
+glow of expression in which the high sense universally entertained of
+his services was conveyed, manifested the warmth of feeling which
+animated the American bosom. This unexampled tribute of voluntary
+applause, paid by a whole people, to an individual no longer in power,
+made no impression on the unassuming modesty of his character and
+deportment. The same firmness of mind, the same steady and well
+tempered judgment, which had guided him through the most perilous
+seasons of the war, still regulated his conduct; and the enthusiastic
+applauses of an admiring nation served only to cherish sentiments of
+gratitude, and to give greater activity to the desire still further to
+contribute to the general prosperity.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Resolves of Congress and of the legislature of Virginia for
+erecting statues in honour of him.</div>
+
+<p>It was not by addresses alone that his country manifested its
+attachment to him. Soon after peace was proclaimed, congress
+unanimously passed a resolution for the erection of an equestrian
+statue of their general,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> at the place which should be established
+for the residence of the government.</p>
+
+<p>The legislature of Virginia too, at its first session after his
+resignation, passed the following resolution.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>&quot;Resolved, that the executive be requested to take measures for
+procuring a statue of General Washington, to be of the finest marble
+and best workmanship, with the following inscription on its pedestal:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The general assembly of the commonwealth of Virginia have caused this
+statue to be erected as a monument of affection and gratitude to
+GEORGE WASHINGTON, who, uniting to the endowments of the <span class="smcap">hero</span>, the
+virtues of the <span class="smcap">patriot</span>, and exerting both in establishing the
+liberties of his country, has rendered his name dear to his fellow
+citizens, and given the world an immortal example of true glory.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Although the toils of General Washington were no longer exhibited to
+the public eye, his time continued to be usefully employed. The
+judicious cultivation of the earth is justly placed among the most
+valuable sources of national prosperity, and nothing could be more
+wretched than the general state of agriculture in America. To its
+melioration by examples which might be followed, and by the
+introduction of systems adapted to the soil, the climate, and to the
+situation of the people, the energies of his active and intelligent
+mind were now in a great degree directed. No improvement of the
+implements to be used on a farm, no valuable experiments in husbandry,
+escaped his attention. His inquiries, which were equally minute and
+comprehensive, extended beyond the limits of his own country; and he
+entered into a correspondence on this interesting subject with those
+foreigners who had been most distinguished for their additions to the
+stock of agricultural science.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a name="image04">
+<img src="images/116.jpg" width="587" height="349" alt="Senate Chamber" /></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>The Old Senate Chamber at Annapolis, Maryland, Where Washington
+Resigned His Commission</b></p>
+
+<p><i>The fate of the Republic was in the hands of Washington when he
+resigned his commission to Congress, then sitting at Annapolis,
+December 23, 1783, and retired to private life. Had he so desired, it
+is probable that he could have founded a monarchy, sustained by his
+army. Instead, as he wrote to Lafayette, shortly after his return to
+Mount Vernon: &quot;I have not only retired from all public employments but
+am retiring within myself, and shall be able to view the solitary
+walk, and tread the paths of private life, with heartfelt
+satisfaction. Envious of none, I am determined to be pleased with all;
+and this, my dear friend, being the order of my march, I will move
+gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers.&quot;</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p>Mingled with this favourite pursuit, were the multiplied avocations
+resulting from the high office he had lately filled. He was engaged in
+an extensive correspondence with the friends most dear to his
+heart&#8212;the foreign and American officers who had served under him
+during the late war&#8212;and with almost every conspicuous political
+personage of his own, and with many of other countries. Literary men
+also were desirous of obtaining his approbation of their works, and
+his attention was solicited to every production of American genius.
+His countrymen who were about to travel, were anxious to receive from
+the first citizen of this rising republic, some testimonial of their
+worth; and all those strangers of distinction who visited this newly
+created empire, were ambitious of being presented to its founder.
+Among those who were drawn across the Atlantic by curiosity, and
+perhaps by a desire to observe the progress of the popular governments
+which were instituted in this new world, was Mrs. Macauley Graham. By
+the principles contained in her History of the Stuarts, this lady had
+acquired much reputation in republican America, and by all was
+received with marked attention. For the sole purpose of paying her
+respects to a person whose fame had spread over Europe, she paid a
+visit to Mount Vernon; and, if her letters may be credited, the
+exalted opinion she had formed of its proprietor, was &quot;not diminished
+by a personal acquaintance with him.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>To these occupations, which were calculated to gratify an intelligent
+mind, or which derived a value from the indulgence they afforded to
+the feelings of the heart, others were unavoidably added, in the
+composition of which, no palatable ingredient was intermixed. Of these
+unwelcome intrusions upon his time, General Washington thus complained
+to an intimate military friend. &quot;It is not, my dear sir, the letters
+of my friends which give me trouble, or add aught to my perplexity. I
+receive them with pleasure, and pay as much attention to them as my
+avocations will permit. It is references to old matters with which I
+have nothing to do&#8212;applications which oftentimes can not be complied
+with&#8212;inquiries, to satisfy which would employ the pen of a
+historian&#8212;letters of compliment, as unmeaning perhaps as they are
+troublesome, but which must be attended to; and the common-place
+business&#8212;which employ my pen and my time often disagreeably. Indeed,
+these, with company, deprive me of exercise; and, unless I can obtain
+relief, must be productive of disagreeable consequences. Already I
+begin to feel their effects. Heavy and painful oppressions of the
+head, and other disagreeable sensations often trouble me. I am
+determined therefore to employ some person who shall ease me of the
+<i>drudgery</i> of this business. At any rate, if the whole of it is
+thereby suspended, I am determined to use exercise. My private affairs
+also require infinitely more attention than I have given, or can give
+them, under present circumstances. They can no longer be neglected
+without involving my ruin.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It was some time after the date of this letter before he could
+introduce into his family a young gentleman, whose education and
+manners enabled him to fill the station of a private secretary and of
+a friend.</p>
+
+<p>This multiplicity of private avocations could not entirely withdraw
+the mind of Washington from objects tending to promote and secure the
+public happiness. His resolution never again to appear in the busy
+scenes of political life, though believed by himself, and by his bosom
+friends, to be unalterable, could not render him indifferent to those
+measures on which the prosperity of his country essentially depended.</p>
+
+<p>To a person looking beyond the present moment, it was only necessary
+to glance over the map of the United States, to be impressed with the
+importance of connecting the western with the eastern territory, by
+facilitating the means of intercourse between them. To this subject,
+the attention of General Washington had been directed in the early
+part of his life. While the American states were yet British colonies,
+he had obtained the passage of a bill for opening the Potomac so as to
+render it navigable from tide water to Wills creek.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> The river
+James had also been comprehended in this plan; and he had triumphed so
+far over the opposition produced by local interests and prejudices,
+that the business was in a train which promised success, when the
+revolutionary war diverted the attention of its patrons, and of all
+America, from internal improvements to the still greater objects of
+liberty and independence. As that war approached its termination,
+subjects which for a time had yielded their pretensions to
+consideration, reclaimed that place to which their real magnitude
+entitled them; and internal navigation again attracted the attention
+of the wise and thinking part of society. Accustomed to contemplate
+America as his country, and to consider with solicitude the interests
+of the whole, Washington now took a more enlarged view of the
+advantages to be derived from opening both the eastern and the western
+waters; and for this, as well as for other purposes, after peace had
+been proclaimed, he traversed the western parts of New England and New
+York. &quot;I have lately,&quot; said he in a letter to the Marquis of
+Chastellux, a nobleman in pursuit of literary as well as of military
+fame, &quot;made a tour through the lakes George and Champlain as far as
+Crown Point;&#8212;then returning to Schenectady, I proceeded up the Mohawk
+river to fort Schuyler, crossed over to Wood creek which empties into
+the Oneida lake, and affords the water communication with Ontario. I
+then traversed the country to the head of the eastern branch of the
+Susquehanna, and viewed the lake Otswego, and the portage between that
+lake and the Mohawk river at Cotnajohario. Prompted by these actual
+observations, I could not help taking a more contemplative and
+extensive view of the vast inland navigation of these United States,
+and could not but be struck with the immense diffusion and importance
+of it; and with the goodness of that Providence which has dealt his
+favours to us with so profuse a hand. Would to God we may have wisdom
+enough to improve them. I shall not rest contented until I have
+explored the western country, and traversed those lines (or great part
+of them) which have given bounds to a new empire.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely had he answered those spontaneous offerings of the heart,
+which flowed in upon him from every part of a grateful nation, when
+his views were once more seriously turned to this truly interesting
+subject. Its magnitude was also impressed on others; and the value of
+obtaining the aid which his influence and active interference would
+afford to any exertions for giving this direction to the public mind,
+and for securing the happy execution of the plan which might be
+devised, was perceived by all those who attached to the great work its
+real importance. A gentleman<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> who had taken an expanded view of it,
+concluded a letter to General Washington, containing a detailed
+statement of his ideas on the subject in these terms:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;But a most powerful objection always arises to propositions of this
+kind. It is, that public undertakings are carelessly managed, and much
+money spent to little purpose. To obviate this objection is the
+purpose of my giving you the trouble of this discussion. You have
+retired from public life. You have weighed this determination, and it
+would be impertinence in me to touch it. But would the superintendence
+of this work break in too much on the sweets of retirement and repose?
+If they would, I stop here. Your future time and wishes are sacred in
+my eye. If it would be only a dignified amusement to you, what a
+monument of your retirement would it be! It is one which would follow
+that of your public life, and bespeak it the work of the same great
+hand. I am confident, that would you either alone, or jointly with any
+persons you think proper, be willing to direct this business, it would
+remove the only objection, the weight of which I apprehend.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Recommends the opening and improving the inland navigation
+of the great rivers in Virginia.</div>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1784, General Washington made a tour as far west as
+Pittsburgh; after returning from which, his first moments of leisure
+were devoted to the task of engaging his countrymen in a work which
+appeared to him to merit still more attention from its political, than
+from its commercial influence on the union. In a long and interesting
+letter to Mr. Harrison, then governor of Virginia, he detailed the
+advantages which might be derived from opening the great rivers, the
+Potomac and the James, as high as should be practicable. After stating
+with his accustomed exactness the distances, and the difficulties to
+be surmounted in bringing the trade of the west to different points on
+the Atlantic, he expressed unequivocally the opinion, that the rivers
+of Virginia afforded a more convenient, and a more direct course than
+could be found elsewhere, for that rich and increasing commerce. This
+was strongly urged as a motive for immediately commencing the work.
+But the rivers of the Atlantic constituted only a part of the great
+plan he contemplated. He suggested the appointment of commissioners of
+integrity and abilities, exempt from the suspicion of prejudice, whose
+duty it should be, after an accurate examination of the James and the
+Potomac, to search out the nearest and best portages between those
+waters and the streams capable of improvement, which run into the
+Ohio. Those streams were to be accurately surveyed, the impediments to
+their navigation ascertained, and their relative advantages examined.
+The navigable waters west of the Ohio, towards the great lakes, were
+also to be traced to their sources, and those which empty into the
+lakes to be followed to their mouths. &quot;These things being done, and an
+accurate map of the whole presented to the public, he was persuaded
+that reason would dictate what was right and proper.&quot; For the
+execution of this latter part of his plan he had also much reliance on
+congress; and in addition to the general advantages to be drawn from
+the measure, he laboured, in his letters to the members of that body,
+to establish the opinion, that the surveys he recommended would add to
+the revenue, by enhancing the value of the lands offered for sale.
+&quot;Nature,&quot; he said, &quot;had made such an ample display of her bounties in
+those regions, that the more the country was explored, the more it
+would rise in estimation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The assent and co-operation of Maryland being indispensable to the
+improvement of the Potomac, he was equally earnest in his endeavours
+to impress a conviction of its superior advantages on those
+individuals who possessed most influence in that state. In doing so,
+he detailed the measures which would unquestionably be adopted by New
+York and Pennsylvania, for acquiring the monopoly of the western
+commerce, and the difficulty which would be found in diverting it from
+the channel it had once taken. &quot;I am not,&quot; he added, &quot;for discouraging
+the exertions of any state to draw the commerce of the western country
+to its sea-ports. The more communications we open to it, the closer we
+bind that rising world (for indeed it may be so called) to our
+interests, and the greater strength shall we acquire by it. Those to
+whom nature affords the best communication, will, if they are wise,
+enjoy the greatest share of the trade. All I would be understood to
+mean, therefore, is, that the gifts of Providence may not be
+neglected.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>But the light in which this subject would be viewed with most
+interest, and which gave to it most importance, was its political
+influence on the union. &quot;I need not remark to you, sir,&quot; said he in
+his letter to the governor of Virginia, &quot;that the flanks and rear of
+the United States are possessed by other powers,&#8212;and formidable ones
+too: need I press the necessity of applying the cement of interest to
+bind all parts of the union together by indissoluble
+bonds,&#8212;especially of binding that part of it which lies immediately
+west of us, to the middle states. For what ties, let me ask, should we
+have upon those people, how entirely unconnected with them shall we
+be, and what troubles may we not apprehend, if the Spaniards on their
+right, and Great Britain on their left, instead of throwing
+impediments in their way as they now do, should hold out lures for
+their trade and alliance? when they get strength, which will be sooner
+than most people conceive, what will be the consequence of their
+having formed close commercial connexions with both, or either of
+those powers? it needs not, in my opinion, the gift of prophecy to
+foretell.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This idea was enlarged and pressed with much earnestness, in his
+letters to several members of congress.</p>
+
+<p>The letter to the governor was communicated to the assembly of
+Virginia, and the internal improvements it recommended were zealously
+supported by the wisest members of that body. While the subject
+remained undecided, General Washington, accompanied by the Marquis de
+Lafayette, who had crossed the Atlantic, and had devoted a part of his
+time to the delights of an enthusiastic friendship, paid a visit to
+the capital of the state. Never was reception more cordial, or more
+demonstrative of respect and affection, than was given to these
+beloved personages. But amidst the display of addresses and of
+entertainments which were produced by the occasion, the great business
+of internal improvements was not forgotten; and the ardour of the
+moment was seized to conquer those objections to the plan, which yet
+lingered in the bosoms of members who could perceive in it no future
+advantages to compensate for the present expense.</p>
+
+<p>An exact conformity between the acts of Virginia and of Maryland,
+being indispensable to the improvement of the Potomac, the friends of
+the measure deemed it adviseable to avail themselves of the same
+influence with the latter state, which had been successfully employed
+with the former; and a resolution was passed, soon after the return of
+General Washington to Mount Vernon, requesting him<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> to attend the
+legislature of Maryland, in order to agree on a bill which might
+receive the sanction of both states. This agreement being happily
+completed, the bills were enacted which form the first essay towards
+connecting the navigation of the eastern with the western waters of
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>These acts were succeeded by one, which conveys the liberal wishes of
+the legislature, with a delicacy scarcely less honourable to its
+framers, than to him who was its object. The treasurer had been
+instructed to subscribe, in behalf of the state, for a specified
+number of shares in each company. Just at the close of the session,
+when no refusal of their offer could be communicated to them, a bill
+was suddenly brought in, which received the unanimous assent of both
+houses, authorizing the treasurer to subscribe for the benefit of
+General Washington, the same number of shares in each company as were
+to be taken for the state. A preamble was prefixed to the enacting
+clause of this bill<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> in which its greatest value consisted. With
+simple elegance, it conveyed the sentiment, that in seizing this
+occasion, to make a donation which would in some degree testify their
+sense of the merits of their most favoured and most illustrious
+citizen, the donors would themselves be the obliged.</p>
+
+<p>However delightful might be the sensations produced by this delicate
+and flattering testimony of the affection of his fellow citizens, it
+was not without its embarrassments. From his early resolution to
+receive no pecuniary compensation for his services, he could not
+permit himself to depart; and yet this mark of the gratitude and
+attachment of his country, could not easily be rejected without
+furnishing occasion for sentiments he was unwilling to excite. To the
+friend<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> who conveyed to him the first intelligence of this bill,
+his difficulties were thus expressed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">He declines accepting a donation made to him by his native
+state.</div>
+
+<p>&quot;It is not easy for me to decide by which my mind was most affected
+upon the receipt of your letter of the sixth instant&#8212;surprise or
+gratitude. Both were greater than I had words to express. The
+attention and good wishes which the assembly has evidenced by their
+act for vesting in me one hundred and fifty shares in the navigation
+of the rivers Potomac and James, is more than mere compliment,&#8212;there
+is an unequivocal and substantial meaning annexed. But, believe me,
+sir, no circumstance has happened since I left the walks of public
+life which has so much embarrassed me. On the one hand, I consider
+this act, as I have already observed, as a noble and unequivocal proof
+of the good opinion, the affection, and disposition of my country to
+serve me; and I should be hurt, if by declining the acceptance of it,
+my refusal should be construed into disrespect, or the smallest slight
+upon the generous intention of the legislature; or that an
+ostentatious display of disinterestedness, or public virtue, was the
+source of refusal.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;On the other hand, it is really my wish to have my mind and my
+actions, which are the result of reflection, as free and independent
+as the air, that I may be more at liberty (in things which my
+opportunities and experience have brought me to the knowledge of) to
+express my sentiments, and if necessary, to suggest what may occur to
+me, under the fullest conviction that, although my judgment may be
+arraigned, there will be no suspicion that sinister motives had the
+smallest influence in the suggestion. Not content then with the bare
+consciousness of my having in all this navigation business, acted upon
+the clearest conviction of the political importance of the measure, I
+would wish that every individual who may hear that it was a favourite
+plan of mine, may know also, that I had no other motive for promoting
+it, than the advantage of which I conceived it would be productive to
+the union at large, and to this state in particular, by cementing the
+eastern and western territory together, at the same time that it will
+give vigour and increase to our commerce, and be a convenience to our
+citizens.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>At length he determined, in the same letter which should convey his
+resolution not to retain the shares for his private emolument, to
+signify his willingness to hold them in trust for such public
+institution as the legislature should approve. The following letter
+conveyed this resolution to the general assembly, through the governor
+of the state.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right">(October, 1785.)</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Sir,</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Your excellency having been pleased to transmit me a copy of the act
+appropriating to my benefit certain shares in the companies for
+opening the navigation of James and Potomac rivers, I take the liberty
+of returning to the general assembly through your hands, the profound
+and grateful acknowledgments inspired by so signal a mark of their
+beneficent intentions towards me. I beg you, sir, to assure them, that
+I am filled on this occasion with every sentiment which can flow from
+a heart warm with love for my country, sensible to every token of its
+approbation and affection, and solicitous to testify in every instance
+a respectful submission to its wishes.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;With these sentiments in my bosom, I need not dwell on the anxiety I
+feel in being obliged, in this instance, to decline a favour which is
+rendered no less flattering by the manner in which it is conveyed,
+than it is affectionate in itself. In explaining this, I pass over a
+comparison of my endeavours in the public service, with the many
+honourable testimonies of approbation which have already so far
+overrated, and overpaid them&#8212;reciting one consideration only which
+supersedes the necessity of recurring to every other.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;When I was first called to the station with which I was honoured
+during the late conflict for our liberties, to the diffidence which I
+had so many reasons to feel in accepting it, I thought it my duty to
+join a firm resolution to shut my hand against every pecuniary
+recompense. To this resolution I have invariably adhered, and from it
+(if I had the inclination) I do not consider myself at liberty now to
+depart.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Whilst I repeat therefore my fervent acknowledgments to the
+legislature, for their very kind sentiments and intentions in my
+favour, and at the same time beg them to be persuaded that a
+remembrance of this singular proof of their goodness towards me, will
+never cease to cherish returns of the warmest affection and gratitude,
+I must pray that their act, so far as it has for its object my
+personal emolument, may not have its effect; but if it should please
+the general assembly to permit me to turn the destination of the fund
+vested in me, from my private emolument, to objects of a public
+nature, it will be my study, in selecting these, to prove the
+sincerity of my gratitude for the honour conferred upon me, by
+preferring such as may appear most subservient to the enlightened and
+patriotic views of the legislature.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The wish suggested in this letter, immediately received the sanction
+of the legislature; and at a subsequent time, the trust was executed
+by conveying the shares respectively to the use of a seminary of
+learning established in the vicinity of each river.</p>
+
+<p>General Washington felt too strong an interest in the success of these
+works, to refuse the presidency of the companies instituted for their
+completion. In conducting the affairs of the Potomac company, he took
+an active part: to that formed for opening the navigation of the
+James, he could only give his counsel.</p>
+
+<p>These were not the only institutions which occasionally drew the
+farmer of Mount Vernon from his retreat, and continued him in the
+public view.</p>
+
+<p>The sentiments with which the officers of the American army
+contemplated a final separation from each other, will be comprehended
+by all who are conversant with the finest feelings of the human heart.
+Companions in virtuous suffering, in danger, and in glory&#8212;attached to
+each other by common exertions made in a severe struggle for the
+attainment of a common object&#8212;they felt that to part for ever was a
+calamity too afflicting to be supported. The means of perpetuating
+those friendships which had been formed, and of renewing that
+endearing social intercourse which had taken place in camp, were
+universally desired. Perhaps, too, that <i>esprit de corps</i> which,
+identifying the individual with the community, transfers to the
+aggregate of the society a portion of that self-love which is felt by
+every private person, and which inspires in the members with a
+repugnance to the dissolution of the political, not unlike in effect
+to that which is excited at the dissolution of the natural body, was
+not without its influence in suggesting some expedient which might
+preserve the memory of the army, while it cheered the officers who
+were on the point of separating, with the hope that the separation
+would not be eternal: that at distant intervals, they might still
+communicate with each other: that the bonds by which they were
+connected would not be totally dissolved: and that, for many
+beneficial purposes, the patriots of the American army would still
+form one great society.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Establishment of the society of the Cincinnati of which he
+is elected president.</div>
+
+<p>This idea was suggested by General Knox, and was matured in a meeting
+composed of the generals, and of deputies from the regiments, at which
+Major General the Baron Steuben presided. An agreement was then
+entered into, by which the officers were to constitute themselves into
+one society of friends, to endure as long as they should endure, or
+any of their eldest male posterity; and, in failure thereof, any
+collateral branches who might be judged worthy of becoming its
+supporters and members, were to be admitted into it. To mark their
+veneration for that celebrated Roman between whose situation and their
+own they found some similitude, they were to be denominated, &quot;The
+Society of the Cincinnati.&quot; Individuals of the respective states,
+distinguished for their patriotism and abilities, might be admitted as
+honorary members for life, provided their numbers should at no time
+exceed a ratio of one to four.</p>
+
+<p>The society was to be designated by a medal of gold representing the
+American eagle bearing on its breast the devices of the order, which
+was to be suspended by a ribbon of deep blue edged with white,
+descriptive of the union of America and France. To the ministers who
+had represented his Most Christian Majesty at Philadelphia, to the
+admirals who had commanded in the American seas, to the Count de
+Rochambeau, and the generals and colonels of the French troops who had
+served in the United States, the insignia of the order were to be
+presented, and they were to be invited to consider themselves as
+members of the society; at the head of which the Commander-in-chief
+was respectfully solicited to place his name. An incessant attention,
+on the part of the members, to the preservation of the exalted rights
+and liberties of human nature for which they had fought and bled, and
+an unalterable determination to promote and cherish between the
+respective states, union and national honour, were declared to be the
+immutable principles of the society. Its objects were, to perpetuate
+the remembrance of the American revolution, as well as cordial
+affection and the spirit of brotherly kindness among the officers; and
+to extend acts of beneficence to those officers and their families,
+whose situation might require assistance. To give effect to the
+charitable object of the institution, a common fund was to be created
+by the deposite of one month's pay on the part of every officer
+becoming a member; the product of which fund, after defraying certain
+necessary charges, was to be sacredly appropriated to this humane
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The military gentlemen of each state were to constitute a distinct
+society, deputies from which were to assemble triennially, in order to
+form a general meeting for the regulation of general concerns.</p>
+
+<p>Without encountering any open opposition, this institution was carried
+into complete effect; and its honours were sought, especially by the
+foreign officers, with great avidity. But soon after it was organized,
+those jealousies which in its first moments had been concealed, burst
+forth into open view. In October, 1783, a pamphlet was published by
+Mr. Burk of South Carolina, for the purpose of rousing the
+apprehensions of the public, and of directing its resentments against
+the society. Perceiving or believing that he perceived, in the
+Cincinnati, the foundation of an hereditary order, whose base, from
+associating with the military the chiefs of the powerful families in
+each state, would acquire a degree of solidity and strength admitting
+of any superstructure, he portrayed, in the fervid and infectious
+language of passion, the dangers to result from the fabric which would
+be erected on it. The ministers of the United States too in Europe,
+and the political theorists who cast their eyes towards the west for
+support to favourite systems, having the privileged orders constantly
+in view, were loud in their condemnations of an institution from which
+a race of nobles was expected to spring. The alarm was spread
+throughout every state, and a high degree of jealousy pervaded the
+mass of the people. In Massachusetts, the subject was even taken up by
+the legislature; and it was well understood that, in congress, the
+society was viewed with secret disapprobation.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It was impossible for General Washington to view with indifference
+this state of the public feeling. Bound to the officers of his army by
+the strictest ties of esteem and affection, conscious of their merits,
+and assured of their attachment to his person, he was alive to every
+thing which might affect their reputation, or their interests. However
+innocent the institution might be in itself, or however laudable its
+real objects, if the impression it made on the public mind was such as
+to draw a line of distinction between the military men of America and
+their fellow citizens, he was earnest in his wishes to adopt such
+measures as would efface that impression. However ill founded the
+public prejudices might be, he thought this a case in which they ought
+to be respected; and, if it should be found impracticable to convince
+the people that their fears were misplaced, he was disposed to yield
+to them in a degree, and not to suffer that which was intended for the
+best of purposes, to produce a bad one.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>A general meeting was to be held in Philadelphia in May, 1784; and, in
+the mean time, he had been appointed the temporary president.</p>
+
+<p>To prepare the officers for those fundamental changes in the
+principles of the society, which he contemplated as a necessary
+sacrifice to the public apprehensions, his ideas were suggested to his
+military correspondents; and to give weight to the measures which
+might be recommended, his utmost influence was exerted to obtain a
+full assemblage of deputies, which should be respectable for its
+numbers, and for its wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>Officers of high respectability entertained different opinions on
+surrendering those parts of the institution which were deemed
+objectionable. By some, the public clamour was attributed to a spirit
+of persecution, which only attached them more closely to the order.
+Many, it was said, were in quest of a cause of quarrel with their late
+protectors; and the removal of one ground of accusation against them,
+would only induce the substitution of some other. The source of the
+uneasiness which had been manifested was to be found in the temper of
+the people, not in the matters of which they complained; and if the
+present cause of irritation was removed, their ill humour would be
+openly and avowedly directed against the commutation.</p>
+
+<p>General Washington was too much in the habit of considering subjects
+of difficulty in various points of view, and of deciding on them with
+coolness and deliberation, to permit his affections to influence his
+judgment. The most exact inquiries, assiduously made into the true
+state of the public mind, resulted in a conviction that opinions
+unfriendly to the institution, in its actual form, were extensively
+entertained; and that those opinions were founded, not in hostility to
+the late army, but in real apprehensions for equal liberty.</p>
+
+<p>A wise and necessary policy required, he thought, the removal of these
+apprehensions; and, at the general meeting in May, the hereditary
+principle, and the power of adopting honorary members, were
+relinquished. The result demonstrated the propriety of this
+alteration. Although a few who always perceive most danger where none
+exists, and the visionaries then abounding in Europe, continued their
+prophetic denunciations against the order, America dismissed her
+fears; and, notwithstanding the refusal of one or two of the state
+societies to adopt the measures recommended by the general meeting,
+the members of the Cincinnati were received as brethren into the bosom
+of their country.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The causes which led to a change of the government of the
+United States.</div>
+
+<p>While General Washington thus devoted a great part of his time to
+rural pursuits, to the duties of friendship, and to institutions of
+public utility, the political state of his country, becoming daily
+more embarrassed, attracted more and more deeply the anxious
+solicitude of every enlightened and virtuous patriot. From peace, from
+independence, and from governments of their own choice, the United
+States had confidently anticipated every blessing. The glorious
+termination of their contest with one of the most powerful nations of
+the earth; the steady and persevering courage with which that contest
+had been maintained; and the unyielding firmness with which the
+privations attending it had been supported, had surrounded the infant
+republics with a great degree of splendour, and had bestowed upon them
+a character which could be preserved only by a national and dignified
+system of conduct. A very short time was sufficient to demonstrate,
+that something not yet possessed was requisite, to insure the public
+and private prosperity expected to flow from self government. After a
+short struggle so to administer the existing system, as to make it
+competent to the great objects for which it was instituted, the effort
+became apparently desperate; and American affairs were impelled
+rapidly to a crisis, on which the continuance of the United States, as
+a nation, appeared to depend.</p>
+
+<p>In tracing the causes which led to this interesting state of things,
+it will be necessary to carry back our attention to the conclusion of
+the war.</p>
+
+<p>A government authorized to declare war, but relying on independent
+states for the means of prosecuting it; capable of contracting debts,
+and of pledging the public faith for their payment, but depending on
+thirteen distinct sovereignties for the preservation of that faith,
+could not be rescued from ignominy and contempt, but by finding those
+sovereignties administered by men exempt from the passions incident to
+human nature.</p>
+
+<p>The debts of the union were computed, on the first of January, 1783,
+at somewhat more than forty millions of dollars. &quot;If,&quot; say congress,
+in an address to the states, urging that the means of payment should
+be placed in their hands, &quot;other motives than that of justice could be
+requisite on this occasion, no nation could ever feel stronger; for to
+whom are the debts to be paid?</p>
+
+<p>&quot;<i>To an ally</i>, in the first place, who to the exertion of his arms in
+support of our cause has added the succours of his treasure; who to
+his important loans has added liberal donations, and whose loans
+themselves carry the impression of his magnanimity and friendship.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;<i>To individuals in a foreign country</i>, in the next place, who were
+the first to give so precious a token of their confidence in our
+justice, and of their friendship for our cause, and who are members of
+a republic which was second in espousing our rank among nations.</p>
+
+<p>Another class of creditors is, that <i>illustrious and patriotic band of
+fellow citizens</i>, whose blood and whose bravery have defended the
+liberties of their country, who have patiently borne, among other
+distresses, the privation of their stipends, whilst the distresses of
+their country disabled it from bestowing them: and who, even now, ask
+for no more than such a portion of their dues, as will enable them to
+retire from the field of victory and glory, into the bosom of peace
+and private citizenship, and for such effectual security for the
+residue of their claims, as their country is now unquestionably able
+to provide.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The remaining class of creditors is composed partly of such of our
+fellow citizens as originally lent to the public the use of their
+funds, or have since manifested most confidence in their country, by
+receiving transfers from the lenders; and partly of those whose
+property has been either advanced or assumed for the public service.
+To discriminate the merits of these several descriptions of creditors,
+would be a task equally unnecessary and invidious. If the voice of
+humanity plead more loudly in favour of some than of others, the voice
+of policy, no less than of justice, pleads in favour of all. A wise
+nation will never permit those who relieve the wants of their country,
+or who rely most on its faith, its firmness, and its resources, when
+either of them is distrusted, to suffer by the event.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In a government constituted like that of the United States, it would
+readily be expected that great contrariety of sentiment would prevail,
+respecting the principles on which its affairs should be conducted. It
+has been already stated that the continent was divided into two great
+political parties, the one of which contemplated America as a nation,
+and laboured incessantly to invest the federal head with powers
+competent to the preservation of the union. The other attached itself
+to the state government, viewed all the powers of congress with
+jealousy, and assented reluctantly to measures which would enable the
+head to act, in any respect, independently of the members. Men of
+enlarged and liberal minds who, in the imbecility of a general
+government, by which alone the capacities of the nation could be
+efficaciously exerted, could discern the imbecility of the nation
+itself; who, viewing the situation of the world, could perceive the
+dangers to which these young republics were exposed, if not held
+together by a cement capable of preserving a beneficial connexion; who
+felt the full value of national honour, and the full obligation of
+national faith; and who were persuaded of the insecurity of both, if
+resting for their preservation on the concurrence of thirteen distinct
+sovereigns; arranged themselves generally in the first party. The
+officers of the army, whose local prejudices had been weakened by
+associating with each other, and whose experience had furnished
+lessons on the inefficacy of requisitions which were not soon to be
+forgotten, threw their weight almost universally into the same scale.</p>
+
+<p>The other party, if not more intelligent, was more numerous, and more
+powerful. It was sustained by prejudices and feelings which grew
+without effort, and gained strength from the intimate connexions
+subsisting between a state and its citizens. It required a concurrence
+of extrinsic circumstances to force on minds unwilling to receive the
+demonstration, a conviction of the necessity of an effective national
+government, and to give even a temporary ascendency to that party
+which had long foreseen and deplored the crisis to which the affairs
+of the United States were hastening.</p>
+
+<p>Sensible that the character of the government would be decided, in a
+considerable degree, by the measures which should immediately follow
+the treaty of peace, gentlemen of the first political abilities and
+integrity sought a place in the congress of 1783. Combining their
+efforts for the establishment of principles on which the honour and
+the interest of the nation were believed to depend, they exerted all
+their talents to impress on the several states, the necessity of
+conferring on the government of the union, powers which might be
+competent to its preservation, and which would enable it to comply
+with the engagements it had formed. With unwearied perseverance they
+digested and obtained the assent of congress to a system, which,
+though unequal to what their wishes would have prepared, or their
+judgments have approved, was believed to be the best that was
+attainable. The great object in view was, &quot;to restore and support
+public credit,&quot; to effect which it was necessary, &quot;to obtain from the
+states substantial funds for funding the whole debt of the United
+States.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The committee<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> to whom this interesting subject was referred,
+reported sundry resolutions, recommending it to the several states, to
+vest in congress permanent and productive funds adequate to the
+immediate payment of the interest on the national debt, and to the
+gradual extinction of the principal. A change in the rule by which the
+proportions of the different states were to be ascertained, was also
+recommended. In lieu of that article of the confederation which
+apportions on them the sums required for the public treasury,
+according to the value of their located lands with the improvements
+thereon, it was proposed to substitute another more capable of
+execution, which should make the population of each state the measure
+of its contribution.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>To the application which congress had made during the war for power to
+levy an impost of five per cent on imported and prize goods, one state
+had never assented, and another had withdrawn the assent it had
+previously given.</p>
+
+<p>It was impossible to yield to some of the objections which had been
+made to this measure, because they went to the certain destruction of
+the system itself; but in points where the alterations demanded,
+though mischievous, were not fatal to the plan, it was thought
+adviseable to accommodate the recommendations of the government to the
+prejudices which had been disclosed. It had been insisted that the
+power of appointing persons to collect the duties, would enable
+congress to introduce into a state, officers unknown and unaccountable
+to the government thereof; and that a power to collect an indefinite
+sum for an indefinite time, for the expenditure of which that body
+could not be accountable to the states, would render it independent of
+its constituents, and would be dangerous to liberty. To obviate these
+objections, the proposition now made was so modified, that the grant
+was to be limited to twenty-five years; was to be strictly
+appropriated to the debt contracted on account of the war; and was to
+be collected by persons to be appointed by the respective states.</p>
+
+<p>After a debate, which the tedious mode of conducting business
+protracted for several weeks, the report was adopted; and a committee,
+consisting of Mr. Madison, Mr. Hamilton, and Mr. Ellsworth, was
+appointed to prepare an address, which should accompany the
+recommendation to the several states.</p>
+
+<p>After a full explanation of the principles on which the system had
+been framed, this address proceeds:&#8212;&quot;The plan thus communicated and
+explained by congress, must now receive its fate from their
+constituents. All the objects comprised in it are conceived to be of
+great importance to the happiness of this confederated republic, are
+necessary to render the fruits of the revolution a full reward for the
+blood, the toils, the cares and the calamities which have purchased
+it. But the object of which the necessity will be peculiarly felt, and
+which it is peculiarly the duty of congress to inculcate, is the
+provision recommended for the national debt. Although this debt is
+greater than could have been wished, it is still less on the whole
+than could have been expected; and when referred to the cause in which
+it has been incurred, and compared with the burthens which wars of
+ambition and of vain glory have entailed on other nations, ought to be
+borne not only with cheerfulness but with pride. But the magnitude of
+the debt makes no part of the question. It is sufficient that the debt
+has been fairly contracted, and that justice and good faith demand
+that it should be fully discharged. Congress had no option but between
+different modes of discharging it. The same option is the only one
+that can exist with the states. The mode which has, after long and
+elaborate discussion, been preferred, is, we are persuaded, the least
+objectionable of any that would have been equal to the purpose. Under
+this persuasion, we call upon the justice and plighted faith of the
+several states to give it its proper effect, to reflect on the
+consequences of rejecting it, and to remember that congress will not
+be answerable for them.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After expatiating on the merits of the several creditors, the report
+concludes, &quot;let it be remembered finally, that it ever has been the
+pride and boast of America, that the rights for which she contended,
+were the rights of human nature. By the blessing of the Author of
+these rights, on the means exerted for their defence, they have
+prevailed against all opposition, and formed the basis of thirteen
+independent states. No instance has heretofore occurred, nor can any
+instance be expected hereafter to occur, in which the unadulterated
+forms of republican government can pretend to so fair an opportunity
+of justifying themselves by their fruits. In this view, the citizens
+of the United States are responsible for the greatest trust ever
+confided to a political society. If justice, good faith, honour,
+gratitude, and all the other good qualities which ennoble the
+character of a nation, and fulfil the ends of government, be the
+fruits of our establishments, the cause of liberty will acquire a
+dignity and lustre which it has never yet enjoyed; and an example will
+be set, which can not but have the most favourable influence on the
+rights of mankind. If, on the other side, our governments should be
+unfortunately blotted with the reverse of these cardinal and essential
+virtues, the great cause which we have engaged to vindicate will be
+dishonoured and betrayed; the last and fairest experiment in favour of
+the rights of human nature will be turned against them, and their
+patrons and friends exposed to be insulted and silenced by the
+votaries of tyranny and usurpation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>For the complete success of the plan recommended by congress, no
+person felt more anxious solicitude than General Washington. Of the
+vital importance of UNION, no man could be more entirely persuaded;
+and of the obligations of the government to its creditors, no man
+could feel a stronger conviction. His conspicuous station had rendered
+him peculiarly sensible to their claims; and he had unavoidably been
+personally instrumental in the creation of a part of them. All the
+feelings of his heart were deeply engaged in the payment of some of
+the creditors, and that high sense of national honour, of national
+justice, and of national faith, of which elevated minds endowed with
+integrity can never be divested, impelled him to take a strong
+interest in the security of all. Availing himself of the usage of
+communicating on national subjects with the state governments, and of
+the opportunity, which his approaching resignation of the command of
+the army gave, impressively to convey his sentiments to them, he had
+determined to employ all the influence which the circumstances of his
+life had created, in a solemn recommendation of measures, on which he
+believed the happiness and prosperity of his country to depend. On the
+eighth of June, 1783, he addressed to the governors of the several
+states respectively, the paternal and affectionate letter which
+follows.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Letters of General Washington to the governors of the
+several states.</div>
+
+<p>&quot;Sir,</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The great object for which I had the honour to hold an appointment in
+the service of my country being accomplished, I am now preparing to
+resign it into the hands of congress, and to return to that domestic
+retirement which, it is well known, I left with the greatest
+reluctance; a retirement for which I have never ceased to sigh through
+a long and painful absence, and in which (remote from the noise and
+trouble of the world) I meditate to pass the remainder of life in a
+state of undisturbed repose. But before I carry this resolution into
+effect, I think it a duty incumbent upon me, to make this my last
+official communication; to congratulate you on the glorious events
+which heaven has been pleased to produce in our favour; to offer my
+sentiments respecting some important subjects which appear to me to be
+intimately connected with the tranquillity of the United States: to
+take my leave of your excellency as a public character: and to give my
+final blessing to that country in whose service I have spent the prime
+of my life, for whose sake I have consumed so many anxious days and
+watchful nights, and whose happiness, being extremely dear to me, will
+always constitute no inconsiderable part of my own.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Impressed with the liveliest sensibility on this pleasing occasion, I
+will claim the indulgence of dilating the more copiously on the
+subjects of our mutual felicitation. When we consider the magnitude of
+the prize we contended for, the doubtful nature of the contest, and
+the favourable manner in which it has terminated, we shall find the
+greatest possible reason for gratitude and rejoicing. This is a theme
+that will afford infinite delight to every benevolent and liberal
+mind, whether the event in contemplation be considered as the source
+of present enjoyment, or the parent of future happiness: and we shall
+have equal occasion to felicitate ourselves on the lot which
+Providence has assigned us, whether we view it in a natural, a
+political, or moral point of light.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The citizens of America, placed in the most enviable condition, as
+the sole lords and proprietors of a vast tract of continent,
+comprehending all the various soils and climates of the world, and
+abounding with all the necessaries and conveniencies of life, are now,
+by the late satisfactory pacification, acknowledged to be possessed of
+absolute freedom and independency. They are from this period, to be
+considered as the actors on a most conspicuous theatre, which seems to
+be peculiarly designated by Providence for the display of human
+greatness and felicity. Here they are not only surrounded with every
+thing which can contribute to the completion of private and domestic
+enjoyment; but heaven has crowned all its other blessings, by giving a
+fairer opportunity for political happiness, than any other nation has
+ever been favoured with. Nothing can illustrate these observations
+more forcibly, than a recollection of the happy conjuncture of times
+and circumstances, under which our republic assumed its rank among the
+nations. The foundation of our empire was not laid in the gloomy age
+of ignorance and superstition, but at an epoch when the rights of
+mankind were better understood, and more clearly defined, than at any
+former period. The researches of the human mind after social happiness
+have been carried to a great extent; the treasures of knowledge
+acquired by the labours of philosophers, sages, and legislators,
+through a long succession of years, are laid open for our use; and
+their collected wisdom may be happily employed in the establishment of
+our forms of government. The free cultivation of letters; the
+unbounded extension of commerce; the progressive refinement of
+manners; the growing liberality of sentiment; and above all, the pure
+and benign light of revelation; have had a meliorating influence on
+mankind, and increased the blessings of society. At this auspicious
+period, the United States came into existence as a nation; and if
+their citizens should not be completely free and happy, the fault will
+be entirely their own.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Such is our situation, and such are our prospects. But
+notwithstanding the cup of blessing is thus reached out to us;
+notwithstanding happiness is ours, if we have a disposition to seize
+the occasion, and make it our own; yet, it appears to me, there is an
+option still left to the United States of America; that it is in their
+choice, and depends upon their conduct, whether they will be
+respectable and prosperous, or contemptible and miserable as a nation.
+This is the time of their political probation; this is the moment when
+the eyes of the whole world are turned upon them; this is the moment
+to establish or ruin their national character forever; this is the
+favourable moment to give such a tone to our federal government, as
+will enable it to answer the ends of its institution, or this may be
+the ill-fated moment for relaxing the powers of the union,
+annihilating the cement of the confederation, and exposing us to
+become the sport of European politics, which may play one state
+against another, to prevent their growing importance, and to serve
+their own interested purposes. For according to the system of policy
+the states shall adopt at this moment, they will stand or fall; and by
+their confirmation or lapse, it is yet to be decided, whether the
+revolution must ultimately be considered a blessing or a curse:&#8212;a
+blessing or a curse not to the present age alone, for with our fate
+will the destiny of unborn millions be involved.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;With this conviction of the importance of the present crisis, silence
+in me would be a crime. I will therefore speak to your excellency the
+language of freedom and of sincerity, without disguise. I am aware,
+however, that those who differ from me in political sentiment, may
+perhaps remark that I am stepping out of the proper line of my duty,
+and may possibly ascribe to arrogance or ostentation, what I know is
+alone the result of the purest intentions. But the rectitude of my own
+heart, which disdains such unworthy motives; the part I have hitherto
+acted in life; the determination I have formed of not taking any share
+in public business hereafter; the ardent desire I feel, and shall
+continue to manifest, of quietly enjoying, in private life, after all
+the toils of war, the benefits of a wise and liberal government: will,
+I flatter myself, sooner or later convince my countrymen, that I could
+have no sinister views in delivering with so little reserve the
+opinions contained in this address.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;There are four things which I humbly conceive are essential to the
+well being, I may even venture to say, to the existence of the United
+States as an independent power.</p>
+
+<p>1st. An indissoluble union of the states under one federal head.</p>
+
+<p>2d. A sacred regard to public justice.</p>
+
+<p>3d. The adoption of a proper peace establishment, and,</p>
+
+<p>4th. The prevalence of that pacific and friendly disposition, among
+the people of the United States, which will induce them to forget
+their local prejudices and politics, to make those mutual concessions
+which are requisite to the general prosperity, and in some instances,
+to sacrifice their individual advantages to the interest of the
+community.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;These are the pillars on which the glorious fabric of our
+independency and national character must be supported. Liberty is the
+basis, and whoever would dare to sap the foundation, or overturn the
+structure, under whatever specious pretext he may attempt it, will
+merit the bitterest execration, and the severest punishment, which can
+be inflicted by his injured country.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;On the three first articles, I will make a few observations, leaving
+the last to the good sense and serious consideration of those
+immediately concerned.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Under the first head, although it may not be necessary or proper for
+me, in this place, to enter into a particular disquisition of the
+principles of the union, and to take up the great question which has
+frequently been agitated, whether it be expedient and requisite for
+the states to delegate a larger proportion of power to congress or
+not; yet it will be a part of my duty, and that of every true patriot,
+to assert without reserve, and to insist upon the following positions:
+that unless the states will suffer congress to exercise those
+prerogatives they are undoubtedly invested with by the constitution,
+every thing must very rapidly tend to anarchy and confusion: that it
+is indispensable to the happiness of the individual states, that there
+should be lodged somewhere a supreme power to regulate and govern the
+general concerns of the confederated republic, without which the union
+can not be of long duration: that there must be a faithful and pointed
+compliance, on the part of every state, with the late proposals and
+demands of congress, or the most fatal consequences will ensue: that
+whatever measures have a tendency to dissolve the union, or contribute
+to violate or lessen the sovereign authority, ought to be considered
+as hostile to the liberty and independence of America, and the authors
+of them treated accordingly: and lastly, that unless we can be
+enabled, by the concurrence of the states, to participate of the
+fruits of the revolution, and enjoy the essential benefits of civil
+society, under a form of government so free and uncorrupted, so
+happily guarded against the danger of oppression as has been devised
+and adopted by the articles of confederation, it will be a subject of
+regret, that so much blood and treasure have been lavished for no
+purpose; that so many sufferings have been encountered without a
+compensation; and that so many sacrifices have been made in vain. Many
+other considerations might here be adduced to prove, that without an
+entire conformity to the spirit of the union, we can not exist as an
+independent power. It will be sufficient for my purpose to mention one
+or two, which seem to me of the greatest importance. It is only in our
+united character that we are known as an empire, that our independence
+is acknowledged, that our power can be regarded, or our credit
+supported among foreign nations. The treaties of the European powers
+with the United States of America, will have no validity on a
+dissolution of the union. We shall be left nearly in a state of
+nature, or we may find, by our own unhappy experience, that there is a
+natural and necessary progression from the extreme of anarchy to the
+extreme of tyranny; and that arbitrary power is most easily
+established on the ruins of liberty abused to licentiousness.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;As to the second article, which respects the performance of public
+justice, congress have in their late address to the United States,
+almost exhausted the subject. They have explained their ideas so
+fully, and have enforced the obligations the states are under, to
+render complete justice to all the public creditors, with so much
+dignity and energy, that in my opinion, no real friend to the honour
+and independency of America, can hesitate a single moment respecting
+the propriety of complying with the just and honourable measures
+proposed. If their arguments do not produce conviction, I know of
+nothing that will have greater influence; especially when we recollect
+that the system referred to, being the result of the collected wisdom
+of the continent, must be esteemed, if not perfect, certainly the
+least objectionable of any that could be devised; and that if it
+should not be carried into immediate execution, a national bankruptcy,
+with all its deplorable consequences, will take place before any
+different plan can possibly be proposed and adopted. So pressing are
+the present circumstances, and such is the alternative now offered to
+the states.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The ability of the country to discharge the debts which have been
+incurred in its defence is not to be doubted; an inclination I flatter
+myself will not be wanting. The path of our duty is plain before
+us&#8212;honesty will be found, on every experiment, to be the best and
+only true policy. Let us then as a nation, be just; let us fulfil the
+public contracts which congress had undoubtedly a right to make, for
+the purpose of carrying on the war, with the same good faith we
+suppose ourselves bound to perform our private engagements. In the
+mean time, let an attention to the cheerful performance of their
+proper business as individuals, and as members of society, be
+earnestly inculcated on the citizens of America. Then will they
+strengthen the hands of government, and be happy under its protection.
+Every one will reap the fruit of his labours; every one will enjoy his
+own acquisitions, without molestation, and without danger.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;In this state of absolute freedom and perfect security, who will
+grudge to yield a very little of his property to support the common
+interest of society, and insure the protection of government? Who does
+not remember the frequent declarations, at the commencement of the
+war, that we should be completely satisfied, if at the expense of one
+half, we could defend the remainder of our possessions? Where is the
+man to be found who wishes to remain indebted for the defence of his
+own person and property, to the exertions, the bravery, and the blood
+of others, without making one generous effort to repay the debt of
+honour and of gratitude? In what part of the continent shall we find
+any man or body of men, who would not blush to stand up and propose
+measures purposely calculated to rob the soldier of his stipend, and
+the public creditor of his due? And were it possible that such a
+flagrant instance of injustice could ever happen, would it not excite
+the general indignation, and tend to bring down upon the authors of
+such measures, the aggravated vengeance of heaven? If, after all, a
+spirit of disunion, or a temper of obstinacy and perverseness, should
+manifest itself in any of the states; if such an ungracious
+disposition should attempt to frustrate all the happy effects that
+might be expected to flow from the union; if there should be a refusal
+to comply with the requisitions for funds to discharge the annual
+interest of the public debts; and if that refusal should revive again
+all those jealousies, and produce all those evils, which are now
+happily removed; congress, who have in all their transactions, shown a
+great degree of magnanimity and justice, will stand justified in the
+sight of God and man; and the state alone which puts itself in
+opposition to the aggregate wisdom of the continent, and follows such
+mistaken and pernicious counsels, will be responsible for all the
+consequences.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;For my own part, conscious of having acted while a servant of the
+public, in the manner I conceived best suited to promote the real
+interests of my country; having, in consequence of my fixed belief, in
+some measure pledged myself to the army, that their country would
+finally do them complete and ample justice; and not wishing to conceal
+any instance of my official conduct from the eyes of the world; I have
+thought proper to transmit to your excellency the enclosed collection
+of papers, relative to the half pay and commutation granted by
+congress to the officers of the army. From these communications, my
+decided sentiments will be clearly comprehended, together with the
+conclusive reasons which induced me, at an early period, to recommend
+the adoption of the measure, in the most earnest and serious manner.
+As the proceedings of congress, the army, and myself, are open to all,
+and contain, in my opinion, sufficient information to remove the
+prejudices, and errors, which may have been entertained by any, I
+think it unnecessary to say any thing more than just to observe, that
+the resolutions of congress now alluded to, are undoubtedly as
+absolutely binding upon the United States, as the most solemn acts of
+confederation or legislation. As to the idea which I am informed, has
+in some instances prevailed, that the half pay and commutation are to
+be regarded merely in the odious light of a pension, it ought to be
+exploded for ever. That provision should be viewed as it really was, a
+reasonable compensation offered by congress, at a time when they had
+nothing else to give to the officers of the army, for services then to
+be performed. It was the only means to prevent a total dereliction of
+the service.&#8212;It was a part of their hire.&#8212;I may be allowed to say it
+was the price of their blood, and of your independence. It is
+therefore more than a common debt; it is a debt of honour. It can
+never be considered as a pension, or gratuity; nor be cancelled until
+it is fairly discharged.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;With regard to a distinction between officers and soldiers, it is
+sufficient that the uniform experience of every nation of the world,
+combined with your own, proves the utility and propriety of the
+discrimination. Rewards in proportion to the aids the public derives
+from them, are unquestionably due to all its servants. In some lines,
+the soldiers have perhaps generally had as ample a compensation for
+their services, by the large bounties which have been paid to them, as
+their officers will receive in the proposed commutation; in others, if
+besides the donation of lands, the payment of arrearages, of clothing
+and wages, (in which articles all the component parts of the army must
+be put upon the same footing,) we take into the estimate the bounties
+many of the soldiers have received, and the gratuity of one year's
+full pay which is promised to all, possibly their situation (every
+circumstance duly considered) will not be deemed less eligible than
+that of the officers. Should a further reward, however, be judged
+equitable, I will venture to assert, no one will enjoy greater
+satisfaction than myself, on seeing an exemption from taxes for a
+limited time, (which has been petitioned for in some instances,) or
+any other adequate immunity or compensation, granted to the brave
+defenders of their country's cause. But neither the adoption nor
+rejection of this proposition will in any manner affect, much less
+militate against, the act of congress, by which they have offered five
+years full pay, in lieu of the half pay for life, which had been
+before promised to the officers of the army.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Before I conclude the subject of public justice, I can not omit to
+mention the obligations this country is under to that meritorious
+class of veteran non-commissioned officers and privates who have been
+discharged for inability, in consequence of the resolution of congress
+of the 23d April, 1782, on an annual pension for life. Their peculiar
+sufferings, their singular merits, and claims to that provision, need
+only be known, to interest all the feelings of humanity in their
+behalf. Nothing but a punctual payment of their annual allowance can
+rescue them from the most complicated misery, and nothing could be a
+more melancholy and distressing sight, than to behold those who have
+shed their blood or lost their limbs in the service of their country,
+without a shelter, without a friend, and without the means of
+obtaining any of the necessaries or comforts of life; compelled to beg
+their daily bread from door to door. Surfer me to recommend those of
+this description, belonging to your state, to the warmest patronage of
+your excellency and your legislature.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It is necessary to say but a few words on the third topic which was
+proposed, and which regards particularly the defence of the republic,
+as there can be little doubt but congress will recommend a proper
+peace establishment for the United States, in which a due attention
+will be paid to the importance of placing the militia of the union
+upon a regular and respectable footing. If this should be the case, I
+would beg leave to urge the great advantage of it in the strongest
+terms. The militia of this country must be considered as the palladium
+of our security, and the first effectual resort in case of hostility.
+It is essential, therefore, that the same system should pervade the
+whole; that the formation and discipline of the militia of the
+continent should be absolutely uniform, and that the same species of
+arms, accoutrements, and military apparatus should be introduced in
+every part of the United States. No one who has not learned it from
+experience, can conceive the difficulty, expense, and confusion, which
+result from a contrary system, or the vague arrangements which have
+hitherto prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;If in treating of political points, a greater latitude than usual has
+been taken in the course of this address, the importance of the
+crisis, and magnitude of the objects in discussion, must be my
+apology. It is, however, neither my wish nor expectation, that the
+preceding observations should claim any regard, except so far as they
+shall appear to be dictated by a good intention, consonant to the
+immediate rules of justice, calculated to produce a liberal system of
+policy, and founded on whatever experience may have been acquired by a
+long and close attention to public business. Here I might speak with
+the more confidence, from my actual observations; and, if it would not
+swell this letter (already too prolix) beyond the bounds I had
+prescribed myself, I could demonstrate to every mind open to
+conviction, that in less time, and with much less expense than has
+been incurred, the war might have been brought to the same happy
+conclusion, if the resources of the continent could have been properly
+drawn forth; that the distresses and disappointments which have very
+often occurred, have, in too many instances, resulted more from a want
+of energy in the continental government, than a deficiency of means in
+the particular states: that the inefficacy of measures, arising from
+the want of an adequate authority in the supreme power, from a partial
+compliance with the requisitions of congress in some of the states,
+and from a failure of punctuality in others, while it tended to damp
+the zeal of those which were more willing to exert themselves, served
+also to accumulate the expenses of the war, and to frustrate the best
+concerted plans; and that the discouragement occasioned by the
+complicated difficulties and embarrassments in which our affairs were
+by this means involved, would have long ago produced the dissolution
+of any army less patient, less virtuous, and less persevering, than
+that which I have had the honour to command. But while I mention these
+things which are notorious facts, as the defects of our federal
+constitution, particularly in the prosecution of a war, I beg it may
+be understood, that as I have ever taken a pleasure in gratefully
+acknowledging the assistance and support I have derived from every
+class of citizens, so shall I always be happy to do justice to the
+unparalleled exertions of the individual states, on many interesting
+occasions.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I have thus freely disclosed what I wished to make known before I
+surrendered up my public trust to those who committed it to me. The
+task is now accomplished. I now bid adieu to your excellency as the
+chief magistrate of your state; at the same time I bid a last farewell
+to the cares of office and all the employments of public life.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It remains then to be my final and only request, that your excellency
+will communicate these sentiments to your legislature at their next
+meeting; and that they may be considered as the legacy of one who has
+ardently wished, on all occasions, to be useful to his country; and
+who, even in the shade of retirement, will not fail to implore the
+divine benediction upon it.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I now make it my earnest prayer that God would have you, and the
+state over which you preside, in his holy protection, that he would
+incline the hearts of the citizens to cultivate a spirit of
+subordination and obedience to government; to entertain a brotherly
+affection and love for one another, for their fellow citizens of the
+United States at large, and particularly for their brethren who have
+served in the field, and finally, that he would most graciously be
+pleased to dispose us all to do justice, to love mercy, and to demean
+ourselves with that charity, humility, and pacific temper of mind,
+which were the characteristics of the Divine Author of our blessed
+religion; without an humble imitation of whose example in these things
+we can never hope to be a happy nation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The impression made by this solemn and affecting admonition could not
+be surpassed. The circumstances under which it was given, added to the
+veneration with which it was received; and, like the counsel of a
+parent on whom the grave is about to close forever, it sunk deep into
+the hearts of all. But, like the counsels of a parent withdrawn from
+view, the advice was too soon forgotten, and the impression it had
+made was too soon effaced.</p>
+
+<p>The recommendations of congress did not receive that prompt
+consideration which the public exigence demanded, nor did they meet
+that universal assent which was necessary to give them effect.</p>
+
+<p>Not immediately perceiving that the error lay in a system which was
+unfit for use, the distinguished patriots of the revolution
+contemplated with increasing anxiety, the anti-American temper which
+displayed itself in almost every part of the union. The letters
+addressed to the late Commander-in-chief, by many of those who had
+borne a conspicuous part in the arduous struggle for independence,
+manifest the disappointment and chagrin occasioned by this temper. The
+venerable Trumbull, who had rendered great service to the cause of
+united America; who, like Washington, had supported the burden of
+office throughout a hazardous contest, and like Washington, had
+determined to withdraw from the cares of a public station when that
+contest should be terminated, in a letter communicating to his friend
+and compatriot the resolution he had taken, thus disclosed the fears
+which the dispositions manifested by many of his countrymen inspired.
+&quot;The fruits of our peace and independence do not at present wear so
+promising an appearance as I had fondly painted to my mind. The
+prejudices, the jealousies, and turbulence of the people, at times,
+almost stagger my confidence in our political establishments; and
+almost occasion me to think that they will show themselves unworthy of
+the noble prize for which we have contended, and which, I had pleased
+myself with the hope, we were so near enjoying. But again, I check
+this rising impatience, and console myself under the present prospect
+with the consideration, that the same beneficent and wise Providence
+which has done so much for this country, will not eventually leave us
+to ruin our own happiness, to become the sport of chance, or the scoff
+of a once admiring world; but that great things are yet in store for
+this people, which time, and the wisdom of the Great Director will
+produce in its best season.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It is indeed a pleasure,&quot; said General Washington in reply, &quot;from the
+walks of private life to view in retrospect the difficulties through
+which we have waded, and the happy haven into which our ship has been
+brought. Is it possible after this that it should founder? will not
+the all wise and all powerful Director of human events preserve it? I
+think he will. He may, however, for some wise purpose of his own,
+suffer our indiscretions and folly to place our national character low
+in the political scale;&#8212;and this, unless more wisdom and less
+prejudice take the lead in our government, will most certainly
+happen.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>That the imbecility of the federal government, the impotence of its
+requisitions, and the inattention of some of the states to its
+recommendations, would, in the estimation of the world, abase the
+American character, could scarcely be termed a prediction. That course
+of national degradation had already commenced.</p>
+
+<p>As the system recommended to the states on the 18th of April, 1783,
+had been matured by the best wisdom in the federal councils, a
+compliance with it was the last hope of the government; and congress
+continued to urge its adoption on the several states. While its fate
+remain undecided, requisitions for the intermediate supply of the
+national demands were annually repeated, and were annually neglected.
+Happily, a loan had been negotiated in Holland by Mr. Adams, after the
+termination of the war, out of which the interest of the foreign debt
+had been partly paid; but that fund was exhausted, and the United
+States possessed no means of replacing it. Unable to pay the interest,
+they would, in the course of the succeeding year, be liable for the
+first instalment of the principal; and the humiliating circumstance
+was to be encountered of a total failure to comply with the most
+solemn engagements, unaccompanied with the prospect of being enabled
+to give assurances, that, at any future time, their situation would be
+more eligible. If the condition of the domestic creditors was not
+absolutely desperate, the prospect of obtaining satisfaction for their
+claims was so distant and uncertain, that their evidences of debt were
+transferred at an eighth, and even at a tenth of their nominal value.
+The distress consequent on this depreciation was great and afflicting.
+&quot;The requisitions of congress for eight years past,&quot; say the committee
+in February, 1786, to whom the subject of the revenue had been
+referred, &quot;have been so irregular in their operation, so uncertain in
+their collection, and so evidently unproductive, that a reliance on
+them in future as a source from whence moneys are to be drawn to
+discharge the engagements of the confederacy, definite as they are in
+time and amount, would be not less dishonourable to the understandings
+of those who entertain such confidence, than it would be dangerous to
+the welfare and peace of the union.&quot; Under public embarrassments which
+were daily increasing, it had become, it was said, &quot;the duty of
+congress to declare most explicitly that the crisis <i>had</i> arrived,
+when the people of the United States, by whose will, and for whose
+benefit, the federal government was instituted, must decide whether
+they will support their rank as a nation, by maintaining the public
+faith at home and abroad, or whether, for want of a timely exertion in
+establishing a general revenue, and thereby giving strength to the
+confederacy, they will hazard not only the existence of the union, but
+of those great and invaluable privileges for which they have so
+arduously and so honourably contended.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The revenue system of the 18th of April, 1783, was again solemnly
+recommended to the consideration of the several states, and their
+unanimous and early accession to it was declared to be the only
+measure which could enable congress to preserve the public faith, and
+to avoid the fatal evils which will inevitably flow from &quot;a violation
+of those principles of justice which are the only solid basis of the
+honour and prosperity of nations.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In framing this system, a revenue adequate to the funding of the whole
+national debt had been contemplated, and no part of it was to go into
+operation until the whole should be adopted. By suspending partial
+relief to the pressing necessities of the government, it was believed
+that complete relief would be the more certainly secured.</p>
+
+<p>The enlightened and virtuous statesmen with whom that measure
+originated, thought it impossible that their countrymen would be so
+unmindful of the obligations of honour and of justice, or could so
+mistake their real interests, as to withhold their assent from the
+entire plan, if convinced that no partial compliance with it would be
+received. In the progress of the business, however, there was reason
+to believe that the impost might be conceded, but that the application
+for internal taxes would encounter difficulties not to be surmounted.
+In the impoverished state of the federal treasury, an incompetent
+revenue was preferred to no revenue; and it was deemed more adviseable
+to accept a partial compliance with the recommendations of congress,
+than, by inflexibly adhering to the integrity of the system, to lose
+the whole. The states therefore, were requested to enable congress,
+&quot;to carry into effect that part which related to impost so soon as it
+should be acceded to.&quot; In the course of the year 1786, every state in
+the union had acted upon the recommendation, and, with the exception
+of New York, had granted the impost duty which had been required. New
+York had passed an act upon the subject; but, influenced by its
+jealousy of the federal government, had not vested in congress the
+power of collection, but had reserved to itself the sole right of
+levying the duties according to its own laws. Neither did the act
+permit the collectors to be made accountable to congress. To the state
+only were they amenable. In addition to these deviations from the plan
+recommended, New York had emitted bills of credit, which were liable
+to depreciation, and in them the duties were payable. As the failure
+on the part of this single state, suspended the operation of the
+grants made by all the others, the executive thereof was requested
+again to convene the legislature, in order to lay the subject once
+more before them. To a similar resolution Governor Clinton had already
+replied, that &quot;he had not power to convene the legislature before the
+time fixed by law for their stated meeting, except on extraordinary
+occasions, and as the present business proposed for their
+consideration had already been repeatedly laid before them, and so
+recently as at their last session had received their determination, it
+could not come within that description.&quot; This second resolution was
+not more successful than that which preceded it, and thus was finally
+defeated the laborious and persevering effort made by the federal
+government to obtain from the states the means of preserving, in whole
+or in part, the faith of the nation. General Washington's letters of
+that period abound with passages showing the solicitude with which he
+watched the progress of this recommendation, and the chagrin with
+which he viewed the obstacles to its adoption. In a letter of October,
+1785, he said, &quot;the war, as you have very justly observed, has
+terminated most advantageously for America, and a fair field is
+presented to our view; but I confess to you freely, my dear sir, that
+I do not think we possess wisdom or justice enough to cultivate it
+properly. Illiberality, jealousy, and local policy, mix too much in
+our public councils, for the good government of the union. In a word,
+the confederation appears to me to be little more than a shadow
+without the substance; and congress a nugatory body, their ordinances
+being little attended to. To <i>me</i>, it is a solecism in
+politics:&#8212;indeed it is one of the most extraordinary things in
+nature, that we should confederate as a nation, and yet be afraid to
+give the rulers of that nation, who are the creatures of our own
+making, appointed for a limited and short duration, and who are
+amenable for every action, recallable at any moment, and subject to
+all the evils which they may be instrumental in producing,&#8212;sufficient
+powers to order and direct the affairs of the same. By such policy as
+this, the wheels of government are clogged, and our brightest
+prospects, and that high expectation which was entertained of us by
+the wondering world, are turned into astonishment; and from the high
+ground on which we stood, we are descending into the vale of confusion
+and darkness.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;That we have it in our power to become one of the most respectable
+nations upon earth, admits, in my humble opinion, of no doubt, if we
+would but pursue a wise, just, and liberal policy towards one another,
+and would keep good faith with the rest of the world:&#8212;that our
+resources are ample and increasing, none can deny; but while they are
+grudgingly applied, or not applied at all, we give a vital stab to
+public faith, and will sink in the eyes of Europe, into contempt.&quot;</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Differences between Great Britain and the United States....
+Mr. Adams appointed minister to Great Britain....
+Discontents excited by the commercial regulations of
+Britain.... Parties in the United States.... The convention
+at Annapolis.... Virginia appoints deputies to a convention
+at Philadelphia.... General Washington chosen one of
+them.... Insurrection at Massachusetts.... Convention at
+Philadelphia.... A form of government submitted to the
+respective states, as ratified by eleven of them....
+Correspondence of General Washington respecting the chief
+magistracy.... He is elected president.... Meeting of the
+first congress.</b></p></div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1783 to 1787</div>
+
+<p><span class="lgsmcap">While</span> the friends of the national government were making these
+unavailing efforts to invest it with a revenue which might enable it
+to preserve the national faith, many causes concurred to prepare the
+public mind for some great and radical change in the political system
+of America.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Misunderstandings between Great Britain and the United
+States.</div>
+
+<p>Scarcely had the war of the revolution terminated, when the United
+States and Great Britain reciprocally charged each other with
+violations of the treaty of peace. On the construction of that part of
+the seventh article which stipulates against the &quot;destruction or
+carrying away of any negroes, or other property of the American
+inhabitants,&quot; a serious difference of opinion prevailed which could
+not be easily accommodated. As men seldom allow much weight to the
+reasoning of an adversary, the construction put upon that article by
+the cabinet of London was generally treated in America as a mere
+evasion; and the removal of the negroes who had joined the British
+army on the faith of a proclamation offering them freedom, was
+considered as a flagrant breach of faith. In addition to this
+circumstance, the troops of his Britannic Majesty still retained
+possession of the posts on the American side of the great lakes. As
+those posts gave their possessors a decided influence over the warlike
+tribes of Indians in their neighbourhood, this was a subject to which
+the United States were peculiarly sensible.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the United States were charged with infringing the
+fourth, fifth, and sixth articles, which contain agreements respecting
+the payment of debts, the confiscation of property, and prosecution of
+individuals for the part taken by them during the war.</p>
+
+<p><a name="p179">On</a> the 14th of January, 1784, the day on which the definitive articles
+were ratified, congress passed a resolution containing a
+recommendation in the words of the treaty, respecting confiscated
+property, which was transmitted without delay to the several states.
+They considered this resolution as merely formal; and contended that
+neither the American nor the British government expected from it any
+beneficial results. But other stipulations which are explicit, the
+performance of which was not to rest on the recommendation of the
+government, especially that respecting the payment of debts, were also
+neglected. These causes of mutual complaint being permitted to rankle
+for some time in the bosoms of both nations, produced a considerable
+degree of irritation. The British merchants had large credits in
+America. Those engaged in the colonial trade had been nearly ruined by
+the rupture between the two countries; and, without taking into the
+account the embarrassments in which the war had involved their
+debtors, they calculated, after the restoration of peace, on the
+prompt collection of the vast sums which were due to them. But the
+impediments to the recovery of debts were, in many instances,
+permitted to remain; and the dispositions manifested by those states
+in which they were chiefly due, did not authorize a belief that any
+favourable change of measures was about to take place. The complaints
+of the creditors were loud and incessant. They openly charged the
+American government with violating the most solemn obligations which
+public and private contract could create; and this charge affected the
+national character the more seriously, because the terms of the treaty
+were universally deemed highly advantageous to the United States. The
+recriminations on the part of individuals in America, were also
+uttered with the angry vehemence of men who believe themselves to be
+suffering unprovoked injuries. The negroes in possession of the
+British armies at the restoration of peace, belonged, in many cases,
+to actual debtors; and in all, to persons who required the labour of
+which they were thus deprived, to repair the multiplied losses
+produced by the war. To the detention of the posts on the lakes was
+ascribed the hostile temper manifested by the Indians; and thus, to
+the indignity of permitting a foreign power to maintain garrisons
+within the limits of the nation, were superadded the murders
+perpetrated by the savages, and the consequent difficulty of settling
+the fertile and vacant lands of the west.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> On the north-eastern
+frontier too, the British were charged with making encroachments on
+the territory of the United States. On that side, the river St. Croix,
+from its source to its mouth in the bay of Passamaquoddy, is the
+boundary between the two nations. Three rivers of that name empty into
+the bay. The Americans claimed the most eastern, as the real St.
+Croix, while settlements were actually made under the authority of the
+government of Nova Scotia to the middle river, and the town of St.
+Andrews was established on its banks.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mr. Adams appointed to negotiate with the British cabinet.</div>
+
+<p>But the cause of most extensive disquiet was the rigorous commercial
+system pursued by Great Britain. While colonists, the Americans had
+carried on a free and gainful trade with the British West Indies.
+Those ports were closed against them as citizens of an independent
+state; and their accustomed intercourse with other parts of the empire
+also was interrupted by the navigation act. To explore new channels
+for the commerce of the nation was, in the actual state of things,
+opposed by obstacles which almost discouraged the attempt. On every
+side they met with rigorous and unlooked for restrictions. Their trade
+with the colonies of other powers, as well as with those of England,
+was prohibited; and in all the ports of Europe they encountered
+regulations which were extremely embarrassing. From the Mediterranean,
+they were excluded by the Barbary powers, whose hostility they had no
+force to subdue, and whose friendship they had no money to purchase.
+Thus, the characteristic enterprise of their merchants, which, in
+better times, has displayed their flag in every ocean, was then in a
+great measure restrained from exerting itself by the scantiness of
+their means. These commercial difficulties suggested the idea of
+compelling Great Britain to relax the rigour of her system, by
+opposing it with regulations equally restrictive; but to render
+success in such a conflict possible, it was necessary that the whole
+power of regulating commerce should reside in a single legislature.
+Few were so sanguine as to hope that thirteen independent governments,
+jealous of each other, could be induced to concur for a length of
+time, in measures capable of producing the desired effect. With many,
+therefore, the desire of counteracting a system which appeared to them
+so injurious, triumphed over their attachment to state sovereignty;
+and the converts to the opinion that congress ought to be empowered to
+regulate trade, were daily multiplied. Meanwhile, the United States
+were unremitting in their endeavours to form commercial treaties in
+Europe. Three commissioners had been appointed for that purpose; and
+at length, as the trade with England was peculiarly important, and the
+growing misunderstandings between the two countries threatened serious
+consequences should their adjustment be much longer delayed, Mr. John
+Adams was appointed minister plenipotentiary to the court of St.
+James. His endeavours to form a commercial treaty were not successful.
+His overtures were declined by the cabinet of London, because the
+government of the United States was unable to secure the observance of
+any general commercial regulations; and it was deemed unwise to enter
+into stipulations which could not be of reciprocal obligation. In
+fact, it is not probable that, had even this difficulty been
+surmounted, Britain could have been induced to grant advantages that
+would have been satisfactory to America. The latter expected great
+relaxations of the navigation act, and a free admission into the
+colonies of the former; and believed its commerce of sufficient
+importance to obtain these objects, if it could be regulated by a
+single legislature. The reflecting part of America did not require
+this additional evidence of the sacrifice which had been made of
+national interest on the altars of state jealousy, to demonstrate the
+defectiveness of the existing system. On the mind of no person had
+this impression been more strongly made, than on that of General
+Washington. His extensive correspondence bears ample testimony to the
+solicitude with which he contemplated the proceedings of the states on
+this interesting subject.</p>
+
+<p>The opinion he sought to inculcate was, that the trade between the
+United States and Great Britain was equally important to each; and
+therefore, that a commercial intercourse between the two nations might
+be established on equal terms, if the political arrangements in
+America would enable its government to guard its interests; but
+without such arrangements, those interests could not be protected, and
+America must appear in a very contemptible point of view to those with
+whom she was endeavouring to form commercial treaties, without
+possessing the means of carrying them into effect:&#8212;who &quot;must see and
+feel that the union, or the states individually are sovereign as best
+suits their purposes:&#8212;in a word, that we are one nation to day, and
+thirteen to-morrow. Who,&quot; he added, &quot;will treat with us on such
+terms?&quot;</p>
+
+<p>About this time, General Washington received a long and affectionate
+letter from the Marquis de Lafayette, who had just returned from a
+tour through the north of Europe. In communicating the occurrences at
+the courts he had visited, and especially at that of Prussia, whose
+aged and distinguished monarch, uniting the acquirements of the
+scholar and the statesman with the most profound skill in the art of
+war, could confer either literary or military fame, he dwelt with
+enthusiasm on the plaudits which were universally bestowed on his
+military patron and paternal friend. &quot;I wish,&quot; he added, &quot;the other
+sentiments I have had occasion to discover with respect to America,
+were equally satisfactory with those that are personal to yourself. I
+need not say that the spirit, the firmness, with which the revolution
+was conducted, has excited universal admiration:&#8212;That every friend to
+the rights of mankind is an enthusiast for the principles on which
+those constitutions are built:&#8212;but I have often had the mortification
+to hear, that the want of powers in congress, of union between the
+states, of energy in their government, would make the confederation
+very insignificant. By their conduct in the revolution,&quot; he added,
+&quot;the citizens of America have commanded the respect of the world; but
+it grieves me to think they will in a measure lose it, unless they
+strengthen the confederation, give congress power to regulate their
+trade, pay off their debt, or at least the interest of it, establish a
+well regulated militia, and, in a word, complete all those measures
+which you have recommended to them.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Unhappily for us,&quot; said the general in reply, &quot;though the reports you
+mention are greatly exaggerated, our conduct has laid the foundation
+for them. It is one of the evils of democratic governments, that the
+people, not always seeing, and frequently misled, must often feel
+before they act right. But evils of this nature seldom fail to work
+their own cure. It is to be lamented, nevertheless, that the remedies
+are so slow, and that those who wish to apply them seasonably, are not
+attended to before they suffer in person, in interest, and in
+reputation. I am not without hopes that matters will soon take a
+favourable turn in the federal constitution. The discerning part of
+the community have long since seen the necessity of giving adequate
+powers to congress for national purposes, and those of a different
+description must yield to it ere long.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Discontents of the Americans against the commercial
+regulations of Britain.</div>
+
+<p>While the recommendation of the 30th of April, 1784, was before the
+states, many causes contributed to diffuse through the community such
+a general dissatisfaction with the existing state of things, as to
+prepare the way for some essential change in the American system. In
+the course of the long war which had been carried on in the bosom of
+their country, the people of the United States had been greatly
+impoverished. Their property had been seized for the support of both
+armies; and much of their labour had been drawn from agriculture for
+the performance of military service. The naval power of their enemy
+had almost annihilated their commerce; from which resulted the
+two-fold calamity, that imported commodities were enhanced to an
+enormous price, while those for exportation were reduced much below
+their ordinary value. The inevitable consequence was, that those
+consumable articles which habit had rendered necessary, were
+exhausted; and peace found the American people, not only destitute of
+the elegancies, and even of the conveniences of life, but also without
+the means of procuring them, otherwise than by anticipating the
+proceeds of future industry. On opening their ports, an immense
+quantity of foreign merchandise was introduced into the country, and
+they were tempted by the sudden cheapness of imported goods, and by
+their own wants, to purchase beyond their capacities for payment. Into
+this indiscretion, they were in some measure beguiled by their own
+sanguine calculations on the value which a free trade would bestow on
+the produce of their soil, and by a reliance on those evidences of the
+public debt which were in the hands of most of them. So extravagantly
+too did many estimate the temptation which equal liberty and vacant
+lands would hold out to emigrants from the old world, as to entertain
+the opinion that Europe was about to empty itself into America, and
+that the United States would derive from that source such an increase
+of population, as would enhance their lands to a price heretofore not
+even conjectured. Co-operating with the cause last mentioned, was the
+impression which had been made by paper money on public morals, and on
+public opinion. It had not escaped observation that every purchaser on
+credit, however excessive the price might apparently be, had not only
+been relieved by the depreciation, but had derived great gains from
+his contract. Speculating on a similar course of things, many
+individuals had made extensive purchases at high prices; and had thus
+contributed to continue for a time, the deception imposed on
+themselves by those who supposed that the revolution was a talisman,
+whose magic powers were capable of changing the nature of things. The
+delusive hopes created by these visionary calculations were soon
+dissipated, and a great proportion of the inhabitants found themselves
+involved in debts they were unable to discharge. One of the
+consequences resulting from this unprosperous state of things was a
+general discontent with the course of trade. It had commenced with the
+native merchants of the north, who found themselves incapable of
+contending in their own ports with foreigners; and was soon
+communicated to others. The gazettes of Boston contained some very
+animated and angry addresses, which produced resolutions for the
+government of the citizens of that town, applications to their state
+legislature, a petition to congress, and a circular letter to the
+merchants of the several sea-ports throughout the United States. After
+detailing the disadvantages under which the trade and navigation of
+America laboured, and expressing their confidence that the necessary
+powers to the federal government would be soon, if not already,
+delegated, the petition to congress thus concludes: &quot;Impressed with
+these ideas, your petitioners beg leave to request of the very august
+body which they have now the honour to address, that the numerous
+impositions of the British, on the trade and exports of these states,
+may be forthwith contravened by similar expedients on our part: else
+may it please your excellency and honours, the commerce of this
+country, and of consequence its wealth, and perhaps the union itself,
+may become victims to the artifice of a nation whose arms have been in
+vain exerted to accomplish the ruin of America.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The merchants of the city of Philadelphia presented a memorial to the
+legislature of that state, in which, after lamenting it as a
+fundamental defect in the constitution that full and entire power over
+the commerce of the United States had not been originally vested in
+congress, &quot;as no concern common to many could be conducted to a good
+end, but by a unity of councils;&quot; they say, &quot;hence it is that the
+intercourses of the states are liable to be perplexed and injured by
+various and discordant regulations, instead of that harmony of
+measures on which the particular, as well as general interests depend;
+productive of mutual disgusts, and alienation among the several
+members of the empire.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;But the more certain inconveniences foreseen and now experimentally
+felt, flow from the unequal footing this circumstance puts us on with
+other nations, and by which we stand in a very singular and
+disadvantageous situation; for while the whole of our trade is laid
+open to these nations, they are at liberty to limit us to such
+branches of theirs as interest or policy may dictate:&#8212;unrestrained by
+any apprehensions, as long as the power remains severally with the
+states, of being met and opposed by any consistent and effectual
+restrictions on our part.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This memorial prayed that the legislature would endeavour to procure
+from congress, a recommendation to the several states, to vest in that
+body the necessary powers over the commerce of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>It was immediately taken into consideration, and resolutions were
+passed conforming to its prayer. Similar applications were made by
+other commercial towns.</p>
+
+<p>From these proceedings, and from the general representations made by
+the American merchants, General Washington had augured the most happy
+effects.</p>
+
+<p>In a letter to the Marquis de Lafayette, he thus expressed his hope of
+the consequences which would attend the efforts then making to enlarge
+the powers of congress. &quot;However unimportant America may be considered
+at present, and however Britain may affect to despise her trade, there
+will assuredly come a day when this country will have some weight in
+the scale of empires.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>But a concurrence of the states in granting to the general government
+the beneficial powers in question, was not so near being effected as
+was hoped by its friends. A resolution was moved in congress,
+recommending it to the several states to vest in that body full
+authority to regulate their commerce, both external and internal, and
+to impose such duties as might be necessary for that purpose. This
+power was to be fettered with several extraordinary limitations, which
+might render it more acceptable to the governments who were asked to
+bestow it, among which was a provision that the duties should be
+&quot;collectible under the authority, and accrue to the use of the state
+in which the same should be made payable.&quot; Notwithstanding these
+restrictions, marking the keen sighted jealousy with which any
+diminution of state sovereignty was watched, this resolution
+encountered much opposition even in congress.</p>
+
+<p>During these transactions, the public attention was called to another
+subject which served to impress still more powerfully on every
+reflecting mind, the necessity of enlarging the powers of the general
+government, were it only to give efficacy to those which in theory it
+already possessed.</p>
+
+<p>The uneasiness occasioned by the infractions of the treaty of peace on
+the part of Great Britain, has been already noticed. To obtain its
+complete execution, constituted one of the objects for which Mr. Adams
+had been deputed to the court of St. James. A memorial presented by
+that minister in December, 1785, urging the complaints of America, and
+pressing for a full compliance with the treaty, was answered by an
+enumeration of the violations of that compact on the part of the
+United States. The Marquis of Carmarthen acknowledged explicitly the
+obligation created by the seventh article to withdraw the British
+garrisons from every post within the United States; but insisted that
+the obligation created by the fourth article, to remove every lawful
+impediment to the recovery of <i>bona fide</i> debts, was equally clear and
+explicit.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The engagements entered into by a treaty ought,&quot; he said, &quot;to be
+mutual, and equally binding on the respective contracting parties. It
+would, therefore, be the height of folly as well as injustice, to
+suppose one party alone obliged to a strict observance of the public
+faith, while the other might remain free to deviate from its own
+engagements as often as convenience might render such deviation
+necessary, though at the expense of its own credit and importance.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>He concluded with the assurance, &quot;that whenever America should
+manifest a real determination to fulfil her part of the treaty, Great
+Britain would not hesitate to prove her sincerity to co-operate in
+whatever points depended upon her, for carrying every article of it
+into real and complete effect.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This letter was accompanied by a statement of the infractions of the
+fourth article.</p>
+
+<p>Copies of both documents were immediately transmitted by Mr. Adams to
+congress, by whom they were referred to Mr. Jay, the secretary for
+foreign affairs. The report of that upright minister did not, by
+contravening facts, affect to exculpate his country. &quot;Some of the
+facts,&quot; said he in a letter to General Washington, written after
+permission to communicate the papers had been given, &quot;are inaccurately
+stated and improperly coloured; but it is too true that the treaty has
+been violated. On such occasions, I think it better fairly to confess
+and correct errors, than attempt to deceive ourselves and others, by
+fallacious though plausible palliations and excuses.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;To oppose popular prejudices, to censure the proceedings and expose
+the impropriety of states, is an unpleasant task, but it must be
+done.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>That the United States might with reason be required to fulfil the
+treaty before they could entitle themselves to demand a strict
+performance of it on the part of Great Britain, was a position the
+propriety of which they were prevented from contesting by the
+miserably defective organization of the government. If their treaties
+were obligatory in theory, the inability of congress to enforce their
+execution had been demonstrated in practice. Restrained by this defect
+in the constitution from insisting that the evacuation of the western
+posts should precede the removal of the impediments to the <i>bona fide</i>
+execution of the treaty on the part of America, government exerted its
+earnest endeavours to prevail on the several states to repeal all
+existing laws which might be repugnant to that compact. The
+resolutions which were passed on that subject, and the circular
+letters which accompanied them to the several governors, contain
+arguments which ought to have demonstrated to all, the constitutional
+obligation of a treaty negotiated under the authority of congress, and
+the real policy, as well as the moral duty of faithfully executing
+that which had been formed with Great Britain. To the deep
+mortification of those who respected the character of the nation,
+these earnest representations did not produce the effect which was
+expected from them. &quot;It was impolitic and unfortunate, if not unjust
+in these states,&quot; said General Washington to a member of congress by
+whom the objectionable conduct of America was first intimated to him,
+&quot;to pass laws which by fair construction might be considered as
+infractions of the treaty of peace. It is good policy at all times to
+place one's adversary in the wrong. Had we observed good faith, and
+the western posts had been withheld from us by Great Britain, we might
+have appealed to God and man for justice.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;What a misfortune it is,&quot; said he in reply to the secretary for
+foreign affairs, &quot;that the British should have so well grounded a
+pretext for their palpable infractions, and what a disgraceful part,
+out of the choice of difficulties before us, are we to act!&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rise of parties in the United States.</div>
+
+<p>The discontents arising from the embarrassments in which individuals
+were involved, continued to increase. At length, two great parties
+were formed in every state, which were distinctly marked, and which
+pursued distinct objects, with systematic arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>The one struggled with unabated zeal for the exact observance of
+public and private engagements. By those belonging to it, the faith of
+a nation, or of a private man was deemed a sacred pledge, the
+violation of which was equally forbidden by the principles of moral
+justice, and of sound policy. The distresses of individuals were, they
+thought, to be alleviated only by industry and frugality, not by a
+relaxation of the laws, or by a sacrifice of the rights of others.
+They were consequently the uniform friends of a regular administration
+of justice, and of a vigorous course of taxation which would enable
+the state to comply with its engagements. By a natural association of
+ideas, they were also, with very few exceptions, in favour of
+enlarging the powers of the federal government, and of enabling it to
+protect the dignity and character of the nation abroad, and its
+interests at home.</p>
+
+<p>The other party marked out for themselves a more indulgent course.
+Viewing with extreme tenderness the case of the debtor, their efforts
+were unceasingly directed to his relief. To exact a faithful
+compliance with contracts was, in their opinion, a harsh measure which
+the people would not bear. They were uniformly in favour of relaxing
+the administration of justice, of affording facilities for the payment
+of debts, or of suspending their collection, and of remitting taxes.
+The same course of opinion led them to resist every attempt to
+transfer from their own hands into those of congress, powers, which by
+others were deemed essential to the preservation of the union. In many
+of these states, the party last mentioned, constituted a decided
+majority of the people; and in all of them, it was very powerful. The
+emission of paper money, the delay of legal proceedings, and the
+suspension of the collection of taxes, were the fruits of their rule
+wherever they were completely predominant. Even where they failed to
+carry their measures, their strength was such as to encourage the hope
+of succeeding in a future attempt; and annual elections held forth to
+them the prospect of speedily repairing the loss of a favourite
+question. Throughout the union, the contest between these parties was
+periodically revived; and the public mind was perpetually agitated
+with hopes and fears on subjects which essentially affected the
+fortunes of a considerable proportion of the society.</p>
+
+<p>These contests were the more animated, because, in the state
+governments generally, no principle had been introduced which could
+resist the wild projects of the moment, give the people an opportunity
+to reflect, and allow the good sense of the nation time for exertion.
+This uncertainty with respect to measures of great importance to every
+member of the community, this instability in principles which ought,
+if possible, to be rendered immutable, produced a long train of ills;
+and is seriously believed to have been among the operating causes of
+those pecuniary embarrassments, which, at that time, were so general
+as to influence the legislation of almost every state in the union.
+Its direct consequence was the loss of confidence in the government,
+and in individuals. This, so far as respected the government, was
+peculiarly discernible in the value of state debts.</p>
+
+<p>The war having been conducted by nations in many respects independent
+of each other, the debts contracted in its prosecution were due, in
+part from the United States, and in part from the individual states
+who became immediately responsible to the creditors, retaining their
+claim against the government of the union for any balances which might
+appear to be due on a general settlement of accounts.</p>
+
+<p>That the debt of the United States should have greatly depreciated
+will excite no surprise, when it is recollected that the government of
+the union possessed no funds, and, without the assent of jealous and
+independent sovereigns, could acquire none, to pay the accruing
+interest: but the depreciation of the debt due from those states which
+made an annual and adequate provision for the interest, can be
+ascribed only to a want of confidence in governments which were
+controlled by no fixed principles; and it is therefore not entirely
+unworthy of attention. In many of those states which had repelled
+every attempt to introduce into circulation a depreciated medium of
+commerce, or to defeat the annual provision of funds for the payment
+of the interest, the debt sunk in value to ten, five, and even less
+than four shillings in the pound. However unexceptionable might be the
+conduct of the existing legislature, the hazard from those which were
+to follow was too great to be encountered without an immense premium.
+In private transactions, an astonishing degree of distrust also
+prevailed. The bonds of men whose ability to pay their debts was
+unquestionable, could not be negotiated but at a discount of thirty,
+forty, and fifty <i>per centum</i>: real property was scarcely vendible;
+and sales of any article for ready money could be made only at a
+ruinous loss. The prospect of extricating the country from these
+embarrassments was by no means flattering. Whilst every thing else
+fluctuated, some of the causes which produced this calamitous state of
+things were permanent. The hope and fear still remained, that the
+debtor party would obtain the victory at the elections; and instead of
+making the painful effort to obtain relief by industry and economy,
+many rested all their hopes on legislative interference. The mass of
+national labour, and of national wealth, was consequently diminished.
+In every quarter were found those who asserted it to be impossible for
+the people to pay their public or private debts; and in some
+instances, threats were uttered of suspending the administration of
+justice by violence.</p>
+
+<p>By the enlightened friends of republican government, this gloomy state
+of things was viewed with deep chagrin. Many became apprehensive that
+those plans from which so much happiness to the human race had been
+anticipated, would produce only real misery; and would maintain but a
+short and a turbulent existence. Meanwhile, the wise and thinking part
+of the community, who could trace evils to their source, laboured
+unceasingly to inculcate opinions favourable to the incorporation of
+some principles into the political system, which might correct the
+obvious vices, without endangering the free spirit of the existing
+institutions.</p>
+
+<p>While the advocates for union were exerting themselves to impress its
+necessity on the public mind, measures were taken in Virginia, which,
+though originating in different views, terminated in a proposition for
+a general convention to revise the state of the union.</p>
+
+<p>To form a compact relative to the navigation of the rivers Potomac and
+Pocomoke, and of part of the bay of Chesapeake, commissioners were
+appointed by the legislatures of Virginia and Maryland, who assembled
+in Alexandria, in March, 1785. While at Mount Vernon on a visit, they
+agreed to propose to their respective governments, the appointment of
+other commissioners, with power to make conjoint arrangements, to
+which the assent of congress was to be solicited, for maintaining a
+naval force in the Chesapeake; and to establish a tariff of duties on
+imports, to which the laws of both states should conform. When these
+propositions received the assent of the legislature of Virginia, an
+additional resolution was passed, directing that which respected the
+duties on imports to be communicated to all the states in the union,
+who were invited to send deputies to the meeting.</p>
+
+<p>On the 21st of January, 1786, a few days after the passage of these
+resolutions, another was adopted appointing certain commissioners,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+&quot;who were to meet such as might be appointed by the other states in
+the union, at a time and place to be agreed on, to take into
+consideration the trade of the United States; to examine the relative
+situation and trade of the said states; to consider how far a uniform
+system in their commercial relations may be necessary to their common
+interest, and their permanent harmony; and to report to the several
+states such an act relative to this great object, as, when unanimously
+ratified by them, will enable the United States in congress assembled
+effectually to provide for the same.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In the circular letter transmitting these resolutions to the
+respective states, Annapolis in Maryland was proposed as the place,
+and the ensuing September as the time of meeting.</p>
+
+<p>Before the arrival of the period at which these commissioners were to
+assemble, the idea was carried by those who saw and deplored the
+complicated calamities which flowed from the intricacy of the general
+government, much further than was avowed by the resolution of
+Virginia. &quot;Although,&quot; said one of the most conspicuous patriots<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> of
+the revolution, in a letter to General Washington, dated the 16th of
+March, 1786, &quot;you have wisely retired from public employments, and
+calmly view from the temple of fame, the various exertions of that
+sovereignty and independence which Providence has enabled you to be so
+greatly and gloriously instrumental in securing to your country, yet I
+am persuaded you can not view them with the eye of an unconcerned
+spectator.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Experience has pointed out errors in our national government which
+call for correction, and which threaten to blast the fruit we expected
+from our tree of liberty. The convention proposed by Virginia may do
+some good, and would perhaps do more, if it comprehended more objects.
+An opinion begins to prevail that a general convention for revising
+the articles of confederation would be expedient. Whether the people
+are yet ripe for such a measure, or whether the system proposed to be
+attained by it is only to be expected from calamity and commotion, is
+difficult to ascertain.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I think we are in a delicate situation, and a variety of
+considerations and circumstances give me uneasiness. It is in
+contemplation to take measures for forming a general convention. The
+plan is not matured. If it should be well connected and take effect, I
+am fervent in my wishes that it may comport with the line of life you
+have marked out for yourself, to favour your country with your
+counsels on such an important and <i>single</i> occasion. I suggest this
+merely as a hint for consideration.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In the moment of tranquillity, and of real or imaginary security, the
+mind delights to retrace the intricate path by which this point of
+repose has been attained. The patriots who accomplished that great
+revolution which has given to the American people a national
+government capable of maintaining the union of the states, and of
+preserving republican liberty, must be gratified with the review of
+that arduous and doubtful struggle, which terminated in the triumph of
+human reason, and the establishment of that government. Even to him
+who was not an actor in the busy scene, who enjoys the fruits of the
+labour without participating in the toils or the fears of the patriots
+who have preceded him, the sentiments entertained by the most
+enlightened and virtuous of America at the eventful period between the
+restoration of peace and the adoption of our present free and
+effective constitution, can not be uninteresting.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Our affairs,&quot; said the same gentleman in a letter of the 27th of
+June, &quot;seem to lead to some crisis, some revolution&#8212;something that I
+can not foresee or conjecture. I am uneasy and apprehensive, more so
+than during the war. <i>Then</i>, we had a fixed object, and though the
+means and time of obtaining it were often problematical, yet I did
+firmly believe that we should ultimately succeed, because I did firmly
+believe that justice was with us. The case is now altered; we are
+going, and doing wrong, and therefore I look forward to evils and
+calamities, but without being able to guess at the instrument, nature,
+or measure of them.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;That we shall again recover, and things again go well, I have no
+doubt. Such a variety of circumstances would not, almost miraculously,
+have combined to liberate and make us a nation, for transient and
+unimportant purposes. I therefore believe we are yet to become a great
+and respectable people&#8212;but when or how, only the spirit of prophecy
+can discern.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;There doubtless is much reason to think and to say that we are
+wofully, and, in many instances, wickedly misled. Private rage for
+property suppresses public considerations, and personal rather than
+national interests have become the great objects of attention.
+Representative bodies will ever be faithful copies of their originals,
+and generally exhibit a chequered assemblage of virtue and vice, of
+abilities and weakness. The mass of men are neither wise nor good, and
+the virtue, like the other resources of a country, can only be drawn
+to a point by strong circumstances, ably managed, or strong
+governments, ably administered. New governments have not the aid of
+habit and hereditary respect, and being generally the result of
+preceding tumult and confusion, do not immediately acquire stability
+or strength. Besides, in times of commotion, some men will gain
+confidence and importance who merit neither; and who, like political
+mountebanks, are less solicitous about the health of the credulous
+crowd, than about making the most of their nostrums and prescriptions.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;What I most fear is, that the better kind of people (by which I mean
+the people who are orderly and industrious, who are content with their
+situations, and not uneasy in their circumstances) will be led by the
+insecurity of property, the loss of confidence in their rulers, and
+the want of public faith and rectitude, to consider the charms of
+liberty as imaginary and delusive. A state of uncertainty and
+fluctuation must disgust and alarm such men, and prepare their minds
+for almost any change that may promise them quiet and security.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>To this interesting letter, General Washington made the following
+reply: &quot;Your sentiments that our affairs are drawing rapidly to a
+crisis, accord with my own. What the event will be is also beyond the
+reach of my foresight. We have errors to correct; we have probably had
+too good an opinion of human nature in forming our confederation.
+Experience has taught us that men will not adopt and carry into
+execution measures the best calculated for their own good, without the
+intervention of coercive power. I do not conceive we can exist long as
+a nation, without lodging somewhere a power which will pervade the
+whole union in as energetic a manner, as the authority of the state
+governments extends over the several states. To be fearful of
+investing congress, constituted as that body is, with ample
+authorities for national purposes, appears to me the very climax of
+popular absurdity and madness. Could congress exert them for the
+detriment of the people, without injuring themselves in an equal or
+greater proportion? Are not their interests inseparably connected with
+those of their constituents? By the rotation of appointment, must they
+not mingle frequently with the mass of citizens? Is it not rather to
+be apprehended, if they were possessed of the powers before described,
+that the individual members would be induced to use them, on many
+occasions, very timidly and inefficaciously, for fear of losing their
+popularity and future election? We must take human nature as we find
+it: perfection falls not to the share of mortals. Many are of opinion
+that congress have too frequently made use of the suppliant humble
+tone of requisition in applications to the states, when they had a
+right to assert their imperial dignity, and command obedience. Be that
+as it may, requisitions are a perfect nullity, where thirteen
+sovereign, independent, disunited states, are in the habit of
+discussing, and refusing or complying with them at their option.
+Requisitions are actually little better than a jest and a bye-word
+throughout the land. If you tell the legislatures they have violated
+the treaty of peace, and invaded the prerogatives of the confederacy,
+they will laugh in your face. What then is to be done? Things can not
+go on in the same train for ever. It is much to be feared, as you
+observe, that the better kind of people, being disgusted with these
+circumstances, will have their minds prepared for any revolution
+whatever. We are apt to run from one extreme into another. To
+anticipate and prevent disastrous contingencies, would be the part of
+wisdom and patriotism.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;What astonishing changes a few years are capable of producing! I am
+told that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical form of
+government without horror. From thinking, proceeds speaking, thence to
+acting is often but a single step. But how irrevocable and tremendous!
+what a triumph for our enemies to verify their predictions!&#8212;what a
+triumph for the advocates of despotism to find that we are incapable
+of governing ourselves, and that systems founded on the basis of equal
+liberty are merely ideal and fallacious! Would to God that wise
+measures may be taken in time to avert the consequences we have but
+too much reason to apprehend.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Retired as I am from the world, I frankly acknowledge I can not feel
+myself an unconcerned spectator. Yet having happily assisted in
+bringing the ship into port, and having been fairly discharged, it is
+not my business to embark again on a sea of troubles.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Nor could it be expected that my sentiments and opinions would have
+much weight on the minds of my countrymen.&#8212;They have been neglected,
+though given as a last legacy in the most solemn manner.&#8212;I had then
+perhaps some claims to public attention.&#8212;I consider myself as having
+none at present.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The convention at Annapolis.</div>
+
+<p>The convention at Annapolis was attended by commissioners from only
+six states.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> These, after appointing Mr. Dickinson their chairman,
+proceeded to discuss the objects for which they had convened.
+Perceiving that more ample powers would be required to effect the
+beneficial purposes which they contemplated, and hoping to procure a
+representation from a greater number of states, the convention
+determined to rise without coming to any specific resolutions on the
+particular subject which had been referred to them. Previous to their
+adjournment, however, they agreed on a report to be made to their
+respective states, in which they represented the necessity of
+extending the revision of the federal system to all its defects, and
+recommended that deputies for that purpose be appointed by the several
+legislatures, to meet in convention in the city of Philadelphia, on
+the second day of the ensuing May.</p>
+
+<p>The reasons for preferring a convention to a discussion of this
+subject in congress were stated to be, &quot;that in the latter body, it
+might be too much interrupted by the ordinary business before them,
+and would, besides, be deprived of the valuable counsels of sundry
+individuals who were disqualified by the constitution or laws of
+particular states, or by peculiar circumstances, from a seat in that
+assembly.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>A copy of this report was transmitted to congress in a letter from the
+chairman, stating the inefficacy of the federal government, and the
+necessity of devising such further provisions as would render it
+adequate to the exigencies of the union.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Virginia appoints deputies to meet those of other states at
+Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the federal system.</div>
+
+<p>On receiving this report, the legislature of Virginia passed an act
+for the appointment of deputies to meet such as might be appointed by
+other states; to assemble in convention at Philadelphia, at the time,
+and for the purposes, specified in the recommendation from the
+convention which had met at Annapolis.</p>
+
+<p>In communicating this act to General Washington, its principal
+advocate<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> thus intimated the intention of aiding it by the
+influence and character of the chief of the revolution. &quot;It has been
+thought adviseable to give the subject a very solemn dress, and all
+the weight which could be derived from a single state. This idea will
+also be pursued in the selection of characters to represent Virginia
+in the federal convention. You will infer our earnestness on this
+point, from the liberty which will be used of placing your name at the
+head of them. How far this liberty may correspond with the ideas by
+which you ought to be governed, will be best decided where it must
+ultimately be decided. In every event it will assist powerfully in
+marking the zeal of our legislature, and its opinion of the magnitude
+of the occasion.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Although,&quot; said the general in reply, &quot;I have bid a public adieu to
+the public walks of life, and had resolved never more to tread that
+theatre; yet, if upon an occasion so interesting to the well being of
+the confederacy, it had been the wish of the assembly that I should be
+an associate in the business of revising the federal system, I should
+from a sense of the obligation I am under for repeated proofs of
+confidence in me, more than from any opinion I could entertain of my
+usefulness, have obeyed its call; but it is now out of my power to do
+this with any degree of consistency&#8212;the cause I will mention.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I presume you heard, sir, that I was first appointed, and have since
+been rechosen president of the society of the Cincinnati; and you may
+have understood also, that the triennial general meeting of this body
+is to be held in Philadelphia the first Monday in May next. Some
+particular reasons combining with the peculiar situation of my private
+concerns, the necessity of paying attention to them, a wish for
+retirement and relaxation from public cares, and rheumatic pains which
+I begin to feel very sensibly, induced me, on the 31st ultimo, to
+address a circular letter to each state society, informing them of my
+intention not to be at the next meeting, and of my desire not to be
+rechosen president. The vice-president is also informed of this, that
+the business of the society may not be impeded by my absence. Under
+these circumstances, it will readily be perceived that I could not
+appear at the same time and place on any other occasion, without
+giving offence to a very respectable and deserving part of the
+community&#8212;the late officers of the American army.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Washington chosen one of them.</div>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this letter, the name of General Washington was not
+withdrawn, and he was unanimously chosen a member of the convention.
+On receiving private information of this appointment, he addressed a
+second letter to his confidential friend, in which he detailed more at
+large, the motives which induced him to decline a service, the
+importance of which he felt sensibly, and which he would willingly
+have undertaken but for the peculiar circumstances which were stated.</p>
+
+<p>His name, however, was continued in the appointment. The gloomy aspect
+of affairs in the north rendered this the more necessary, and it was
+thus explained by his correspondent. &quot;I have considered well the
+circumstances which it (your letter) confidentially discloses, as well
+as those contained in your preceding favour. The difficulties which
+they oppose to an acceptance of the appointment in which you are
+included, can as little be denied, as they can fail to be regretted.
+But I still am inclined to think, that the posture of our affairs, if
+it should continue, would prevent any criticism on the situation which
+the contemporary meetings would place you in; and wish that at least a
+door could be kept open for your acceptance hereafter, in case the
+gathering clouds should become so dark and menacing as to supersede
+every consideration but that of our national existence or safety. A
+suspense of your ultimate determination would be nowise inconvenient
+in a public view, as the executive are authorized to fill vacancies,
+and can fill them at any time; and in any event, three out of seven
+deputies are authorized to represent the state. How far it may be
+admissible in another view, will depend perhaps in some measure on the
+chance of your finally undertaking the service, but principally on the
+correspondence which is now passing on the subject, between yourself
+and the governor.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The governor of Virginia,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> who was himself also elected to the
+convention, transmitted to General Washington the act, and the vote of
+the assembly in the following letter. &quot;By the enclosed act you will
+readily discover that the assembly are alarmed at the storms which
+threaten the United States. What our enemies have foretold seems to be
+hastening to its accomplishment, and can not be frustrated but by an
+instantaneous, zealous, and steady union among the friends of the
+federal government. To you I need not press our present dangers. The
+inefficiency of congress you have often felt in your official
+character; the increasing languor of our associated republics you
+hourly see; and a dissolution would be, I know, to you, a source of
+the deepest mortification.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I freely then entreat you to accept the unanimous appointment of the
+general assembly to the convention at Philadelphia. For the gloomy
+prospect still admits one ray of hope, that those who began, carried
+on, and consummated the revolution, can yet rescue America from the
+impending ruin.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Sensible as I am,&quot; said the general in reply, &quot;of the honour
+conferred on me by the general assembly of this commonwealth, in
+appointing me one of the deputies to a convention proposed to be held
+in the city of Philadelphia in May next, for the purpose of revising
+the federal constitution; and desirous as I am on all occasions of
+testifying a ready obedience to the calls of my country&#8212;yet, sir,
+there exist at this moment, circumstances which I am persuaded will
+render this fresh instance of confidence incompatible with other
+measures which I had previously adopted, and from which seeing little
+prospect of disengaging myself, it would be disingenuous not to
+express a wish that some other character, on whom greater reliance can
+be had, may be substituted in my place, the probability of my
+non-attendance being too great to continue my appointment.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;As no mind can be more deeply impressed than mine is with the
+critical situation of our affairs, resulting in a great measure from
+the want of efficient powers in the federal head, and due respect to
+its ordinances, so consequently those who do engage in the important
+business of removing these defects, will carry with them every good
+wish of mine, which the best dispositions towards their attainment can
+bestow.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The executive, unwilling to relinquish the advantages which the
+legislature had expected to derive from exhibiting the name of
+Washington at the head of the Virginia delegation, refused to consider
+him as having declined the appointment. That his judgment had not
+completely decided on the course which duty and patriotism required
+him to pursue; that in a crisis on which probably depended the union
+of the states, and the happiness of America, he refused himself
+reluctantly to the anxious wishes of his countrymen; were too apparent
+not to leave a hope that events might yet determine him to yield to
+their desires. He was therefore emphatically requested not to decide
+absolutely, and was informed that as no inconvenience would result
+from not appointing a successor, the option of complying with the
+earnest solicitations of those who considered the effort about to be
+made as the last hope of the union, would, as long as possible, be
+permitted to remain with him. In the mean time, those who persuaded
+themselves that much good might result from the proposed convention,
+continued to urge him with delicacy but with earnestness, not to
+withhold on this great and particular occasion, those inestimable
+services which the confidence so justly reposed by the public in his
+talents and character, enabled him alone to render.</p>
+
+<p>Placed in these circumstances, General Washington weighed deliberately
+in his own mind the arguments for and against accepting the
+appointment which was so seriously pressed upon him. That the proposed
+convention was, in any point of view in which it could be
+contemplated, an object of the first magnitude, appeared to him to be
+undeniable. It was apparent that the actual government could not exist
+much longer without additional means. It was therefore necessary to
+meet the solemn question whether it ought to be supported or
+annihilated. Those who embraced the former part of the alternative
+must consider the convention as the only remaining experiment from
+which the federal government could derive powers sufficiently ample
+for its preservation. Those who embraced the latter, who thought that
+on a full and dispassionate revision of the system, its continuance
+would be adjudged impracticable or unwise, could not hesitate to admit
+that their opinion would derive great additional weight from the
+sanction of so respectable a body as that which was about to assemble:
+and that in such an event, it was greatly desirable, and would afford
+some security against civil discord, to put the public in possession
+of a plan prepared and digested by such high authority. &quot;I must
+candidly confess,&quot; he added in a letter to Colonel Humphries, &quot;as we
+could not remain quiet more than three or four years in time of peace,
+under the constitutions of our own choosing, which were believed in
+many states to have been formed with deliberation and wisdom, I see
+little prospect either of our agreeing on any other, or that we should
+remain long satisfied under it, if we could. Yet I would wish any
+thing and every thing essayed to prevent the effusion of blood, and to
+avert the humiliating and contemptible figure we are about to make in
+the annals of mankind!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Earnestly as General Washington wished success to the experiment about
+to be made, he could not surrender his objections to the step its
+friends urged him to take, without the most serious consideration. In
+addition to that which grew out of his connexion with the Cincinnati,
+and to the reluctance with which he could permit himself to be drawn,
+on any occasion, into a political station, there were others which
+could not be disregarded. A convention, not originating in a
+recommendation of congress, was deemed by many an illegitimate
+meeting; and as the New England states had neglected the invitation to
+appear by their representatives at Annapolis, there was reason to
+apprehend they might be equally inattentive to the request now made
+them to assemble at Philadelphia. To appear in a public character, for
+a purpose not generally deemed of the utmost importance, would not
+only be unpleasant to himself, but might diminish his capacity to be
+useful on occasions which subsequent events might produce. &quot;If,&quot; said
+he in a private letter to a military friend, &quot;this second attempt to
+convene the states for the purposes proposed by the report of the
+partial representation at Annapolis in September, should also prove
+abortive, it may be considered as unequivocal evidence that the states
+are not likely to agree on any general measure which is to pervade the
+union, and of course, that there is an end of the federal government.
+The states which make this last dying essay to avoid this misfortune
+would be mortified at the issue, and their deputies would return home
+chagrined at their ill success and disappointment. This would be a
+disagreeable circumstance to any one of them, but more particularly to
+a person in my situation.&quot; His letters of consultation therefore, with
+a few confidential friends, also requested information respecting
+those points on which his own judgment might ultimately be formed. He
+was particularly desirous of knowing how the proposition made by
+Virginia was received in the other states, and what measures were
+taken to contravene, or to give it effect. He inquired too with the
+utmost solicitude how the members of the Cincinnati would receive his
+appearance in convention, after declining to be rechosen the president
+of that society.</p>
+
+<p>The enlightened friends of the union and of republican government,
+generally regarded the convention as a measure which afforded the best
+chance for preserving liberty and internal peace. And those whose
+hopes predominated over their fears, were anxious to increase the
+probability of deriving from it every practicable good, by retaining
+on the list of its members, the most conspicuous name of which America
+could boast. But this opinion was not universal. Among those who felt
+the importance of the crisis, and who earnestly wished that a free
+government, competent to the preservation of the union, might be
+established, there were some who despaired of a favourable issue to
+the attempt, and who were therefore anxious to rescue their general
+from the increased mortification which would attend its failure,
+should he be personally engaged in it. They believed that all the
+states would not be represented in the convention. In a letter of the
+20th of January, 1787, Colonel Humphries, who was himself under this
+impression, thus accounts for the omission of the federal men in the
+assembly of Connecticut, to press the appointment of deputies. &quot;The
+reason,&quot; he said, &quot;was a conviction that the persons who could be
+elected were some of the best anti-federal men in the state, who
+believed, or acted as if they believed, that the powers of congress
+were already too unlimited, and who would wish, apparently, to see the
+union dissolved. These demagogues,&quot; continued the letter, &quot;really
+affect to persuade the people (to use their own phraseology) that they
+are only in danger of having their liberties stolen away by an artful
+designing aristocracy. But should the convention be formed under the
+most favourable auspices, and should the members be unanimous in
+recommending, in the most forcible, the most glowing, and the most
+pathetic terms which language can afford, that it is indispensable to
+the salvation of the country, congress should be clothed with more
+ample powers, the states,&quot; he thought, &quot;would not all comply with the
+recommendation. They have a mortal reluctance to divest themselves of
+the smallest attribute of independent separate sovereignties.&quot; After
+assigning many reasons against accepting the appointment, this
+gentleman added: &quot;the result of the convention may not perhaps be so
+important as is expected, in which case your character would be
+materially affected. Other people can work up the present scene. I
+know your personal influence and character is justly considered the
+last stake which America has to play. Should you not reserve yourself
+for the united call of a continent entire?</p>
+
+<p>&quot;If you should attend on this convention, and concur in recommending
+measures which should be generally adopted, but opposed in some parts
+of the union, it would doubtless be understood that you had in a
+degree pledged yourself for their execution. This would at once sweep
+you back inevitably into the tide of public affairs.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The same opinion was also intimated by another military friend<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> who
+had always possessed a large portion of the esteem and affection of
+his general. After stating the various and contradictory plans of
+government which were suggested by the schemers of the day, he added:
+&quot;you will see by this sketch, my dear sir, how various are the
+opinions of men, and how difficult it will be to bring them to concur
+in any effective government. I am persuaded, if you were determined to
+attend the convention, and it should be generally known, it would
+induce the eastern states to send delegates to it. I should therefore
+be much obliged for information of your decision on this subject. At
+the same time, the principles of the purest and most respectful
+friendship induce me to say, that however strongly I wish for measures
+which would lead to national happiness and glory, yet I do not wish
+you to be concerned in any political operations, of which there are
+such various opinions. There may indeed arise some solemn occasion, in
+which you may conceive it to be your duty again to exert your utmost
+talents to promote the happiness of your country. But this occasion
+must be of an unequivocal nature, in which the enlightened and
+virtuous citizens should generally concur.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>While the confidential friends of General Washington were thus divided
+on the part which it behoved him to act, there was much reason to fear
+that a full representation of the states would not be obtained. Among
+those who were disinclined to a convention, were persons who were
+actuated by different, and even by opposite motives. There were
+probably some who believed that a higher toned<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> government than was
+compatible with the opinions generally prevailing among the friends of
+order, of real liberty, and of national character, was essential to
+the public safety. They believed that men would be conducted to that
+point only through the road of misery into which their follies would
+lead them, and that &quot;times must be worse before they could be better.&quot;
+Many had sketched in their own minds a plan of government strongly
+resembling that which had been actually adopted, but despaired of
+seeing so rational a system accepted, or even recommended; &quot;some
+gentlemen,&quot; said the correspondent last mentioned, &quot;are apprehensive
+that a convention of the nature proposed to meet in May next, might
+devise some expedient to brace up the present defective confederation,
+so as just to serve to keep us together, while it would prevent those
+exertions for a national character which are essential to our
+happiness: that in this point of view it might be attended with the
+bad effect of assisting us to creep on in our present miserable
+condition, without a hope of a generous constitution, that should, at
+the same time, shield us from the effects of faction, and of
+despotism.&quot;<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> Many discountenanced the convention, because the mode
+of calling it was deemed irregular, and some objected to it, because
+it was not so constituted as to give authority to the plan which
+should be devised. But the great mass of opposition originated in a
+devotion to state sovereignty, and in hostility to any considerable
+augmentation of federal power.</p>
+
+<p>The ultimate decision of the states on this interesting proposition
+seems to have been in no inconsiderable degree influenced by the
+commotions which about that time agitated all New England, and
+particularly Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Insurrection in Massachusetts.</div>
+
+<p>Those causes of discontent which existed, after the restoration of
+peace, in every part of the union, were particularly operative in New
+England. The great exertions which had been made by those states in
+the course of the war, had accumulated a mass of debt, the taxes for
+the payment of which were the more burdensome, because their fisheries
+had become unproductive. The restlessness produced by the uneasy
+situation of individuals, connected with lax notions concerning public
+and private faith, and erroneous opinions which confound liberty with
+an exemption from legal control, produced a state of things which
+alarmed all reflecting men, and demonstrated to many the indispensable
+necessity of clothing government with powers sufficiently ample for
+the protection of the rights of the peaceable and quiet, from the
+invasions of the licentious and turbulent part of the community.</p>
+
+<p>This disorderly spirit was cherished by unlicensed conventions, which,
+after voting their own constitutionality, and assuming the name of the
+people, arrayed themselves against the legislature, and detailed at
+great length the grievances by which they alleged themselves to be
+oppressed. Its hostility was principally directed against the
+compensation promised to the officers of the army, against taxes, and
+against the administration of justice: and the circulation of a
+depreciated currency was required, as a relief from the pressure of
+public and private burdens which had become, it was alleged, too heavy
+to be borne. Against lawyers and courts, the strongest resentments
+were manifested; and to such a dangerous extent were these
+dispositions indulged, that, in many instances, tumultuous assemblages
+of people arrested the course of law, and restrained the judges from
+proceeding in the execution of their duty. The ordinary recourse to
+the power of the country was found an insufficient protection, and the
+appeals made to reason were attended with no beneficial effect. The
+forbearance of the government was attributed to timidity rather than
+to moderation, and the spirit of insurrection appeared to be organized
+into a regular system for the suppression of courts.</p>
+
+<p>In the bosom of Washington, these tumults excited attention and alarm.
+&quot;For God's sake tell me,&quot; said he in a letter to Colonel Humphries,
+&quot;what is the cause of all these commotions? Do they proceed from
+licentiousness, British influence disseminated by the tories, or real
+grievances which admit of redress? if the latter, why was redress
+delayed until the public mind had become so much agitated? if the
+former, why are not the powers of government tried at once? It is as
+well to be without, as not to exercise them. Commotions of this sort,
+like snow-balls, gather strength as they roll, if there is no
+opposition in the way to divide and crumble them.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;As to your question, my dear general,&quot; said Colonel Humphries in
+reply, &quot;respecting the cause and origin of these commotions, I hardly
+find myself in condition to give a certain answer. If from all the
+information I have been able to obtain, I might be authorized to
+hazard an opinion, I should attribute them to all the three causes
+which you have suggested. In Massachusetts particularly, I believe
+there are a few real grievances; and also some wicked agents or
+emissaries who have been busy in magnifying the positive evils, and
+fomenting causeless jealousies and disturbances. But it rather appears
+to me, that there is a licentious spirit prevailing among many of the
+people; a levelling principle; a desire of change; and a wish to
+annihilate all debts, public and private.&quot; &quot;It is indeed a fact,&quot; said
+General Knox, after returning from a visit to the eastern country,
+&quot;that high taxes are the ostensible cause of the commotion, but that
+they are the real cause, is as far remote from truth, as light is from
+darkness. The people who are the insurgents have never paid any, or
+but very little taxes. But they see the weakness of government. They
+feel at once their own poverty compared with the opulent, and their
+own force; and they are determined to make use of the latter, in order
+to remedy the former. Their creed is, that the property of the United
+States has been protected from confiscation by the joint exertions of
+all, and therefore ought to be common to all. And he that attempts
+opposition to this creed is an enemy to equity and justice, and ought
+to be swept from the face of the earth.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The force of this party throughout New England was computed by General
+Knox at twelve or fifteen thousand men. &quot;They were chiefly,&quot; he said,
+&quot;of the young and active part of the community, who were more easily
+collected than kept together. Desperate and unprincipled, they would
+probably commit overt acts of treason which would compel them, for
+their own safety, to embody and submit to discipline. Thus would there
+be a formidable rebellion against reason, the principle of all
+government, and the very name of liberty. This dreadful situation,&quot; he
+added, &quot;has alarmed every man of principle and property in New
+England. They start as from a dream, and ask&#8212;what has been the cause
+of our delusion? What is to afford us security against the violence of
+lawless men? Our government must be braced, changed, or altered, to
+secure our lives and our property. We imagined that the mildness of
+the government, and the virtue of the people were so correspondent,
+that we were not as other nations, requiring brutal force to support
+the laws. But we find that we are men, actual men, possessing all the
+turbulent passions belonging to that animal; and that we must have a
+government proper and adequate for him. Men of reflection and
+principle are determined to endeavour to establish a government which
+shall have the power to protect them in their lawful pursuits, and
+which will be efficient in cases of internal commotions, or foreign
+invasions. They mean that liberty shall be the basis, a liberty
+resulting from the equal and firm administration of the laws.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Deeply affected by these commotions, General Washington continued his
+anxious inquiries respecting the course they threatened to take. &quot;I
+feel, my dear General Knox,&quot; said he, in answer to the letter from
+which the foregoing extracts are taken, &quot;infinitely more than I can
+express to you, for the disorders which have arisen in these states.
+Good God! who besides a tory could have foreseen, or a Briton have
+predicted them? I do assure you that even at this moment, when I
+reflect upon the present aspect of our affairs, it seems to me like
+the visions of a dream. My mind can scarcely realize it as a thing in
+actual existence:&#8212;so strange, so wonderful does it appear to me. In
+this, as in most other matters, we are too slow. When this spirit
+first dawned, it might probably have been easily checked; but it is
+scarcely within the reach of human ken, at this moment, to say when,
+where, or how it will terminate. There are combustibles in every
+state, to which a spark might set fire.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;In bewailing, which I have often done with the keenest sorrow, the
+death of our much lamented friend General Greene,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> I have
+accompanied my regrets of late with a query, whether he would not have
+preferred such an exit to the scenes which it is more than probable,
+many of his compatriots may live to bemoan.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Ostensibly, on account of the danger which threatened the frontiers,
+but, really, with a view to the situation of Massachusetts, congress
+had agreed to augment the military establishment to a legionary corps
+of two thousand and forty men, and had detached the secretary of war,
+General Knox, to that state, with directions to concert measures with
+its government for the safety of the arsenal at Springfield. So
+inauspicious was the aspect of affairs, as to inspire serious fears
+that the torch of civil discord, about to be lighted up in
+Massachusetts, would communicate its flame to all New England, and
+perhaps to the union. Colonel Lee, a member of congress, drew the
+following picture of the condition of the eastern country at that
+time. &quot;General Knox has just returned, and his report, grounded on his
+own knowledge, is replete with melancholy information. A majority of
+the people of Massachusetts are in opposition to the government. Some
+of the leaders avow the subversion of it to be their object, together
+with the abolition of debts, the division of property, and a reunion
+with Great Britain. In all the eastern states, same temper prevails
+more or less, and will certainly break forth whenever the opportune
+moment may arrive. The malcontents are in close connexion with
+Vermont, and that district, it is believed, is in negotiation with the
+government of Canada. In one word, my dear general, we are all in dire
+apprehension that a beginning of anarchy with all its calamities is
+made, and we have no means to stop the dreadful work. Knowing your
+unbounded influence, and believing that your appearance among the
+seditious might bring them back to peace and reconciliation,
+individuals suggest the propriety of an invitation to you from
+congress to pay us a visit. This is only a surmise, and I take the
+liberty to mention it to you, that, should the conjuncture of affairs
+induce congress to make this request, you may have some previous time
+for reflection on it.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The picture which you have exhibited,&quot; replied the general, &quot;and the
+accounts which are published of the commotions and temper of numerous
+bodies in the eastern country, present a state of things equally to be
+lamented and deprecated. They exhibit a melancholy verification of
+what our transatlantic foes have predicted; and of another thing
+perhaps which is still more to be regretted, and is yet more
+unaccountable&#8212;that mankind when left to themselves are unfit for
+their own government. I am mortified beyond expression when I view the
+clouds which have spread over the brightest morn that ever dawned upon
+any country. In a word, I am lost in amazement when I behold what
+intrigue, the interested views of desperate characters, ignorance and
+jealousy of the minor part, are capable of effecting as a scourge on
+the major part of our fellow citizens of the union; for it is hardly
+to be supposed that the great body of the people, though they will not
+act, can be so short sighted or enveloped in darkness, as not to see
+rays of a distant sun through all this mist of intoxication and folly.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;You talk, my good sir, of employing influence to appease the present
+tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be
+found; nor if attainable, that it would be a proper remedy for these
+disorders. <i>Influence</i> is not <i>government</i>. Let us have a
+<i>government</i>, by which our lives, liberties, and properties will be
+secured; or let us know the worst at once. Under these impressions, my
+humble opinion is, that there is a call for decision. Know precisely
+what the insurgents aim at. If they have <i>real</i> grievances, redress
+them if possible; or acknowledge the justice of them, and your
+inability to do it in the present moment. If they have not, employ the
+force of the government against them at once. If this is inadequate,
+<i>all</i> will be convinced that the superstructure is bad, or wants
+support. To be more exposed in the eyes of the world, and more
+contemptible than we already are, is hardly possible. To delay one or
+the other of these expedients, is to exasperate on the one hand, or to
+give confidence on the other, and will add to their numbers; for like
+snow-balls, such bodies increase by every movement, unless there is
+something in the way to obstruct and crumble them before their weight
+is too great and irresistible.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;These are my sentiments. Precedents are dangerous things. Let the
+reins of government then be braced, and held with a steady hand; and
+every violation of the constitution be reprehended. If defective, let
+it be amended, but not suffered to be trampled upon while it has an
+existence.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In a letter written about the same period, Colonel Humphries, after
+stating his apprehensions that the insurgents would seize the
+continental magazine at Springfield, proceeded to add: &quot;a general
+failure to comply with the requisitions of congress for money, seems
+to prognosticate that we are rapidly advancing to a crisis. The wheels
+of the great political machine can scarcely continue to move much
+longer, under their present embarrassment. Congress, I am told, are
+seriously alarmed, and hardly know which way to turn, or what to
+expect. Indeed, my dear general, nothing but a good Providence can
+extricate us from our present difficulties, and prevent some terrible
+conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;In case of civil discord I have already told you it was seriously my
+opinion that you could not remain neuter; and that you would be
+obliged in self defence, to take part on one side or the other, or
+withdraw from the continent. Your friends are of the same opinion; and
+I believe you are convinced that it is impossible to have more
+disinterested or zealous friends, than those who have been about your
+person.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It is,&quot; said the general in reply, &quot;with the deepest and most
+heartfelt concern, I perceive by some late paragraphs extracted from
+the Boston papers, that the insurgents of Massachusetts, far from
+being satisfied with the redress offered by their general court, are
+still acting in open violation of law and government, and have obliged
+the chief magistrate, in a decided tone, to call upon the militia of
+the state to support the constitution. What, gracious God, is man!
+that there should be such inconsistency and perfidiousness in his
+conduct. It is but the other day that we were shedding our blood to
+obtain the constitutions under which we now live&#8212;constitutions of our
+own choice and making&#8212;and now, we are unsheathing the sword to
+overturn them. The thing is so unaccountable, that I hardly know how
+to realize it; or to persuade myself that I am not under the illusion
+of a dream.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;My mind, previous to the receipt of your letter of the first ultimo,
+had often been agitated by a thought similar to the one you expressed
+respecting an old friend of yours: but heaven forbid that a crisis
+should come when he shall be driven to the necessity of making a
+choice of either of the alternatives there mentioned.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Finding that the lenient measures which had been taken by the
+legislature to reclaim the insurgents, only enlarged their demands;
+and that they were proceeding systematically to organize a military
+force for the subversion of the constitution; Governor Bowdoin
+determined, with the advice of council, on a vigorous exertion of all
+the powers he possessed, for the protection and defence of the
+commonwealth. Upwards of four thousand militia were ordered into
+service, and were placed under the command of the veteran General
+Lincoln. &quot;His military reputation,&quot; says Mr. Minot, &quot;and mildness of
+temper, rendered him doubly capacitated for so delicate and important
+a trust.&quot; But the public treasury did not afford the means of keeping
+this force in the field a single week; and, the legislature not being
+in session, the government was incapable of putting the troops in
+motion. This difficulty was removed by individual patriotism. From the
+commencement of the commotions, the citizens of Boston had manifested,
+unequivocally, their fidelity to the constitution. On this occasion, a
+number of gentlemen, preceded by the governor, subscribed, in a few
+hours, a sufficient sum to carry on the proposed expedition.</p>
+
+<p>In the depth of winter, the troops from the eastern part of the state
+assembled near Boston, and marched towards the scene of action. Those
+from the western counties met in arms under General Shepard, and took
+possession of the arsenal at Springfield. Before the arrival of
+Lincoln, a party of the insurgents attempted to dislodge Shepard, but
+were repulsed with some loss. Not being pursued by that officer, who
+could not venture to weaken his post by detachments, they continued
+embodied, but did not venture again to undertake offensive operations.</p>
+
+<p>Urging his march with the utmost celerity, Lincoln soon came up; and,
+pressing the insurgent army, endeavoured, by a succession of rapid
+movements, in which the ardour of his troops triumphed over the
+severity of the season, to disperse, or to bring it to action. Their
+generals retreated from post to post with a rapidity which for some
+time eluded his designs; and, rejecting every proposition to lay down
+their arms, used all their address to produce a suspension of
+hostilities until an accommodation might be negotiated with the
+legislature. &quot;Applications were also made,&quot; says General Lincoln, &quot;by
+committees and select men of the several towns in the counties of
+Worcester and Hampshire, praying that the effusion of blood might be
+avoided, while the real design of these applications was supposed to
+be, to stay our operations until a new court should be elected. They
+had no doubt, if they could keep up their influence until another
+choice of the legislature and of the executive, that matters might be
+moulded in general court to their wishes. To avoid this, was the duty
+of government.&quot; In answer to these applications, Lincoln exhorted
+those towns who sincerely wished to put an end to the rebellion
+without the effusion of blood, &quot;to recall their men now in arms, and
+to aid in apprehending all abettors of those who should persist in
+their treason, and all who should yield them any comfort or supplies.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The army of government continued to brave the rigours of the climate,
+and to press the insurgents without intermission. At length, with the
+loss of a few killed, and several prisoners, the rebels were
+dispersed, their leaders driven out of the state, and this formidable
+and wicked rebellion was quelled.</p>
+
+<p>The same love of country which had supported the officers and soldiers
+of the late army through a perilous war, still glowed in their bosoms;
+and the patriot veterans of the revolution, uninfected by the wide
+spreading contagion of the times, arranged themselves almost
+universally under the banners of the constitution and of the laws.
+This circumstance lessened the prejudices which had been excited
+against them as creditors of the public, and diminished the odium
+which, in the eastern states, especially, had been directed against
+the order of the Cincinnati. But the most important effect of this
+unprovoked rebellion was, a deep conviction of the necessity of
+enlarging the powers of the general government; and the consequent
+direction of the public mind towards the convention which was to
+assemble at Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p>In producing this effect, a resolution of congress had also
+considerable influence. New York had given her final <i>veto</i> to the
+impost system, and in doing so, had virtually decreed the dissolution
+of the existing government. The confederation was apparently expiring
+from mere debility. The last hope of its friends having been
+destroyed, the vital necessity of some measure which might prevent the
+separation of the integral parts of which the American empire was
+composed, became apparent even to those who had been unwilling to
+perceive it; and congress was restrained from giving its sanction to
+the proposed convention, only by an apprehension that their taking an
+interest in the measure would impede rather than promote it. From this
+embarrassment, the members of that body were relieved by the
+legislature of New York. A vote of that state, which passed in the
+senate by a majority of only one voice, instructed its delegation to
+move in congress, a resolution, recommending to the several states, to
+appoint deputies to meet in convention, for the purpose of revising
+and proposing amendments to the federal constitution. On the 21st of
+February, 1787, the day succeeding the instructions given by New York,
+the subject, which had been for some time under consideration, was
+finally acted upon: and it was declared, &quot;in the opinion of congress,
+to be expedient that, on the second Monday in May next, a convention
+of delegates, who shall have been appointed by the several states, be
+held at Philadelphia, for the sole and express purpose of revising the
+articles of confederation, and reporting to congress and the several
+legislatures, such alterations and provisions therein, as shall, when
+agreed to in congress, and confirmed by the states, render the federal
+constitution adequate to the exigencies of government, and the
+preservation of the union.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This recommendation removed all objections to the regularity of the
+convention; and co-operated with the impressions made by the
+licentious and turbulent spirit which had lately endangered the peace
+and liberty of New England, to incline those states to favour the
+measure. By giving the proposed meeting a constitutional sanction, and
+by postponing it to a day subsequent to that on which the Cincinnati
+were to assemble, it also removed one impediment, and diminished
+another, to the attendance of General Washington as a member. He
+persuaded himself that by repairing to Philadelphia previous to the
+second Monday in May, in order to attend the general meeting of the
+Cincinnati, he should efface any impressions unfavourable to the
+attachment he felt to his military friends, which might otherwise be
+excited in their bosoms by his appearing in a public character, after
+declining the presidency of their society. The increasing probability
+that the convention would be attended by a full representation of the
+states, and would propose a scheme of government which, if accepted,
+might conduce to the public happiness, and would not be unworthy of
+his character, had also its influence on his mind. An opinion too
+began to prevail, that the government must be invigorated by agreement
+or by force, and that a part of the opposition to the convention
+originated in a desire to establish a system of greater energy than
+could spring from consent. The idea that his refusing his aid in the
+present crisis might be attributed to a dereliction of republican
+principles, furnished additional motives for yielding to the wishes of
+his fellow citizens. On the 28th of March, he addressed a letter to
+the governor of Virginia, in which, after stating the reasons which
+had induced him to decline attending the convention, the influence of
+which he still felt, he added&#8212;&quot;However, as my friends, with a degree
+of solicitude which is unusual, seem to wish for my attendance on this
+occasion, I have come to a resolution to go if my health will permit,
+provided from the lapse of time between your excellency's letter and
+this reply, the executive may not (the reverse of which would be
+highly pleasing to me) have turned their thoughts to some other
+character.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After communicating this determination to the executive of Virginia,
+he received a letter from the secretary of war, one of the small
+number of his friends who had endeavoured to dissuade him from the
+resolution he had ultimately taken, in which that officer avowed an
+entire change of opinion on this subject. &quot;It is,&quot; said he, &quot;the
+general wish that you should attend. It is conceived to be highly
+important to the success of the propositions which may be made by the
+convention.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The mass of the people feel the inconvenience of the present
+government, and ardently wish for such alterations as would remedy
+them. These must be effected by reason and by agreement, or by force.
+The convention appears to be the only mean by which to effect them
+peaceably. If it should not be attended by a proper weight of wisdom
+and character to carry into execution its propositions, we are to look
+to events, and to force, for a remedy. Were you not then to attend the
+convention, slander and malice might suggest that force would be the
+most agreeable mode of reform to you. When civil commotion rages, no
+purity of character, no services, however exalted, can afford a secure
+shield from the shafts of calumny.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;On the other hand, the unbounded confidence the people have in your
+tried patriotism and wisdom, would exceedingly facilitate the adoption
+of any important alterations that might be proposed by a convention of
+which you were a member; and (as I before hinted) the president.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Convention at Philadelphia.</div>
+
+<p>At the time and place appointed, the representatives of twelve states
+convened. In Rhode Island alone a spirit sufficiently hostile to every
+species of reform was found, to prevent the election of deputies on an
+occasion so generally deemed momentous. Having unanimously chosen
+General Washington for their president, the convention proceeded, with
+closed doors, to discuss the interesting and extensive subject
+submitted to their consideration.</p>
+
+<p>On the great principles which should constitute the basis of their
+system, not much contrariety of opinion is understood to have
+prevailed. But on the various and intricate modifications of those
+principles, an equal degree of harmony was not to be expected. More
+than once, there was reason to fear that the rich harvest of national
+felicity, which had been anticipated from the ample stock of worth
+collected in convention, would all be blasted by the rising of that
+body without effecting the object for which it was formed. At length
+the high importance attached to union triumphed over local interests;
+and, on the 17th of September, that constitution which has been alike
+the theme of panegyric and invective, was presented to the American
+public.</p>
+
+<p>The instrument with its accompanying resolutions was by the unanimous
+order of the convention, transmitted to congress in a letter
+subscribed by the president, in which it was said to be, &quot;the result
+of a spirit of amity, and of that mutual deference and concession,
+which the peculiarity of their political situation rendered
+indispensable.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A form of government for the United States is submitted to
+the respective states, which is ratified by eleven of them.</div>
+
+<p>&quot;That it will meet the full and entire approbation of every state,&quot;
+continued the letter, &quot;is not, perhaps, to be expected; but each will
+doubtless consider, that had her interests been alone consulted, the
+consequences might have been particularly disagreeable or injurious to
+others. That it is liable to as few exceptions as could reasonably
+have been expected, we hope and believe; that it may promote the
+lasting welfare of that country so dear to us all, and secure her
+freedom and happiness, is our most ardent wish.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Congress resolved unanimously, that the report with the letter
+accompanying it be transmitted to the several legislatures, in order
+to be submitted to a convention of delegates chosen in each state by
+the people thereof.</p>
+
+<p>Neither the intrinsic merits of the constitution nor the imposing
+weight of character by which it was supported, gave assurance to its
+friends that it would be ultimately adopted. A comparison of the views
+and interests by which a powerful party was actuated, with particular
+provisions in the constitution which were especially designed to
+counteract those views and interests, prepared them to expect a mass
+of zealous and active opposition, against which the powers of reason
+would be in vain directed, because the real motives in which it
+originated would not be avowed. There were also many individuals,
+possessing great influence and respectable talents, who, from
+judgment, or from particular causes, seemed desirous of retaining the
+sovereignty of the states unimpaired, and of reducing the union to an
+alliance between independent nations. To these descriptions of
+persons, joined by those who supposed that an opposition of interests
+existed between different parts of the continent, was added a numerous
+class of honest men, many of whom possessed no inconsiderable share of
+intelligence, who could identify themselves perfectly with the state
+government, but who considered the government of the United States as
+in some respects foreign. The representation of their particular state
+not composing a majority of the national legislature, they could not
+consider that body as safely representing the people, and were
+disposed to measure out power to it with the same sparing hand with
+which they would confer it on persons not chosen by themselves, not
+accountable to them for its exercise, nor having any common interest
+with them. That power might be abused, was, to persons of this
+opinion, a conclusive argument against its being bestowed; and they
+seemed firmly persuaded that the cradle of the constitution would be
+the grave of republican liberty. The friends and the enemies of that
+instrument were stimulated to exertion by motives equally powerful;
+and, during the interval between its publication and adoption, every
+faculty of the mind was strained to secure its reception or rejection.
+The press teemed with the productions of temperate reason, of genius,
+and of passion; and it was apparent that each party believed power,
+sovereignty, liberty, peace, and security;&#8212;things most dear to the
+human heart;&#8212;to be staked on the question depending before the
+public. From that oblivion which is the common destiny of fugitive
+pieces, treating on subjects which agitate only for the moment, was
+rescued, by its peculiar merit, a series of essays which first
+appeared in the papers of New York. To expose the real circumstances
+of America, and the dangers which hung over the republic; to detect
+the numerous misrepresentations of the constitution; to refute the
+arguments of its opponents; and to confirm, and increase, its friends,
+by a full and able development of its principles; three gentlemen,<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>
+distinguished for their political experience, their talents, and their
+love of union, gave to the public a series of numbers which, collected
+in two volumes under the title of the FEDERALIST, will be read and
+admired when the controversy in which that valuable treatise on
+government originated, shall be no longer remembered.</p>
+
+<p>To decide the interesting question which agitated a continent, the
+best talents of the several states were assembled in their respective
+conventions. So balanced were parties in some of them, that, even
+after the subject had been discussed for a considerable time, the fate
+of the constitution could scarcely be conjectured; and so small, in
+many instances, was the majority in its favour, as to afford strong
+ground for the opinion that, had the influence of character been
+removed, the intrinsic merits of the instrument would not have secured
+its adoption. Indeed, it is scarcely to be doubted that, in some of
+the adopting states, a majority of the people were in the opposition.
+In all of them, the numerous amendments which were proposed,
+demonstrate the reluctance with which the new government was accepted;
+and that a dread of dismemberment, not an approbation of the
+particular system under consideration, had induced an acquiescence in
+it. The interesting nature of the question, the equality of the
+parties, the animation produced inevitably by ardent debate, had a
+necessary tendency to embitter the dispositions of the vanquished, and
+to fix more deeply, in many bosoms, their prejudices against a plan of
+government, in opposition to which all their passions were enlisted.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1788</div>
+
+<p>At length, the conventions of eleven states<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> assented to and
+ratified the constitution; and the preparatory measures were taken for
+bringing it into operation.</p>
+
+<p>From the moment the public was possessed of this new arrangement of
+their political system, the attention of all was directed to General
+Washington as the first President of the United States. He alone was
+believed to fill so pre-eminent a station in the public opinion, that
+he might be placed at the head of the nation without exciting envy;
+and he alone possessed the confidence of the people in so unlimited a
+degree that under his auspices, the friends of the government might
+hope to see it introduced with a degree of firmness which would enable
+it to resist the open assaults, and secret plots of its numerous
+adversaries. By all who knew him, fears were entertained that his
+preference for private life would prevail over the wishes of the
+public; and, soon after the adoption of the constitution was
+ascertained, his correspondents began to press him on a point which
+was believed essential to the completion of the great work on which
+the grandeur and happiness of America was supposed to depend. &quot;We can
+not,&quot; said Mr. Johnson, a gentleman of great political eminence in
+Maryland, &quot;do without you, and I, and thousands more can explain to
+any body but yourself, why we can not do without you.&quot; &quot;I have ever
+thought,&quot; said Mr. Gouverneur Morris, a gentleman who had been among
+the most valuable members of congress through great part of the war,
+and who had performed a most splendid part in the general convention,
+&quot;and have ever said that you must be president; no other man can fill
+that office. No other man can draw forth the abilities of our country
+into the various departments of civil life. You alone can awe the
+insolence of opposing factions, and the greater insolence of assuming
+adherents. I say nothing of foreign powers, nor of their ministers.
+With these last you will have some plague. As to your feelings on this
+occasion, they are, I know, both deep and affecting; you embark
+property most precious on a most tempestuous ocean: for, as you
+possess the highest reputation, so you expose it to the perilous
+chance of popular opinion. On the other hand, you will, I firmly
+expect, enjoy the inexpressible felicity of contributing to the
+happiness of all your countrymen. You will become the father of more
+than three millions of children; and while your bosom glows with
+parental tenderness, in theirs, or at least in a majority of them, you
+will excite the duteous sentiments of filial affection. This, I repeat
+it, is what I firmly expect; and my views are not directed by that
+enthusiasm which your public character has impressed on the public
+mind. Enthusiasm is generally short sighted and too often blind. I
+form my conclusions from those talents and virtues which the world
+<i>believes</i>, and which your friends <i>know</i> you possess.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>To those who attribute human action in every case to the motives which
+most usually guide the human mind, it will appear scarcely possible
+that the supreme magistracy could possess no charms for a man long
+accustomed to command others; and that ambition had no share in
+tempting the hero of the American revolution to tread once more the
+paths of public life. Yet, if his communications to friends to whom he
+unbosomed the inmost sentiments of his soul be inspected, it will be
+difficult to resist the conviction that the struggle produced by the
+occasion was unaffected, and that, in accepting the presidency of the
+United States, no private passion was gratified; but a decided
+preference for private life yielded to a sense of duty, and a deep
+conviction of his obligations to his country.</p>
+
+<p>As this is an important &#230;ra in the life of Washington, and the motives
+by which he was actuated will assist in developing his real character,
+the American reader, at least, will be gratified at seeing copious
+extracts from his correspondence on this interesting occasion.</p>
+
+<p>In a letter detailing those arrangements which were making for the
+introduction of the new government, Colonel Lee proceeded thus to
+speak of the presidency of the United States. &quot;The solemnity of the
+moment, and its application to yourself, have fixed my mind in
+contemplations of a public and a personal nature, and I feel an
+involuntary impulse which I can not resist, to communicate without
+reserve to you some of the reflections which the hour has produced.
+Solicitous for our common happiness as a people, and convinced as I
+continue to be that our peace and prosperity depend on the proper
+improvement of the present period, my anxiety is extreme that the new
+government may have an auspicious beginning. To effect this, and to
+perpetuate a nation formed under your auspices, it is certain that
+again you will be called forth.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The same principles of devotion to the good of mankind, which have
+invariably governed your conduct, will no doubt continue to rule your
+mind, however opposite their consequences may be to your repose and
+happiness. It may be wrong, but I can not suppress, in my wishes for
+national felicity, a due regard for your personal fame and content.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;If the same success should attend your efforts on this important
+occasion which has distinguished you hitherto, then, to be sure, you
+will have spent a life which Providence rarely if ever before gave to
+the lot of one man. It is my anxious hope, it is my belief, that this
+will be the case; but all things are uncertain, and perhaps nothing
+more so than political events.&quot; He then proceeded to state his
+apprehensions, that the government might sink under the active
+hostility of its foes, and in particular, the fears which he
+entertained from the circular letter of New York, around which the
+minorities in the several states might be expected to rally.</p>
+
+<p>To counteract its baneful influence with the legislature of Virginia,
+he expressed his earnest wish, that Mr. Madison might be prevailed on
+to take a seat in that assembly, and then added,</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It would certainly be unpleasant to you, and obnoxious to all who
+feel for your just fame, to see you at the head of a trembling system.
+It is a sacrifice on your part unjustifiable in any point of view. But
+on the other hand no alternative seems to be presented.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Without you, the government can have but little chance of success;
+and the people, of that happiness which its prosperity must yield.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1789</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Letters from Gen. Washington respecting the chief
+magistracy of the new government.</div>
+
+<p>In reply to this letter General Washington said, &quot;Your observations on
+the solemnity of the crisis, and its application to myself, bring
+before me subjects of the most momentous and interesting nature. In
+our endeavours to establish a new general government, the contest,
+nationally considered, seems not to have been so much for glory, as
+existence. It was for a long time doubtful whether we were to survive
+as an independent republic, or decline from our federal dignity into
+insignificant and wretched fragments of empire. The adoption of the
+constitution so extensively, and with so liberal an acquiescence on
+the part of the minorities in general, promised the former; but
+lately, the circular letter of New York has manifested, in my
+apprehension, an unfavourable, if not an insidious tendency to a
+contrary policy. I still hope for the best; but before you mentioned
+it, I could not help fearing it would serve as a standard to which the
+disaffected might resort. It is now evidently the part of all honest
+men, who are friends to the new constitution, to endeavour to give it
+a chance to disclose its merits and defects, by carrying it fairly
+into effect, in the first instance.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The principal topic of your letter, is to me a point of great
+delicacy indeed;&#8212;insomuch that I can scarcely, without some
+impropriety, touch upon it. In the first place, the event to which you
+allude may never happen, among other reasons, because, if the
+partiality of my fellow citizens conceive it to be a mean by which the
+sinews of the new government would be strengthened, it will of
+consequence be obnoxious to those who are in opposition to it, many of
+whom, unquestionably, will be placed among the electors.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;This consideration alone would supersede the expediency of announcing
+any definitive and irrevocable resolution. You are among the small
+number of those who know my invincible attachment to domestic life,
+and that my sincerest wish is to continue in the enjoyment of it
+solely, until my final hour. But the world would be neither so well
+instructed, nor so candidly disposed, as to believe me to be
+uninfluenced by sinister motives, in case any circumstance should
+render a deviation from the line of conduct I had prescribed for
+myself indispensable. Should the contingency you suggest take place,
+and (for argument sake alone, let me say) should my unfeigned
+reluctance to accept the office be overcome by a deference for the
+reasons and opinions of my friends; might I not, after the
+declarations I have made, (and heaven knows they were made in the
+sincerity of my heart,) in the judgment of the impartial world, and of
+posterity, be chargeable with levity and inconsistency, if not with
+rashness and ambition? Nay, farther, would there not even be some
+apparent foundation for the two former charges? Now, justice to
+myself, and tranquillity of conscience require that I should act a
+part, if not above imputation, at least capable of vindication. Nor
+will you conceive me to be too solicitous for reputation. Though I
+prize as I ought the good opinion of my fellow citizens, yet, if I
+know myself, I would not seek or retain popularity at the expense of
+one social duty, or moral virtue. While doing what my conscience
+informed me was right, as it respected my God, my country, and myself,
+I could despise all the party clamour and unjust censure which must be
+expected from some, whose personal enmity might be occasioned by their
+hostility to the government. I am conscious, that I fear alone to give
+any real occasion for obloquy, and that I do not dread to meet with
+unmerited reproach. And certain I am, whensoever I shall be convinced
+the good of my country requires my reputation to be put in risque,
+regard for my own fame will not come in competition with an object of
+so much magnitude.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;If I declined the task, it would be upon quite another principle.
+Notwithstanding my advanced season of life, my increasing fondness for
+agricultural amusements, and my growing love of retirement, augment
+and confirm my decided predilection for the character of a private
+citizen, yet it will be no one of these motives, nor the hazard to
+which my former reputation might be exposed, or the terror of
+encountering new fatigues and troubles, that would deter me from an
+acceptance;&#8212;but a belief that some other person, who had less
+pretence and less inclination to be excused, could execute all the
+duties full as satisfactorily as myself. To say more would be
+indiscreet; as a disclosure of a refusal before hand might incur the
+application of the fable, in which the fox is represented as
+undervaluing the grapes he could not reach. You will perceive, my dear
+sir, by what is here observed (and which you will be pleased to
+consider in the light of a confidential communication), that my
+inclinations will dispose and decide me to remain as I am, unless a
+clear and insurmountable conviction should be impressed on my mind,
+that some very disagreeable consequences must in all human probability
+result from the indulgence of my wishes.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>About the same time, Colonel Hamilton concluded a letter on
+miscellaneous subjects with the following observations. &quot;I take it for
+granted, sir, you have concluded to comply with what will, no doubt,
+be the general call of your country in relation to the new government.
+You will permit me to say that it is indispensable you should lend
+yourself to its first operations. It is to little purpose to have
+introduced a system, if the weightiest influence is not given to its
+firm establishment in the outset.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;On the delicate subject,&quot; said General Washington in reply, &quot;with
+which you conclude your letter, I can say nothing; because the event
+alluded to may never happen; and because in case it should occur, it
+would be a point of prudence to defer forming one's ultimate and
+irrevocable decision, so long as new data might be afforded for one to
+act with the greater wisdom and propriety. I would not wish to conceal
+my prevailing sentiment from you. For you know me well enough, my good
+sir, to be persuaded that I am not guilty of affectation, when I tell
+you it is my great and sole desire to live and die in peace and
+retirement on my own farm. Were it even indispensable a different line
+of conduct should be adopted, while you and some others who are
+acquainted with my heart would <i>acquit</i>, the world and posterity might
+probably <i>accuse</i> me of <i>inconsistency</i> and <i>ambition</i>. Still I hope,
+I shall always possess firmness and virtue enough to maintain (what I
+consider the most enviable of all titles) the character of <i>an honest
+man</i>.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This answer drew from Colonel Hamilton the following reply: &quot;I should
+be deeply pained, my dear sir, if your scruples in regard to a certain
+station should be matured into a resolution to decline it; though I am
+neither surprised at their existence, nor can I but agree in opinion
+that the caution you observe in deferring the ultimate determination
+is prudent. I have, however, reflected maturely on the subject, and
+have come to a conclusion (in which I feel no hesitation) that every
+public and personal consideration will demand from you an acquiescence
+in what will <i>certainly</i> be the unanimous wish of your country.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The absolute retreat which you meditated at the close of the late war
+was natural and proper. Had the government produced by the revolution
+gone on in a <i>tolerable</i> train, it would have been most adviseable to
+have persisted in that retreat. But I am clearly of opinion that the
+crisis which brought you again into public view left you no
+alternative but to comply; and I am equally clear in the opinion that
+you are by that act <i>pledged</i> to take a part in the execution of the
+government. I am not less convinced that the impression of the
+necessity of your filling the station in question is so universal,
+that you run no risk of any uncandid imputation by submitting to it.
+But even if this were not the case, a regard to your own reputation,
+as well as to the public good, calls upon you in the strongest manner
+to run that risk.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It can not be considered as a compliment to say, that on your
+acceptance of the office of president, the success of the new
+government in its commencement may materially depend. Your agency and
+influence will be not less important in preserving it from the future
+attacks of its enemies, than they have been in recommending it in the
+first instance to the adoption of the people. Independent of all
+considerations drawn from this source, the point of light in which you
+stand at home and abroad, will make an infinite difference in the
+respectability with which the government will begin its operations, in
+the alternative of your being or not being at the head of it. I
+forbear to mention considerations which might have a more personal
+application. What I have said will suffice for the inferences I mean
+to draw.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;First. In a matter so essential to the well being of society as the
+prosperity of a newly instituted government, a citizen of so much
+consequence as yourself to its success, has no option but to lend his
+services if called for. Permit me to say, it would be inglorious, in
+such a situation, not to hazard the glory, however great, which he
+might have previously acquired.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Secondly. Your signature to the proposed system, pledges your
+judgment for its being such an one as upon the whole was worthy of the
+public approbation. If it should miscarry, (as men commonly decide
+from success or the want of it) the blame will in all probability be
+laid on the system itself. And the framers of it will have to
+encounter the disrepute of having brought about a revolution in
+government, without substituting any thing that was worthy of the
+effort; they pulled down one Utopia, it will be said, to build up
+another. This view of the subject, if I mistake not, my dear sir, will
+suggest to your mind greater hazard to that fame, which must be, and
+ought to be dear to you, in refusing your future aid to the system,
+than in affording it. I will only add, that in my estimate of the
+matter, that aid is indispensable.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I have taken the liberty to express these sentiments, and to lay
+before you my view of the subject. I doubt not the considerations
+mentioned have fully occurred to you, and I trust, they will finally
+produce in your mind the same result which exists in mine. I flatter
+myself the frankness with which I have delivered myself, will not be
+displeasing to you. It has been prompted by motives which you would
+not disapprove.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In answer to this letter General Washington opened himself without
+reserve. &quot;In acknowledging,&quot; said he, &quot;the receipt of your candid and
+kind letter by the last post, little more is incumbent on me than to
+thank you sincerely for the frankness with which you communicated your
+sentiments, and to assure you that the same manly tone of intercourse
+will always be more than barely welcome,&#8212;indeed it will be highly
+acceptable to me.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I am particularly glad, in the present instance, that you have dealt
+thus freely and like a friend. Although I could not help observing
+from several publications and letters that my name had been sometimes
+spoken of, and that it was possible the <i>contingency</i> which is the
+subject of your letter might happen, yet I thought it best to maintain
+a guarded silence, and to lack the counsel of my best friends (which I
+certainly hold in the highest estimation) rather than to hazard an
+imputation unfriendly to the delicacy of my feelings. For, situated as
+I am, I could hardly bring the question into the slightest discussion,
+or ask an opinion even in the most confidential manner, without
+betraying, in my judgment, some impropriety of conduct, or without
+feeling an apprehension that a premature display of anxiety, might be
+construed into a vain glorious desire of pushing myself into notice as
+a candidate. Now; if I am not grossly deceived in myself, I should
+unfeignedly rejoice, in case the electors, by giving their votes in
+favour of some other person, would save me from the dreadful dilemma
+of being forced to accept or refuse. If that may not be, I am in the
+next place, earnestly desirous of searching out the truth, and of
+knowing whether there does not exist a probability that the government
+would be just as happily and effectually carried into execution
+without my aid, as with it. I am <i>truly</i> solicitous to obtain all the
+previous information which the circumstances will afford, and to
+determine (when the determination can with propriety be no longer
+postponed) according to the principles of right reason, and the
+dictates of a clear conscience; without too great a reference to the
+unforeseen consequences which may affect my person or reputation.
+Until that period, I may fairly hold myself open to conviction, though
+I allow your sentiments to have weight in them; and I shall not pass
+by your arguments without giving them as dispassionate a consideration
+as I can possibly bestow upon them.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;In taking a survey of the subject, in whatever point of light I have
+been able to place it, I will not suppress the acknowledgment, my dear
+sir, that I have always felt a kind of gloom upon my mind, as often as
+I have been taught to expect I might, and perhaps must ere long be
+called to make a decision. You will, I am well assured, believe the
+assertion (though I have little expectation it would gain credit from
+those who are less acquainted with me) that if I should receive the
+appointment, and should be prevailed upon to accept it; the acceptance
+would be attended with more diffidence and reluctance, than ever I
+experienced before in my life. It would be, however, with a fixed and
+sole determination of lending whatever assistance might be in my power
+to promote the public weal, in hopes that at a convenient and an early
+period, my services might be dispensed with; and that I might be
+permitted once more to retire&#8212;to pass an unclouded evening after the
+stormy day of life, in the bosom of domestic tranquillity.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This correspondence was thus closed by Colonel Hamilton. &quot;I feel a
+conviction that you will finally see your acceptance to be
+indispensable. It is no compliment to say that no other man can
+sufficiently unite the public opinion, or can give the requisite
+weight to the office, in the commencement of the government. These
+considerations appear to me of themselves decisive. I am not sure that
+your refusal would not throw every thing into confusion. I am sure
+that it would have the worst effect imaginable.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Indeed, as I hinted in a former letter, I think circumstances leave
+no option.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Although this correspondence does not appear to have absolutely
+decided General Washington on the part he should embrace, it could not
+have been without its influence on his judgment, nor have failed to
+dispose him to yield to the wish of his country. &quot;I would willingly,&quot;
+said he to his estimable friend General Lincoln, who had also pressed
+the subject on him, &quot;pass over in silence that part of your letter, in
+which you mention the persons who are candidates for the two first
+offices in the executive, if I did not fear the omission might seem to
+betray a want of confidence. Motives of delicacy have prevented me
+hitherto from conversing or writing on this subject, whenever I could
+avoid it with decency. I may, however, with great sincerity, and I
+believe without offending against modesty or propriety, <i>say</i> to
+<i>you</i>, that I most heartily wish the choice to which you allude might
+not fall upon me: and that if it should, I must reserve to myself the
+right of making up my final decision, at the last moment, when it can
+be brought into one view, and when the expediency or inexpediency of a
+refusal can be more judiciously determined than at present. But be
+assured, my dear sir, if from any inducement I shall be persuaded
+ultimately to accept, it will not be (so far as I know my own heart)
+from any of a private or personal nature. Every personal consideration
+conspires, to rivet me (if I may use the expression) to retirement. At
+my time of life, and under my circumstances, nothing in this world can
+ever draw me from it, unless it be a <i>conviction</i> that the partiality
+of my countrymen had made my services absolutely necessary, joined to
+a <i>fear</i> that my refusal might induce a belief that I preferred the
+conservation of my own reputation and private ease, to the good of my
+country. After all, if I should conceive myself in a manner
+constrained to accept, I call heaven to witness, that this very act
+would be the greatest sacrifice of my personal feelings and wishes,
+that ever I have been called upon to make. It would be to forego
+repose and domestic enjoyment for trouble, perhaps for public obloquy:
+for I should consider myself as entering upon an unexplored field,
+enveloped on every side with clouds and darkness.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;From this embarrassing situation I had naturally supposed that my
+declarations at the close of the war would have saved me; and that my
+sincere intentions, then publicly made known, would have effectually
+precluded me forever afterwards from being looked upon as a candidate
+for any office. This hope, as a last anchor of worldly happiness in
+old age, I had still carefully preserved; until the public papers and
+private letters from my correspondents in almost every quarter, taught
+me to apprehend that I might soon be obliged to answer the question,
+whether I would go again into public life or not?&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I can say little or nothing new,&quot; said he in a letter to the Marquis
+de Lafayette, &quot;in consequence of the repetition of your opinion on the
+expediency there will be, for my accepting the office to which you
+refer. Your sentiments indeed coincide much more nearly with those of
+my ether friends, than with my own feelings. In truth, my difficulties
+increase and magnify as I draw towards the period, when, according to
+the common belief, it will be necessary for me to give a definitive
+answer in one way or other. Should circumstances render it, in a
+manner, inevitably necessary to be in the affirmative, be assured, my
+dear sir, I shall assume the task with the most unfeigned reluctance,
+and with a real diffidence, for which I shall probably receive no
+credit from the world. If I know my own heart, nothing short of a
+conviction of duty will induce me again to take an active part in
+public affairs. And in that case, if I can form a plan for my own
+conduct, my endeavours shall be unremittingly exerted (even at the
+hazard of former fame or present popularity) to extricate my country
+from the embarrassments in which it is entangled through want of
+credit; and to establish a general system of policy, which, if
+pursued, will ensure permanent felicity to the commonwealth. I think I
+see a path, as clear and as direct as a ray of light, which leads to
+the attainment of that object. Nothing but harmony, honesty, industry,
+and frugality, are necessary to make us a great and happy people.
+Happily, the present posture of affairs, and the prevailing
+disposition of my countrymen, promise to co-operate in establishing
+those four great and essential pillars of public felicity.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a name="image05">
+<img src="images/260.jpg" width="585" height="346" alt="Constitutional Convention Room" /></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>The Room in Which the First Constitutional Convention Met in
+Philadelphia</b></p>
+
+<p><i>Delegates from twelve of the thirteen States (Rhode Island alone
+being unrepresented) assembled at Philadelphia, where the opening
+sessions of the first Constitutional Convention were held in this room
+in Independence Hall, May 14, 1787. George Washington presided during
+the four months taken to draft the Constitution of the United States.
+When it was completed on September 17th, it is said that many of the
+delegates seemed awe-struck and that Washington himself sat with his
+head bowed in deep meditation. As the Convention adjourned, Franklin,
+who was then over eighty-one years of age, arose and pointing to the
+President's quaint armchair on the back of which was emblazoned a half
+sun, brilliant with gilded rays, observed: &quot;As I have been sitting
+here all these weeks, I have often wondered whether yonder sun is
+rising or setting, but now I know that it is a rising sun.&quot;</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">He is unanimously elected president.</div>
+
+<p>After the elections had taken place, a general persuasion prevailed
+that the public will, respecting the chief magistrate of the union,
+had been too unequivocally manifested not to be certainly obeyed; and
+several applications were made to General Washington for those offices
+in the respective states, which would be in the gift of the president
+of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>As marking the frame of mind with which he came into the government,
+the following extract is given from one of the many letters written to
+persons whose pretensions he was disposed to favour. &quot;Should it become
+absolutely necessary for me to occupy the station in which your letter
+presupposes me, I have determined to go into it, perfectly free from
+all engagements of every nature whatsoever.&#8212;A conduct in conformity
+to this resolution, would enable me, in balancing the various
+pretensions of different candidates for appointments, to act with a
+sole reference to justice and the public good. This is, in substance,
+the answer that I have given to all applications (and they are not
+few) which have already been made. Among the places sought after in
+these applications, I must not conceal that the office to which you
+particularly allude is comprehended. This fact I tell you merely as
+matter of information. My general manner of thinking, as to the
+propriety of holding myself totally disengaged, will apologize for my
+not enlarging farther on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Though I am sensible that the public suffrage which places a man in
+office, should prevent him from being swayed, in the execution of it,
+by his private inclinations, yet he may assuredly, without violating
+his duty, be indulged in the continuance of his former attachments.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Meeting of the first congress.</div>
+
+<p>The impotence of the late government, added to the dilatoriness
+inseparable from its perplexed mode of proceeding on the public
+business, and to its continued session, had produced among the members
+of congress such an habitual disregard of punctuality in their
+attendance on that body, that, although the new government was to
+commence its operations on the 4th of March, 1789, a house of
+representatives was not formed until the first, nor a senate until the
+6th day of April.</p>
+
+<p>At length, the votes for the president and vice president of the
+United States were opened and counted in the senate. Neither the
+animosity of parties, nor the preponderance of the enemies of the new
+government in some of the states, could deprive General Washington of
+a single vote. By the unanimous voice of an immense continent, he was
+called to the chief magistracy of the nation. The second number of
+votes was given to Mr. John Adams. George Washington and John Adams
+were therefore declared to be duly elected president and vice
+president of the United States, to serve for four years from the 4th
+of March, 1789.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>The election of General Washington officially announced to
+him.... His departure for the seat of government.... Marks
+of affection shown him on his journey.... His inauguration
+and speech to Congress.... His system of intercourse with
+the world.... Letters on this and other subjects.... Answer
+of both houses of Congress to the speech.... Domestic and
+foreign relations of the United States.... Debates on the
+impost and tonnage bills.... On the power of removal from
+office.... On the policy of the secretary of the treasury
+reporting plans of revenue.... On the style of the
+President.... Amendments to the constitution.... Appointment
+of executive officers, and of the judges.... Adjournment of
+the first session of Congress.... The President visits New
+England.... His reception.... North Carolina accedes to the
+union.</b></p></div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1789</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The election of General Washington officially announced to
+him.</div>
+
+<p><span class="lgsmcap">The</span> election of General Washington to the office of chief magistrate
+of the United States, was announced to him at Mount Vernon on the 14th
+of April, 1789. Accustomed to respect the wishes of his fellow
+citizens, he did not think himself at liberty to decline an
+appointment conferred upon him by the suffrage of an entire people.
+His acceptance of it, and his expressions of gratitude for this fresh
+proof of the esteem and confidence of his country, were connected with
+declarations of diffidence in himself. &quot;I wish,&quot; he said, &quot;that there
+may not be reason for regretting the choice,&#8212;for indeed, all I can
+promise, is to accomplish that which can be done by an honest zeal.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His departure for the seat of government.</div>
+
+<p>As the public business required the immediate attendance of the
+president at the seat of government, he hastened his departure; and,
+on the second day after receiving notice of his appointment, took
+leave of Mount Vernon.</p>
+
+<p>In an entry made by himself in his diary, the feelings inspired by an
+occasion so affecting to his mind are thus described, &quot;About ten
+o'clock I bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life, and to domestic
+felicity; and with a mind oppressed with more anxious and painful
+sensations than I have words to express, set out for New York in
+company with Mr. Thompson, and Colonel Humphries, with the best
+dispositions to render service to my country in obedience to its call,
+but with less hope of answering its expectations.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Marks of respect and affection shown him on his journey.</div>
+
+<p>He was met by a number of gentlemen residing in Alexandria, and
+escorted to their city, where a public dinner had been prepared to
+which he was invited. The sentiments of veneration and affection which
+were felt by all classes of his fellow citizens for their patriot
+chief, were manifested by the most flattering marks of heartfelt
+respect; and by addresses which evinced the unlimited confidence
+reposed in his virtues and his talents. A place can not be given to
+these addresses: but that from the citizens of Alexandria derives such
+pretensions to particular notice from the recollection that it is to
+be considered as an effusion from the hearts of his neighbours and
+private friends, that its insertion may be pardoned. It is in the
+following words:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Again your country commands your care. Obedient to its wishes,
+unmindful of your ease, we see you again relinquishing the bliss of
+retirement; and this too at a period of life, when nature itself seems
+to authorize a preference of repose!</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Not to extol your glory as a soldier; not to pour forth our gratitude
+for past services; not to acknowledge the justice of the unexampled
+honour which has been conferred upon you by the spontaneous and
+unanimous suffrages of three millions of freemen, in your election to
+the supreme magistracy; nor to admire the patriotism which directs
+your conduct, do your neighbours and friends now address you. Themes
+less splendid but more endearing, impress our minds. The first and
+best of citizens must leave us: our aged must lose their ornament; our
+youth their model; our agriculture its improver; our commerce its
+friend; our infant academy its protector; our poor their benefactor;
+and the interior navigation of the Potomac (an event replete with the
+most extensive utility, already, by your unremitted exertions, brought
+into partial use) its institutor and promoter.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Farewell!&#8212;go! and make a grateful people happy, a people, who will
+be doubly grateful when they contemplate this recent sacrifice for
+their interest.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;To that Being who maketh and unmaketh at his will, we commend you;
+and after the accomplishment of the arduous business to which you are
+called, may he restore to us again, the best of men, and the most
+beloved fellow citizen!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>To this affectionate address General Washington returned the following
+answer:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Gentlemen,</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Although I ought not to conceal, yet I can not describe the painful
+emotions which I felt in being called upon to determine whether I
+would accept or refuse the presidency of the United States. The
+unanimity in the choice, the opinion of my friends communicated from
+different parts of Europe, as well as from America, the apparent wish
+of those who were not entirely satisfied with the constitution in its
+present form; and an ardent desire on my own part to be instrumental
+in connecting the good will of my countrymen towards each other, have
+induced an acceptance. Those who know me best (and you my fellow
+citizens are, from your situation, in that number) know better than
+any others, my love of retirement is so great, that no earthly
+consideration, short of a conviction of duty, could have prevailed
+upon me to depart from my resolution, 'never more to take any share in
+transactions of a public nature.' For, at my age, and in my
+circumstances, what prospects or advantages could I propose to myself,
+from embarking again on the tempestuous and uncertain ocean of public
+life?</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I do not feel myself under the necessity of making public
+declarations, in order to convince you, gentlemen, of my attachment to
+yourselves, and regard for your interests. The whole tenor of my life
+has been open to your inspection; and my past actions, rather than my
+present declarations, must be the pledge of my future conduct.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;In the mean time, I thank you most sincerely for the expressions of
+kindness contained in your valedictory address. It is true, just after
+having bade adieu to my domestic connexions, this tender proof of your
+friendships is but too well calculated still further to awaken my
+sensibility, and increase my regret at parting from the enjoyments of
+private life.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;All that now remains for me is to commit myself and you to the
+protection of that beneficent Being who, on a former occasion, hath
+happily brought us together, after a long and distressing separation.
+Perhaps, the same gracious Providence will again indulge me.
+Unutterable sensations must then be left to more expressive silence;
+while from an aching heart, I bid you all, my affectionate friends,
+and kind neighbours, farewell!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In the afternoon of the same day, he left Alexandria, and was attended
+by his neighbours to Georgetown, where a number of citizens from the
+state of Maryland had assembled to receive him.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout his journey the people continued to manifest the same
+feeling. Crowds flocked around him wherever he stopped; and corps of
+militia, and companies of the most respectable citizens, escorted him
+through their respective streets. At Philadelphia, he was received
+with peculiar splendour. Gray's bridge, over the Schuylkill, was
+highly decorated. In imitation of the triumphal exhibitions of ancient
+Rome, an arch, composed of laurel, in which was displayed the simple
+elegance of true taste, was erected at each end of it, and on each
+side was a laurel shrubbery. As the object of universal admiration
+passed under the arch, a civic crown was, unperceived by him, let down
+upon his head by a youth ornamented with sprigs of laurel, who was
+assisted by machinery. The fields and avenues leading from the
+Schuylkill to Philadelphia, were crowded with people, through whom
+General Washington was conducted into the city by a numerous and
+respectable body of citizens; and at night the town was illuminated.
+The next day, at Trenton, he was welcomed in a manner as new as it was
+pleasing. In addition to the usual demonstrations of respect and
+attachment which were given by the discharge of cannon, by military
+corps, and by private persons of distinction, the gentler sex prepared
+in their own taste, a tribute of applause indicative of the grateful
+recollection in which they held their deliverance twelve years before
+from a formidable enemy. On the bridge over the creek which passes
+through the town, was erected a triumphal arch highly ornamented with
+laurels and flowers: and supported by thirteen pillars, each entwined
+with wreaths of evergreen. On the front arch was inscribed in large
+gilt letters,</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">THE DEFENDER OF THE MOTHERS</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">WILL BE THE</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">PROTECTOR OF THE DAUGHTERS.</p>
+
+<p>On the centre of the arch above the inscription, was a dome or cupola
+of flowers and evergreens, encircling the dates of two memorable
+events which were peculiarly interesting to New Jersey. The first was
+the battle of Trenton, and the second the bold and judicious stand
+made by the American troops at the same creek, by which the progress
+of the British army was arrested on the evening preceding the battle
+of Princeton.</p>
+
+<p>At this place, he was met by a party of matrons leading their
+daughters dressed in white, who carried baskets of flowers in their
+hands, and sang, with exquisite sweetness, an ode of two stanzas
+composed for the occasion.</p>
+
+<p>At Brunswick, he was joined by the governor of New Jersey, who
+accompanied him to Elizabethtown Point. A committee of congress
+received him on the road, and conducted him with military parade to
+the Point, where he took leave of the governor and other gentlemen of
+Jersey, and embarked for New York in an elegant barge of thirteen
+oars, manned by thirteen branch pilots prepared for the purpose by the
+citizens of New York.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The display of boats,&quot; says the general, in his private journal,
+&quot;which attended and joined on this occasion, some with vocal, and
+others with instrumental music on board, the decorations of the ships,
+the roar of cannon, and the loud acclamations of the people, which
+rent the sky as I passed along the wharves, filled my mind with
+sensations as painful (contemplating the reverse of this scene, which
+may be the case after all my labours to do good) as they were
+pleasing.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>At the stairs on Murray's wharf, which had been prepared and
+ornamented for the purpose, he was received by the governor of New
+York, and conducted with military honours, through an immense
+concourse of people, to the apartments provided for him. These were
+attended by all who were in office, and by many private citizens of
+distinction, who pressed around him to offer their congratulations,
+and to express the joy which glowed in their bosoms at seeing the man
+in whom all confided, at the head of the American empire. This day of
+extravagant joy was succeeded by a splendid illumination.</p>
+
+<p>It is no equivocal mark of the worth of Washington, and of the
+soundness of his judgment, that it could neither be corrupted nor
+misguided by these flattering testimonials of attachment.</p>
+
+<p>Two days before the arrival of the President, the Vice President took
+his seat in the senate, and addressed that body in a dignified speech
+adapted to the occasion, in which, after manifesting the high opinion
+that statesman always entertained of his countrymen, he thus expressed
+his sentiments of the executive magistrate.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It is with satisfaction that I congratulate the people of America on
+the formation of a national constitution, and the fair prospect of a
+consistent administration of a government of laws: on the acquisition
+of a house of representatives, chosen by themselves; of a senate thus
+composed by their own state legislatures; and on the prospect of an
+executive authority, in the hands of one whose portrait I shall not
+presume to draw.&#8212;Were I blessed with powers to do justice to his
+character, it would be impossible to increase the confidence or
+affection of his country, or make the smallest addition to his glory.
+This can only be effected by a discharge of the present exalted trust
+on the same principles, with the same abilities and virtues which have
+uniformly appeared in all his former conduct, public or private. May I
+nevertheless be indulged to inquire, if we look over the catalogue of
+the first magistrates of nations, whether they have been denominated
+presidents or consuls, kings, or princes, where shall we find one,
+whose commanding talents and virtues, whose overruling good fortune,
+have so completely united all hearts and voices in his favour? who
+enjoyed the esteem and admiration of foreign nations, and fellow
+citizens, with equal unanimity? qualities so uncommon, are no common
+blessings to the country that possesses them. By these great
+qualities, and their benign effects, has Providence marked out the
+head of this nation, with a hand so distinctly visible, as to have
+been seen by all men, and mistaken by none.&quot;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a name="image06">
+<img src="images/276.jpg" width="372" height="494" alt="Washington Taking the Oath" /></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>Washington Taking the Oath of Office</b></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><i>From the painting by Alonzo Chappell</i></p>
+
+<p><i>On the balcony of the old City Hall, Broad and Wall Streets, New
+York, Washington was sworn in as first President of the United States,
+April 30, 1789. The artist here accurately depicts him wearing a suit
+of dark brown, at his side a dress sword, and his hair powdered in the
+fashion of the period. White silk stockings and shoes with simple
+silver buckles completed his attire. On one side of him stood
+Chancellor Livingstone, who administered the oath. On the other side
+was Vice-President John Adams. Washington solemnly repeated the words
+of the oath, clearly enunciating, &quot;I swear&quot;: adding in a whisper, with
+closed eyes, &quot;So help me, God&quot;.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">He forms a system of conduct to be observed in his
+intercourse with the world.</div>
+
+<p>A President of the United States being a new political personage, to a
+great portion of whose time the public was entitled, it became proper
+to digest a system of conduct to be observed in his intercourse with
+the world, which would keep in view the duties of his station, without
+entirely disregarding his personal accommodation, or the course of
+public opinion. In the interval between his arrival in New York, and
+entering on the duties of his office, those most capable of advising
+on the subject were consulted; and some rules were framed by General
+Washington for his government in these respects. As one of them, the
+allotment of a particular hour for receiving visits not on business,
+became the subject of much animadversion; and, being considered merely
+as an imitation of the levee days established by crowned heads, has
+constituted not the least important of the charges which have been
+made against this gentleman. The motives assigned by himself for the
+rule may not be unworthy of attention.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Letters from him on this and other subjects.</div>
+
+<p>Not long after the government came into operation, Doctor Stuart, a
+gentleman nearly connected with the President in friendship and by
+marriage, addressed to him a letter stating the accusations which were
+commonly circulating in Virginia on various subjects, and especially
+against the regal manners of those who administered the affairs of the
+nation. In answer to this letter the President observed, &quot;while the
+eyes of America, perhaps of the world, are turned to this government,
+and many are watching the movements of all those who are concerned in
+its administration, I should like to be informed, through so good a
+medium, of the public opinion of both men and measures, and of none
+more than myself;&#8212;not so much of what may be thought commendable
+parts, if any, of my conduct, as of those which are conceived to be of
+a different complexion. The man who means to commit no wrong will
+never be guilty of enormities, consequently can never be unwilling to
+learn what are ascribed to him as foibles.&#8212;If they are really such,
+the knowledge of them in a well disposed mind will go half way towards
+a reform.&#8212;If they are not errors, he can explain and justify the
+motives of his actions.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;At a distance from the theatre of action, truth is not always related
+without embellishment, and sometimes is entirely perverted from a
+misconception of the causes which produced the effects that are the
+subject of censure.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;This leads me to think that a system which I found it indispensably
+necessary to adopt upon my first coming to this city, might have
+undergone severe strictures, and have had motives very foreign from
+those that governed me, assigned as causes thereof.&#8212;I mean first,
+returning <i>no</i> visits: second, appointing certain days to receive them
+generally (not to the exclusion however of visits on any other days
+under particular circumstances;) and third, at first entertaining no
+company, and afterwards (until I was unable to entertain any at all)
+confining it to official characters. A few days evinced the necessity
+of the two first in so clear a point of view, that had I not adopted
+it, I should have been unable to have attended to any sort of
+business, unless I had applied the hours allotted to rest and
+refreshment to this purpose; for by the time I had done breakfast, and
+thence until dinner&#8212;and afterwards until bed-time, I could not get
+relieved from the ceremony of one visit before I had to attend to
+another. In a word, I had no leisure to read or to answer the
+despatches that were pouring in upon me from all quarters.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In a subsequent letter written to the same gentleman, after his levees
+had been openly-censured by the enemies of his administration, he thus
+expressed himself:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Before the custom was established, which now accommodates foreign
+characters, strangers, and others who from motives of curiosity,
+respect to the chief magistrate, or any other cause, are induced to
+call upon me, I was unable to attend to any business whatsoever. For
+gentlemen, consulting their own convenience rather than mine, were
+calling from the time I rose from breakfast&#8212;often before&#8212;until I sat
+down to dinner. This, as I resolved not to neglect my public duties,
+reduced me to the choice of one of these alternatives; either to
+refuse them <i>altogether</i>, or to appropriate a time for the reception
+of them. The first would, I well knew, be disgusting to many;&#8212;the
+latter I expected, would undergo animadversion from those who would
+find fault with or without cause. To please every body was impossible.
+I therefore adopted that line of conduct which combined public
+advantage with private convenience, and which, in my judgment, was
+unexceptionable in itself.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;These visits are optional. They are made without invitation. Between
+the hours of three and four every Tuesday, I am prepared to receive
+them. Gentlemen, often in great numbers, come and go;&#8212;chat with each
+other;&#8212;and act as they please. A porter shows them into the room; and
+they retire from it when they choose, and without ceremony. At their
+first entrance, they salute me, and I them, and as many as I can talk
+to, I do. What pomp there is in all this I am unable to discover.
+Perhaps it consists in not sitting. To this two reasons are opposed:
+first, it is unusual; secondly, (which is a more substantial one)
+because I have no room large enough to contain a third of the chairs
+which would be sufficient to admit it. If it is supposed that
+ostentation, or the fashions of courts (which by the by I believe
+originate oftener in convenience, not to say necessity, than is
+generally imagined) gave rise to this custom, I will boldly affirm
+that <i>no</i> supposition was ever more erroneous; for were I to indulge
+my inclinations, every moment that I could withdraw from the fatigues
+of my station should be spent in retirement. That they are not,
+proceeds from the sense I entertain of the propriety of giving to
+every one as free access as consists with that respect which is due to
+the chair of government;&#8212;and that respect, I conceive, is neither to
+be acquired nor preserved, but by maintaining a just medium between
+too much state, and too great familiarity.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Similar to the above, but of a more familiar and sociable kind, are
+the visits every Friday afternoon to Mrs. Washington, where I always
+am. These public meetings, and a dinner once a week to as many as my
+table will hold, with the references to and from the different
+departments of state, and other communications with all parts of the
+union, is as much if not more than I am able to undergo; for I have
+already had within less than a year, two severe attacks;&#8212;the last
+worse than the first,&#8212;a third, it is more than probable will put me
+to sleep with my fathers&#8212;at what distance this may be, I know not.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His inauguration and speech to congress.</div>
+
+<p>The ceremonies of the inauguration having been adjusted by congress,
+the President attended in the senate chamber, on the 30th of April, in
+order to take, in the presence of both houses, the oath prescribed by
+the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>To gratify the public curiosity, an open gallery adjoining the senate
+chamber had been selected by congress, as the place in which the oath
+should be administered. Having taken it in the view of an immense
+concourse of people, whose loud and repeated acclamations attested the
+joy with which his being proclaimed President of the United States
+inspired them, he returned to the senate chamber, where he delivered
+the following address:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;<i>Fellow citizens of the Senate and of the House of Representatives:</i></p>
+
+<p>&quot;Among the vicissitudes incident to life, no event could have filled
+me with greater anxieties than that of which the notification was
+transmitted by your order, and received on the 14th day of the present
+month. On the one hand, I was summoned by my country, whose voice I
+can never hear but with veneration and love, from a retreat which I
+had chosen with the fondest predilection, and, in my flattering hopes,
+with an immutable decision, as the asylum of my declining years: a
+retreat which was rendered every day more necessary as well as more
+dear to me, by the addition of habit to inclination, and of frequent
+interruptions in my health to the gradual waste committed on it by
+time. On the other hand, the magnitude and difficulty of the trust to
+which the voice of my country called me, being sufficient to awaken in
+the wisest and most experienced of her citizens a distrustful scrutiny
+into his qualifications, could not but overwhelm with despondence,
+one, who, inheriting inferior endowments from nature, and unpractised
+in the duties of civil administration, ought to be peculiarly
+conscious of his own deficiencies. In this conflict of emotions, all I
+dare aver is, that it has been my faithful study to collect my duty
+from a just appreciation of every circumstance by which it might be
+effected. All I dare hope is, that, if in accepting this task, I have
+been too much swayed by a grateful remembrance of former instances, or
+by an affectionate sensibility to this transcendent proof of the
+confidence of my fellow citizens: and have thence too little consulted
+my incapacity, as well as disinclination for the weighty and untried
+cares before me; my ERROR will be palliated by the motives which
+misled me, and its consequences be judged by my country, with some
+share of the partiality in which they originated.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Such being the impressions under which I have, in obedience to the
+public summons, repaired to the present station, it will be peculiarly
+improper to omit in this first official act, my fervent supplications
+to that Almighty Being who rules over the universe&#8212;who presides in
+the councils of nations&#8212;and whose providential aids can supply every
+human defect, that his benediction may consecrate to the liberties and
+happiness of the people of the United States, a government instituted
+by themselves for these essential purposes: and may enable every
+instrument employed in its administration, to execute with success,
+the functions allotted to his charge. In tendering this homage to the
+great Author of every public and private good, I assure myself that it
+expresses your sentiments not less than my own; nor those of my fellow
+citizens at large, less than either. No people can be bound to
+acknowledge and adore the invisible hand which conducts the affairs of
+men, more than the people of the United States. Every step by which
+they have advanced to the character of an independent nation seems to
+have been distinguished by some token of providential agency; and in
+the important revolution just accomplished in the system of their
+united government, the tranquil deliberations and voluntary consent of
+so many distinct communities, from which the event has resulted, can
+not be compared with the means by which most governments have been
+established, without some return of pious gratitude along with an
+humble anticipation of the future blessings which the past seem to
+presage. These reflections, arising out of the present crisis, have
+forced themselves too strongly on my mind to be suppressed. You will
+join with me, I trust, in thinking that there are none, under the
+influence of which the proceedings of a new and free government can
+more auspiciously commence.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;By the article establishing the executive department, it is made the
+duty of the President 'to recommend to your consideration, such
+measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.' The circumstances
+under which I now meet you will acquit me from entering into that
+subject, farther than to refer to the great constitutional charter
+under which you are assembled, and which in defining your powers,
+designates the objects to which your attention is to be given. It will
+be more consistent with those circumstances, and far more congenial
+with the feelings which actuate me, to substitute in place of a
+recommendation of particular measures, the tribute that is due to the
+talents, the rectitude, and the patriotism, which adorn the characters
+selected to devise and adopt them. In these honourable qualifications,
+I behold the surest pledges that, as on one side, no local prejudices
+or attachments, no separate views nor party animosities, will
+misdirect the comprehensive and equal eye which ought to watch over
+this great assemblage of communities and interests: so, on another,
+that the foundations of our national policy will be laid in the pure
+and immutable principles of private morality; and the pre-eminence of
+free government be exemplified by all the attributes which can win the
+affections of its citizens, and command the respect of the world. I
+dwell on this prospect with every satisfaction which an ardent love
+for my country can inspire, since there is no truth more thoroughly
+established than that there exists, in the economy and course of
+nature, an indissoluble union between virtue and happiness&#8212;between
+duty and advantage&#8212;between the genuine maxims of an honest and
+magnanimous policy, and the solid rewards of public prosperity and
+felicity; since we ought to be no less persuaded that the propitious
+smiles of heaven can never be expected on a nation that disregards the
+eternal rules of order and right which heaven itself has ordained: and
+since the preservation of the sacred fire of liberty, and the destiny
+of the republican model of government, are justly considered as
+DEEPLY, perhaps as FINALLY staked, on the experiment entrusted to the
+hands of the American people.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Besides the ordinary objects submitted to your care, it will remain
+with your judgment to decide, how far an exercise of the occasional
+power delegated by the fifth article of the constitution is rendered
+expedient, at the present juncture, by the nature of objections which
+have been urged against the system, or by the degree of inquietude
+which has given birth to them. Instead of undertaking particular
+recommendations on this subject, in which I could be guided by no
+lights derived from official opportunities, I shall again give way to
+my entire confidence in your discernment and pursuit of the public
+good: for I assure myself that whilst you carefully avoid every
+alteration which might endanger the benefits of a united and effective
+government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience,
+a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for
+the public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on
+the question how far the former can be more impregnably fortified, or
+the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;To the preceding observations I have one to add, which will be most
+properly addressed to the house of representatives. It concerns
+myself, and will therefore be as brief as possible. When I was first
+honoured with a call into the service of my country, then on the eve
+of an arduous struggle for its liberties, the light in which I
+contemplated my duty required that I should renounce every pecuniary
+compensation. From this resolution I have in no instance departed. And
+being still under the impressions which produced it, I must decline,
+as inapplicable to myself, any share in the personal emoluments which
+may be indispensably included in a permanent provision for the
+executive department; and must accordingly pray that the pecuniary
+estimates for the station in which I am placed, may, during my
+continuance in it, be limited to such actual expenditures as the
+public good may be thought to require.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Having thus imparted to you my sentiments, as they have been awakened
+by the occasion which brings us together, I shall take my present
+leave; but not without resorting once more to the benign Parent of the
+human race, in humble supplication, that since he has been pleased to
+favour the American people with opportunities for deliberating in
+perfect tranquillity, and dispositions for deciding with unparalleled
+unanimity on a form of government, for the security of their union,
+and the advancement of their happiness, so his divine blessing may be
+equally <i>conspicuous</i> in the enlarged views, the temperate
+consultations, and the wise measures on which the success of this
+government must depend.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Answer of both houses of congress to the speech.</div>
+
+<p>In their answer to this speech, the senate say: &quot;The unanimous
+suffrage of the elective body in your favour, is peculiarly expressive
+of the gratitude, confidence, and affection of the citizens of
+America, and is the highest testimonial at once of your merit, and
+their esteem. We are sensible, sir, that nothing but the voice of your
+fellow citizens could have called you from a retreat, chosen with the
+fondest predilection, endeared by habit, and consecrated to the repose
+of declining years. We rejoice, and with us all America, that, in
+obedience to the call of our common country, you have returned once
+more to public life. In you all parties confide; in you all interests
+unite; and we have no doubt that your past services, great as they
+have been, will be equalled by your future exertions; and that your
+prudence and sagacity, as a statesman, will tend to avert the dangers
+to which we were exposed, to give stability to the present government,
+and dignity and splendour to that country, which your skill and valour
+as a soldier, so eminently contributed to raise to independence and to
+empire.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The affection for the person and character of the President with which
+the answer of the house of representatives glowed, promised that
+between this branch of the legislature also and the executive, the
+most harmonious co-operation in the public service might be expected.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The representatives of the people of the United States,&quot; says this
+address, &quot;present their congratulations on the event by which your
+fellow citizens have attested the pre-eminence of your merit. You have
+long held the first place in their esteem. You have often received
+tokens of their affection. You now possess the only proof that
+remained of their gratitude for your services, of their reverence for
+your wisdom, and of their confidence in your virtues. You enjoy the
+highest, because the truest honour, of being the first magistrate, by
+the unanimous choice of the freest people on the face of the earth.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After noticing the several communications made in the speech, intense
+of deep felt respect and affection, the answer concludes thus:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Such are the sentiments with which we have thought fit to address
+you. They flow from our own hearts, and we verily believe that among
+the millions we represent, there is not a virtuous citizen whose heart
+will disown them.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;All that remains is, that we join in your fervent supplications for
+the blessing of heaven on our country; and that we add our own for the
+choicest of these blessings on the most beloved of her citizens.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Situation of the United States at this period in their
+domestic and foreign relations.</div>
+
+<p>A perfect knowledge of the antecedent state of things being essential
+to a due administration of the executive department, its attainment
+engaged the immediate attention of the President; and he required the
+temporary heads of departments to prepare and lay before him such
+statements and documents as would give this information.</p>
+
+<p>But in the full view which it was useful to take of the interior, many
+objects were to be contemplated, the documents respecting which were
+not to be found in official records. The progress which had been made
+in assuaging the bitter animosities engendered in the sharp contest
+respecting the adoption of the constitution, and the means which might
+be used for conciliating the affections of all good men to the new
+government, without enfeebling its essential principles, were subjects
+of the most interesting inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>The agitation had been too great to be suddenly calmed; and for the
+active opponents of the system to become suddenly its friends, or even
+indifferent to its fate, would have been a victory of reason over
+passion, or a surrender of individual judgment to the decision of a
+majority, examples of which are rarely given in the progress of human
+affairs.</p>
+
+<p>In some of the states, a disposition to acquiesce in the decision
+which had been made, and to await the issue of a fair experiment of
+the constitution, was avowed by the minority. In others, the chagrin
+of defeat seemed to increase the original hostility to the instrument;
+and serious fears were entertained by its friends, that a second
+general convention might pluck from it the most essential of its
+powers, before their value, and the safety with which they might be
+confided where they were placed, could be ascertained by experience.</p>
+
+<p>From the same cause, exerting itself in a different direction, the
+friends of the new system had been still more alarmed. In all those
+states where the opposition was sufficiently formidable to inspire a
+hope of success, the effort was made to fill the legislature with the
+declared enemies of the government, and thus to commit it, in its
+infancy, to the custody of its foes. Their fears were quieted for the
+present. In both branches of the legislature, the federalists, an
+appellation at that time distinguishing those who had supported the
+constitution, formed the majority; and it soon appeared that a new
+convention was too bold an experiment to be applied for by the
+requisite number of states. The condition of individuals too, was
+visibly becoming more generally eligible. Industry, notwithstanding
+the causes which had diminished its profits, was gradually improving
+their affairs; and the new course of thinking, inspired by the
+adoption of a constitution prohibiting all laws impairing the
+obligation of contracts, had, in a great measure, restored that
+confidence which is essential to the internal prosperity of nations.
+From these, or from other causes, the crisis of the pressure on
+individuals seemed to be passing away, and brighter prospects to be
+opening on them.</p>
+
+<p>But, two states still remained out of the pale of the union; and a
+mass of ill humour existed among those who were included within it,
+which increased the necessity of circumspection in those who
+administered the government.</p>
+
+<p>To the western parts of the continent, the attention of the executive
+was attracted by discontents which were displayed with some violence,
+and which originated in circumstances, and in interests, peculiar to
+that country.</p>
+
+<p>Spain, in possession of the mouth of the Mississippi, had refused to
+permit the citizens of the United States to follow its waters into the
+ocean; and had occasionally tolerated or interdicted their commerce to
+New Orleans, as had been suggested by the supposed interest or caprice
+of the Spanish government, or of its representatives in America. The
+eyes of the inhabitants adjacent to the waters which emptied into that
+river, were turned down it, as the only channel through which the
+surplus produce of their luxuriant soil could be conveyed to the
+markets of the world. Believing that the future wealth and prosperity
+of their country depended on the use of that river, they gave some
+evidence of a disposition to drop from the confederacy, if this
+valuable acquisition could not otherwise be made. This temper could
+not fail to be viewed with interest by the neighbouring powers, who
+had been encouraged by it, and by the imbecility of the government, to
+enter into intrigues of an alarming nature.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to his departure from Mount Vernon, the President had
+received intelligence, too authentic to be disregarded, of private
+machinations by real or pretended agents both of Spain and Great
+Britain, which were extremely hostile to the peace, and to the
+integrity of the union.</p>
+
+<p>Spain had intimated that the navigation of the Mississippi could never
+be conceded, while the inhabitants of the western country remained
+connected with the Atlantic states, but might be freely granted to
+them, if they should form an independent empire.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, a gentleman from Canada, whose ostensible business
+was to repossess himself of some lands on the Ohio which had been
+formerly granted to him, frequently discussed the vital importance of
+the navigation of the Mississippi, and privately assured several
+individuals of great influence, that if they were disposed to assert
+their rights, he was authorized by Lord Dorchester, the governor of
+Canada, to say, that they might rely confidently on his assistance.
+With the aid it was in his power to give, they might seize New
+Orleans, fortify the Balise at the mouth of the Mississippi, and
+maintain themselves in that place against the utmost efforts of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The probability of failing in any attempt to hold the mouth of the
+Mississippi by force, and the resentments against Great Britain which
+prevailed generally throughout the western country, diminished the
+danger to be apprehended from any machinations of that power; but
+against those of Spain, the same security did not exist.</p>
+
+<p>In contemplating the situation of the United States in their relations
+not purely domestic, the object demanding most immediate consideration
+was the hostility of several tribes of Indians. The military strength
+of the nations who inhabited the country between the lakes, the
+Mississippi, and the Ohio, was computed at five thousand men, of whom
+about fifteen hundred were at open war with the United States.
+Treaties had been concluded with the residue; but the attachment of
+young savages to war, and the provocation given by the
+undistinguishing vengeance which had been taken by the whites in their
+expeditions into the Indian country, furnished reasons for
+apprehending that these treaties would soon be broken.</p>
+
+<p>In the south, the Creeks, who could bring into the field six thousand
+fighting men, were at war with Georgia. In the mind of their leader,
+the son of a white man, some irritation had been produced by the
+confiscation of the lands of his father, who had resided in that
+state; and several other refugees whose property had also been
+confiscated, contributed still further to exasperate the nation. But
+the immediate point in contest between them was a tract of land on the
+Oconee, which the state of Georgia claimed under a purchase, the
+validity of which was denied by the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>The regular force of the United States was less than six hundred men.</p>
+
+<p>Not only the policy of accommodating differences by negotiation which
+the government was in no condition to terminate by the sword; but a
+real respect for the rights of the natives, and a regard for the
+claims of justice and humanity, disposed the President to endeavour,
+in the first instance, to remove every cause of quarrel by a treaty;
+and his message to congress on this subject evidenced his preference
+of pacific measures.</p>
+
+<p>Possessing many valuable articles of commerce for which the best
+market was often found on the coast of the Mediterranean, struggling
+to export them in their own bottoms, and unable to afford a single gun
+for their protection, the Americans could not view with unconcern the
+dispositions which were manifested towards them by the Barbary powers.
+A treaty had been formed with the emperor of Morocco; but from
+Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, peace had not been purchased; and those
+regencies consider all as enemies to whom they have not sold their
+friendship. The unprotected vessels of America presented a tempting
+object to their rapacity; and their hostility was the more terrible,
+because by their public law, prisoners became slaves.</p>
+
+<p>The United States were at peace with all the powers of Europe; but
+controversies of a delicate nature existed with some of them, the
+adjustment of which required a degree of moderation and firmness,
+which there was reason to fear, might not, in every instance, be
+exhibited.</p>
+
+<p>The early apprehensions with which Spain had contemplated the future
+strength of the United States, and the consequent disposition of the
+house of Bourbon to restrict them to narrow limits, have been already
+noticed. After the conclusion of the war, the attempt to form a treaty
+with that power had been repeated; but no advance towards an agreement
+on the points of difference between the two governments had been made.
+A long and intricate negotiation between the secretary of foreign
+affairs, and Don Guardoqui, the minister of his Catholic majesty, had
+terminated with the old government; and the result was an inflexible
+adherence on the part of Mr. Guardoqui to the exclusion of the
+citizens of the United States from navigating the Mississippi below
+their southern boundary. On this point there was much reason to fear
+that the cabinet of Madrid would remain immoveable. The violence with
+which the discontents of the western people were expressed, furnished
+Spain with additional motives for perpetuating the evil of which they
+complained. Aware of the embarrassments which this display of
+restlessness must occasion, and sensible of the increased difficulty
+and delay with which a removal of its primary cause must be attended,
+the executive perceived in this critical state of things, abundant
+cause for the exercise of its watchfulness, and of its prudence. With
+Spain, there was also a contest respecting boundaries. The treaty of
+peace had extended the limits of the United States to the thirty-first
+degree of north latitude, but the pretensions of the Catholic King
+were carried north of that line, to an undefined extent. He claimed as
+far as he had conquered from Britain, but the precise limits of his
+conquest were not ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>The circumstances attending the points of difference with Great
+Britain, were still more serious; because, in their progress, a temper
+unfavourable to accommodation had been uniformly displayed.</p>
+
+<p>The resentments produced by the various calamities war had occasioned,
+were not terminated with their cause. The idea that Great Britain was
+the natural enemy of America had become habitual. Believing it
+impossible for that nation to have relinquished its views of conquest,
+many found it difficult to bury their animosities, and to act upon the
+sentiment contained in the declaration of independence, &quot;to hold them
+as the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends.&quot; In addition
+to the complaints respecting the violation of the treaty of peace,
+events were continually supplying this temper with fresh aliment. The
+disinclination which the cabinet of London had discovered to a
+commercial treaty with the United States was not attributed
+exclusively to the cause which had been assigned for it. It was in
+part ascribed to that jealousy with which Britain was supposed to view
+the growing trade of America.</p>
+
+<p>The general restrictions on commerce by which every maritime power
+sought to promote its own navigation, and that part of the European
+system in particular, by which each aimed at a monopoly of the trade
+of its colonies, were felt with peculiar keenness when enforced by
+England. The people of America were perhaps the more sensible to the
+British resolutions on this subject, because, having composed a part
+of that empire, they had grown up in the habit of a free intercourse
+with all its ports; and, without accurately appreciating the cause to
+which a change of this usage was to be ascribed, they attributed it to
+a jealousy of their prosperity, and to an inclination to diminish the
+value of their independence. In this suspicious temper, almost every
+unfavourable event which occurred was traced up to British hostility.</p>
+
+<p>That an attempt to form a commercial treaty with Portugal had failed,
+was attributed to the influence of the cabinet of London; and to the
+machinations of the same power were also ascribed the danger from the
+corsairs of Barbary, and the bloody incursions of the Indians. The
+resentment excited by these causes was felt by a large proportion of
+the American people; and the expression of it was common and public.
+That correspondent dispositions existed in England is by no means
+improbable, and the necessary effect of this temper was to increase
+the difficulty of adjusting the differences between the two nations.</p>
+
+<p>With France, the most perfect harmony subsisted. Those attachments
+which originated in the signal services received from his most
+Christian Majesty during the war of the revolution, had sustained no
+diminution. Yet, from causes which it was found difficult to
+counteract, the commercial intercourse between the two nations was not
+so extensive as had been expected. It was the interest, and of
+consequence the policy of France, to avail herself of the
+misunderstandings between the United States and Great Britain, in
+order to obtain such regulations as might gradually divert the
+increasing trade of the American continent from those channels in
+which it had been accustomed to flow; and a disposition was felt
+throughout the United States to co-operate with her, in enabling her
+merchants, by legislative encouragements, to rival those of Britain in
+the American market.</p>
+
+<p>A great revolution had commenced in that country, the first stage of
+which was completed by limiting the powers of the monarch, and by the
+establishment of a popular assembly. In no part of the globe was this
+revolution hailed with more joy than in America. The influence it
+would have on the affairs of the world was not then distinctly
+foreseen: and the philanthropist, without becoming a political
+partisan, rejoiced in the event. On this subject, therefore, but one
+sentiment existed.</p>
+
+<p>The relations of the United States with the other powers of Europe,
+did not require particular attention. Their dispositions were rather
+friendly than otherwise; and an inclination was generally manifested
+to participate in the advantages, which the erection of an independent
+empire on the western shores of the Atlantic, held forth to the
+commercial world.</p>
+
+<p>By the ministers of foreign powers in America, it would readily be
+supposed, that the first steps taken by the new government would, not
+only be indicative of its present system, but would probably affect
+its foreign relations permanently, and that the influence of the
+President would be felt in the legislature. Scarcely was the exercise
+of his executive functions commenced, when the President received an
+application from the Count de Moustiers, the minister of France,
+requesting a private conference. On being told that the department of
+foreign affairs was the channel through which all official business
+should pass, the Count replied that the interview he requested was,
+not for the purpose of actual business, but rather as preparatory to
+its future transaction.</p>
+
+<p>The next day, at one in the afternoon, was named for the interview.
+The Count commenced the conversation with declarations of his personal
+regard for America, the manifestations of which, he said, had been
+early and uniform. His nation too was well disposed to be upon terms
+of amity with the United States: but at his public reception, there
+were occurrences which he thought indicative of coolness in the
+secretary of foreign affairs, who had, he feared, while in Europe,
+imbibed prejudices not only against Spain, but against France also. If
+this conjecture should be right, the present head of that department
+could not be an agreeable organ of intercourse with the President. He
+then took a view of the modern usages of European courts, which, he
+said, favoured the practice he recommended of permitting foreign
+ministers to make their communications directly to the chief of the
+executive. &quot;He then presented a letter,&quot; says the President in his
+private journal, &quot;which he termed confidential, and to be considered
+as addressed to me in my private character, which was too strongly
+marked with an intention, as well as a wish, to have no person between
+the Minister and President, in the transaction of business between the
+two nations.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In reply to these observations, the President gave the most explicit
+assurances that, judging from his own feelings, and from the public
+sentiment, there existed in America a reciprocal disposition to be on
+the best terms with France. That whatever former difficulties might
+have occurred, he was persuaded the secretary of foreign affairs had
+offered no intentional disrespect, either to the minister, or to his
+nation. Without undertaking to know the private opinions of Mr. Jay,
+he would declare that he had never heard that officer express,
+directly or indirectly, any sentiment unfavourable to either.</p>
+
+<p>Reason and usage, he added, must direct the mode of treating national
+and official business. If rules had been established, they must be
+conformed to. If they were yet to be framed, it was hoped that they
+would be convenient and proper. So far as ease could be made to
+comport with regularity, and with necessary forms, it ought to be
+consulted; but custom, and the dignity of office, were not to be
+disregarded. The conversation continued upwards of an hour, but no
+change was made in the resolution of the President.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects which pressed for immediate attention on the first
+legislature assembled under the new government, were numerous and
+important. Much was to be created, and much to be reformed.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of revenue, as constituting the vital spring without which
+the action of government could not long be continued, was taken up in
+the house of representatives, as soon as it could be introduced. The
+qualification of the members was succeeded by a motion for the house
+to resolve itself into a committee of the whole on the state of the
+union; and in that committee, a resolution was moved by Mr. Madison,
+declaring the opinion that certain duties ought to be levied on goods,
+wares, and merchandise, imported into the United States; and on the
+tonnage of vessels.</p>
+
+<p>As it was deemed important to complete a temporary system in time to
+embrace the spring importations, Mr. Madison presented the scheme of
+impost which had been recommended by the former congress, and had
+already received the approbation of a majority of the states; to which
+he added a general proposition for a duty on tonnage. By this scheme
+specific duties were imposed on certain enumerated articles; and an
+ad-valorem duty on those not enumerated. Mr. Fitzsimmons, of
+Pennsylvania, moved an amendment, enlarging the catalogue of
+enumerated articles.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Debates on the impost and tonnage bills.</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Madison having consented to subjoin the amendment proposed by Mr.
+Fitzsimmons to the original resolution, it was received by the
+committee; but in proceeding to fill up the blanks with the sum
+taxable on each article, it was soon perceived that gentlemen had
+viewed the subject in very different lights. The tax on many articles
+was believed to press more heavily on some states than on others; and
+apprehensions were expressed that, in the form of protecting duties,
+the industry of one part of the union would be encouraged by premiums
+charged on the labour of another part. On the discrimination between
+the duty on the tonnage of foreign and American bottoms, a great
+degree of sensibility was discovered. The citizens of the United
+States not owning a sufficient number of vessels to export all the
+produce of the country, it was said that the increased tonnage on
+foreign bottoms operated as a tax on agriculture, and a premium to
+navigation. This discrimination, it was therefore contended, ought to
+be very small.</p>
+
+<p>In answer to these arguments, Mr. Madison said, &quot;If it is expedient
+for America to have vessels employed in commerce at all, it will be
+proper that she have enough to answer all the purposes intended; to
+form a school for seamen; to lay the foundation of a navy: and to be
+able to support itself against the interference of foreigners. I do
+not think there is much weight in the observations that the duty we
+are about to lay in favour of American vessels is a burden on the
+community, and particularly oppressive to some parts. But if there
+were, it may be a burden of that kind which will ultimately save us
+from one that is greater.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I consider an acquisition of maritime strength essential to this
+country; should we ever be so unfortunate as to be engaged in war,
+what but this can defend our towns and cities upon the sea coast? Or
+what but this can enable us to repel an invading enemy? Those parts
+which are said to bear an undue proportion of the burden of the
+additional duty on foreign shipping, are those which will be most
+exposed to the operations of a predatory war, and will require the
+greatest exertions of the union in their defence. If therefore some
+little sacrifice be made by them to obtain this important object, they
+will be peculiarly rewarded for it in the hour of danger. Granting a
+preference to our own navigation will insensibly bring it forward to
+that perfection so essential to American safety; and though it may
+produce some little inequality at first, it will soon ascertain its
+level, and become uniform throughout the union.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>But no part of the system was discussed with more animation than that
+which proposed to make discriminations in favour of those nations with
+whom the United States had formed commercial treaties. In the debate
+on this subject, opinions and feelings with respect to foreign powers
+were disclosed, which, strengthening with circumstances, afterwards
+agitated the whole American continent.</p>
+
+<p>While the resolutions on which the bills were to be framed were under
+debate, Mr. Benson rose to inquire on what principle the proposed
+discriminations between foreign nations was founded? &quot;It was certainly
+proper,&quot; he said, &quot;to comply with existing treaties. But those
+treaties stipulated no such preference. Congress then was at liberty
+to consult the interests of the United States. If those interests
+would be promoted by the measure, he should be willing to adopt it,
+but he wished its policy to be shown.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The resolutions, as reported, were supported by Mr. Madison, Mr.
+Baldwin, Mr. Fitzsimmons, Mr. Clymer, Mr. Page, and Mr. Jackson.</p>
+
+<p>They relied much upon the public sentiment which had, they said, been
+unequivocally expressed through the several state legislatures and
+otherwise, against placing foreign nations generally, on a footing
+with the allies of the United States. So strong was this sentiment,
+that to its operation the existing constitution was principally to be
+ascribed. They thought it important to prove to those nations who had
+declined forming commercial treaties with them, that the United States
+possessed and would exercise the power of retaliating any regulations
+unfavourable to their trade, and they insisted strongly on the
+advantages of America in a war of commercial regulation, should this
+measure produce one.</p>
+
+<p>The disposition France had lately shown to relax with regard to the
+United States, the rigid policy by which her counsels had generally
+been guided, ought to be cultivated. The evidence of this disposition
+was an edict by which American built ships purchased by French
+subjects became naturalized. There was reason to believe that the
+person charged with the affairs of the United States at that court,
+had made some favourable impressions, which the conduct of the
+American government ought not to efface.</p>
+
+<p>With great earnestness it was urged, that from artificial or
+adventitious causes, the commerce between the United States and Great
+Britain had exceeded its natural boundary. It was wise to give such
+political advantages to other nations as would enable them to acquire
+their due share of the direct trade. It was also wise to impart some
+benefits to nations that had formed commercial treaties with the
+United States, and thereby to impress on those powers which had
+hitherto neglected to form such treaties, the idea that some
+advantages were to be gained by a reciprocity of friendship.</p>
+
+<p>That France had claims on the gratitude of the American people which
+ought not to be overlooked, was an additional argument in favour of
+the principle for which they contended.</p>
+
+<p>The discrimination was opposed by Mr. Benson, Mr. Lawrence, Mr.
+Wadsworth, and Mr. Sherman.</p>
+
+<p>They did not admit that the public sentiment had been unequivocally
+expressed; nor did they admit that such benefits had flowed from
+commercial treaties as to justify a sacrifice of interest to obtain
+them. There was a commercial treaty with France; but neither that
+treaty, nor the favours shown to that nation, had produced any
+correspondent advantages. The license to sell ships could not be of
+this description, since it was well known that the merchants of the
+United States did not own vessels enough for the transportation of the
+produce of the country, and only two, as was believed, had been sold
+since the license had been granted. The trade with Great Britain,
+viewed in all its parts, was upon a footing as beneficial to the
+United States as that with France.</p>
+
+<p>That the latter power had claims upon the gratitude of America was
+admitted, but that these claims would justify premiums for the
+encouragement of French commerce and navigation, to be drawn from the
+pockets of the American people, was not conceded. The state of the
+revenue, it was said, would not admit of these experiments.</p>
+
+<p>The observation founded on the extensiveness of the trade between the
+United States and Great Britain was answered by saying, that this was
+not a subject proper for legislative interposition. It was one of
+which the merchants were the best judges. They would consult their
+interest as individuals; and this was a case in which the interest of
+the nation and of individuals was the same.</p>
+
+<p>At length, the bills passed the house of representatives, and were
+carried to the senate, where they were amended by expunging the
+discrimination made in favour of the tonnage and distilled spirits of
+those nations which had formed commercial treaties with the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>These amendments were disagreed to; and each house insisting on its
+opinion, a conference took place, after which the point was
+reluctantly yielded by the house of representatives. The proceedings
+of the senate being at that time conducted with closed doors, the
+course of reasoning on which this important principle was rejected can
+not be stated.</p>
+
+<p>This debate on the impost and tonnage bills was succeeded by one on a
+subject which was believed to involve principles of still greater
+interest.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">On the President's power of removal from office.</div>
+
+<p>In organizing the departments of the executive, the question in what
+manner the high officers who filled them should be removeable, came on
+to be discussed. Believing that the decision of this question would
+materially influence the character of the new government, the members
+supported their respective opinions with a degree of earnestness
+proportioned to the importance they attributed to the measure. In a
+committee of the whole house on the bill &quot;to establish an executive
+department to be denominated the<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> department of foreign affairs,&quot;
+Mr. White moved to strike out the clause which declared the secretary
+to be removeable by the President. The power of removal, where no
+express provision existed, was, he said, in the nature of things,
+incidental to that of appointment. And as the senate was, by the
+constitution, associated with the President in making appointments,
+that body must, in the same degree, participate in the power of
+removing from office.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. White was supported by Mr. Smith of South Carolina, Mr. Page, Mr.
+Stone, and Mr. Jackson.</p>
+
+<p>Those gentlemen contended that the clause was either unnecessary or
+improper. If the constitution gave the power to the President, a
+repetition of the grant in an act of congress was nugatory: if the
+constitution did not give it, the attempt to confer it by law was
+improper. If it belonged conjointly to the President and senate, the
+house of representatives should not attempt to abridge the
+constitutional prerogative of the other branch of the legislature.
+However this might be, they were clearly of opinion that it was not
+placed in the President alone. In the power over all the executive
+officers which the bill proposed to confer upon the President, the
+most alarming dangers to liberty were perceived. It was in the nature
+of monarchical prerogative, and would convert them into the mere tools
+and creatures of his will. A dependence so servile on one individual,
+would deter men of high and honourable minds from engaging in the
+public service; and if, contrary to expectation, such men should be
+brought into office, they would be reduced to the necessity of
+sacrificing every principle of independence to the will of the chief
+magistrate, or of exposing themselves to the disgrace of being removed
+from office, and that too at a time when it might be no longer in
+their power to engage in other pursuits.</p>
+
+<p>Gentlemen they feared were too much dazzled with the splendour of the
+virtues which adorned the actual President, to be able to look into
+futurity. But the framers of the constitution had not confined their
+views to the person who would most probably first fill the
+presidential chair. The house of representatives ought to follow their
+example, and to contemplate this power in the hands of an ambitious
+man, who might apply it to dangerous purposes; who might from caprice
+remove the most worthy men from office.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a name="image07">
+<img src="images/308.jpg" width="586" height="346" alt="Federal Hall" /></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>View of the Old City or Federal Hall, New York, in 1789</b></p>
+
+<p><i>On the balcony of this building, the site of which is now occupied by
+the United States Sub-Treasury, at the corner of Broad and Wall
+Streets, George Washington took the oath of office as First President
+of the United States, April 30, 1789. In the near distance, at the
+intersection of Wall and Broadway, may be seen the original Trinity
+Church structure which was completed in 1697. It was replaced by the
+present edifice in 1846. President Washington, who was an
+Episcopalian, did not attend Trinity, but maintained a pew in St.
+Paul's Chapel, Broadway and Vesey Street, which remains as it was when
+he worshipped there.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p>By the friends of the original bill, the amendment was opposed with
+arguments of great force drawn from the constitution and from general
+convenience. On several parts of the constitution, and especially on
+that which vests the executive power in the President, they relied
+confidently to support the position, that, in conformity with that
+instrument, the power in question could reside only with the chief
+magistrate: no power, it was said, could be more completely executive
+in its nature than that of removal from office.</p>
+
+<p>But if it was a case on which the constitution was silent, the
+clearest principles of political expediency required that neither
+branch of the legislature should participate in it.</p>
+
+<p>The danger that a President could ever be found who would remove good
+men from office, was treated as imaginary. It was not by the splendour
+attached to the character of the present chief magistrate alone that
+this opinion was to be defended. It was founded on the structure of
+the office. The man in whose favour a majority of the people of this
+continent would unite, had probability at least in favour of his
+principles; in addition to which, the public odium that would
+inevitably attach to such conduct, would be an effectual security
+against it.</p>
+
+<p>After an ardent discussion which consumed several days, the committee
+divided: and the amendment was negatived by a majority of thirty-four
+to twenty. The opinion thus expressed by the house of representatives
+did not explicitly convey their sense of the constitution. Indeed the
+express grant of the power to the President, rather implied a right in
+the legislature to give or withhold it at their discretion. To obviate
+any misunderstanding of the principle on which the question had been
+'decided, Mr. Benson moved in the house, when the report of the
+committee of the whole was taken up, to amend the second clause in the
+bill so as clearly to imply the power of removal to be solely in the
+President. He gave notice that if he should succeed in this, he would
+move to strike out the words which had been the subject of debate. If
+those words continued, he said the power of removal by the President
+might hereafter appear to be exercised by virtue of a legislative
+grant only, and consequently be subjected to legislative instability;
+when he was well satisfied in his own mind, that it was by fair
+construction, fixed in the constitution. The motion was seconded by
+Mr. Madison, and both amendments were adopted. As the bill passed into
+a law, it has ever been considered as a full expression of the sense
+of the legislature on this important part of the American
+constitution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">On the policy of the secretary of the treasury reporting
+plans for the management of the revenue.</div>
+
+<p>The bill to establish the treasury department, contained a clause
+making it the duty of the secretary &quot;to digest and report plans for
+the improvement and management of the revenue, and for the support of
+public credit.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Page moved to strike out these words, observing, that to permit
+the secretary to go further than to prepare estimates would be a
+dangerous innovation on the constitutional privilege of that house. It
+would create an undue influence within those walls, because members
+might be led by the deference commonly paid to men of abilities, who
+gave an opinion in a case they have thoroughly considered, to support
+the plan of the minister even against their own judgment. Nor would
+the mischief stop there. A precedent would be established which might
+be extended until ministers of the government should be admitted on
+that floor, to explain and support the plans they had digested and
+reported, thereby laying a foundation for an aristocracy, or a
+detestable monarchy.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Tucker seconded the motion of Mr. Page, and observed, that the
+authority contained in the bill to prepare and report plans would
+create an interference of the executive with the legislative powers,
+and would abridge the particular privilege of that house to originate
+all bills for raising a revenue. How could the business originate in
+that house, if it was reported to them by the minister of finance? All
+the information that could be required might be called for without
+adopting a clause that might undermine the authority of the house, and
+the security of the people. The constitution has pointed out the
+proper method of communication between the executive and legislative
+departments. It is made the duty of the President to give from time to
+time information to congress of the state of the union, and to
+recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge
+necessary and expedient. If revenue plans are to be prepared and
+reported to congress, he is the proper person to perform this service.
+He is responsible to the people for what he recommends, and will be
+more cautious than any other person to whom a less degree of
+responsibility was attached.</p>
+
+<p>He hoped the house was not already weary of executing and sustaining
+the powers vested in them by the constitution; and yet the adoption of
+this clause would argue that they thought themselves less adequate
+than an individual, to determine what burdens their constituents were
+able to bear. This was not answering the high expectation that had
+been formed of their exertions for the general good, or of their
+vigilance in guarding their own and the people's rights.</p>
+
+<p>The arguments of Mr. Page and Mr. Tucker were enforced and enlarged by
+Mr. Livermore and Mr. Gerry. The latter gentleman said, &quot;that he had
+no objection to obtaining information, but he could not help observing
+the great degree of importance gentlemen were giving to this and the
+other executive officers. If the doctrine of having prime and great
+ministers of state was once well established, he did not doubt but he
+should soon see them distinguished by a green or red ribbon, insignia
+of court favour and patronage.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It was contended that the plans of the secretary, being digested,
+would be received entire. Members would be informed that each part was
+necessary to the whole, and that nothing could be touched without
+injuring the system. Establish this doctrine, and congress would
+become a useless burden.</p>
+
+<p>The amendment was opposed by Mr. Benson, Mr. Goodhue, Mr. Ames, Mr.
+Sedgewick, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Madison, Mr. Stone, Mr.
+Sherman, and Mr. Baldwin. It was insisted that to prepare and report
+plans for the improvement of the revenue, and support of public
+credit, constituted the most important service which could be rendered
+by the officer who should be placed at the head of the department of
+finance. When the circumstances under which the members of that house
+were assembled, and the various objects for which they were convened
+were considered, it was no imputation upon them to suppose that they
+might receive useful information from a person whose peculiar duty it
+was to direct his attention to systems of finance, and who would be in
+some measure selected on account of his fitness for that object. It
+was denied that the privileges of the house would be infringed by the
+measure. The plans of the secretary could not be termed bills, nor
+would they even be reported in that form. They would only constitute
+information which would be valuable, and which could not be received
+in a more eligible mode. &quot;Certainly,&quot; said Mr. Goodhue, &quot;we carry our
+dignity to the extreme, when we refuse to receive information from any
+but ourselves.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;If we consider the present situation of our finances,&quot; said Mr. Ames,
+&quot;owing to a variety of causes, we shall no doubt perceive a great
+though unavoidable confusion throughout the whole scene. It presents
+to the imagination a deep, dark, and dreary chaos, impossible to be
+reduced to order, unless the mind of the architect be clear and
+capacious, and his power commensurate to the object. He must not be
+the flitting creature of the day; he must have time given him
+competent to the successful exercise of his authority. It is with the
+intention of letting a little sunshine into the business, that the
+present arrangement is proposed.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It was not admitted that the plans of the secretary would possess an
+influence to which their intrinsic value would not give them a just
+claim. There would always be sufficient intelligence in that house to
+detect, and independence to expose any oppressive or injurious scheme
+which might be prepared for them. Nor would a plan openly and
+officially reported possess more influence on the mind of any member,
+than if given privately at the secretary's office.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Madison said, the words of the bill were precisely those used by
+the former congress on two occasions. The same power had been annexed
+to the office of superintendent of the finances; and he had never
+heard that any inconvenience had been experienced from the regulation.
+Perhaps if the power had been more fully and more frequently
+exercised, it might have contributed more to the public good. &quot;There
+is,&quot; continued this gentleman, &quot;a small probability, though it is but
+small, that an officer may derive weight from this circumstance, and
+have some degree of influence upon the deliberations of the
+legislature. But compare the danger likely to result from this cause,
+with the danger and inconvenience of not having well formed and
+digested plans, and we shall find infinitely more to apprehend from
+the latter. Inconsistent, unproductive, and expensive schemes, will
+produce greater injury to our constituents, than is to be apprehended
+from any undue influence which the well digested plans of a well
+informed officer can have. From a bad administration of the
+government, more detriment will arise than from any other source. Want
+of information has occasioned much inconvenience, and many unnecessary
+burdens in some of the state governments. Let it be our care to avoid
+those rocks and shoals in our political voyage which have injured, and
+nearly proved fatal to many of our contemporary navigators.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The amendment was rejected.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">On the style by which the president should be addressed.</div>
+
+<p>Among the interesting points which were settled in the first congress,
+was the question by what style the President and Vice President should
+be addressed. Mr. Benson, from the committee appointed to confer with
+a committee of the senate on this subject reported, &quot;that it is not
+proper to annex any style or title to the respective styles or titles
+of office expressed in the constitution;&quot; and this report was, without
+opposition, agreed to in the house of representatives. In the senate,
+the report was disapproved, and a resolution passed requesting the
+house of representatives to appoint another committee, again to confer
+with one from the senate, on the same subject. This message being
+taken up in the house of representatives, a resolution was moved by
+Mr. Parker, seconded by Mr. Page, declaring that it would be improper
+to accede to the request of the senate. Several members were in favour
+of this motion; but others who were opposed to receding from the
+ground already taken, seemed inclined to appoint a committee as a
+measure properly respectful to the other branch of the legislature.</p>
+
+<p>After a warm debate, the resolution proposed by Mr. Parker was set
+aside by the previous question, and a committee of conference was
+appointed. They could not agree upon a report, in consequence of which
+the subject was permitted to rest; and the senate, conforming to the
+precedent given by the house of representatives, addressed the
+President in their answer to his speech by the terms used in the
+constitution.</p>
+
+<p>While the representatives were preparing bills for organizing the
+great executive departments, the senate was occupied with digesting
+the system of a national judiciary. This complex and extensive subject
+was taken up in the commencement of the session, and was completed
+towards its close.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Amendment to the constitution proposed by congress and
+ratified by the states.</div>
+
+<p>In the course of this session Mr. Madison brought forward a
+proposition for recommending to the consideration and adoption of the
+states, several new articles to be added to the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>Many of those objections to it which had been urged with all the
+vehemence of conviction, and which, in the opinion of some of its
+advocates, were entitled to serious consideration, were believed by
+the most intelligent to derive their sole support from erroneous
+construction of the instrument. Others were upon points on which the
+objectors might be gratified without injury to the system. To
+conciliate the affections of their brethren to the government, was an
+object greatly desired by its friends. Disposed to respect, what they
+deemed, the errors of their opponents, where that respect could be
+manifested without a sacrifice of essential principles, they were
+anxious to annex to the constitution those explanations and barriers
+against the possible encroachments of rulers on the liberties of the
+people, which had been loudly demanded, however unfounded, in their
+judgments, might be the fears by which those demands were suggested.
+These dispositions were perhaps, in some measure, stimulated to
+exertion by motives of the soundest policy. The formidable minorities
+in several of the conventions, which in the legislatures of some
+powerful states had become majorities, and the refusal of two states
+to complete the union, were admonitions not to be disregarded, of the
+necessity of removing jealousies, however misplaced, which operated on
+so large a portion of society. Among the most zealous friends of the
+constitution therefore, were found some of the first and warmest
+advocates for amendments.</p>
+
+<p>To meet the various ideas expressed by the several conventions; to
+select from the mass of alterations which they had proposed those
+which might be adopted without stripping the government of its
+necessary powers; to condense them into a form and compass which would
+be acceptable to persons disposed to indulge the caprice, and to adopt
+the language of their particular states; were labours not easily to be
+accomplished. But the greatest difficulty to be surmounted was, the
+disposition to make those alterations which would enfeeble, and
+materially injure, the future operations of the government. At length,
+ten articles in addition to and amendment of the constitution, were
+assented to by two-thirds of both houses of congress, and proposed to
+the legislatures of the several states. Although the necessity of
+these amendments had been urged by the enemies of the constitution,
+and denied by its friends, they encountered scarcely any other
+opposition in the state legislatures, than was given by the leaders of
+the anti-federal party. Admitting the articles to be good and
+necessary, it was contended that they were not sufficient for the
+security of liberty; and the apprehension was avowed that their
+adoption would quiet the fears of the people, and check the pursuit of
+those radical alterations which would afford a safe and adequate
+protection to their rights. They were at length ratified by the
+legislatures of three-fourths of the states, and probably contributed,
+in some degree, to diminish the jealousies which had been imbibed
+against the constitution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Appointment of the officers of the cabinet, council and of
+the judges.</div>
+
+<p>The government being completely organized, and a system of revenue
+established, the important duty of filling the offices which had been
+created, remained to be performed. In the execution of this delicate
+trust, the purest virtue and the most impartial judgment were
+exercised in selecting the best talents, and the greatest weight of
+character, which the United States could furnish. The unmingled
+patriotism of the motives by which the President was actuated, would
+receive its clearest demonstration from a view of all his private
+letters on this subject: and the success of his endeavours is attested
+by the abilities and reputation which he drew into the public service.</p>
+
+<p>At the head of the department of foreign affairs, since denominated
+the department of state, he placed Mr. Jefferson.</p>
+
+<p>This gentleman had been bred to the bar, and at an early period of
+life, had acquired considerable reputation for extensive attainments
+in the science of politics. He had been a distinguished member of the
+second congress, and had been offered a diplomatic appointment, which
+he had declined. Withdrawing from the administration of continental
+affairs, he had been elected governor of Virginia, which office he
+filled for two years. He afterwards again represented his native state
+in the councils of the union, and in the year 1784, was appointed to
+succeed Dr. Franklin at the court of Versailles. In that station, he
+had acquitted himself much to the public satisfaction. His Notes on
+Virginia, which were read with applause, were believed to evince the
+soundness of his political opinions; and the Declaration of
+Independence was universally ascribed to his pen. He had long been
+placed by America amongst the most eminent of her citizens, and had
+long been classed by the President with those who were most capable of
+serving the nation. Having lately obtained permission to return for a
+short time to the United States, he was, while on his passage,
+nominated to this important office; and, on his arrival in Virginia,
+found a letter from the President, giving him the option of becoming
+the secretary of foreign affairs, or of retaining his station at the
+court of Versailles. He appears rather to have inclined to continue in
+his foreign appointment; and, in changing his situation, to have
+consulted the wishes of the first magistrate more than the preference
+of his own mind.</p>
+
+<p>The task of restoring public credit, of drawing order and arrangement
+from the chaotic confusion in which the finances of America were
+involved, and of devising means which should render the revenue
+productive, and commensurate with the demand, in a manner least
+burdensome to the people, was justly classed among the most arduous of
+the duties which devolved on the new government. In discharging it,
+much aid was expected from the head of the treasury. This important,
+and, at that time, intricate department, was assigned to Colonel
+Hamilton.</p>
+
+<p>This gentleman was a native of the island of St. Croix, and, at a very
+early period of life, had been placed by his friends, in New York.
+Possessing an ardent temper, he caught fire from the concussions of
+the moment, and, with all the enthusiasm of youth, engaged first his
+pen, and afterwards his sword, in the stern contest between the
+American colonies and their parent state. Among the first troops
+raised by New York was a corps of artillery, in which he was appointed
+a captain. Soon after the war was transferred to the Hudson, his
+superior endowments recommended him to the attention of the
+Commander-in-chief, into whose family, before completing his
+twenty-first year, he was invited to enter. Equally brave and
+intelligent, he continued, in this situation, to display a degree of
+firmness and capacity which commanded the confidence and esteem of his
+general, and of the principal officers in the army.</p>
+
+<p>After the capitulation at Yorktown, the war languished throughout the
+American continent, and the probability that its termination was
+approaching daily increased.</p>
+
+<p>The critical circumstances of the existing government rendered the
+events of the civil, more interesting than those of the military
+department; and Colonel Hamilton accepted a seat in the congress of
+the United States. In all the important acts of the day, he performed
+a conspicuous part; and was greatly distinguished among those
+distinguished men whom the crisis had attracted to the councils of
+their country. He had afterwards been active in promoting those
+measures which led to the convention at Philadelphia, of which he was
+a member, and had greatly contributed to the adoption of the
+constitution by the state of New York. In the pre-eminent part he had
+performed, both in the military and civil transactions of his country,
+he had acquired a great degree of well merited fame; and the frankness
+of his manners, the openness of his temper, the warmth of his
+feelings, and the sincerity of his heart, had secured him many
+valuable friends.</p>
+
+<p>To talents equally splendid and useful, he united a patient industry,
+not always the companion of genius, which fitted him, in a peculiar
+manner, for subduing the difficulties to be encountered by the man who
+should be placed at the head of the American finances.</p>
+
+<p>The department of war was already filled by General Knox, and he was
+again nominated to it.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the contest of the revolution, this officer had continued
+at the head of the American artillery, and from being the colonel of a
+regiment, had been promoted to the rank of a major general. In this
+important station, he had preserved a high military character; and, on
+the resignation of General Lincoln, had been appointed secretary of
+war. To his past services, and to unquestionable integrity, he was
+admitted to unite a sound understanding; and the public judgment, as
+well as that of the chief magistrate, pronounced him in all respects
+competent to the station he filled.</p>
+
+<p>The office of attorney general was filled by Mr. Edmund Randolph. To a
+distinguished reputation in the line of his profession, this gentleman
+added a considerable degree of political eminence. After having been
+for several years the attorney general of Virginia, he had been
+elected its governor. While in this office, he was chosen a member of
+the convention which framed the constitution, and was also elected to
+that which was called by the state for its adoption or rejection.
+After having served at the head of the executive the term permitted by
+the constitution of the state, he entered into its legislature, where
+he preserved a great share of influence.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the first cabinet council of the President. In its
+composition, public opinion as well as intrinsic worth had been
+consulted, and a high degree of character had been combined with real
+talent.</p>
+
+<p>In the selection of persons for high judicial offices, the President
+was guided by the same principles. At the head of this department he
+placed Mr. John Jay.</p>
+
+<p>From the commencement of the revolution, this gentleman had filled a
+large space in the public mind. Remaining, without intermission, in
+the service of his country, he had passed through a succession of high
+offices, and, in all of them, had merited the approbation of his
+fellow citizens. To his pen, while in congress, America was indebted
+for some of those masterly addresses which reflected most honour upon
+the government; and to his firmness and penetration, was to be
+ascribed, in no inconsiderable degree, the happy issue of those
+intricate negotiations, which were conducted, towards the close of the
+war, at Madrid, and at Paris. On returning to the United States, he
+had been appointed secretary of foreign affairs, in which station he
+had conducted himself with his accustomed ability. A sound judgment
+improved by extensive reading and great knowledge of public affairs,
+unyielding firmness, and inflexible integrity, were qualities of which
+Mr. Jay had given frequent and signal proofs. Although for some years
+withdrawn from that profession to which he was bred, the acquisitions
+of his early life had not been lost; and the subjects on which his
+mind had been exercised, were not entirely foreign from those which
+would, in the first instance, employ the courts in which he was to
+preside.</p>
+
+<p>John Rutledge of South Carolina, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, William
+Cushing of Massachusetts, Robert Harrison of Maryland, and John Blair
+of Virginia were nominated as associate justices. Some of these
+gentlemen had filled the highest law offices in their respective
+states; and all of them had received distinguished marks of the public
+confidence.</p>
+
+<p>In the systems which had been adopted by the several states, offices
+corresponding to those created by the revenue laws of congress, had
+been already established. Uninfluenced by considerations of personal
+regard, the President could not be induced to change men whom he found
+in place, if worthy of being employed; and where the man who had
+filled such office in the former state of things was unexceptionable
+in his conduct and character, he was uniformly re-appointed. In
+deciding between competitors for vacant offices, the law he prescribed
+for his government was to regard the fitness of candidates for the
+duties they would be required to discharge; and, where an equality in
+this respect existed, former merits and sufferings in the public
+service, gave claims to preference which could not be overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>In the legislative, as well as in the executive and judicial
+departments, great respectability of character was also associated
+with an eminent degree of talents. The constitutional prohibition to
+appoint any member of the legislature to an office created during the
+time for which he had been elected, did not exclude men of the most
+distinguished abilities from the first congress. Impelled by an
+anxious solicitude respecting the first measures of the government,
+its zealous friends had pressed into its service: and, in both
+branches of the legislature, men were found who possessed the fairest
+claims to the public confidence.</p>
+
+<p>From the duties attached to his office, the Vice President of the
+United States, and President of the senate, though not a member of the
+legislature, was classed, in the public mind, with that department not
+less than with the executive. Elected by the whole people of America
+in common with the President, he could not fail to be taken from the
+most distinguished citizens, and to add to the dignity of the body
+over which he presided.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. John Adams was one of the earliest and most ardent patriots of the
+revolution. Bred to the bar, he had necessarily studied the
+constitution of his country, and was among the most determined
+asserters of its rights. Active in guiding that high spirit which
+animated all New England, he became a member of the congress of 1774,
+and was among the first who dared to avow sentiments in favour of
+independence. In that body he soon attained considerable eminence;
+and, at an early stage of the war, was chosen one of the commissioners
+to whom the interests of the United States in Europe were confided. In
+his diplomatic character, he had contributed greatly to those measures
+which drew Holland into the war; had negotiated the treaty between the
+United States and the Dutch republic: and had, at critical points of
+time, obtained loans of money which were of great advantage to his
+country. In the negotiations which terminated the war, he had also
+rendered important services; and, after the ratification of the
+definitive articles of peace, had been deputed to Great Britain for
+the purpose of effecting a commercial treaty with that nation. The
+political situation of America having rendered this object
+unattainable, he solicited leave to return, and arrived in the United
+States soon after the adoption of the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>As a statesman, this gentleman had, at all times, ranked high in the
+estimation of his countrymen. He had improved a sound understanding by
+extensive political and historical reading; and perhaps no American
+had reflected more profoundly on the subject of government. The
+exalted opinion he entertained of his own country was flattering to
+his fellow citizens; and the purity of his mind, the unblemished
+integrity of a life spent in the public service, had gained him their
+confidence.</p>
+
+<p>A government, supported in all its departments by so much character
+and talent, at the head of which was placed a man whose capacity was
+undoubted, whose life had been one great and continued lesson of
+disinterested patriotism, and for whom almost every bosom glowed with
+an attachment bordering on enthusiasm, could not fail to make a rapid
+progress in conciliating the affection of the people. That all
+hostility to the constitution should subside, that public measures
+should receive universal approbation; that no particular disgusts and
+individual irritations should be excited; were expectations which
+could not reasonably be indulged. Exaggerated accounts were indeed
+occasionally circulated of the pomp and splendour which were affected
+by certain high officers, of the monarchical tendencies of particular
+institutions, and of the dispositions which prevailed to increase the
+powers of the executive. That the doors of the senate were closed, and
+that a disposition had been manifested by that body to distinguish the
+President of the United States by a title,<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> gave considerable
+umbrage, and were represented as evincing inclinations in that branch
+of the legislature, unfriendly to republicanism. The exorbitance of
+salaries was also a subject of some declamation, and the equality of
+commercial privileges with which foreign bottoms entered American
+ports, was not free from objection. But the apprehensions of danger to
+liberty from the new system, which had been impressed on the minds of
+well meaning men, were visibly wearing off; the popularity of the
+administration was communicating itself to the government; and the
+materials with which the discontented were furnished, could not yet be
+efficaciously employed.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the session, a report on a petition which had
+been presented at an early period by the creditors of the public
+residing in the state of Pennsylvania, was taken up in the house of
+representatives. Though many considerations rendered a postponement of
+this interesting subject necessary, two resolutions were passed; the
+one, &quot;declaring that the house considered an adequate provision for
+the support of the public credit, as a matter of high importance to
+the national honour and prosperity;&quot; and the other directing, &quot;the
+secretary of the treasury to prepare a plan for that purpose, and to
+report the same to the house at its next meeting.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Adjournment of the first session of congress.</div>
+
+<p>On the 29th of September, congress adjourned to the first Monday in
+the succeeding January.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the whole of this laborious and important session, perfect
+harmony subsisted between the executive and the legislature; and no
+circumstance occurred which threatened to impair it. The modes of
+communication between the departments of government were adjusted in a
+satisfactory manner, and arrangements were made on some of those
+delicate points in which the senate participate of executive power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The president visits the New England states.</div>
+
+<p>Anxious to visit New England, to observe in person the condition of
+the country and the dispositions of the people towards the government
+and its measures, the President was disposed to avail himself of the
+short respite from official cares afforded by the recess of congress,
+to make a tour through the eastern states. His resolution being taken,
+and the executive business which required his immediate personal
+attendance being despatched,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> he commenced his tour on the 15th of
+October; and, passing through Connecticut and Massachusetts, as far as
+Portsmouth in New Hampshire, returned by a different route to New
+York, where he arrived on the 13th of November.</p>
+
+<p>With this visit, the President had much reason to be satisfied. To
+contemplate the theatre on which many interesting military scenes had
+been exhibited, and to review the ground on which his first campaign
+as Commander-in-chief of the American army had been made, were sources
+of rational delight. To observe the progress of society, the
+improvements in agriculture, commerce, and manufactures; and the
+temper, circumstances, and dispositions of the people, could not fail
+to be grateful to an intelligent mind, and an employment in all
+respects, worthy of the chief magistrate of the nation. The
+reappearance of their general, in the high station he now filled,
+brought back to recollection the perilous transactions of the war; and
+the reception universally given to him, attested the unabated love
+which was felt for his person and character, and indicated
+unequivocally the growing popularity, at least in that part of the
+union, of the government he administered.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His reception.</div>
+
+<p>The sincerity and warmth with which he reciprocated the affection
+expressed for his person in the addresses presented to him, was well
+calculated to preserve the sentiments which were generally diffused.
+&quot;I rejoice with you my fellow citizens,&quot; said he in answer to an
+address from the inhabitants of Boston, &quot;in every circumstance that
+declares your prosperity;&#8212;and I do so most cordially because you have
+well deserved to be happy.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Your love of liberty&#8212;your respect for the laws&#8212;your habits of
+industry&#8212;and your practice of the moral and religious obligations,
+are the strongest claims to national and individual happiness. And
+they will, I trust, be firmly and lastingly established.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>But the interchange of sentiments with the companions of his military
+toils and glory, will excite most interest, because on both sides, the
+expressions were dictated by the purest and most delicious feelings of
+the human heart. From the Cincinnati of Massachusetts he received the
+following address:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Amidst the various gratulations which your arrival in this metropolis
+has occasioned, permit us, the members of the society of the
+Cincinnati in this commonwealth, most respectfully to assure you of
+the ardour of esteem and affection you have so indelibly fixed in our
+hearts, as our glorious leader in war, and illustrious example in
+peace.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;After the solemn and endearing farewell on the banks of the Hudson,
+which our anxiety presaged as final, most peculiarly pleasing is the
+present unexpected meeting. On this occasion we can not avoid the
+recollection of the various scenes of toil and danger through which
+you conducted us; and while we contemplate various trying periods of
+the war, and the triumphs of peace, we rejoice to behold you, induced
+by the unanimous voice of your country, entering upon other trials,
+and other services alike important, and, in some points of view,
+equally hazardous. For the completion of the great purposes which a
+grateful country has assigned you, long, very long, may your
+invaluable life be preserved. And as the admiring world, while
+considering you as a soldier, have long wanted a comparison, may your
+virtue and talents as a statesman leave them without a parallel.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It is not in words to express an attachment founded like ours. We can
+only say that when soldiers, our greatest pride was a promptitude of
+obedience to your orders; as citizens, our supreme ambition is to
+maintain the character of firm supporters of that noble fabric of
+federal government over which you preside.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;As members of the society of the Cincinnati, it will be our endeavour
+to cherish those sacred principles of charity and fraternal attachment
+which our institution inculcates. And while our conduct is thus
+regulated, we can never want the patronage of the first of patriots
+and the best of men.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>To this address the following answer was returned:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;In reciprocating with gratitude and sincerity the multiplied and
+affecting gratulations of my fellow citizens of this commonwealth,
+they will all of them with justice allow me to say, that none can be
+dearer to me than the affectionate assurances which you have
+expressed. Dear, indeed, is the occasion which restores an intercourse
+with my faithful associates in prosperous and adverse fortune; and
+enhanced are the triumphs of peace, participated with those whose
+virtue and valour so largely contributed to procure them. To that
+virtue and valour your country has confessed her obligations. Be mine
+the grateful task to add the testimony of a connexion which it was my
+pride to own in the field, and is now my happiness to acknowledge in
+the enjoyments of peace and freedom.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Regulating your conduct by those principles which have heretofore
+governed your actions as men, soldiers, and citizens, you will repeat
+the obligations conferred on your country, and you will transmit to
+posterity an example that must command their admiration and grateful
+praise. Long may you continue to enjoy the endearments of fraternal
+attachments, and the heartfelt happiness of reflecting that you have
+faithfully done your duty.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;While I am permitted to possess the consciousness of this worth,
+which has long bound me to you by every tie of affection and esteem, I
+will continue to be your sincere and faithful friend.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his return to New York, the President was informed of the
+ill success which had attended his first attempt to negotiate a peace
+with the Creek Indians. General Lincoln, Mr. Griffin, and Colonel
+Humphries, had been deputed on this mission, and had met M'Gillivray
+with several other chiefs, and about two thousand men, at Rock
+landing, on the Oconee, on the frontiers of Georgia. The treaty
+commenced with favourable appearances, but was soon abruptly broken
+off by M'Gillivray. Some difficulties arose on the subject of a
+boundary, but the principal obstacles to a peace were supposed to grow
+out of his personal interests, and his connexions with Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">North Carolina accedes to the union.</div>
+
+<p>This intelligence was more than counterbalanced by the accession of
+North Carolina to the union. In the month of November, a second
+convention had met under the authority of the legislature of that
+state, and the constitution was adopted by a great majority.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... Report of the
+secretary of the treasury on public credit.... Debate
+thereon.... Bill for fixing the permanent seat of
+government.... Adjournment of congress.... Treaty with the
+Creek Indians.... Relations of the United States with Great
+Britain and Spain.... The President visits Mount Vernon....
+Session of congress.... The President's speech.... Debates
+on the excise.... On a national bank.... The opinions of the
+cabinet on the law.... Progress of parties.... War with the
+Indians.... Defeat of Harmar.... Adjournment of congress.</b></p></div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1790</div>
+
+<p><span class="lgsmcap">On</span> the eighth of January, 1790, the President met both houses of
+congress in the senate chamber.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Meeting of the second session of the first congress.</div>
+
+<p>In his speech, which was delivered from the chair of the vice
+president, after congratulating congress on the accession of the
+important state of North Carolina to the union, and on the prosperous
+aspect of American affairs, he proceeded to recommend certain great
+objects of legislation to their more especial consideration.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Among the many interesting objects,&quot; continued the speech, &quot;which
+will engage your attention, that of providing for the common defence
+will merit your particular regard. To be prepared for war is one of
+the most effectual means of preserving peace.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;A free people ought not only to be armed but disciplined; to which
+end, a uniform and well digested plan is requisite; and their safety
+and interest require that they should promote such manufactories as
+tend to render them independent on others for essential, particularly
+for military supplies.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>As connected with this subject, a proper establishment for the troops
+which they might deem indispensable, was suggested for their mature
+deliberation; and the indications of a hostile temper given by several
+tribes of Indians, were considered as admonishing them of the
+necessity of being prepared to afford protection to the frontiers, and
+to punish aggression.</p>
+
+<p>The interests of the United States were declared to require that the
+means of keeping up their intercourse with foreign nations should be
+provided; and the expediency of establishing a uniform rule of
+naturalization was suggested.</p>
+
+<p>After expressing his confidence in their attention to many
+improvements essential to the prosperity of the interior, the
+President added, &quot;nor am I less persuaded that you will agree with me
+in opinion that there is nothing which can better deserve your
+patronage than the promotion of science and literature. Knowledge is
+in every country the surest basis of public happiness. In one, in
+which the measures of government receive their impression so
+immediately from the sense of the community as in ours, it is
+proportionably essential. To the security of a free constitution it
+contributes in various ways: by convincing those who are intrusted
+with the public administration, that every valuable end of government
+is best answered by the enlightened confidence of the people; and by
+teaching the people themselves to know and to value their own rights;
+to discern and provide against invasions of them; to distinguish
+between oppression and the necessary exercise of lawful authority;
+between burdens proceeding from a disregard to their convenience, and
+those resulting from the inevitable exigencies of society; to
+discriminate the spirit of liberty from that of licentiousness,
+cherishing the first, avoiding the last, and uniting a speedy but
+temperate vigilance against encroachments, with an inviolable respect
+to the laws.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Whether this desirable object will be best promoted by affording aids
+to seminaries of learning already established, by the institution of a
+national university, or by any other expedients, will be well worthy
+of a place in the deliberations of the legislature.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Addressing himself then particularly to the representatives he said:
+&quot;I saw with peculiar pleasure at the close of the last session, the
+resolution entered into by you, expressive of your opinion, that an
+adequate provision for the support of the public credit is a matter of
+high importance to the national honour and prosperity. In this
+sentiment I entirely concur; and to a perfect confidence in your best
+endeavours to devise such a provision as will be truly consistent with
+the end, I add an equal reliance on the cheerful co-operation of the
+other branch of the legislature. It would be superfluous to specify
+inducements to a measure in which the character and permanent
+interests of the United States are so obviously and so deeply
+concerned; and which has received so explicit a sanction from your
+declaration.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Addressing himself again to both houses, he observed, that the
+estimates and papers respecting the objects particularly recommended
+to their attention would be laid before them; and concluded with
+saying, &quot;the welfare of our country is the great object to which our
+cares and efforts ought to be directed: and I shall derive great
+satisfaction from a co-operation with you in the pleasing though
+arduous task of insuring to our fellow citizens the blessings which
+they have a right to expect from a free, efficient, and equal
+government.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The answers of both houses were indicative of the harmony which
+subsisted between the executive and legislative departments.</p>
+
+<p>Congress had been so occupied during its first session with those
+bills which were necessary to bring the new system into full
+operation, and to create an immediate revenue, that some measures
+which possessed great and pressing claims to immediate attention had
+been unavoidably deferred. That neglect under which the creditors of
+the public had been permitted to languish could not fail to cast an
+imputation on the American republics, which had been sincerely
+lamented by the wisest among those who administered the former
+government. The power to comply substantially with the engagements of
+the United States being at length conferred on those who were bound by
+them, it was confidently expected by the friends of the constitution
+that their country would retrieve its reputation, and that its fame
+would no longer be tarnished with the blots which stain a faithless
+people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Report of the secretary of the treasury of a plan for the
+support of public credit.</div>
+
+<p>On the 9th of January, a letter from the secretary of the treasury to
+the speaker of the house of representatives was read, stating that in
+obedience to the resolution of the 21st of September, he had prepared
+a plan for the support of public credit, which he was ready to report
+when the house should be pleased to receive it; and, after a short
+debate in which the personal attendance of the secretary for the
+purpose of making explanations was urged by some, and opposed by
+others, it was resolved that the report should be received in writing
+on the succeeding Thursday.</p>
+
+<p>Availing himself of the latitude afforded by the terms of the
+resolution under which he acted, the secretary had introduced into his
+report an able and comprehensive argument elucidating and supporting
+the principles it contained. After displaying, with strength and
+perspicuity, the justice and the policy of an adequate provision for
+the public debt, he proceeded to discuss the principles on which it
+should be made.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It was agreed,&quot; he said, &quot;by all, that the foreign debt should be
+provided for according to the precise terms of the contract. It was to
+be regretted that, with respect to the domestic debt, the same
+unanimity of sentiment did not prevail.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The first point on which the public appeared to be divided, involved
+the question, &quot;whether a discrimination ought not to be made between
+original holders of the public securities, and present possessors by
+purchase.&quot; After reviewing the arguments generally urged in its
+support, the secretary declared himself against this discrimination.
+He deemed it &quot;equally unjust and impolitic; highly injurious even to
+the original holders of public securities, and ruinous to public
+credit.&quot; To the arguments with which he enforced these opinions, he
+added the authority of the government of the union. From the circular
+address of congress to the states, of the 26th of April, 1783,
+accompanying their revenue system of the 18th of the same month,
+passages were selected indicating unequivocally, that in the view of
+that body the original creditors, and those who had become so by
+assignment, had equal claims upon the nation.</p>
+
+<p>After reasoning at great length against a discrimination between the
+different creditors of the union, the secretary proceeded to examine
+whether a difference ought to be permitted to remain between them and
+the creditors of individual states.</p>
+
+<p>Both descriptions of debt were contracted for the same objects, and
+were in the main the same. Indeed, a great part of the particular
+debts of the states had arisen from assumptions by them on account of
+the union; and it was most equitable that there should be the same
+measure of retribution for all. There were many reasons, some of which
+were stated, for believing this would not be the case, unless the
+state debts should be assumed by the nation.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the injustice of favouring one class of creditors more
+than another which was equally meritorious, many arguments were urged
+in support of the policy of distributing to all with an equal hand
+from the same source.</p>
+
+<p>After an elaborate discussion of these and some other points connected
+with the subject, the secretary proposed that a loan should be opened
+to the full amount of the debt, as well of the particular states, as
+of the union.</p>
+
+<p>The terms to be offered were,&#8212;</p>
+
+<p>First. That for every one hundred dollars subscribed payable in the
+debt, as well interest as principal, the subscriber should be entitled
+to have two-thirds funded on a yearly interest of six per cent, (the
+capital redeemable at the pleasure of government by the payment of the
+principal) and to receive the other third in lands of the western
+territory at their then actual value. Or,</p>
+
+<p>Secondly. To have the whole sum funded at a yearly interest of four
+per cent., irredeemable by any payment exceeding five dollars per
+annum both on account of principal and interest, and to receive as a
+compensation for the reduction of interest, fifteen dollars and eighty
+cents, payable in lands as in the preceding case. Or,</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly. To have sixty-six and two-thirds of a dollar funded at a
+yearly interest of six per cent., irredeemable also by any payment
+exceeding four dollars and two-thirds of a dollar per annum on account
+both of principal and interest, and to have at the end of ten years
+twenty-six dollars and eighty-eight cents funded at the like interest
+and rate of redemption.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these propositions the creditors were to have an option
+of vesting their money in annuities on different plans; and it was
+also recommended to open a loan at five per cent, for ten millions of
+dollars, payable one half in specie, and the other half in the debt,
+irredeemable by any payment exceeding six dollars per annum both of
+principal and interest.</p>
+
+<p>By way of experiment, a tontine on principles stated in the report was
+also suggested.</p>
+
+<p>The secretary was restrained from proposing to fund the whole debt
+immediately at the current rate of interest, by the opinion, &quot;that
+although such a provision might not exceed the abilities of the
+country, it would require the extension of taxation to a degree, and
+to objects which the true interest of the creditors themselves would
+forbid. It was therefore to be hoped and expected, that they would
+cheerfully concur in such modifications of their claims, on fair and
+equitable principles, as would facilitate to the government an
+arrangement substantial, durable, and satisfactory to the community.
+Exigencies might ere long arise which would call for resources greatly
+beyond what was now deemed sufficient for the current service; and
+should the faculties of the country be exhausted, or even strained to
+provide for the public debt, there could be less reliance on the
+sacredness of the provision.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;But while he yielded to the force of these considerations, he did not
+lose sight of those fundamental principles of good faith which dictate
+that every practicable exertion ought to be made, scrupulously to
+fulfil the engagements of government; that no change in the rights of
+its creditors ought to be attempted without their voluntary consent;
+and that this consent ought to be voluntary in fact, as well as in
+name. Consequently, that every proposal of a change ought to be in the
+shape of an appeal to their reason and to their interest, not to their
+necessities. To this end it was requisite that a fair equivalent
+should be offered, for what might be asked to be given up, and
+unquestionable security for the remainder.&quot; This fair equivalent for
+the proposed reduction of interest was, he thought, offered in the
+relinquishment of the power to redeem the whole debt at pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>That a free judgment might be exercised by the holders of public
+securities in accepting or rejecting the terms offered by the
+government, provision was made in the report for paying to
+non-subscribing creditors, a dividend of the surplus which should
+remain in the treasury after paying the interest of the proposed
+loans: but as the funds immediately to be provided, were calculated to
+produce only four per cent, on the entire debt, the dividend, for the
+present, was not to exceed that rate of interest.</p>
+
+<p>To enable the treasury to support this increased demand upon it, an
+augmentation of the duties on imported wines, spirits, tea, and
+coffee, was proposed, and a duty on home made spirits was also
+recommended.</p>
+
+<p>This celebrated report, which has been alike the fruitful theme of
+extravagant praise and bitter censure, merits the more attention,
+because the first regular and systematic opposition to the principles
+on which the affairs of the union were administered, originated in the
+measures which were founded on it.</p>
+
+<p>On the 28th of January, this subject was taken up; and, after some
+animadversions on the speculations in the public debt to which the
+report, it was said, had already given birth, the business was
+postponed until the eighth of February, when it was again brought
+forward.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Debate thereon.</div>
+
+<p>Several resolutions affirmative of the principles contained in the
+report, were moved by Mr. Fitzsimmons. To the first, which respected a
+provision for the foreign debt, the house agreed without a dissenting
+voice. The second, in favour of appropriating permanent funds for
+payment of the interest on the domestic debt, and for the gradual
+redemption of the principal, gave rise to a very animated debate.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Jackson declared his hostility to funding systems generally. To
+prove their pernicious influence, he appealed to the histories of
+Florence, Genoa, and Great Britain; and, contending that the subject
+ought to be deferred until North Carolina should be represented,
+moved, that the committee should rise. This question being decided in
+the negative, Mr. Scott declared the opinion that the United States
+were not bound to pay the domestic creditors the sums specified in the
+certificates of debts in their possession. He supported this opinion
+by urging, not that the public had received less value than was
+expressed on the face of the paper which had been issued, but that
+those to whom it had been delivered, by parting with it at two
+shillings and sixpence in the pound, had themselves fixed the value of
+their claims, and had manifested their willingness to add to their
+other sacrifices this deduction from their demand upon the nation. He
+therefore moved to amend the resolution before the committee so as to
+require a resettlement of the debt.</p>
+
+<p>The amendment was opposed by Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Ames, Mr.
+Sherman, Mr. Hartley, and Mr. Goodhue. They stated at large the terms
+on which the debt had been contracted, and urged the confidence which
+the creditors had a right to place in the government for its discharge
+according to settlements already made, and acknowledgments already
+given. The idea that the legislative body could diminish an
+ascertained debt was reprobated with great force, as being at the same
+time unjust, impolitic, and subversive of every principle on which
+public contracts are founded. The evidences of debt possessed by the
+creditors of the United States were considered as public bonds, for
+the redemption of which the property and the labour of the people were
+pledged.</p>
+
+<p>After the debate had been protracted to some length, the question was
+taken on Mr. Scott's amendment, and it passed in the negative.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Madison then rose, and, in an eloquent speech, replete with
+argument, proposed an amendment to the resolution, the effect of which
+was to discriminate between the public creditors, so as to pay the
+present holder of assignable paper the highest price it had borne in
+the market, and give the residue to the person with whom the debt was
+originally contracted. Where the original creditor had never parted
+with his claim, he was to receive the whole sum acknowledged to be due
+on the face of the certificate.</p>
+
+<p>This motion was supported by Mr. Jackson, Mr. White, Mr. Moore, Mr.
+Page, Mr. Stone, Mr. Scott, and Mr. Seney.</p>
+
+<p>It was opposed with great earnestness and strength of argument, by Mr.
+Sedgewick, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Smith, of South Carolina, Mr. Ames, Mr.
+Gerry, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Wadsworth, Mr. Goodhue, Mr. Hartley, Mr.
+Bland, Mr. Benson, Mr. Burke, and Mr. Livermore.</p>
+
+<p>The argument was ably supported on both sides, was long, animated, and
+interesting. At length the question was put, and the amendment was
+rejected by a great majority.</p>
+
+<p>This discussion deeply engaged the public attention. The proposition
+was new and interesting. That the debt ought to be diminished for the
+public advantage, was an opinion which had frequently been advanced,
+and was maintained by many. But a reduction from the claims of its
+present holders for the benefit of those who had sold their rights,
+was a measure which saved nothing to the public purse, and was
+therefore recommended only by considerations, the operation of which
+can never be very extensive. Against it were arranged all who had made
+purchases, and a great majority of those who conceived that sound
+policy and honest dealing require a literal observance of public
+contracts.</p>
+
+<p>Although the decision of congress against a discrimination in favour
+of the original creditor produced no considerable sensation, the
+determination on that part of the secretary's report which was the
+succeeding subject of deliberation, affecting political interests and
+powers which are never to be approached without danger, seemed to
+unchain all those fierce passions which a high respect for the
+government and for those who administered it, had in a great measure
+restrained.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which the several states entered into and conducted the
+war of the revolution, will be recollected. Acting in some respects
+separately, and in others conjointly, for the attainment of a common
+object, their resources were exerted, sometimes under the authority of
+congress, sometimes under the authority of the local government, to
+repel the enemy wherever he appeared. The debt incurred in support of
+the war was therefore, in the first instance, contracted partly by the
+continent, and partly by the states. When the system of requisitions
+was adopted, the transactions of the union were carried on, almost
+entirely, through the agency of the states; and when the measure of
+compensating the army for the depreciation of their pay became
+necessary, this burden, under the recommendation of congress, was
+assumed by the respective states. Some had funded this debt, and paid
+the interest upon it. Others had made no provision for the interest;
+but all, by taxes, paper money, or purchase, had, in some measure,
+reduced the principal. In their exertions some degree of inequality
+had obtained; and they looked anxiously to a settlement of accounts,
+for the ascertainment of claims which each supposed itself to have
+upon the union. Measures to effect this object had been taken by the
+former government; but they were slow in their progress, and intrinsic
+difficulties were found in the thing itself, not easily to be
+overcome.</p>
+
+<p>The secretary of the treasury proposed to assume these debts, and to
+fund them in common with that which continued to be the proper debt of
+the union.</p>
+
+<p>The resolution which comprehended this principle of the report, was
+vigorously opposed.</p>
+
+<p>It was contended that the general government would acquire an undue
+influence, and that the state governments would be annihilated by the
+measure. Not only would all the influence of the public creditors be
+thrown into the scale of the former, but it would absorb all the
+powers of taxation, and leave to the latter only the shadow of a
+government. This would probably terminate in rendering the state
+governments useless, and would destroy the system so recently
+established. The union, it was said, had been compared to a rope of
+sand; but gentlemen were cautioned not to push things to the opposite
+extreme. The attempt to strengthen it might be unsuccessful, and the
+cord might be strained until it should break.</p>
+
+<p>The constitutional authority of the federal government to assume the
+debts of the states was questioned. Its powers, it was said, were
+specified, and this was not among them.</p>
+
+<p>The policy of the measure, as it affected merely the government of the
+union, was controverted, and its justice was arraigned.</p>
+
+<p>On the ground of policy it was objected, that the assumption would
+impose on the United States a burden, the weight of which was
+unascertained, and which would require an extension of taxation beyond
+the limits which prudence would prescribe. An attempt to raise the
+impost would be dangerous; and the excise added to it would not
+produce funds adequate to the object. A tax on real estate must be
+resorted to, objections to which had been made in every part of the
+union. It would be more adviseable to leave this source of revenue
+untouched in the hands of the state governments, who could apply to it
+with more facility, with a better understanding of the subject, and
+with less dissatisfaction to individuals, than could possibly be done
+by the government of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>There existed no necessity for taking up this burden. The state
+creditors had not required it. There was no petition from them upon
+the subject. There was not only no application from the states, but
+there was reason to believe that they were seriously opposed to the
+measure. Many of them would certainly view it with a jealous,&#8212;a
+jaundiced eye. The convention of North Carolina, which adopted the
+constitution, had proposed, as an amendment to it, to deprive congress
+of the power of interfering between the respective states and their
+creditors: and there could be no obligation to assume more than the
+balances which on a final settlement would be found due to creditor
+states.</p>
+
+<p>That the debt by being thus accumulated would be perpetuated was also
+an evil of real magnitude. Many of the states had already made
+considerable progress in extinguishing their debts, and the process
+might certainly be carried on more rapidly by them than by the union.
+A public debt seemed to be considered by some as a public blessing;
+but to this doctrine they were not converts. If, as they believed, a
+public debt was a public evil, it would be enormously increased by
+adding those of the states to that of the union.</p>
+
+<p>The measure was unwise too as it would affect public credit. Such an
+augmentation of the debt must inevitably depreciate its value; since
+it was the character of paper, whatever denomination it might assume,
+to diminish in value in proportion to the quantity in circulation.</p>
+
+<p>It would also increase an evil which was already sensibly felt. The
+state debts when assumed by the continent, would, as that of the union
+had already done, accumulate in large cities; and the dissatisfaction
+excited by the payment of taxes, would be increased by perceiving that
+the money raised from the people flowed into the hands of a few
+individuals. Still greater mischief was to be apprehended. A great
+part of this additional debt would go into the hands of foreigners;
+and the United States would be heavily burdened to pay an interest
+which could not be expected to remain in the country.</p>
+
+<p>The measure was unjust, because it was burdening those states which
+had taxed themselves highly to discharge the claims of their
+creditors, with the debts of those which had not made the same
+exertions. It would delay the settlement of accounts between the
+individual states and the United States; and the supporters of the
+measure were openly charged with intending to defeat that settlement.</p>
+
+<p>It was also said that, in its execution, the scheme would be found
+extremely embarrassing, perhaps impracticable. The case of a partial
+accession to the measure by the creditors, a case which would probably
+occur, presented a difficulty for which no provision was made, and of
+which no solution had been given. Should the creditors in some states
+come into the system, and those in others refuse to change their
+security, the government would be involved in perplexities from which
+no means of extricating itself had been shown. Nor would it be
+practicable to discriminate between the debts contracted for general
+and for local objects.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the debate, severe allusions were made to the conduct
+of particular states; and the opinions advanced in favour of the
+measure, were ascribed to local interests.</p>
+
+<p>In support of the assumption, the debts of the states were traced to
+their origin. America, it was said, had engaged in a war, the object
+of which was equally interesting to every part of the union. It was
+not the war of a particular state, but of the United States. It was
+not the liberty and independence of a part, but of the whole, for
+which they had contended, and which they had acquired. The cause was a
+common cause. As brethren, the American people had consented to hazard
+property and life in its defence. All the sums expended in the
+attainment of this great object, whatever might be the authority under
+which they were raised or appropriated, conduced to the same end.
+Troops were raised, and military stores purchased, before congress
+assumed the command of the army, or the control of the war. The
+ammunition which repulsed the enemy at Bunker's Hill, was purchased by
+Massachusetts; and formed a part of the debt of that state.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could be more erroneous than the principle which had been
+assumed in argument, that the holders of securities issued by
+individual states were to be considered merely as state creditors;&#8212;as
+if the debt had been contracted on account of the particular state. It
+was contracted on account of the union, in that common cause in which
+all were equally interested.</p>
+
+<p>From the complex nature of the political system which had been adopted
+in America, the war was, in a great measure, carried on through the
+agency of the state governments; and the debts were, in truth, the
+debts of the union, for which the states had made themselves
+responsible. Except the civil list, the whole state expenditure was in
+the prosecution of the war; and the state taxes had undeniably
+exceeded the provision for their civil list. The foundation for the
+several classes of the debt was reviewed in detail; and it was
+affirmed to be proved from the review, and from the books in the
+public offices, that, in its origin, a great part of it, even in form,
+and the whole, in fact, was equitably due from the continent. The
+states individually possessing all the resources of the nation, became
+responsible to certain descriptions of the public creditors. But they
+were the agents of the continent in contracting the debt; and its
+distribution among them for payment, arose from the division of
+political power which existed under the old confederation. A new
+arrangement of the system had taken place, and a power over the
+resources of the nation was conferred on the general government. With
+the funds, the debt also ought to be assumed. This investigation of
+its origin demonstrated that the assumption was not the creation of a
+new debt, but the reacknowledgment of liability for an old one, the
+payment of which had devolved on those members of the system, who, at
+the time, were alone capable of paying it. And thence was inferred,
+not only the justice of the measure, but a complete refutation of the
+arguments drawn from the constitution. If, in point of fact, the debt
+was in its origin continental, and had been transferred to the states
+for greater facility of payment, there could be no constitutional
+objection to restoring its original and real character.</p>
+
+<p>The great powers of war, of taxation, and of borrowing money, which
+were vested in congress to pay the debts, and provide for the common
+defence and general welfare of the United States, comprised that in
+question. There could be no more doubt of their right to charge
+themselves with the payment of a debt contracted in the past war, than
+to borrow money for the prosecution of a future war. The impolicy of
+leaving the public creditors to receive payment from different sources
+was also strongly pressed; and the jealousy which would exist between
+the creditors of the union and of the states, was considered as a
+powerful argument in favour of giving them one common interest. This
+jealousy, it was feared, might be carried so far, as even to create an
+opposition to the laws of the union.</p>
+
+<p>If the states should provide for their creditors, the same sum of
+money must be collected from the people, as would be required if the
+debt should be assumed; and it would probably be collected in a manner
+more burdensome, than if one uniform system should be established. If
+all should not make such provision, it would be unjust to leave the
+soldier of one state unpaid, while the services of the man who fought
+by his side were amply compensated; and, after having assumed the
+funds, it would dishonour the general government to permit a creditor
+for services rendered, or property advanced for the continent, to
+remain unsatisfied, because his claim had been transferred to the
+state, at a time when the state alone possessed the means of payment.
+By the injured and neglected creditor, such an arrangement might
+justly be considered as a disreputable artifice.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of delaying, it was believed to be a measure which would
+facilitate the settlement of accounts between the states. Its
+advocates declared that they did not entertain, and never had
+entertained any wish to procrastinate a settlement. On the contrary,
+it was greatly desired by them. They had themselves brought forward
+propositions for that purpose; and they invited their adversaries to
+assist in improving the plan which had been introduced.</p>
+
+<p>The settlement between the states, it was said, either would or would
+not be made. Should it ever take place, it would remedy any
+inequalities which might grow out of the assumption. Should it never
+take place, the justice of the measure became the more apparent. That
+the burdens in support of a common war, which from various causes had
+devolved unequally on the states, ought to be apportioned among them,
+was a truth too clear to be controverted; and this, if the settlement
+should never be accomplished, could be effected only by the measure
+now proposed. Indeed, in any event, it would be the only certain, as
+well as only eligible plan. For how were the debtor states to be
+compelled to pay the balances which should be found against them?</p>
+
+<p>If the measure was recommended by considerations which rendered its
+ultimate adoption inevitable, the present was clearly preferable to
+any future time. It was desirable immediately to quiet the minds of
+the public creditors by assuring them that justice would be done; to
+simplify the forms of public debt; and to put an end to that
+speculation which had been so much reprobated, and which could be
+terminated only by giving the debt a real and permanent value.</p>
+
+<p>That the assumption would impair the just influence of the states was
+controverted with great strength of argument. The diffusive
+representation in the state legislatures, the intimate connexion
+between the representative and his constituents, the influence of the
+state legislatures over the members of one branch of the national
+legislature, the nature of the powers exercised by the state
+governments which perpetually presented them to the people in a point
+of view calculated to lay hold of the public affections, were
+guarantees that the states would retain their due weight in the
+political system, and that a debt was not necessary to the solidity or
+duration of their power.</p>
+
+<p>But the argument it was said proved too much. If a debt was now
+essential to the preservation of state authority, it would always be
+so. It must therefore never be extinguished, but must be perpetuated,
+in order to secure the existence of the state governments. If, for
+this purpose, it was indispensable that the expenses of the
+revolutionary war should be borne by the states, it would not be less
+indispensable that the expenses of future wars should be borne in the
+same manner. Either the argument was unfounded, or the constitution
+was wrong; and the powers of the sword and the purse ought not to have
+been conferred on the government of the union. Whatever speculative
+opinions might be entertained on this point, they were to administer
+the government according to the principles of the constitution as it
+was framed. But, it was added, if so much power follows the assumption
+as the objection implies, is it not time to ask&#8212;is it safe to forbear
+assuming? if the power is so dangerous, it will be so when exercised
+by the states. If assuming tends to consolidation, is the reverse,
+tending to disunion, a less weighty objection? if it is answered that
+the non-assumption will not necessarily tend to disunion; neither, it
+may be replied, does the assumption necessarily tend to consolidation.</p>
+
+<p>It was not admitted that the assumption would tend to perpetuate the
+debt. It could not be presumed that the general government would be
+less willing than the local governments to discharge it; nor could it
+be presumed that the means were less attainable by the former than the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p>It was not contended that a public debt was a public blessing. Whether
+a debt was to be preferred to no debt was not the question. The debt
+was already contracted: and the question, so far as policy might be
+consulted, was, whether it was more for the public advantage to give
+it such a form as would render it applicable to the purposes of a
+circulating medium, or to leave it a mere subject of speculation,
+incapable of being employed to any useful purpose. The debt was
+admitted to be an evil; but it was an evil from which, if wisely
+modified, some benefit might be extracted; and which, in its present
+state, could have only a mischievous operation.</p>
+
+<p>If the debt should be placed on adequate funds, its operation on
+public credit could not be pernicious: in its present precarious
+condition, there was much more to be apprehended in that respect.</p>
+
+<p>To the objection that it would accumulate in large cities, it was
+answered it would be a monied capital, and would be held by those who
+chose to place money at interest; but by funding the debt, the present
+possessors would be enabled to part with it at its nominal value,
+instead of selling it at its present current rate. If it should centre
+in the hands of foreigners, the sooner it was appreciated to its
+proper standard, the greater quantity of specie would its transfer
+bring into the United States.</p>
+
+<p>To the injustice of charging those states which had made great
+exertions for the payment of their debts with the burden properly
+belonging to those which had not made such exertions, it was answered,
+that every state must be considered as having exerted itself to the
+utmost of its resources; and that if it could not, or would not make
+provision for creditors to whom the union was equitably bound, the
+argument in favour of an assumption was the stronger.</p>
+
+<p>The arguments drawn from local interests were repelled, and retorted,
+and a great degree of irritation was excited on both sides.</p>
+
+<p>After a very animated discussion of several days, the question was
+taken, and the resolution was carried by a small majority. Soon after
+this decision, while the subject was pending before the house, the
+delegates from North Carolina took their seats, and changed the
+strength of parties. By a majority of two voices, the resolution was
+recommitted; and, after a long and ardent debate, was negatived by the
+same majority.</p>
+
+<p>This proposition continued to be supported with a degree of
+earnestness which its opponents termed pertinacious, but not a single
+opinion was changed. It was brought forward in the new and less
+exceptionable form of assuming specific sums from each state. Under
+this modification of the principle, the extraordinary contributions of
+particular states during the war, and their exertions since the peace,
+might be regarded; and the objections to the measure, drawn from the
+uncertainty of the sum to be assumed, would be removed. But these
+alterations produced no change of sentiment; and the bill was sent up
+to the senate with a provision for those creditors only whose
+certificates of debt purported to be payable by the union.</p>
+
+<p>In this state of things, the measure is understood to have derived aid
+from another, which was of a nature strongly to interest particular
+parts of the union.</p>
+
+<p>From the month of June, 1783, when congress was driven from
+Philadelphia by the mutiny of a part of the Pennsylvania line, the
+necessity of selecting some place for a permanent residence, in which
+the government of the union might exercise sufficient authority to
+protect itself from violence and insult, had been generally
+acknowledged. Scarcely any subject had occupied more time, or had more
+agitated the members of the former congress than this.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bill for fixing the permanent seat of government.</div>
+
+<p>In December, 1784, an ordinance was passed for appointing
+commissioners to purchase land on the Delaware, in the neighbourhood
+of its falls, and to erect thereon the necessary public buildings for
+the reception of congress, and the officers of government; but the
+southern interest had been sufficiently strong to arrest the execution
+of this ordinance by preventing an appropriation of funds, which
+required the assent of nine states. Under the existing government,
+this subject had received the early attention of congress; and many
+different situations from the Delaware to the Potomac inclusive, had
+been earnestly supported; but a majority of both houses had not
+concurred in favour of any one place. With as little success, attempts
+had been made to change the temporary residence of congress. Although
+New York was obviously too far to the east, so many conflicting
+interests were brought into operation whenever the subject was
+touched, that no motion designating a more central place, could
+succeed. At length, a compact respecting the temporary and permanent
+seat of government was entered into between the friends of
+Philadelphia, and the Potomac, stipulating that congress should
+adjourn to and hold its sessions in Philadelphia, for ten years,
+during which time, buildings for the accommodation of the government
+should be erected at some place on the Potomac, to which the
+government should remove at the expiration of the term. This compact
+having united the representatives of Pennsylvania and Delaware with
+the friends of the Potomac, in favour both of the temporary and
+permanent residence which had been agreed on between them, a majority
+was produced in favour of the two situations, and a bill which was
+brought into the senate in conformity with this previous arrangement,
+passed both houses by small majorities. This act was immediately
+followed by an amendment to the bill then pending before the senate
+for funding the debt of the union. The amendment was similar in
+principle to that which had been unsuccessfully proposed in the house
+of representatives. By its provisions, twenty-one millions five
+hundred thousand dollars of the state debts were assumed in specified
+proportions; and it was particularly enacted that no certificate
+should be received from a state creditor which could be &quot;ascertained
+to have been issued for any purpose other than compensations and
+expenditures for services or supplies towards the prosecution of the
+late war, and the defence of the United States, or of some part
+thereof, during the same.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>When the question was taken in the house of representatives on this
+amendment, two members representing districts on the Potomac, who, in
+all the previous stages of the business, had voted against the
+assumption, declared themselves in its favour; and thus the majority
+was changed.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus was a measure carried, which was supported and opposed with a
+degree of zeal and earnestness not often manifested; and which
+furnished presages, not to be mistaken, that the spirit with which the
+opposite opinions had been maintained, would not yield, contentedly,
+to the decision of a bare majority. This measure has constituted one
+of the great grounds of accusation against the first administration of
+the general government; and it is fair to acknowledge, that though, in
+its progress, it derived no aid from the President, whose opinion
+remained in his own bosom, it received the full approbation of his
+judgment.</p>
+
+<p>A bill, at length, passed both houses, funding the debt upon
+principles which lessened considerably the weight of the public
+burdens, and was entirely satisfactory to the public creditors. The
+proceeds of the sales of the lands lying in the western territory,
+and, by a subsequent act of the same session, the surplus product of
+the revenue after satisfying the appropriations which were charged
+upon it, with the addition of two millions, which the President was
+authorized to borrow at five per centum, constituted a sinking fund to
+be applied to the reduction of the debt.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of this measure was great and rapid. The public paper
+suddenly rose, and was for a short time above par. The immense wealth
+which individuals acquired by this unexpected appreciation, could not
+be viewed with indifference. Those who participated in its advantages,
+regarded the author of a system to which they were so greatly
+indebted, with an enthusiasm of attachment to which scarcely any
+limits were assigned. To many others, this adventitious collection of
+wealth in particular hands, was a subject rather of chagrin than of
+pleasure; and the reputation which the success of his plans gave to
+the secretary of the treasury, was not contemplated with unconcern. As
+if the debt had been created by the existing government, not by a war
+which gave liberty and independence to the United States, its being
+funded was ascribed by many, not to a sense of justice, and to a
+liberal and enlightened policy, but to the desire of bestowing on the
+government an artificial strength, by the creation of a monied
+interest which would be subservient to its will.</p>
+
+<p>The effects produced by giving the debt a permanent value, justified
+the predictions of those whose anticipations had been most favourable.
+The sudden increase of monied capital derived from it, invigorated
+commerce, and gave a new stimulus to agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>About this time, there was a great and visible improvement in the
+circumstances of the people. Although the funding system was certainly
+not inoperative in producing this improvement, it can not be justly
+ascribed to any single cause. Progressive industry had gradually
+repaired the losses sustained by the war; and the influence of the
+constitution on habits of thinking and acting, though silent, was
+considerable. In depriving the states of the power to impair the
+obligation of contracts, or to make any thing but gold and silver a
+tender in payment of debts, the conviction was impressed on that
+portion of society which had looked to the government for relief from
+embarrassment, that personal exertions alone could free them from
+difficulties; and an increased degree of industry and economy was the
+natural consequence of this opinion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Adjournment of congress.</div>
+
+<p>On the 12th of August, after an arduous session, congress adjourned,
+to meet in Philadelphia the first Monday in the following December.</p>
+
+<p><a name="p370">While</a> the discussions in the national legislature related to subjects,
+and were conducted in a temper, well calculated to rouse the active
+spirit of party, the external relations of the United States wore an
+aspect not perfectly serene. To the hostile temper manifested by the
+Indians on the western and southern frontiers, an increased degree of
+importance was given by the apprehension that their discontents were
+fomented by the intrigues of Britain and of Spain. From Canada, the
+Indians of the north-west were understood to be furnished with the
+means of prosecuting a war which they were stimulated to continue;
+and, to the influence of the governor of the Floridas had been partly
+attributed the failure of the negotiation with the Creeks. That this
+influence would still be exerted to prevent a friendly intercourse
+with that nation was firmly believed; and it was feared that Spain
+might take a part in the open hostilities threatened by the irritable
+dispositions of individuals in both countries. From the intimate
+connexion subsisting between the members of the house of Bourbon, this
+event was peculiarly deprecated; and the means of avoiding it were
+sought with solicitude. These considerations determined the President
+to make another effort at negotiation; but, to preserve the respect of
+these savages for the United States, it was at the same time resolved
+that the agent to be employed should visit the country on other
+pretexts, and should carry a letter of introduction to M'Gillivray,
+blending with other subjects a strong representation of the miseries
+which a war with the United States would bring upon his people; and an
+earnest exhortation to repair with the chiefs of his nation to the
+seat of the federal government, in order to effect a solid and
+satisfactory peace. Colonel Willett was selected for this service; and
+he acquitted himself so well of the duty assigned to him, as to induce
+the chiefs of the nation, with M'Gillivray at their head, to repair to
+New York, where negotiations were opened which terminated in a treaty
+of peace,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> signed on the 7th day of August.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Treaty with the Creek Indians.</div>
+
+<p>The pacific overtures made to the Indians of the Wabash and the Miamis
+not having been equally successful, the western frontiers were still
+exposed to their destructive incursions. A long course of experience
+had convinced the President that, on the failure of negotiation, sound
+policy and true economy, not less than humanity, required the
+immediate employment of a force which should carry death and
+destruction into the heart of the hostile settlements. Either not
+feeling the same impressions, or disposed to indulge the wishes of the
+western people, who declared openly their preference for desultory
+military expeditions, congress did not adopt measures corresponding
+with the wishes of the executive, and the military establishment<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>
+was not equal to the exigency. The distresses of the frontier
+establishment, therefore, still continued; and the hostility they had
+originally manifested to the constitution, sustained no diminution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">United States in relations with Great Britain and Spain.</div>
+
+<p>No progress had been made in adjusting the points of controversy with
+Spain and Britain. With the former power, the question of boundary
+remained unsettled; and the cabinet of Madrid discovered no
+disposition to relax the rigour of its pretensions respecting the
+navigation of the Mississippi. Its general conduct furnished no
+foundation for a hope that its dispositions towards the United States
+were friendly, or that it could view their growing power without
+jealousy.</p>
+
+<p>The non-execution of the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th articles of the treaty
+of peace, still furnished the United States and Great Britain with
+matter for reciprocal crimination, which there was the more difficulty
+in removing, because no diplomatic intercourse was maintained between
+them. The cabinet of St. James having never appointed a minister to
+the United States, and Mr. Adams having returned from London without
+effecting the object of his mission, the American government felt some
+difficulty in repeating advances which had been treated with neglect.
+Yet there was much reason to desire full explanations with the English
+government, and to understand perfectly its views and intentions. The
+subjects for discussion were delicate in their nature, and could not
+be permitted to remain in their present state, without hazarding the
+most serious consequences. The detention of a part of the territory of
+the United States, was a circumstance of much importance to the
+honour, as well as to the interests of the nation, and the commercial
+intercourse between the two countries was so extensive, as to require
+amicable and permanent regulations. The early attention of the
+President had been directed to these subjects; and, in October, 1789,
+he had resolved on taking informal measures to sound the British
+cabinet, and to ascertain its views respecting them. This negotiation
+was entrusted to Mr. Gouverneur Morris, who had been carried by
+private business to Europe; and he conducted it with ability and
+address, but was unable to bring it to a happy conclusion. The result
+of his conferences with the Duke of Leeds, and with Mr. Pitt, was a
+conviction that the British government, considering the posts they
+occupied on the southern side of the great lakes as essential to their
+monopoly of the fur trade, would surrender them reluctantly, and was
+not desirous of entering into a commercial treaty. Those ministers
+expressed a wish to be on the best terms with America; but repeated
+the complaints which had been previously made by Lord Carmarthen, of
+the non-execution of the treaty of peace on the part of the United
+States. To the observations made by Mr. Morris, that the constitution
+lately adopted, and the courts established under it, amounted to a
+full compliance with that treaty on the part of the American
+government, it was answered, that losses had already been sustained in
+consequence of the obstructions given by the states to the fair
+operation of that instrument, which rendered a faithful observance of
+it, at present, impossible; and, in a note, the Duke of Leeds avowed
+the intention, if the delay on the part of the American government to
+fulfil its engagements made in the treaty should have rendered their
+final completion impracticable, to retard the fulfilment of those
+which depended entirely on Great Britain, until redress should be
+granted to the subjects of his majesty on the specific points of the
+treaty itself, or a fair and just compensation obtained for the
+non-performance of those stipulations which the United States had
+failed to observe. Though urged by Mr. Morris to state explicitly in
+what respects, and to what degree, he considered the final completion
+of those engagements to which the United States were bound, as having
+been rendered impracticable, no such statement was given; and the
+British government seemed inclined to avoid, for the present, those
+full and satisfactory explanations, which were sought on the part of
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>After detailing the motives which in his opinion influenced the
+English cabinet in wishing to suspend for a time all discussions with
+America, Mr. Morris observed, &quot;perhaps there never was a moment in
+which this country felt herself greater; and consequently, it is the
+most unfavourable moment to obtain advantageous terms from her in any
+bargain.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Whilst these negotiations were pending, intelligence was received at
+London of the attack made on the British settlement at Nootka Sound;
+and preparations were instantly made to resent the insult alleged to
+have been offered to the nation. The high ground taken on this
+occasion by the government, and the vigour with which it armed in
+support of its pretensions, furnished strong reasons for the opinion
+that a war with Spain, and probably with France, would soon be
+commenced.</p>
+
+<p>In America, this was considered as a favourable juncture for urging
+the claims of the United States to the free navigation of the
+Mississippi. Mr. Carmichael, their charge d'affaires at the court of
+Madrid, was instructed not only to press this point with earnestness,
+but to use his utmost endeavours to secure the unmolested use of that
+river in future, by obtaining a cession of the island of New Orleans,
+and of the Floridas. A full equivalent for this cession would be
+found, it was said, in the sincere friendship of the United States,
+and in the security it would give to the territories of Spain, west of
+the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Carmichael was also instructed to point the attention of the
+Spanish government to the peculiar situation of the United States. To
+one half of their territory, the use of the Mississippi was
+indispensable. No efforts could prevent their acquiring it. That they
+would acquire it, either by acting separately, or in conjunction with
+Great Britain, was one of those inevitable events against which human
+wisdom could make no provision. To the serious consideration of the
+Spanish government, therefore, were submitted the consequences which
+must result to their whole empire in America, either from hostilities
+with the United States, or from a seizure of Louisiana by Great
+Britain.</p>
+
+<p>The opinion, that in the event of war between Great Britain and Spain,
+Louisiana would be invaded from Canada, was not a mere suggestion for
+the purpose of aiding the negotiations at Madrid. It was seriously
+adopted by the American government; and the attention of the executive
+was turned to the measures which it would be proper to take, should
+application be made for permission to march a body of troops, through
+the unsettled territories of the United States, into the dominions of
+Spain; or should the attempt be made to march them, without
+permission.</p>
+
+<p>Among the circumstances which contributed to the opinion that, in the
+event of war, the arms of Great Britain would be directed against the
+settlements of Spain in America, was the continuance of Lord
+Dorchester in the government of Canada. This nobleman had intimated a
+wish to visit New York on his return to England; but the prospect of a
+rupture with Spain had determined him to remain in Canada. Under the
+pretext of making his acknowledgments for the readiness with which his
+desire to pass through New York had been acceded to, his lordship
+despatched Major Beck with, a member of his family, to sound the
+American government, and if possible, to ascertain its dispositions
+towards the two nations. Alluding to the negotiations which had been
+commenced in London, this gentleman endeavoured to assign a
+satisfactory cause for the delays which had intervened. It was not
+improbable, he said, that these delays, and some other circumstances,
+might have impressed Mr. Morris with an idea of backwardness on the
+part of the British ministry. His lordship, however, had directed him
+to say, that an inference of this sort would not, in his opinion, be
+well founded, as he had reason to believe that the British cabinet was
+inclined not only towards a friendly intercourse, but towards an
+alliance with the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Major Beckwith represented the particular ground of quarrel as one
+which ought to interest all commercial nations in favour of the views
+of Great Britain; and, from that circumstance, he presumed that,
+should a war ensue, the United States would find their interest in
+taking part with Britain, rather than with Spain.</p>
+
+<p>After expressing the concern with which Lord Dorchester had heard of
+the depredations of the savages on the western frontier of the United
+States, he declared that his lordship, so far from countenancing these
+depredations, had taken every proper opportunity to impress upon the
+Indians a pacific disposition; and that, on his first hearing of the
+outrages lately committed, he had sent a messenger to endeavour to
+prevent them. Major Beckwith further intimated, that the perpetrators
+of the late murders were banditti, composed chiefly of Creeks and
+Cherokees, in the Spanish interest, over whom the governor of Canada
+possessed no influence.</p>
+
+<p>These communications were laid before the President, and appeared to
+him to afford an explanation of the delays experienced by Mr. Morris.
+He was persuaded that a disposition existed in the cabinet of London
+to retain things in their actual situation, until the intentions of
+the American government should be ascertained with respect to the war
+supposed to be approaching. If the United States would enter into an
+alliance with Great Britain, and would make a common cause with her
+against Spain, the way would be smoothed to the attainment of all
+their objects: but if America should be disinclined to such a
+connexion, and especially, if she should manifest any partiality
+towards Spain, no progress would be made in the attempt to adjust the
+point of difference between the two nations. Taking this view of the
+subject, he directed that the further communications of Mr. Beckwith
+should be heard civilly, and that their want of official authenticity
+should be hinted delicately, without using any expressions which
+might, in the most remote degree, impair the freedom of the United
+States, to pursue, without reproach, in the expected war, such a line
+of conduct as their interests or honour might dictate.</p>
+
+<p>In the opinion that it would not only be useless but dishonourable
+further to press a commercial treaty, or the exchange of ministers,
+and that the subject of the western posts ought not again to be moved
+on the part of the United States, until they should be in a condition
+to speak a decisive language, the powers given to Mr. Morris were
+withdrawn. Should the interest of Britain produce a disposition
+favourable to an amicable arrangement of differences, and to a liberal
+commercial intercourse secured by compact, it was believed that she
+would make the requisite advances; until then, or until some other
+change of circumstances should require a change of conduct, things
+were to remain in their actual situation.</p>
+
+<p>About the time of adopting this resolution, the dispute between
+Britain and Spain was adjusted. Finding France unwilling to engage in
+his quarrel, his Catholic Majesty, too weak to encounter alone the
+force of the British empire, yielded every point in controversy; and
+thus were terminated for the present, both the fear of inconveniences,
+and the hope of advantages which might result to America from
+hostilities between the two powers, whose dominions were in her
+neighbourhood, and with each of whom she was already engaged in
+controversies not easily to be accommodated.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The president visits Mount Vernon.</div>
+
+<p>Incessant application to public business, and the consequent change of
+active for sedentary habits, had greatly impaired the constitution of
+the President; and, during the last session of congress, he had, for
+the second time since entering on the duties of his present station,
+been attacked by a severe disease which reduced him to the brink of
+the grave. Exercise and a temporary relief from the cares of office
+being essential to the restoration of his health, he determined, for
+the short interval afforded by the recess of the legislature, to
+retire to the tranquil shades of Mount Vernon. After returning from a
+visit to Rhode Island,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> which state not having then adopted the
+American constitution, had not been included in his late tour through
+New England, he took leave of New York; and hastened to that peaceful
+retreat, and those rural employments, his taste for which neither
+military glory, nor political power, could ever diminish.</p>
+
+<p>After a short indulgence in these favourite scenes, it became
+necessary to repair to Philadelphia, in order to meet the national
+legislature.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The president's speech.</div>
+
+<p>In the speech delivered to congress at the commencement of their third
+session, the President expressed much satisfaction at the favourable
+prospect of public affairs; and particularly noticed the progress of
+public credit, and the productiveness of the revenue.</p>
+
+<p>Adverting to foreign nations,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> he said, &quot;the disturbed situation of
+Europe, and particularly the critical posture of the great maritime
+powers, whilst it ought to make us more thankful for the general peace
+and security enjoyed by the United States, reminds us at the same time
+of the circumspection with which it becomes us to preserve these
+blessings. It requires also, that we should not overlook the tendency
+of a war, and even of preparations for war among the nations most
+concerned in active commerce with this country, to abridge the means,
+and thereby at least to enhance the price, of transporting its
+valuable productions to their proper market.&quot; To the serious
+reflection of congress was recommended the prevention of
+embarrassments from these contingencies, by such encouragement to
+American navigation as would render the commerce and agriculture of
+the United States less dependent on foreign bottoms.</p>
+
+<p>After expressing to the house of representatives his confidence
+arising from the sufficiency of the revenues already established, for
+the objects to which they were appropriated, he added, &quot;allow me
+moreover to hope that it will be a favourite policy with you not
+merely to secure a payment of the interest of the debt funded, but as
+far, and as fast as the growing resources of the country will permit,
+to exonerate it of the principal itself.&quot; Many subjects relative to
+the interior government were succinctly and briefly mentioned; and the
+speech concluded with the following impressive and admonitory
+sentiment. &quot;In pursuing the various and weighty business of the
+present session, I indulge the fullest persuasion that your
+consultations will be marked with wisdom, and animated by the love of
+country. In whatever belongs to my duty, you shall have all the
+co-operation which an undiminished zeal for its welfare can inspire.
+It will be happy for us both, and our best reward, if by a successful
+administration of our respective trusts, we can make the established
+government more and more instrumental in promoting the good of our
+fellow citizens, and more and more the object of their attachment and
+confidence.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The addresses of the two houses, in answer to the speech, proved that
+the harmony between the executive and legislative departments, with
+which the government had gone into operation, had sustained no
+essential interruption. But in the short debate which took place on
+the occasion, in the house of representatives, a direct disapprobation
+of one of the measures of the executive government was, for the first
+time, openly expressed.</p>
+
+<p>In the treaty lately concluded with the Creeks, an extensive territory
+claimed by Georgia, under treaties, the validity of which was
+contested by the Indian chiefs, had been entirely, or in great part,
+relinquished. This relinquishment excited serious discontents in that
+state; and was censured by General Jackson with considerable warmth,
+as an unjustifiable abandonment of the rights and interests of
+Georgia. No specific motion, however, was made, and the subject was
+permitted to pass away for the present.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely were the debates on the address concluded, when several
+interesting reports were received from the secretary of the treasury,
+suggesting such further measures as were deemed necessary for the
+establishment of public credit.</p>
+
+<p>It will be recollected that in his original report on this subject,
+the secretary had recommended the assumption of the state debts; and
+had proposed to enable the treasury to meet the increased demand upon
+it, which this measure would occasion, by an augmentation of the
+duties on imported wines, spirits, tea, and coffee, and by imposing
+duties on spirits distilled within the country. The assumption not
+having been adopted until late in the session, the discussion on the
+revenue which would be required for this portion of the public debt
+did not commence, until the house had become impatient for an
+adjournment. As much contrariety of opinion was disclosed, and the
+subject did not press,<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> it was deferred to the ensuing session; and
+an order was made, requiring the secretary of the treasury to prepare
+and report such further provision as might, in his opinion, be
+necessary for establishing the public credit. In obedience to this
+order, several reports had been prepared, the first of which repeated
+the recommendation of an additional impost on foreign distilled
+spirits, and of a duty on spirits distilled within the United States.
+The estimated revenue from these sources was eight hundred and
+seventy-seven thousand five hundred dollars, affording a small excess
+over the sum which would be required to pay the interest on the
+assumed debt. The policy of the measure was discussed in a well
+digested and able argument, detailing many motives, in addition to
+those assigned in his original report, for preferring the system now
+recommended, to accumulated burdens on commerce, or to a direct tax on
+lands.</p>
+
+<p>A new tax is the certain rallying point for all those who are
+unfriendly to the administration, or to the minister by whom it is
+proposed. But that recommended by the secretary, contained intrinsic
+causes of objection which would necessarily add to the number of its
+enemies. All that powerful party in the United States, which attached
+itself to the local, rather than to the general government, would
+inevitably contemplate any system of internal revenue with jealous
+disapprobation. They considered the imposition of a tax by congress on
+any domestic manufacture, as the intrusion of a foreign power into
+their particular concerns, which excited serious apprehensions for
+state importance, and for liberty. In the real or supposed interests
+of many individuals was also found a distinct motive for hostility to
+the measure. A large portion of the American population, especially
+that which had spread itself over the extensive regions of the west,
+consuming imported articles to a very inconsiderable amount, was not
+much affected by the impost on foreign merchandize. But the duty on
+spirits distilled within the United States reached them, and
+consequently rendered them hostile to the tax.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1791</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Debate on the excise law.</div>
+
+<p>A bill, which was introduced in pursuance of the report, was opposed
+with great vehemence by a majority of the southern and western
+members. By some of them it was insisted that no sufficient testimony
+had yet been exhibited, that the taxes already imposed would not be
+equal to the exigencies of the public. But, admitting the propriety of
+additional burdens on the people, it was contended that other sources
+of revenue, less exceptionable and less odious than this, might be
+explored. The duty was branded with the hateful epithet of an excise,
+a species of taxation, it was said, so peculiarly oppressive as to be
+abhorred even in England; and which was totally incompatible with the
+spirit of liberty. The facility with which it might be extended to
+other objects, was urged against its admission into the American
+system; and declarations made against it by the congress of 1775, were
+quoted in confirmation of the justice with which inherent vices were
+ascribed to this mode of collecting taxes. So great was the hostility
+manifested against it in some of the states, that the revenue officers
+might be endangered from the fury of the people; and, in all, it would
+increase a ferment which had been already extensively manifested.
+Resolutions of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, reprobating the
+assumption, were referred to as unequivocal evidences of growing
+dissatisfaction; and the last mentioned state had even expressed its
+decided hostility to any law of excise. The legislature of North
+Carolina had rejected with scorn, a proposal for taking an oath to
+support the constitution of the United States; had refused to admit
+persons sentenced to imprisonment under the laws of the United States
+into their jails; and another circumstance was alluded to, but not
+explained, which was said to exhibit a temper still more hostile to
+the general government than either of those which had been stated.</p>
+
+<p>When required to produce a system in lieu of that which they so much
+execrated, the opponents of the bill alternately mentioned an
+increased duty on imported articles generally, a particular duty on
+molasses, a direct tax, a tax on salaries, pensions, and lawyers; a
+duty on newspapers, and a stamp act.</p>
+
+<p>The friends of the bill contended, that the reasons for believing the
+existing revenue would be insufficient to meet the engagements of the
+United States, were as satisfactory as the nature of the case would
+admit, or as ought to be required. The estimates were founded on the
+best data which were attainable, and the funds already provided, had
+been calculated by the proper officer to pay the interest on that part
+of the debt only for which they were pledged. Those estimates were
+referred to as documents, from which it would be unsafe to depart.
+They were also in possession of official statements, showing the
+productiveness of the taxes from the time the revenue bill had been in
+operation; and arguments were drawn from these, demonstrating the
+danger to which the infant credit of the United States would be
+exposed, by relying on the existing funds for the interest on the
+assumed debt. It was not probable that the proposed duties would yield
+a sum much exceeding that which would be necessary; but should they
+fortunately do so, the surplus revenue might be advantageously
+employed in extinguishing a part of the principal. They were not, they
+said, of opinion, that a public debt was a public blessing, or that it
+ought to be perpetuated.</p>
+
+<p>An augmentation of the revenue being indispensable to the solidity of
+the public credit, a more eligible system than that proposed in the
+bill, could not, it was believed, be devised. Still further to burden
+commerce, would be a hazardous experiment which might afford no real
+supplies to the treasury. Until some lights should be derived from
+experience, it behoved the legislature to be cautious not to lay such
+impositions upon trade as might probably introduce a spirit of
+smuggling, which, with a nominal increase, would occasion a real
+diminution of revenue. In the opinion of the best judges, the impost
+on the mass of foreign merchandise could not safely be carried further
+for the present. The extent of the mercantile capital of the United
+States would not justify the attempt. Forcible arguments were also
+drawn from the policy and the justice of multiplying the subjects of
+taxation, and diversifying them by a union of internal with external
+objects.</p>
+
+<p>Neither would a direct tax be adviseable. The experience of the world
+had proved, that a tax on consumption was less oppressive, and more
+productive, than a tax on either property or income. Without
+discussing the principles on which the fact was founded, the fact
+itself was incontestable, that, by insensible means, much larger sums
+might be drawn from any class of men, than could be extracted from
+them by open and direct taxes. To the latter system there were still
+other objections. The difficulty of carrying it into operation, no
+census having yet been taken, would not be inconsiderable; and the
+expense of collection through a country thinly settled, would be
+enormous. Add to this, that public opinion was believed to be more
+decidedly and unequivocally opposed to it, than to a duty on ardent
+spirits. North Carolina had expressed her hostility to the one as well
+as to the other, and several other states were known to disapprove of
+direct taxes. From the real objections which existed against them, and
+for other reasons suggested in the report of the secretary, they
+ought, it was said, to remain untouched, as a resource when some great
+emergency should require an exertion of all the faculties of the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>Against the substitution of a duty on internal negotiations, it was
+said, that revenue to any considerable extent could be collected from
+them only by means of a stamp act, which was not less obnoxious to
+popular resentment than an excise, would be less certainly productive
+than the proposed duties, and was, in every respect, less eligible.</p>
+
+<p>The honour, the justice, and the faith of the United States were
+pledged, it was said, to that class of creditors for whose claims the
+bill under consideration was intended to provide. No means of making
+the provision had been suggested, which, on examination, would be
+found equally eligible with a duty on ardent spirits. Much of the
+public prejudice which appeared in certain parts of the United States
+against the measure, was to be ascribed to their hostility to the term
+&quot;excise,&quot; a term which had been inaccurately applied to the duty in
+question. When the law should be carried into operation, it would be
+found not to possess those odious qualities which had excited
+resentment against a system of excise. In those states where the
+collection of a duty on spirits distilled within the country had
+become familiar to the people, the same prejudices did not exist. On
+the good sense and virtue of the nation they could confidently rely
+for acquiescence in a measure which the public exigencies rendered
+necessary, which tended to equalize the public burdens, and which in
+its execution would not be oppressive.</p>
+
+<p>A motion made by Mr. Jackson, to strike out that section which imposed
+a duty on domestic distilled spirits, was negatived by thirty-six to
+sixteen; and the bill was carried by thirty-five to twenty-one.</p>
+
+<p>Some days after the passage of this bill, another question was brought
+forward, which was understood to involve principles of deep interest
+to the government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">On a national bank.</div>
+
+<p>The secretary of the treasury had been the uniform advocate of a
+national bank. Believing that such an institution would be &quot;of primary
+importance to the prosperous administration of the finances; and of
+the greatest utility in the operations connected with the support of
+public credit,&quot; he had earnestly recommended its adoption in the first
+general system which he presented to the view of congress; and, at the
+present session, had repeated that recommendation in a special report,
+containing a copious and perspicuous argument on the policy of the
+measure. A bill conforming to the plan he suggested was sent down from
+the senate, and was permitted to proceed, unmolested, in the house of
+representatives, to the third reading. On the final question, a great,
+and, it would seem, an unexpected opposition was made to its passage.
+Mr. Madison, Mr. Giles, Mr. Jackson, and Mr. Stone spoke against it.
+The general utility of banking systems was not admitted, and the
+particular bill before the house was censured on its merits; but the
+great strength of the argument was directed against the constitutional
+authority of congress to pass an act for incorporating a national
+bank.</p>
+
+<p>The government of the United States, it was said, was limited; and the
+powers which it might legitimately exercise were enumerated in the
+constitution itself. In this enumeration, the power now contended for
+was not to be found. Not being expressly given, it must be implied
+from those which were given, or it could not be vested in the
+government. The clauses under which it could be claimed were then
+reviewed and critically examined; and it was contended that, on fair
+construction, no one of these could be understood to imply so
+important a power as that of creating a corporation.</p>
+
+<p>The clause which enables congress to pass all laws necessary and
+proper to execute the specified powers, must, according to the natural
+and obvious force of the terms and the context, be limited to means
+<i>necessary</i> to the <i>end</i> and <i>incident</i> to the <i>nature</i> of the
+specified powers. The clause, it was said, was in fact merely
+declaratory of what would have resulted by unavoidable implication, as
+the appropriate, and as it were technical means of executing those
+powers. Some gentlemen observed, that &quot;the true exposition of a
+necessary mean to produce a given end was that mean without which the
+end could not be produced.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The bill was supported by Mr. Ames, Mr. Sedgwick, Mr. Smith, of South
+Carolina, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Gerry, and Mr. Vining.</p>
+
+<p>The utility of banking institutions was said to be demonstrated by
+their effects. In all commercial countries they had been resorted to
+as an instrument of great efficacy in mercantile transactions; and
+even in the United States, their public and private advantages had
+been felt and acknowledged.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting the policy of the measure, no well founded doubt could be
+entertained; but the objections to the constitutional authority of
+congress deserved to be seriously considered.</p>
+
+<p>That the government was limited by the terms of its creation was not
+controverted; and that it could exercise only those powers which were
+conferred on it by the constitution, was admitted. If, on examination,
+that instrument should be found to forbid the passage of the bill, it
+must be rejected, though it would be with deep regret that its friends
+would suffer such an opportunity of serving their country to escape
+for the want of a constitutional power to improve it.</p>
+
+<p>In asserting the authority of the legislature to pass the bill,
+gentlemen contended, that incidental as well as express powers must
+necessarily belong to every government: and that, when a power is
+delegated to effect particular objects, all the known and usual means
+of effecting them, must pass as incidental to it. To remove all doubt
+on this subject, the constitution of the United States had recognized
+the principle, by enabling congress to make all laws which may be
+necessary and proper for carrying into execution the powers vested in
+the government. They maintained the sound construction of this grant
+to be a recognition of an authority in the national legislature, to
+employ all the known and usual means for executing the powers vested
+in the government. They then took a comprehensive view of those
+powers, and contended that a bank was a known and usual instrument by
+which several of them were exercised.</p>
+
+<p>After a debate of great length, which was supported on both sides with
+ability, and with that ardour which was naturally excited by the
+importance attached by each party to the principle in contest, the
+question was put, and the bill was carried in the affirmative by a
+majority of nineteen voices.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The opinions of the cabinet on the constitutionality of
+this last law.</div>
+
+<p><a name="p394">The</a> point which had been agitated with so much zeal in the house of
+representatives, was examined with equal deliberation by the
+executive. The cabinet was divided upon it. The secretary of state,
+and the attorney general, conceived that congress had clearly
+transcended their constitutional powers; while the secretary of the
+treasury, with equal clearness, maintained the opposite opinion. The
+advice of each minister, with his reasoning in support of it, was
+required in writing, and their arguments were considered by the
+President with all that attention which the magnitude of the question,
+and the interest taken in it by the opposing parties, so eminently
+required. This deliberate investigation of the subject terminated in a
+conviction, that the constitution of the United States authorized the
+measure;<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> and the sanction of the executive was given to the act.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Progress of parties.</div>
+
+<p>The judgment is so much influenced by the wishes, the affections, and
+the general theories of those by whom any political proposition is
+decided, that a contrariety of opinion on this great constitutional
+question ought to excite no surprise. It must be recollected that the
+conflict between the powers of the general and state governments was
+coeval with those governments. Even during the war, the preponderance
+of the states was obvious; and, in a very few years after peace, the
+struggle ended in the utter abasement of the general government. Many
+causes concurred to produce a constitution which was deemed more
+competent to the preservation of the union, but its adoption was
+opposed by great numbers; and in some of the large states especially,
+its enemies soon felt and manifested their superiority. The old line
+of division was still as strongly marked as ever. Many retained the
+opinion that liberty could be endangered only by encroachments upon
+the states; and that it was the great duty of patriotism to restrain
+the powers of the general government within the narrowest possible
+limits.</p>
+
+<p>In the other party, which was also respectable for its numbers, many
+were found who had watched the progress of American affairs, and who
+sincerely believed that the real danger which threatened the republic
+was to be looked for in the undue ascendency of the states. To them it
+appeared, that the substantial powers, and the extensive means of
+influence, which were retained by the local sovereignties, furnished
+them with weapons for aggression which were not easily to be resisted,
+and that it behoved all those who were anxious for the happiness of
+their country, to guard the equilibrium established in the
+constitution, by preserving unimpaired, all the legitimate powers of
+the union. These were more confirmed in their sentiments, by observing
+the temper already discovered in the legislatures of several states,
+respecting the proceedings of congress.</p>
+
+<p>To this great and radical division of opinion, which would necessarily
+affect every question on the authority of the national legislature,
+other motives were added, which were believed to possess considerable
+influence on all measures connected with the finances.</p>
+
+<p>As an inevitable effect of the state of society, the public debt had
+greatly accumulated in the middle and northern states, whose
+inhabitants had derived, from its rapid appreciation, a proportional
+augmentation of their wealth. This circumstance could not fail to
+contribute to the complacency with which the plans of the secretary
+were viewed by those who had felt their benefit, nor to the irritation
+with which they were contemplated by others who had parted with their
+claims on the nation. It is not impossible, that personal
+considerations also mingled themselves with those which were merely
+political.</p>
+
+<p>With so many causes to bias the judgment, it would not have been
+wonderful if arguments less plausible than those advanced by either
+party had been deemed conclusive on its adversary; nor was it a matter
+of surprise that each should have denied to those which were urged in
+opposition, the weight to which they were certainly entitled. The
+liberal mind which can review them without prejudice, will charge
+neither the supporters nor the opponents of the bill with insincerity,
+nor with being knowingly actuated by motives which might not have been
+avowed.</p>
+
+<p>This measure made a deep impression on many members of the
+legislature; and contributed, not inconsiderably, to the complete
+organization of those distinct and visible parties, which, in their
+long and dubious conflict for power, have since shaken the United
+States to their centre.</p>
+
+<p>Among the last acts of the present congress, was an act to augment the
+military establishment of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with the Indians.</div>
+
+<p>The earnest endeavours of the President to give security to the
+north-western frontiers, by pacific arrangements, having been entirely
+unavailing, it became his duty to employ such other means as were
+placed in his hands, for the protection of the country. Confirmed by
+all his experience in the opinion that vigorous offensive operations
+alone could bring an Indian war to a happy conclusion, he had planned
+an expedition against the hostile tribes north-west of the Ohio, as
+soon as the impracticability of effecting a treaty with them had been
+ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>General Harmar, a veteran of the revolution, who had received his
+appointment under the former government, was placed at the head of the
+federal troops. On the 30th of September, he marched from fort
+Washington with three hundred and twenty regulars. The whole army when
+joined by the militia of Pennsylvania and Kentucky amounted to
+fourteen hundred and fifty-three men. About the middle of October,
+Colonel Harden, who commanded the Kentucky militia, and who had been
+also a continental officer of considerable merit, was detached at the
+head of six hundred men, chiefly militia, to reconnoitre the ground,
+and to ascertain the intentions of the enemy. On his approach, the
+Indians set fire to their principal village, and fled with
+precipitation to the woods. As the object of the expedition would be
+only half accomplished, unless the savages could be brought to action
+and defeated, Colonel Harden was again detached at the head of two
+hundred and ten men, thirty of whom were regulars. About ten miles
+west of Chilicothe, where the main body of the army lay, he was
+attacked by a party of Indians. The Pennsylvanians, who composed his
+left column, had previously fallen in the rear; and the Kentuckians,
+disregarding the exertions of their colonel, and of a few other
+officers, fled on the first appearance of an enemy. The small corps of
+regulars commanded by Lieutenant Armstrong made a brave resistance.
+After twenty-three of them had fallen in the field, the surviving
+seven made their escape and rejoined the army.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Defeat of Harmar.</div>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this check, the remaining towns on the Scioto were
+reduced to ashes, and the provisions laid up for the winter were
+entirely destroyed. This service being accomplished, the army
+commenced its march towards fort Washington. Being desirous of wiping
+off the disgrace which his arms had sustained, General Harmar halted
+about eight miles from Chilicothe, and once more detached Colonel
+Harden with orders to find the enemy and bring on an engagement. His
+command consisted of three hundred and sixty men, of whom sixty were
+regulars commanded by Major Wyllys. Early the next morning, this
+detachment reached the confluence of the St. Joseph and St. Mary,
+where it was divided into three columns. The left division, commanded
+by Colonel Harden in person, crossed the St. Joseph, and proceeded up
+its western bank. The centre, consisting of the federal troops, was
+led by Major Wyllys up the eastern side of that river; and the right,
+under the command of Major M'Millan, marched along a range of heights
+which commanded the right flank of the centre division. The columns
+had proceeded but a short distance, when each was met by a
+considerable body of Indians, and a severe engagement ensued. The
+militia retrieved their reputation, and several of their bravest
+officers fell. The heights on the right having been, from some cause
+not mentioned, unoccupied by the American troops, the savages seized
+them early in the action, and attacked the right flank of the centre
+with great fury. Although Major Wyllys was among the first who fell,
+the battle was maintained by the regulars with spirit, and
+considerable execution was done on both sides. At length, the scanty
+remnant of this small band, quite overpowered by numbers, was driven
+off the ground, leaving fifty of their comrades, exclusive of Major
+Wyllys and Lieutenant Farthingham, dead upon the field. The loss
+sustained by the militia was also considerable. It amounted to upwards
+of one hundred men, among whom were nine officers. After an engagement
+of extreme severity, the detachment joined the main army, which
+continued its march to fort Washington.</p>
+
+<p>General Harmar, with what propriety it is not easy to discern, claimed
+the victory. He conceived, not entirely without reason, that the loss
+of a considerable number of men, would be fatal to the Indians,
+although a still greater loss should be sustained by the Americans,
+because the savages did not possess a population from which they could
+replace the warriors who had fallen. The event, however, did not
+justify this opinion.</p>
+
+<p>The information respecting this expedition was quickly followed by
+intelligence stating the deplorable condition of the frontiers. An
+address from the representatives of all the counties of Kentucky, and
+those of Virginia bordering on the Ohio, was presented to the
+President, praying that the defence of the country might be committed
+to militia unmixed with regulars, and that they might immediately be
+drawn out to oppose &quot;the exulting foe.&quot; To this address, the President
+gave a conciliatory answer, but he understood too well the nature of
+the service, to yield to the request it contained. Such were his
+communications to the legislature, that a regiment was added to the
+permanent military establishment, and he was authorized to raise a
+body of two thousand men, for six months, and to appoint a major
+general, and a brigadier general, to continue in command so long as he
+should think their services necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Adjournment of congress.</div>
+
+<p>With the 3d of March, 1791, terminated the first congress elected
+under the constitution of the United States. The party denominated
+federal having prevailed at the elections, a majority of the members
+were steadfast friends of the constitution, and were sincerely
+desirous of supporting a system they had themselves introduced, and on
+the preservation of which, in full health and vigour, they firmly
+believed the happiness of their fellow citizens, and the
+respectability of the nation, greatly to depend. To organize a
+government, to retrieve the national character, to establish a system
+of revenue, and to create public credit, were among the arduous duties
+which were imposed upon them by the political situation of their
+country. With persevering labour, guided by no inconsiderable portion
+of virtue and intelligence, these objects were, in a great degree,
+accomplished. Out of the measures proposed for their attainment,
+questions alike intricate and interesting unavoidably arose. It is not
+in the nature of man to discuss such questions without strongly
+agitating the passions, and exciting irritations which do not readily
+subside. Had it even been the happy and singular lot of America to see
+its national legislature assemble uninfluenced by those prejudices
+which grew out of the previous divisions of the country, the many
+delicate points which they were under the necessity of deciding, could
+not have failed to disturb this enviable state of harmony, and to
+mingle some share of party spirit with their deliberations. But when
+the actual state of the public mind was contemplated, and due weight
+was given to the important consideration that, at no very distant day,
+a successor to the present chief magistrate must be elected, it was
+still less to be hoped that the first congress could pass away,
+without producing strong and permanent dispositions in parties, to
+impute to each other designs unfriendly to the public happiness. As
+yet, however, these imputations did not extend to the President. His
+character was held sacred, and the purity of his motives was admitted
+by all. Some divisions were understood to have found their way into
+the cabinet. It was insinuated that between the secretaries of state
+and of the treasury, very serious differences had arisen; but these
+high personages were believed, to be equally attached to the
+President, who was not suspected of undue partiality to either. If his
+assent to the bill for incorporating the national bank produced
+discontent, the opponents of that measure seemed disposed to ascribe
+his conduct, in that instance, to his judgment, rather than to any
+prepossession in favour of the party by whom it was carried. The
+opposition, therefore, in congress, to the measures of the government,
+seemed to be levelled at the secretary of the treasury, and at the
+northern members by whom those measures were generally supported, not
+at the President by whom they were approved. By taking this direction,
+it made its way into the public mind, without being encountered by
+that devoted affection which a great majority of the people felt for
+the chief magistrate of the union. In the mean time, the national
+prosperity was in a state of rapid progress; and the government was
+gaining, though slowly, in the public opinion. But in several of the
+state assemblies, especially in the southern division of the
+continent, serious evidences of dissatisfaction were exhibited, which
+demonstrated the jealousy with which the local sovereignties
+contemplated the powers exercised by the federal legislature.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>General St. Clair appointed Commander-in-chief.... The
+President makes a tour through the southern states....
+Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... Debate on the
+bill for apportioning representatives.... Militia law....
+Defeat of St. Clair.... Opposition to the increase of the
+army.... Report of the Secretary of the Treasury for raising
+additional supplies.... Congress adjourns.... Strictures on
+the conduct of administration, with a view of parties....
+Disagreement between the Secretaries of State and
+Treasury.... Letters from General Washington.... Opposition
+to the excise law.... President's proclamation....
+Insurrection and massacre in the island of St. Domingo....
+General Wayne appointed to the command of the army....
+Meeting of Congress.... President's speech.... Resolutions
+implicating the Secretary of the Treasury rejected....
+Congress adjourns.... Progress of the French revolution, and
+its effects on parties in the United States.</b></p></div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1791</div>
+
+<p><span class="lgsmcap">More</span> ample means for the protection of the frontiers having been
+placed in the hands of the executive, the immediate attention of the
+President was directed to this interesting object.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General St. Clair appointed commander-in-chief of the
+army.</div>
+
+<p>Major General Arthur St. Clair, governor of the territory north-west
+of the Ohio, was appointed Commander-in-chief of the forces to be
+employed in the meditated expedition. This gentleman had served
+through the war of the revolution with reputation, though it had never
+been his fortune to distinguish himself. The evacuation of Ticonderoga
+had indeed, at one time, subjected him to much public censure; but it
+was found, upon inquiry, to be unmerited. Other motives, in addition
+to the persuasion of his fitness for the service, conduced to his
+appointment. With the sword, the olive branch was still to be
+tendered; and it was thought adviseable to place them in the same
+hands. The governor, having been made officially the negotiator with
+the tribes inhabiting the territories over which he presided, being a
+military man, acquainted with the country into which the war was to be
+carried, possessing considerable influence with the inhabitants of the
+frontiers, and being so placed as to superintend the preparations for
+the expedition advantageously, seemed to have claims to the station
+which were not to be overlooked. It was also a consideration of some
+importance, that the high rank he had held in the American army, would
+obviate those difficulties in filling the inferior grades with men of
+experience, which might certainly be expected, should a person who had
+acted in a less elevated station, be selected for the chief command.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">&#160;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center">
+<a name="image08">
+<img src="images/404.jpg" width="584" height="344" alt="Tomb of Mary Washington" /></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p style="text-align: center"><b>Tomb of Mary, Mother of Washington</b></p>
+
+<p><i>This is the original monument as it appeared before the present
+granite obelisk was erected over the grave of George Washington's
+mother in Fredericksburg, Virginia. It was in Fredericksburg that she
+made her home during her declining years, and it was on the Kenmore
+estate of her daughter, Elizabeth, and son-in-law, Fielding Lewis,
+that she was buried, September, 1789, having survived her husband,
+Augustine Washington, forty-six years.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The president makes a tour through the southern states.</div>
+
+<p>After making the necessary arrangements for recruiting the army, the
+President prepared to make his long contemplated tour through the
+southern states.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> In passing through them, he was received
+universally with the same marks of affectionate attachment, which he
+had experienced in the northern and central parts of the union. To the
+sensibilities which these demonstrations of the regard and esteem of
+good men could not fail to inspire, was added the high gratification
+produced by observing the rapid improvements of the country, and the
+advances made by the government, in acquiring the confidence of the
+people. The numerous letters written by him after his return to
+Philadelphia, attest the agreeable impressions made by these causes.
+&quot;In my late tour through the southern states,&quot; said he, in a letter of
+the 28th of July, to Mr. Gouverneur Morris, &quot;I experienced great
+satisfaction in seeing the good effects of the general government in
+that part of the union. The people at large have felt the security
+which it gives, and the equal justice which it administers to them.
+The farmer, the merchant, and the mechanic, have seen their several
+interests attended to, and from thence they unite in placing a
+confidence in their representatives, as well as in those in whose
+hands the execution of the laws is placed. Industry has there taken
+place of idleness, and economy of dissipation. Two or three years of
+good crops, and a ready market for the produce of their lands, have
+put every one in good humour; and, in some instances, they even impute
+to the government what is due only to the goodness of Providence.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The establishment of public credit is an immense point gained in our
+national concerns. This, I believe, exceeds the expectation of the
+most sanguine among us; and a late instance, unparalleled in this
+country, has been given of the confidence reposed in our measures, by
+the rapidity with which the subscriptions to the bank of the United
+States were filled. In two hours after the books were opened by the
+commissioners, the whole number of shares was taken up, and four
+thousand more applied for than were allowed by the institution. This
+circumstance was not only pleasing as it related to the confidence in
+government, but also as it exhibited an unexpected proof of the
+resources of our citizens.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This visit had undoubtedly some tendency to produce the good
+disposition which the President observed with so much pleasure. The
+affections are perhaps more intimately connected with the judgment
+than we are disposed to admit; and the appearance of the chief
+magistrate of the union, who was the object of general love and
+reverence, could not be without its influence in conciliating the
+minds of many to the government he administered, and to its measures.
+But this progress towards conciliation was, perhaps, less considerable
+than was indicated by appearances. The hostility to the government,
+which was coeval with its existence, though diminished, was far from
+being subdued; and under this smooth exterior was concealed a mass of
+discontent, which, though it did not obtrude itself on the view of the
+man who united almost all hearts, was active in its exertions to
+effect its objects.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties which must impede the recruiting service in a country
+where coercion is not employed, and where the common wages of labour
+greatly exceed the pay of a soldier, protracted the completion of the
+regiments to a late season of the year; but the summer was not
+permitted to waste in total inaction.</p>
+
+<p>The act passed at the last session for the defence of the frontiers,
+in addition to its other provisions, had given to the President an
+unlimited power to call mounted militia into the field. Under this
+authority, two expeditions had been conducted against the villages on
+the Wabash, in which a few of the Indian warriors were killed, some of
+their old men, women, and children, were made prisoners, and several
+of their towns and fields of corn were destroyed. The first was led by
+General Scott, in May, and the second by General Wilkinson, in
+September. These desultory incursions had not much influence on the
+war.</p>
+
+<p>It was believed in the United States, that the hostility of the
+Indians was kept up by the traders living in their villages. These
+persons had, generally, resided in the United States; and, having been
+compelled to leave the country in consequence of the part they had
+taken during the war of the revolution, felt the resentments which
+banishment and confiscation seldom fail to inspire. Their enmities
+were ascribed by many, perhaps unjustly, to the temper of the
+government in Canada; but some countenance seemed to be given to this
+opinion by intelligence that, about the commencement of the preceding
+campaign, large supplies of ammunition had been delivered from the
+British posts on the lakes, to the Indians at war with the United
+States. While the President was on his southern tour, he addressed a
+letter to the secretary of state, to be communicated to Colonel
+Beckwith, who still remained in Philadelphia as the informal
+representative of his nation, in which he expressed his surprise and
+disappointment at this interference, by the servants or subjects of a
+foreign state, in a war prosecuted by the United States for the sole
+purpose of procuring peace and safety for the inhabitants of their
+frontiers.</p>
+
+<p>On receiving this communication, Colonel Beckwith expressed his
+disbelief that the supplies mentioned had been delivered; but on being
+assured of the fact, he avowed the opinion that the transaction was
+without the knowledge of Lord Dorchester, to whom he said he should
+communicate, without delay, the ideas of the American government on
+the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Meeting of congress.<br />President's speech.</div>
+
+<p>On the 24th of October the second congress assembled in Philadelphia.
+In his speech at the opening of the session, the President expressed
+his great satisfaction at the prosperous situation of the country, and
+particularly mentioned the rapidity with which the shares in the bank
+of the United States were subscribed, as &quot;among the striking and
+pleasing evidences which presented themselves, not only of confidence
+in the government, but of resources in the community.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Adverting to the measures which had been taken in execution of the
+laws and resolutions of the last session, &quot;the most important of
+which,&quot; he observed, &quot;respected the defence and security of the
+western frontiers,&quot; he had, he said, &quot;negotiated provisional treaties,
+and used other proper means to attach the wavering, and to confirm in
+their friendship the well disposed tribes of Indians. The means which
+he had adopted for a pacification with those of a hostile description
+having proved unsuccessful, offensive operations had been directed,
+some of which had proved completely successful, and others were still
+pending. Overtures of peace were still continued to the deluded
+tribes; and it was sincerely to be desired that all need of coercion
+might cease, and that an intimate intercourse might succeed,
+calculated to advance the happiness of the Indians, and to attach them
+firmly to the United States.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In marking the line of conduct which ought to be maintained for the
+promotion of this object, he strongly recommended &quot;justice to the
+savages, and such rational experiments for imparting to them the
+blessings of civilization, as might from time to time suit their
+condition;&quot; and then concluded this subject with saying&#8212;&quot;A system
+corresponding with the mild principles of religion and philanthropy
+towards an unenlightened race of men whose happiness materially
+depends on the conduct of the United States, would be as honourable to
+the national character, as conformable to the dictates of sound
+policy.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After stating that measures had been taken for carrying into execution
+the act laying duties on distilled spirits, he added&#8212;&quot;The impressions
+with which this law has been received by the community have been, upon
+the whole, such as were to have been expected among enlightened and
+well disposed citizens, from the propriety and necessity of the
+measure. The novelty, however, of the tax, in a considerable part of
+the United States, and a misconception of some of its provisions, have
+given occasion, in particular places, to some degree of discontent.
+But it is satisfactory to know that this disposition yields to proper
+explanations, and more just apprehensions of the true nature of the
+law. And I entertain a full confidence that it will, in all, give way
+to motives which arise out of a just sense of duty, and a virtuous
+regard to the public welfare.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;If there are any circumstances in the law, which, consistently with
+its main design may be so varied as to remove any well intentioned
+objections that may happen to exist, it will comport with a wise
+moderation to make the proper variations. It is desirable on all
+occasions, to unite with a steady and firm adherence to constitutional
+and necessary acts of government, the fullest evidence of a
+disposition, as far as may be practicable, to consult the wishes of
+every part of the community, and to lay the foundations of the public
+administration in the affections of the people.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The answers of the two houses noticed, briefly and generally, the
+various topics of the speech; and, though perhaps less warm than those
+of the preceding congress, manifested great respect for the executive
+magistrate, and an undiminished confidence in his patriotic exertions
+to promote the public interests.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Debate on the bill &quot;for apportioning representatives among
+the people of the states according to the first enumeration.&quot;</div>
+
+<p>Among the first subjects of importance which engaged the attention of
+the legislature, was a bill &quot;for apportioning representatives among
+the people of the several states according to the first enumeration.&quot;
+The constitution, in its original form, had affixed no other limits to
+the power of congress over the numbers of which the house of
+representatives might consist, than that there should not be more than
+one member for every thirty thousand persons; but that each state
+should be entitled to at least one. Independent of the general
+considerations in favour of a more or less numerous representation in
+the popular branch of the legislature, there was one of a local
+nature, whose operation, though secret, was extensive, which gave to
+this question a peculiar interest. To whatever number of persons a
+representative might be allotted, there would still remain a fraction,
+which would be greater or less in each state, according to the ratio
+which congress should adopt between representation and population. The
+relative power of states, in one branch of the legislature, would
+consequently be affected by this ratio; and to questions of that
+description, few members can permit themselves to be inattentive.</p>
+
+<p>This bill, as originally introduced into the house of representatives,
+gave to each state one member for every thirty thousand persons. On a
+motion to strike out the number thirty thousand, the debate turned
+chiefly on the policy and advantage of a more or less numerous house
+of representatives; but with the general arguments suggested by the
+subject, strong and pointed allusions to the measures of the preceding
+congress were interspersed, which indicated much more serious
+hostility to the administration than had hitherto been expressed.
+Speaking of the corruption which he supposed to exist in the British
+house of commons, Mr. Giles said that causes essentially different
+from their numbers, had produced this effect. &quot;Among these, were the
+frequent mortgages of the funds, and the immense appropriations at the
+disposal of the executive.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;An inequality of circumstances,&quot; he observed, &quot;produces revolutions
+in governments, from democracy, to aristocracy, and monarchy. Great
+wealth produces a desire of distinctions, rank, and titles. The
+revolutions of property, in this country, have created a prodigious
+inequality of circumstances. Government has contributed to this
+inequality. The bank of the United States is a most important machine
+in promoting the objects of this monied interest. This bank will be
+the most powerful engine to corrupt this house. Some of the members
+are directors of this institution; and it will only be by increasing
+the representation, that an adequate barrier can be opposed to this
+monied interest.&quot; He next adverted to certain ideas, which, he said,
+had been disseminated through the United States. &quot;The legislature,&quot; he
+took occasion to observe, &quot;ought to express some disapprobation of
+these opinions. The strong executive of this government,&quot; he added,
+&quot;ought to be balanced by a full representation in this house.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Similar sentiments were advanced by Mr. Findley.</p>
+
+<p>After a long and animated discussion, the amendment was lost, and the
+bill passed in its original form.</p>
+
+<p>In the senate, it was amended by changing the ratio, so as to give one
+representative for every thirty-three thousand persons in each state;
+but this amendment was disagreed to by the house of representatives;
+and each house adhering to its opinion, the bill fell; but was again
+introduced into the house of representatives, under a different title,
+and in a new form, though without any change in its substantial
+provisions. After a debate in which the injustice of the fractions
+produced by the ratio it adopted was strongly pressed, it passed that
+house. In the senate, it was again amended, not by reducing, but by
+enlarging the number of representatives.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution of the United States declares that &quot;representatives
+and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which
+may be included within this union according to their respective
+numbers;&quot; and that &quot;the number of representatives shall not exceed one
+for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one
+representative.&quot; Construing the constitution to authorize a process by
+which the whole number of representatives should be ascertained on the
+whole population of the United States, and afterwards &quot;apportioned
+among the several states according to their respective numbers,&quot; the
+senate applied the number thirty thousand as a <i>divisor</i> to the total
+population, and taking the <i>quotient</i>, which was one hundred and
+twenty, as the number of representatives given by the ratio which had
+been adopted in the house where the bill had originated, they
+apportioned that number among the several states by that ratio, until
+as many representatives as it would give were allotted to each. The
+residuary members were then distributed among the states having the
+highest fractions. Without professing the principle on which this
+apportionment was made, the amendment of the senate merely allotted to
+the states respectively, the number of members which the process just
+mentioned would give. The result was a more equitable apportionment of
+representatives to population, and had the rule of construing that
+instrument been correct, the amendment removed objections which were
+certainly well founded. But the rule was novel, and overturned
+opinions which had been generally assumed, and were supposed to be
+settled. In one branch of the legislature it had already been
+rejected; and in the other, the majority in its favour was only one.</p>
+
+<p>In the house of representatives, the amendment was supported with
+considerable ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>After an earnest debate, however, it was disagreed to, and a
+conference took place without producing an accommodation among the
+members composing the committee. But finally, the house of
+representatives receded from their disagreement; and, by a majority of
+two voices, the bill passed as amended in the senate.</p>
+
+<p>On the President, the solemn duty of deciding, whether an act of the
+legislature consisted with the constitution; for the bill, if
+constitutional, was unexceptionable.</p>
+
+<p>In his cabinet, also, a difference of opinion is understood to have
+existed; the secretary of state and the attorney general were of
+opinion that the act was at variance with the constitution; the
+secretary of war was rather undecided; and the secretary of the
+treasury, thinking that, from the vagueness of expression in the
+clause relating to the subject, neither construction could be
+absolutely rejected, was in favour of acceding to the interpretation
+given by the legislature.</p>
+
+<p>After weighing the arguments which were urged on each side of the
+question, the President was confirmed in the opinion that the
+population of each state, and not the total population of the United
+States, must give the numbers to which alone the process by which the
+number of representatives was to be ascertained could be applied.
+Having formed this opinion, to a correct and independent mind the
+course to be pursued was a plain one. Duty required the exercise of a
+power which a President of the United States will always find much
+difficulty in employing; and he returned the bill to the house in
+which it originated, accompanied with his objections<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> to it. In
+observance of the forms prescribed in the constitution, the question
+was then taken on its passage by ayes and noes, and it was rejected. A
+third bill was soon afterwards introduced, apportioning the
+representatives on the several states at a ratio of one for every
+thirty-three thousand persons in each state, which passed into a law.
+Thus was this interesting part of the American constitution finally
+settled.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Militia law.</div>
+
+<p>During this session of congress, an act passed for establishing a
+uniform militia.</p>
+
+<p>The President had manifested, from the commencement of his
+administration, a peculiar degree of solicitude on this subject, and
+had repeatedly urged it on congress.</p>
+
+<p>In his speech at the opening of the present session, he again called
+the attention of the legislature to it; and, at length, a law was
+enacted which, though less efficacious than the plan reported by the
+secretary of war, will probably, not soon, be carried into complete
+execution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Defeat of St. Clair.</div>
+
+<p>In December, intelligence was received by the President, and
+immediately communicated to congress, that the American army had been
+totally defeated on the fourth of the preceding month.</p>
+
+<p>Although the most prompt and judicious measures had been taken to
+raise the troops, and to march them to the frontiers, they could not
+be assembled in the neighbourhood of fort Washington until the month
+of September, nor was the establishment even then completed.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate objects of the expedition were, to destroy the Indian
+villages on the Miamis, to expel the savages from that country, and to
+connect it with the Ohio by a chain of posts which would prevent their
+return during the war.</p>
+
+<p>On the seventh of September, the regulars moved from their camp in the
+vicinity of fort Washington, and marching directly north, towards the
+object of their destination, established two intermediate posts<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> at
+the distance of rather more than forty miles from each other, as
+places of deposite, and of security either for convoys of provision
+which might follow the army, or for the army itself should any
+disaster befall it. The last of these works, fort Jefferson, was not
+completed until the 24th of October, before which time reinforcements
+were received of about three hundred and sixty militia. After placing
+garrisons in the forts, the effective number of the army, including
+militia, amounted to rather less than two thousand men. With this
+force, the general continued his march, which was rendered both slow
+and laborious by the necessity of opening a road. Small parties of
+Indians were frequently seen hovering about them, and some unimportant
+skirmishes took place. As the army approached the country in which
+they might expect to meet an enemy, about sixty of the militia
+deserted in a body. This diminution of force was not, in itself, an
+object of much concern. But there was reason to fear that the example,
+should those who set it be permitted to escape with impunity, would be
+extensively followed; and it was reported to be the intention of the
+deserters, to plunder convoys of provisions which were advancing at
+some distance in the rear. To prevent mischiefs of so serious a
+nature, the general detached Major Hamtranck with the first regiment
+in pursuit of the deserters, and directed him to secure the provisions
+under a strong guard.</p>
+
+<p>The army, consisting of about fourteen hundred effective rank and
+file, continued its march; and, on the third of November, encamped
+about fifteen miles south of the Miamis villages. The right wing under
+the command of General Butler formed the first line, and lay with a
+creek, about twelve yards wide, immediately in its front. The left
+wing commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Darke, formed the second; and
+between the two lines, was an interval of about seventy yards.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> The
+right flank was supposed to be secured by the creek, by a steep bank,
+and by a small body of troops; the left was covered by a party of
+cavalry, and by piquets. The militia crossed the creek, and advanced
+about a quarter of a mile in front, where they also encamped in two
+lines. On their approach, a few Indians who had shown themselves on
+the opposite side of the creek, fled with precipitation.</p>
+
+<p>At this place, the general intended to throw up a slight work for the
+security of the baggage; and, after being joined by Major Hamtranck,
+to march as unincumbered, and as expeditiously as possible, to the
+villages he purposed to destroy.</p>
+
+<p>In both these designs he was anticipated. About half an hour before
+sun rise the next morning, just after the troops had been dismissed
+from the parade, an unexpected attack was made upon the militia, who
+fled in the utmost confusion, and rushing into camp through the first
+line of continental troops, which had been formed the instant the
+first gun was discharged, threw them too into disorder. The exertions
+of the officers to restore order were not entirely successful. The
+Indians pressed close upon the heels of the flying militia, and
+engaged General Butler with great intrepidity. The action instantly
+became extremely warm; and the fire of the assailants, passing round
+both flanks of the first line, was, in a few minutes, poured with
+equal fury on the rear division. Its greatest weight was directed
+against the centre of each wing, where the artillery was posted; and
+the artillerists were mowed down in great numbers. Firing from the
+ground, and from the shelter which the woods afforded, the assailants
+were scarcely seen but when springing from one cover to another, in
+which manner they advanced close up to the American lines, and to the
+very mouths of the field pieces. They fought with the daring courage
+of men whose trade is war, and who are stimulated by all those
+passions which can impel the savage mind to vigorous exertions.</p>
+
+<p>Under circumstances thus arduous, raw troops may be expected to
+exhibit that inequality which is found in human nature. While some of
+the American soldiers performed their duty with the utmost resolution,
+others seemed dismayed and terrified. Of this conduct the officers
+were, as usual, the victims. With a fearlessness which the occasion
+required, they exposed themselves to the most imminent dangers; and,
+in their efforts to change the face of affairs, fell in great numbers.</p>
+
+<p>For several days, the Commander-in-chief had been afflicted with a
+severe disease, under which he still laboured, and which must have
+greatly affected him; but, though unable to display that activity
+which would have been useful in this severe conflict, neither the
+feebleness of his body, nor the peril of his situation, could prevent
+his delivering his orders with judgment and with self possession.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was soon perceived that the American fire could produce, on a
+concealed enemy, no considerable effect; and that the only hope of
+victory was placed in the bayonet. At the head of the second regiment,
+which formed the left of the left wing, Lieutenant Colonel Darke made
+an impetuous charge upon the enemy, forced them from their ground with
+some loss, and drove them about four hundred yards. He was followed by
+that whole wing; but the want of a sufficient number of riflemen to
+press this advantage, deprived him of the benefit which ought to have
+been derived from this effort; and, as soon as he gave over the
+pursuit, the Indians renewed their attack. In the mean time General
+Butler was mortally wounded, the left of the right wing was broken,
+the artillerists almost to a man killed, the guns seized, and the camp
+penetrated by the enemy. With his own regiment, and with the
+battalions commanded by Majors Butler<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> and Clarke, Darke was
+ordered again to charge with the bayonet. These orders were executed
+with intrepidity and momentary success. The Indians were driven out of
+the camp, and the artillery recovered. But while they were pressed in
+one point by the bravest of the American troops, their fire was kept
+up from every other with fatal effect. Several times particular corps
+charged them, always with partial success, but no universal effort
+could be made, and in every charge a great loss of officers was
+sustained, the consequences of which were severely felt. Instead of
+keeping their ranks, and executing the orders which were given, a
+great proportion of the soldiers flocked together in crowds, and were
+shot down without resistance. To save the remnant of his army was all
+that remained to be done; and, about half past nine in the morning,
+General St. Clair ordered Lieutenant Colonel Darke with the second
+regiment, to charge a body of Indians who had intercepted their
+retreat, and to gain the road. Major Clarke with his battalion was
+directed to cover the rear. These orders were executed, and a
+disorderly flight commenced. The pursuit was kept up about four miles,
+when, fortunately for the surviving Americans, that avidity for
+plunder which is a ruling passion among savages, called back the
+victorious Indians to the ramp, where the spoils of their vanquished
+foes were to be divided. The routed troops continued their flight to
+fort Jefferson, a distance of about thirty miles, throwing away their
+arms on the road. At this place they met Major Hamtranck with the
+first regiment; and a council of war was called to deliberate on the
+course to be pursued. As this regiment was far from restoring the
+strength of the morning, it was determined not to attempt to retrieve
+the fortune of the day: and, leaving the wounded at fort Jefferson,
+the army continued its retreat to fort Washington.</p>
+
+<p>In this disastrous battle, the loss on the part of the Americans was
+very great when compared with the numbers engaged. Thirty-eight
+commissioned officers were killed upon the field, and five hundred and
+ninety-three non-commissioned officers and privates were slain and
+missing. Twenty-one commissioned officers, several of whom afterwards
+died of their wounds, and two hundred and forty-two non-commissioned
+officers and privates were wounded. Among the dead was the brave and
+much lamented General Butler. This gallant officer had served through
+the war of the revolution; and had, on more than one occasion,
+distinguished himself in a remarkable manner. In the list of those who
+shared his fate, were the names of many other excellent officers who
+had participated in all the toils, the dangers, and the glory, of that
+long conflict which terminated in the independence of their country.
+At the head of the list of wounded were Lieutenant Colonels Gibson and
+Darke, Major Butler, and Adjutant General Sargent, all of whom were
+veteran officers of great merit, who displayed their accustomed
+bravery on this unfortunate day. General St. Clair, in his official
+letter, observed: &quot;the loss the public has sustained by the fall of so
+many officers, particularly of General Butler and Major Ferguson, can
+not be too much regretted; but it is a circumstance that will
+alleviate the misfortune in some measure, that all of them fell most
+gallantly doing their duty.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>From the weight of the fire, and the circumstance of his being
+attacked nearly at the same time in front and rear, General St. Clair
+was of opinion that he was overpowered by numbers. The intelligence
+afterwards collected would make the Indian force to consist of from
+one thousand to fifteen hundred warriors. Of their loss, no estimate
+could be made; the probability is, that it bore no proportion to that
+sustained by the American army.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could be more unexpected than this severe disaster. The public
+had confidently anticipated a successful campaign, and could not
+believe, that the general who had been unfortunate, had not been
+culpable.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1792</div>
+
+<p>The Commander-in-chief requested with earnestness that a court martial
+should sit on his conduct; but this request could not be granted,
+because the army did not furnish a sufficient number of officers of a
+grade to form a court for his trial on military principles. Late in
+the session, a committee of the house of representatives was appointed
+to inquire into the cause of the failure of the expedition, whose
+report, in explicit terms, exculpated the Commander-in-chief. This
+inquiry, however, was instituted rather for the purpose of
+investigating the conduct of civil than of military officers; and was
+not conducted by military men. More satisfactory testimony in favour
+of St. Clair is furnished by the circumstance, that he still retained
+the undiminished esteem and good opinion of the President.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian war now assumed a still more serious aspect. There was
+reason to fear that the hostile tribes would derive a great accession
+of strength from the impression which their success would make upon
+their neighbours; and the reputation of the government was deeply
+concerned in retrieving the fortune of its arms, and affording
+protection to its citizens. The President, therefore, lost no time in
+causing the estimates for a competent force to be prepared and laid
+before congress. In conformity with a report made by the secretary of
+war, a bill was brought into the house of representatives, directing
+three additional regiments of infantry, and a squadron of cavalry to
+be raised, to serve for three years, if not sooner discharged. The
+whole military establishment, if completed, would amount to about five
+thousand men. The additional regiments, however, were to be disbanded
+as soon as peace should be concluded with the Indians; and the
+President was authorized to discharge, or to forbear to raise, any
+part of them, &quot;in case events should, in his judgment, render his so
+doing consistent with the public safety.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Opposition to the increase of the army.</div>
+
+<p>This bill met with great opposition. A motion was made to strike out
+the section which authorized an augmentation of force. By those who
+argued in favour of the motion, the justice of the war was arraigned,
+and the practicability of obtaining peace at a much less expense than
+would be incurred in its further prosecution, was urged with
+vehemence. An extension of the present frontier was said not to be
+desirable, and if the citizens of the United States were recalled
+within their proper boundaries, hostilities would cease. At any rate,
+it was an idle waste of blood and treasure, to carry the war beyond
+the line of forts already established. It was only exposing their arms
+to disgrace, betraying their own weakness, and lessening the public
+confidence in the government, to send forth armies to be butchered in
+the forests, while the British were suffered to keep possession of
+posts within the territory of the United States. To this cause was to
+be ascribed any disposition which might exist on the part of the
+Indians to continue hostilities, and to its removal the efforts of the
+government ought to be directed.</p>
+
+<p>But, admitting the war to have been just in its commencement, and its
+continuance to be required by the honour and interest of the nation,
+yet as an invasion of the Indian country ought not to be attempted,
+this augmentation of the military establishment could not be
+necessary. Regular troops could only be useful as garrisons for posts
+to which the militia might resort for protection or supplies.
+Experience had proved that the sudden desultory attacks of the
+frontier militia and rangers were productive of more valuable
+consequences, than the methodical operations of a regular force. But,
+should it even be conceded that invasion and conquest were to be
+contemplated, the existing establishment, if completed, would be
+sufficiently great; and it was still insisted that, even for the
+purposes of conquest, the frontier militia were superior to any
+regulars whatever.</p>
+
+<p>The expense of such an army as the bill contemplated was said to be an
+object worthy of serious attention; and members were requested to
+observe the progress of this business, and to say where it would stop.
+At first, only a single regiment had been raised, and the expense was
+about one hundred thousand dollars; a second was afterwards added,
+which swelled the expense to three hundred thousand; and now a
+standing force of five thousand one hundred and sixty-eight men is
+contemplated, at an annual expense of above a million and a quarter.
+They were preparing to squander away money by millions; and no one,
+except those who were in the secrets of the cabinet, knew why the war
+had been thus carried on for three years.</p>
+
+<p>Against the motion for striking out, it was urged that the justice of
+the war could not be questioned by any man who would allow that self
+preservation, and indispensable necessity, could furnish sufficient
+motives for taking up arms. It was proved by unquestionable documents,
+that from the year 1783 to 1790, there had been not less than fifteen
+hundred persons, either the inhabitants of Kentucky, or emigrants on
+their way to that country, who had been massacred by the savages, or
+dragged into captivity; and there was reason to believe that on the
+frontiers of Virginia, and of Pennsylvania, the murdered and the
+prisoners would furnish a list almost equally numerous.</p>
+
+<p>The conciliatory disposition of the government was stated, and its
+repeated efforts to obtain a peace were enumerated. It was
+particularly observed that in 1790, when a treaty was proposed at the
+Miamis villages, the Indians at first refused to treat;&#8212;they next
+required thirty days to deliberate;&#8212;this request was acceded to; and,
+in the interim, offensive operations were expressly prohibited by the
+President. Yet, notwithstanding this forbearance on the part of the
+whites, not less than one hundred and twenty persons were killed and
+captured by the savages, and several prisoners were roasted alive,
+during that short period; at the expiration of which, the Indians
+refused to give any answer to the proposition which had been made to
+them.</p>
+
+<p>But it was now too late to inquire into the justice of the principles
+on which the war was originally undertaken. The nation was involved in
+it, and could not recede without exposing many innocent persons to be
+butchered by the enemy. Should the government determine to discontinue
+the war, would the Indians also consent to a cessation of hostilities?
+The government could not, without impeachment, both of its justice and
+humanity, abandon the inhabitants of the frontiers to the rage of
+their savage enemies; and although the excise might be unpopular,
+although money might still be wanted, what was the excise, what was
+money, when put in competition with the lives of their friends and
+brethren? A sufficient force must be raised for their defence, and the
+only question was what that force should be.</p>
+
+<p>The calculations of the best informed men were in favour of employing
+an army not inferior to that proposed in the bill. When the known
+attachment of Indians to war and plunder was adverted to, and the
+excitements to that attachment which were furnished by the trophies
+acquired in the last two campaigns were considered, no man would
+venture to pronounce with confidence how extensive the combination
+against the United States might become, or what numbers they would
+have to encounter. It certainly behoved them to prepare in time for a
+much more vigorous effort than had hitherto been made. The objections
+drawn from the increased expense which such an effort would require,
+must entirely vanish before the eyes of any man, who looks forward to
+the consequences of another unsuccessful campaign. Such a disaster
+would eventually involve the nation in much greater expense than that
+which is now made the ground of opposition. Better therefore is it, to
+make at once a vigorous and effectual exertion to bring the contest to
+a close, than to continue gradually draining the treasury, by dragging
+on the war, and renewing hostility from year to year.</p>
+
+<p>The supporters of the bill also appealed to experience for the
+superiority of regular troops over militia, in accomplishing all the
+purposes, even of Indian war; and those arguments were urged in favour
+of this theory, which the subject readily suggests.</p>
+
+<p>The motion for striking out the section was lost; and the bill was
+carried for the augmentation of force required by the executive.</p>
+
+<p>The treasury was not in a condition to meet the demands upon it, which
+the increased expenses of the war would unavoidably occasion; and
+sources of additional revenue were to be explored. A select committee
+to whom this subject was referred, brought in a resolution directing
+the secretary of the treasury to report his opinion to the house on
+the best mode of raising those additional supplies which the public
+service might require for the current year.</p>
+
+<p>This proposition gave rise to a very animated debate.</p>
+
+<p>It will be recollected that when the act for establishing the treasury
+department was under consideration, the clause which rendered it the
+duty of the secretary to digest and report plans for the improvement
+and management of the revenue, and for the support of public credit,
+was earnestly opposed. A large majority, however, was in favour of the
+principle; and, after being so modified, as only to admit a report if
+required by the house, it was retained in the bill. In complying with
+the various resolutions of congress, calling for reports on subjects
+connected with his department, the secretary had submitted plans
+which, having been profoundly considered, were well digested, and
+accompanied by arguments, the force of which it was difficult to
+resist. His measures were generally supported by a majority of
+congress; and, while the high credit of the United States was believed
+to attest their wisdom, the masterly manner in which his reports were
+drawn contributed to raise still higher, that reputation for great
+talents which he had long possessed. To the further admission of these
+reports, it was determined, on this occasion, to make a vigorous
+resistance.</p>
+
+<p>But the opposition was not successful. On taking the question, the
+resolution was carried; thirty-one members voting in its favour, and
+twenty-seven against it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Report of the secretary of the treasury for raising
+additional supplies.</div>
+
+<p><a name="p434">The</a> report<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> made by the secretary in pursuance of this resolution,
+recommended certain augmentations of the duties on imports; and was
+immediately referred to the consideration of a committee of the whole
+house. Resolutions were then passed which were to form the basis of a
+bill; and which adopted, not only the principles, but, with the
+exception of a few unimportant alterations, the minute details of the
+report.</p>
+
+<p>Before the question was taken on the bill, a motion was made to limit
+its duration, the vote upon which strongly marked the progress of
+opinion in the house respecting those systems of finance which were
+believed to have established the credit of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The secretary of the treasury had deemed it indispensable to the
+creation of public credit, that the appropriations of funds for the
+payment of the interest, and the gradual redemption of the principal
+of the national debt, should be not only sufficient, but permanent
+also. A party was found in the first congress who opposed this
+principle; and were in favour of retaining a full power over the
+subject in each branch of the legislature, by making annual
+appropriations. The arguments which had failed in congress appear to
+have been more successfully employed with the people. Among the
+multiplied vices which were ascribed to the funding system, it was
+charged with introducing a permanent and extensive mortgage of funds,
+which was alleged to strengthen unduly the hands of the executive
+magistrate, and to be one of the many evidences which existed, of
+monarchical propensities in those who administered the government.</p>
+
+<p>The report lately made by the secretary of the treasury, and the bill
+founded on that report, contemplated a permanent increase of the
+duties on certain specified articles; and a permanent appropriation of
+the revenue arising from them, to the purposes of the national debt.
+Thirty-one members were in favour of the motion for limiting the
+duration of the bill, and only thirty against it. By the rules of the
+house, the speaker has a right first to vote as a member; and, if the
+numbers should then be equally divided, to decide as speaker. Being
+opposed to the limitation, the motion was lost by his voice.</p>
+
+<p>On the eighth of May, after an active and interesting session,
+congress adjourned to the first Monday in November.</p>
+
+<p>The asperity which, on more than one occasion, discovered itself in
+debate, was a certain index of the growing exasperation of parties;
+and the strength of the opposition on those questions which brought
+into review the points on which the administration was to be attacked,
+denoted the impression which the specific charges brought against
+those who conducted public affairs, had made on the minds of the
+people, in an extensive division of the continent. It may conduce to a
+more perfect understanding of subsequent transactions, to present, in
+this place, a sketch of those charges.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Strictures on the conduct of administration, with a view of
+parties.</div>
+
+<p>It was alleged that the public debt was too great to be paid before
+other causes of adding to it would occur. This accumulation of debt
+had been artificially produced by the assumption of what was due from
+the states. Its immediate effect was to deprive the government of its
+power over those easy sources of revenue, which, applied to its
+ordinary necessities and exigencies, would have answered them
+habitually, and thereby have avoided those burdens on the people which
+occasioned such murmurs against taxes, and tax gatherers. As a
+consequence of it, although the calls for money had not been greater
+than must be expected for the same or equivalent exigencies, yet
+congress had been already obliged, not only to strain the impost until
+it produced clamour, and would produce evasion, and war on their own
+citizens to collect it, but even to resort to an <i>excise</i> law, of
+odious character with the people, partial in its operation,
+unproductive unless enforced by arbitrary and vexatious means, and
+committing the authority of the government in parts where resistance
+was most probable, and coercion least practicable.</p>
+
+<p>That the United States, if left free to act at their discretion, might
+borrow at two-thirds of the interest contracted to be paid to the
+public creditors, and thus discharge themselves from the principal in
+two-thirds of the time: but from this they were precluded by the
+irredeemable quality of the debt; a quality given for the avowed
+purpose of inviting its transfer to foreign countries. This transfer
+of the principal when completed would occasion an exportation of three
+millions of dollars annually for the interest, a drain of coin without
+example, and of the consequences of which no calculation could be
+made.</p>
+
+<p>The banishment of coin would be completed by ten millions of paper
+money in the form of bank bills, which were then issuing into
+circulation. Nor would this be the only mischief resulting from the
+institution of the bank. The ten or twelve per cent, annual profit
+paid to the lenders of this paper medium would take out of the pockets
+of the people, who would have had, without interest, the coin it was
+banishing. That all the capital employed in paper speculation is
+barren and useless, producing like that on a gaming table no accession
+to itself, and is withdrawn from commerce and agriculture, where it
+would have produced addition to the common mass. The wealth therefore
+heaped upon individuals by the funding and banking systems, would be
+productive of general poverty and distress. That in addition to the
+encouragement these measures gave to vice and idleness, they had
+furnished effectual means of corrupting such a portion of the
+legislature as turned the balance between the honest voters. This
+corrupt squad, deciding the voice of the legislature, had manifested
+their dispositions to get rid of the limitations imposed by the
+constitution; limitations on the faith of which the states acceded to
+that instrument. They were proceeding rapidly in their plan of
+absorbing all power, invading the rights of the states, and converting
+the federal into a consolidated government.</p>
+
+<p>That the ultimate object of all this was to prepare the way for a
+change from the present republican form of government to that of a
+monarchy, of which the English constitution was to be the model. So
+many of the friends of monarchy were in the legislature, that aided by
+the corrupt squad of paper dealers who were at their devotion, they
+made a majority in both houses. The republican party, even when united
+with the anti-federalists, continued a minority.</p>
+
+<p>That of all the mischiefs resulting from the system of measures which
+was so much reprobated, none was so afflicting, so fatal to every
+honest hope, as the corruption of the legislature. As it was the
+earliest of these measures, it became the instrument for producing the
+rest, and would be the instrument for producing in future, a king,
+lords, and commons; or whatever else those who directed it might
+choose. Withdrawn such a distance from the eye of their constituents,
+they would form the most corrupt government on earth, if the means of
+their corruption were not prevented.</p>
+
+<p>These strictures on the conduct of administration were principally
+directed against measures which had originated with the secretary of
+the treasury, and had afterwards received the sanction of the
+legislature. In the southern division of the continent, that officer
+was unknown, except to a few military friends, and to those who had
+engaged in the legislative or executive departments of the former or
+present government. His systems of revenue having been generally
+opposed by the southern members, and the original opposition to the
+constitution having been particularly great in Virginia and North
+Carolina, the aspersions on his views, and on the views of the eastern
+members by whom his plans had been generally supported, were seldom
+controverted. The remote tendency of particular systems, and the
+motives for their adoption, are so often subjects of conjecture, that
+the judgment, when exercised upon them, is peculiarly exposed to the
+influence of the passions; and where measures are in themselves
+burdensome, and the necessity for their adoption has not been
+appreciated, suspicions of their unknown advocates, can seldom be
+unsuccessfully urged by persons, in whom the people have placed their
+confidence. It is not therefore cause of astonishment, that the dark
+motives ascribed to the authors of tax laws, should be extensively
+believed.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the United States, the party opposed to the constitution
+had charged its supporters with a desire to establish a monarchy on
+the ruins of republican government; and the constitution itself was
+alleged to contain principles which would prove the truth of this
+charge. The leaders of that party had, therefore, been ready from the
+instant the government came into operation, to discover, in all its
+measures, those monarchical tendencies which they had perceived in the
+instrument they opposed.</p>
+
+<p>The salaries allowed to public officers, though so low<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> as not to
+afford a decent maintenance to those who resided at the seat of
+government, were declared to be so enormously high, as clearly to
+manifest a total disregard of that simplicity and economy which were
+the characteristics of republics.</p>
+
+<p>The levees of the President, and the evening parties of Mrs.
+Washington, were said to be imitations of regal institutions, designed
+to accustom the American people to the pomp and manners of European
+courts. The Vice President too was said to keep up the state and
+dignity of a monarch, and to illustrate, by his conduct, the
+principles which were inculcated in his political works.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian war they alleged was misconducted, and unnecessarily
+prolonged for the purposes of expending the public money, and of
+affording a pretext for augmenting the military establishment, and
+increasing the revenue.</p>
+
+<p>All this prodigal waste of the money of the people was designed to
+keep up the national debt, and the influence it gave the government,
+which, united with standing armies, and immense revenues, would enable
+their rulers to rivet the chains which they were secretly forging.
+Every prediction which had been uttered respecting the anti-republican
+principles of the government, was said to be rapidly verifying, and
+that which was disbelieved as prophecy, was daily becoming history. If
+a remedy for these ills was not found in the increased representation
+of the people which would take place at the ensuing elections, they
+would become too monstrous to be borne; and when it was recollected
+that the division of opinion was marked by a geographical line, there
+was reason to fear that the union would be broken into one or more
+confederacies.</p>
+
+<p>These irritable symptoms had assumed appearances of increased
+malignity during the session of congress which had just terminated;
+and, to the President, who firmly believed that the union and the
+liberty of the states depended on the preservation of the government,
+they were the more unpleasant and the more alarming, because they were
+displayed in full force in his cabinet.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disagreement between the secretaries of state and
+treasury.</div>
+
+<p>Between the secretaries of the state and treasury departments, a
+disagreement existed, which seems to have originated in an early stage
+of the administration, and to have acquired a regular accession of
+strength from circumstances which were perpetually occurring, until it
+grew into open and irreconcileable hostility.</p>
+
+<p>Without tracing this disagreement to those motives, which, in elective
+governments especially, often produce enmities between distinguished
+personages, neither of whom acknowledges the superiority of the other,
+such radical differences of opinion, on points which would essentially
+influence the course of the government, were supposed to exist between
+the secretaries, as, in a great measure, to account for this
+unextinguishable enmity. These differences of opinion were, perhaps,
+to be ascribed, in some measure, to a difference in the original
+structure of their minds, and, in some measure, to the difference of
+the situations in which they had been placed.</p>
+
+<p>Until near the close of the war, Mr. Hamilton had served his country
+in the field; and, just before its termination, had passed from the
+camp into congress, where he remained for some time after peace had
+been established. In the former station, the danger to which the
+independence of his country was exposed from the imbecility of the
+government was perpetually before his eyes; and, in the latter, his
+attention was forcibly directed towards the loss of its reputation,
+and the sacrifice of its best interests, which were to be ascribed to
+the same cause. Mr. Hamilton, therefore, was the friend of a
+government which should possess, in itself, sufficient powers and
+resources to maintain the character, and defend the integrity of the
+nation. Having long felt and witnessed the mischiefs produced by the
+absolute sovereignty of the states, and by the control which they were
+enabled and disposed separately to exercise over every measure of
+general concern, he was particularly apprehensive of danger from that
+quarter; which he, probably, believed was to be the more dreaded,
+because the habits and feelings of the American people were calculated
+to inspire state, rather than national prepossessions. Under the
+influence of these impressions, he is understood to have avowed
+opinions in the convention favourable to a system in which the
+executive and senate, though elective, were to be rather more
+permanent, than they were rendered in that which was actually
+proposed. He afterwards supported the constitution, as framed, with
+great ability, and contributed essentially to its adoption. But he
+still retained, and openly avowed, the opinion, that the greatest
+hazards to which it was exposed arose from its weakness, and that
+American liberty and happiness had much more to fear from the
+encroachments of the great states, than from those of the general
+government.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Jefferson had retired from congress before the depreciation of the
+currency had produced an entire dependence of the general on the local
+governments; after which he filled the highest offices in the state of
+which he was a citizen. About the close of the war he was re-elected
+to congress; but, being soon afterwards employed on a mission to the
+court of Versailles, where he remained, while the people of France
+were taking the first steps of that immense revolution which has
+astonished and agitated two quarters of the world. In common with all
+his countrymen, he felt a strong interest in favour of the reformers;
+and it is not unreasonable to suppose, that while residing at that
+court, and associating with those who meditated some of the great
+events which have since taken place, his mind might be warmed with the
+abuses of the monarchy which were perpetually in his view, and he
+might be led to the opinion that liberty could sustain no danger but
+from the executive power. Mr. Jefferson, therefore, seems to have
+entertained no apprehensions from the debility of the government; no
+jealousy of the state sovereignties; and no suspicion of their
+encroachments. His fears took a different direction, and all his
+precautions were used to check and limit the exercise of the powers
+vested in the government of the United States. Neither could he
+perceive danger to liberty except from that government, and especially
+from the executive department.</p>
+
+<p>He did not feel so sensibly, as those who had continued in the United
+States, the necessity of adopting the constitution; and had, at one
+time, avowed a wish that it might be rejected by such a number of
+states as would secure certain alterations which he thought essential.
+His principal objections seem to have been, the want of a bill of
+rights, and the re-eligibility of the President. From this opinion,
+however, in favour of a partial rejection, he is understood to have
+receded, after seeing the plan pursued by the convention of
+Massachusetts, and followed by other states; which was to adopt
+unconditionally, and to annex a recommendation of the amendments which
+were desired.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<p>To these causes of division, another was superadded, the influence of
+which was soon felt in all the political transactions of the
+government.</p>
+
+<p>The war which was terminated in 1783, had left in the bosoms of the
+American people, a strong attachment to France, and enmity to Great
+Britain. These feelings, in a greater or less degree, were perhaps
+universal; and had been prevented from subsiding by circumstances to
+which allusions have already been made. They had evinced themselves,
+in the state legislatures, by commercial regulations; and were
+demonstrated by all those means by which the public sentiment is
+usually displayed. They found their way also into the national
+councils, where they manifested themselves in the motions respecting
+the favours which ought to be shown to nations having commercial
+treaties with the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Although affection for France, and jealousy of Britain, were
+sentiments common to the people of America, the same unanimity did not
+exist respecting the influence which ought to be allowed to those
+sentiments, over the political conduct of the nation. While many
+favoured such discriminations as might eventually turn the commerce of
+the United States into new channels, others maintained that, on this
+subject, equality ought to be observed; that trade ought to be guided
+by the judgment of individuals, and that no sufficient motives existed
+for that sacrifice of general and particular interests, which was
+involved in the discriminations proposed;&#8212;discriminations which, in
+their view, amounted to a tax on American agriculture, and a bounty on
+the navigation and manufactures of a favoured foreign nation.</p>
+
+<p>The former opinion was taken up with warmth by the secretary of state;
+and the latter was adopted with equal sincerity by the secretary of
+the treasury. This contrariety of sentiment respecting commercial
+regulations was only a part of a general system. It extended itself to
+all the relations which might subsist between America and those two
+great powers.</p>
+
+<p>In all popular governments, the press is the most ready channel by
+which the opinions and the passions of the few are communicated to the
+many; and of the press, the two great parties forming in the United
+States, sought to avail themselves. The Gazette of the United States
+supported the systems of the treasury department, while other papers
+enlisted themselves under the banners of the opposition. Conspicuous
+among these, was the National Gazette, a paper edited by a clerk in
+the department of state. The avowed purpose for which the secretary
+patronized this paper, was to present to the eye of the American
+people, European intelligence derived from the Leyden gazette, instead
+of English papers; but it soon became the vehicle of calumny against
+the funding and banking systems, against the duty on home-made
+spirits, which was denominated an excise, and against the men who had
+proposed and supported those measures. With perhaps equal asperity,
+the papers attached to the party which had defended these systems,
+assailed the motives of the leaders of the opposition.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Letters from Washington on this subject.</div>
+
+<p>This schism in his cabinet was a subject of extreme mortification to
+the President. Entertaining a high respect for the talents, and a real
+esteem for the characters, of both gentlemen, he was unwilling to part
+with either; and exerted all the influence he possessed to effect a
+reconciliation between them. In a letter of the 23d of August,
+addressed to the secretary of state, after reviewing the critical
+situation of the United States with respect to its external relations,
+he thus expressed himself on this delicate subject. &quot;How unfortunate
+and how much is it to be regretted then, that, while we are
+encompassed on all sides with avowed enemies, and insidious friends,
+internal dissensions should be harassing and tearing our vitals. The
+last, to me, is the most serious, the most alarming, and the most
+afflicting of the two; and, without more charity for the opinions of
+one another in governmental matters, or some more infallible criterion
+by which the truth of speculative opinions, before they have undergone
+the test of experience, are to be forejudged, than has yet fallen to
+the lot of fallibility, I believe it will be difficult, if not
+impracticable, to manage the reins of government, or to keep the parts
+of it together: for if, instead of laying our shoulders to the
+machine, after measures are decided on, one pulls this way, and
+another that, before the utility of the thing is fairly tried, it must
+inevitably be torn asunder; and, in my opinion, the fairest prospect
+of happiness and prosperity that ever was presented to man will be
+lost, perhaps, for ever.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;My earnest wish and my fondest hope therefore is, that instead of
+wounding suspicions, and irritating charges, there may be liberal
+allowances, mutual forbearances, and temporizing yielding on all
+sides. Under the exercise of these, matters will go on smoothly; and
+if possible, more prosperously. Without them, every thing must rub;
+the wheels of government will clog; our enemies will triumph; and, by
+throwing their weight into the disaffected scale, may accomplish the
+ruin of the goodly fabric we have been erecting.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><a name="p450">&quot;I</a> do not mean to apply this advice, or these observations, to any
+particular person or character. I have given them in the same general
+terms to other officers<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> of the government, because the
+disagreements which have arisen from difference of opinions, and the
+attacks which have been made upon almost all the measures of
+government, and most of its executive officers, have for a long time
+past filled me with painful sensations, and can not fail, I think, of
+producing unhappy consequences, at home and abroad.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In a subsequent letter to the same gentleman, in answer to one which
+enclosed some documents designed to prove that, though desirous of
+amending the constitution, he had favoured its adoption, the President
+said&#8212;&quot;I did not require the evidence of the extracts which you
+enclosed me, to convince me of your attachment to the constitution of
+the United States, or of your disposition to promote the general
+welfare of this country; but I regret, deeply regret, the difference
+of opinion which has arisen, and divided you and another principal
+officer of the government&#8212;and wish devoutly there could be an
+accommodation of them by mutual yieldings.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;A measure of this sort would produce harmony and consequent good in
+our public councils; and the contrary will inevitably produce
+confusion and serious mischiefs&#8212;and for what? because mankind can not
+think alike, but would adopt different means to attain the same end.
+For I will frankly and solemnly declare that I believe the views of
+both to be pure and well meant, and that experience only will decide
+with respect to the salubrity of the measures which are the subjects
+of this dispute.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Why then, when some of the best citizens of the United States&#8212;men of
+discernment&#8212;uniform and tried patriots&#8212;who have no sinister views to
+promote, but are chaste in their ways of thinking and acting, are to
+be found some on one side, and some on the other of the questions
+which have caused these agitations&#8212;why should either of you be so
+tenacious of your opinions as to make no allowance for those of the
+other?</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I could, and indeed was about to add more on this interesting
+subject, but will forbear, at least for the present, after expressing
+a wish that the cup which has been presented to us may not be snatched
+from our lips by a discordance of action, when I am persuaded there is
+no discordance in your views. I have a great, a sincere esteem and
+regard for you both; and ardently wish that some line could be marked
+out by which both of you could walk.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>These earnest endeavours to sooth the angry passions, and to
+conciliate the jarring discords of the cabinet, were unsuccessful. The
+hostility which was so much and so sincerely lamented sustained no
+diminution, and its consequences became every day more diffusive.</p>
+
+<p>Among the immediate effects of these internal dissensions, was the
+encouragement they afforded to a daring and criminal resistance which
+was made to the execution of the laws imposing a duty on spirits
+distilled within the United States.</p>
+
+<p>To the inhabitants of that part of Pennsylvania which lies west of the
+Alleghany mountains, this duty was, from local considerations,
+peculiarly odious; nor was their hostility to the measure diminished
+by any affection for the source in which it originated. The
+constitution itself had encountered the most decided opposition from
+that part of the state; and that early enmity to the government which
+exerted every faculty to prevent its adoption, had sustained no
+abatement. Its measures generally, and the whole system of finance
+particularly, had been reprobated with peculiar bitterness by many of
+the most popular men of that district. With these dispositions, a tax
+law, the operation of which was extended to them, could not be
+favourably received, however generally it might be supported in other
+parts of the union. But when, to this pre-existing temper, were
+superadded the motives which arose from perceiving that the measure
+was censured on the floor of congress as unnecessary and tyrannical;
+that resistance to its execution was treated as probable; that a
+powerful and active party, pervading the union, arraigned with extreme
+acrimony the whole system of finance as being hostile to liberty; and,
+with all the passionate vehemence of conviction, charged its advocates
+with designing to subvert the republican institutions of America; we
+ought not to be surprised that the awful impressions, which usually
+restrain combinations to resist the laws, were lessened; and that the
+malcontents were emboldened to hope that those combinations might be
+successful.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Opposition to the excise law.</div>
+
+<p>Some discontents had been manifested in several parts of the union on
+the first introduction of the act; but the prudence and firmness of
+the government and its officers had dissipated them; and the law had
+been carried into general operation. But in the western district of
+Pennsylvania, the resistance wore the appearance of system, and was
+regularly progressive. In its commencement, it manifested itself by
+the circulation of opinions calculated to increase the odium in which
+the duty was held, and by endeavours to defeat its collection by
+directing the public resentments against those who were inclined
+either to comply with the law, or to accept the offices through which
+it was to be executed. These indications of ill temper were succeeded
+by neighbourhood meetings, in which resolutions of extreme violence
+were adopted, and by acts of outrage against the persons of revenue
+officers. At length, in September, 1791, a meeting of delegates from
+the malcontent counties was held at Pittsburg, in which resolutions
+were adopted breathing the same spirit with those which had previously
+been agreed to in county assemblies. Unfortunately, the deputy
+marshal, who was entrusted with the process against those who had
+committed acts of violence on the persons of revenue officers, was so
+intimidated by the turbulent spirit which was generally displayed,
+that he returned without performing his duty; and thus added to the
+confidence felt by the disaffected in their strength. Appearances were
+such as to justify apprehensions, that the judiciary would be found
+unable to punish the violators of the laws; and the means of obtaining
+aid from the executive had not been furnished by the legislature. This
+state of things was the more embarrassing, because the prejudices
+which had been widely disseminated, and the misconceptions of the act
+which had been extensively diffused, authorized some fears respecting
+the support which the law, while yet in the infancy of its operation,
+would receive from the people. These considerations, added to that
+repugnance which was felt by the government to the employment of harsh
+means, induced a forbearance to notice further these riotous
+proceedings, until the measure, by being carried into full effect in
+other parts of the union, should be better understood; and until
+congress should assemble, and modify the system in such a manner as to
+remove any real objections to it, the existence of which might be
+suggested by experience. Accordingly, in the legislature which
+convened in October, 1791, this subject was taken up in pursuance of
+the recommendation of the President, and an amendatory act was passed
+in May, 1792, in which the whole system was revised, and great pains
+were taken to alter such parts of it as could be deemed exceptionable.</p>
+
+<p>This conciliatory measure did not produce the desired effect. No
+abatement took place in the violence and outrage with which the
+resistance to the law was conducted. To carry it into execution,
+officers of inspection were necessary in every county. The
+malcontents, for a considerable time, deterred every person from
+consenting to permit an office to be held at his house; and when at
+length this difficulty was supposed to be overcome, those who had been
+prevailed on to accede to the propositions of the supervisor in this
+respect, were compelled, by personal violence, and by threats of the
+destruction of property, and even of death, to retract the consent
+they had given.</p>
+
+<p>A meeting was again convened at Pittsburg, in which, among other very
+exceptionable resolutions, committees were established to correspond
+with any committees of a similar nature that might be appointed in
+other parts of the United States. By this meeting it was declared,
+that they would persist in every legal measure to obstruct the
+execution of the law, and would consider those who held offices for
+the collection of the duty as unworthy of their friendship; that they
+would have no intercourse or dealings with them; would withdraw from
+them every assistance, and withhold all the comforts of life which
+depend upon those duties which, as men and fellow citizens, they owed
+to each other; and would, upon all occasions, treat them with
+contempt. It was at the same time earnestly recommended to the people
+at large to adopt the same line of conduct.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">President's proclamation.</div>
+
+<p>No man could be more sensible than the President of the dangerous
+tendency of these measures, nor more indignant at the outrage thus
+offered to the government of the United States. But his prudence, and
+his high respect for the laws restrained him within the narrow limits
+which the legislature had prescribed. A proclamation<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> was issued
+exhorting and admonishing all persons to desist from any combinations
+or proceedings whatsoever, tending to obstruct the execution of the
+laws, and requiring the interference of the civil magistrate; and
+prosecutions against the offenders were directed to be instituted in
+every case in which they could be supported.</p>
+
+<p>This proclamation produced no salutary effect. Many of the civil
+magistrates were themselves concerned in stimulating the excesses they
+were required to suppress; and those who had not embarked in the
+criminal enterprise, found themselves totally unable to maintain the
+sovereignty of the laws.</p>
+
+<p>With a laudable solicitude to avoid extremities, the government still
+sought for means to recall these misguided people to a sense of duty,
+without the employment of a military force. To obtain this desirable
+object, the following system was digested and pursued:</p>
+
+<p>Prosecutions were instituted against delinquents in those cases in
+which it was believed that they could be maintained. The spirits
+distilled in the non-complying counties were intercepted on their way
+to market, and seized by the officers of the revenue; and the agents
+for the army were directed to purchase only those spirits on which the
+duty had been paid. By thus acting on the interests of the distillers,
+the hope was indulged that they might be induced to comply with the
+law. Could they have obeyed their wishes, these measures would have
+produced the desired effect; but they were no longer masters of their
+own conduct. Impelled by a furious multitude, they found it much more
+dangerous to obey the laws than to resist them. The efficacy of this
+system too was diminished by a circumstance, which induced the
+necessity of a second application to the legislature. The act had not
+been extended to the territory north-west of the Ohio, in which great
+part of the army lay; and the distillers eluded the vigilance of the
+government by introducing their spirits into that territory.</p>
+
+<p>While from causes which were incessant and active in their operation,
+some of which seem too strongly fixed in the human mind ever to be
+removed, a broad foundation was thus laid for those party struggles
+whose fury is generally proportioned to the magnitude of the objects
+to be attained, and to the means which may be employed in attaining
+them, the external affairs of the United States sustained no material
+change.</p>
+
+<p>Of the good understanding which was preserved with France, a fresh
+proof had been recently given by the employment of Mr. Ternan, a
+person peculiarly acceptable to the American government, to succeed
+the Count de Moustiers, as minister plenipotentiary of his Most
+Christian Majesty; and in turn, Mr. Gouverneur Morris, who was
+understood to have rendered himself agreeable to the French
+government, was appointed to represent the United States at the court
+of Versailles.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these interchanges of civility, a melancholy occasion
+had presented itself for giving much more substantial evidence of the
+alacrity with which the American administration would embrace any
+proper opportunity of manifesting its disposition to promote the
+interests of France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Insurrection and massacre in the island of St. Domingo.</div>
+
+<p>Early and bitter fruits of that malignant philosophy, which,
+disregarding the actual state of the world, and estimating at nothing
+the miseries of a vast portion of the human race, can coolly and
+deliberately pursue, through oceans of blood, abstract systems for the
+attainment of some fancied untried good, were gathered in the French
+West Indies. Instead of proceeding in the correction of any abuses
+which might exist, by those slow and cautious steps which gradually
+introduce reform without ruin, which may prepare and fit society for
+that better state of things designed for it; and which, by not
+attempting impossibilities, may enlarge the circle of happiness, the
+revolutionists of France formed the mad and wicked project of
+spreading their doctrines of equality among persons, between whom
+distinctions and prejudices exist to be subdued only by the grave. The
+rage excited by the pursuit of this visionary and baneful theory,
+after many threatening symptoms, burst forth on the 23d day of August
+1791, with a fury alike destructive and general. In one night, a
+preconcerted insurrection of the blacks took place throughout the
+colony of St. Domingo; and the white inhabitants of the country, while
+sleeping in their beds, were involved in one indiscriminate massacre,
+from which neither age nor sex could afford an exemption. Only a few
+females, reserved for a fate more cruel than death, were intentionally
+spared; and not many were fortunate enough to escape into the
+fortified cities. The insurgents then assembled in vast numbers, and a
+bloody war commenced between them and the whites inhabiting the towns.
+The whole French part of the island was in imminent danger of being
+totally lost to the mother country. The minister of his Most Christian
+Majesty applied to the executive of the United States for a sum of
+money which would enable him to preserve this valuable colony, to be
+deducted out of the debt to his sovereign; and the request was granted
+in a manner evincing the interest taken by the administration in
+whatever might concern France.</p>
+
+<p>On the part of Spain, a desire had been expressed to adjust the
+subjects in controversy between the two nations by negotiations to be
+carried on at Madrid; and Mr. Carmichael, and Mr. Short, had been
+appointed commissioners, with powers equal to the object. In the mean
+time, the officers of that nation persisted in measures which were
+calculated to embroil the United States with the southern Indians. By
+their intrigues with the Creeks, the treaty formed in 1790 with
+M'Gillivray, was prevented from being ratified, and the boundary line
+then agreed upon was not permitted to be run. The indefinite claim of
+territory set up by Spain was alleged to constitute a sufficient
+objection to any new line of demarcation, until that claim should be
+settled; and her previous treaties and relations with the Creeks were
+declared to be infringed by their stipulation, acknowledging
+themselves to be under the protection of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>An official diplomatic intercourse had at length been opened with
+Great Britain also. Mr. Hammond, the minister plenipotentiary of that
+nation to the United States, arrived at Philadelphia in the autumn of
+1791; upon which, Mr. Thomas Pinckney, a gentleman of South Carolina,
+who was highly and justly respected, had been charged with the
+interests of his country at the court of London.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> Soon after the
+arrival of Mr. Hammond, the non-execution of the treaty of peace
+became the subject of a correspondence between him and the secretary
+of state, in which the complaints of their respective nations were
+urged in terms manifesting clearly the sense entertained by each of
+the justice of those complaints, without furnishing solid ground for
+the hope that they would be immediately removed on either side.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hammond's powers on the subject of a commercial treaty were far
+from being satisfactory. To the inquiries of Mr. Jefferson on this
+point, he replied, that he was authorized to enter into a negotiation
+respecting the commercial intercourse between the two countries, and
+to discuss those principles which might serve as a basis for a treaty,
+but not to <i>conclude</i> any definitive arrangements. In fact, there was
+much reason to believe that the obstacles to a commercial treaty
+between the two countries would not be soon or easily surmounted. In
+America, such an alteration in the law of nations as would permit the
+goods of an enemy to pass freely in the bottom of a neutral, was a
+favourite project; and a full participation of the colonial trade was
+also most earnestly desired. That the latter of these objects would
+not be readily conceded by Great Britain did not admit of a doubt; but
+many intelligent men, possessing great political influence, had
+embraced the opinion that she could be forced out of that colonial
+system which every European power having settlements in America had
+adopted, by regulations restricting her navigation and commerce with
+the United States. To those who entertained this opinion, no
+commercial treaty could be acceptable, which did not contain the
+concessions they required.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to a general knowledge of the sentiments of the British
+cabinet on these points, particular evidence had lately been received
+of its positive decision respecting them. A comprehensive report on
+American affairs had been made to the privy council by a committee of
+that body, which was laid before the king. A few copies of it had been
+printed for the members of the cabinet, which were soon called in by a
+sudden order of council; but one of these copies was obtained, and
+transmitted to the secretary of state of the United States. This
+report manifested a willingness to form a commercial treaty with the
+American government on principles of perfect equality, both with
+respect to navigation and commerce, so far as regarded the dominions
+of his Britannic Majesty in Europe; but it also discovered a
+determination, to adhere inflexibly to the existing regulations for
+the colonies; and to reject the principle that free bottoms make free
+goods.</p>
+
+<p>In this state paper the opinion was advanced, that several important
+articles of exportation from the United States, especially tobacco,
+had been peculiarly favoured in Great Britain; but that these friendly
+regulations were not reciprocated by America. The means of retaliating
+injuries which might be inflicted on British commerce were stated, but
+those means, it was said, ought not hastily to be adopted, the more
+especially, as the existing government of the United States had
+discovered dispositions more favourable to a liberal and fair
+intercourse between the two countries, than had been manifested by the
+respective states. For several reasons it was deemed adviseable not
+suddenly to disturb the existing state of things, but to regulate the
+trade of the two nations by a treaty, the stipulations of which should
+be equal, and mutually beneficial, provided such a treaty could be
+formed without a departure from those principles which were considered
+as fundamental.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General Wayne appointed to the command of the army.</div>
+
+<p>No abatement of hostility having taken place among the north-western
+Indians, the preparations for terminating the war by the sword were
+earnestly pressed. Major General Wayne was appointed to succeed
+General St. Clair, who resigned the command of the army; and the
+utmost exertions were made to complete it to the establishment; but
+the laws furnished such small inducements to engage in the service,
+that the highest military grades, next to that of Commander-in-chief,
+were declined by many to whom they were offered; and the recruiting
+business advanced too slowly to authorize a hope that the decisive
+expedition which was meditated, could be prudently undertaken in the
+course of the present year. Meanwhile, the public clamour against the
+war continued to be loud and violent. It was vehemently asserted, that
+if the intentions of the government respecting the savages were just
+and humane, those intentions were unknown to them, and that their
+resentments were kept up by the aggressions of whites, and by the
+opinion that their expulsion from the country they occupied was the
+object of the hostilities carried on against them. However satisfied
+the President might be of the fallacy of these opinions, they were too
+extensively maintained not to be respected, as far as was compatible
+with a due regard to the real interests of the nation. While,
+therefore, the preparations for offensive operations were hastened by
+a vigorous exertion of the means at the disposal of the executive, it
+was thought adviseable to make another effort to terminate the war by
+a direct communication of the pacific views of the United States.&#8212;The
+failure of these attempts was still less to be lamented than the fate
+of those who were employed in them. Colonel Harden and Major Trueman,
+two brave officers and valuable men, were severally despatched with
+propositions of peace, and each was murdered by the savages.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Meeting of congress.<br />President's speech.</div>
+
+<p>On the 5th of November congress again convened. In the speech
+delivered at the commencement of the session, Indian affairs were
+treated at considerable length, and the continuance of the war was
+mentioned as a subject of much regret. &quot;The reiterated endeavours,&quot; it
+was said, &quot;which had been made to effect a pacification, had hitherto
+issued in new and outrageous proofs of persevering hostility on the
+part of the tribes with whom the United States were in contest.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;A detail of the measures that had been pursued, and of their
+consequences, which would be laid before congress, while it would
+confirm the want of success thus far, would evince that means as
+proper and as efficacious as could have been devised, had been
+employed. The issue of some of them was still pending; but a
+favourable one, though not to be despaired of, was not promised by any
+thing that had yet happened.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>That a sanction, commonly respected even among savages, had been found
+insufficient to protect from massacre the emissaries of peace, was
+particularly noticed; and the families of those valuable citizens who
+had thus fallen victims to their zeal for the public service, were
+recommended to the attention of the legislature.</p>
+
+<p>That unprovoked aggression had been made by the southern Indians, and
+that there was just cause for apprehension that the war would extend
+to them also, was mentioned as a subject of additional concern.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Every practicable exertion had been made to be prepared for the
+alternative of prosecuting the war, in the event of a failure of
+pacific overtures. A large proportion of the troops authorized to be
+raised, had been recruited, though the numbers were yet incomplete;
+and pains had been taken to discipline them, and put them in a
+condition for the particular kind of service to be performed. But a
+delay of operations, besides being dictated by the measures that were
+pursuing towards a pacific termination of the war, had been in itself
+deemed preferable to immature efforts.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The humane system which has since been successfully pursued, of
+gradually civilizing the savages by improving their condition, of
+diverting them in some degree from hunting to domestic and
+agricultural occupations by imparting to them some of the most simple
+and useful acquisitions of society, and of conciliating them to the
+United States by a beneficial and well regulated commerce, had ever
+been a favourite object with the President, and the detailed view
+which was now taken of Indian affairs, was concluded with a repetition
+of his recommendations of these measures.</p>
+
+<p>The subject next adverted to in the speech, was the impediments which
+in some places continued to embarrass the collection of the duties on
+spirits distilled within the United States. After observing that these
+impediments were lessening in local extent, but that symptoms of such
+increased opposition had lately manifested themselves in certain
+places as, in his judgment, to render his special interposition
+adviseable, the President added,&#8212;&quot;Congress may be assured that
+nothing within constitutional and legal limits which may depend on me,
+shall be wanting to assert and maintain the just authority of the
+laws. In fulfilling this trust, I shall count entirely on the full
+co-operation of the other departments of government, and upon the
+zealous support of all good citizens.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After noticing various objects which would require the attention of
+the legislature, the President addressed himself particularly to the
+house of representatives, and said, &quot;I entertain a strong hope that
+the state of the national finances is now sufficiently matured to
+enable you to enter upon a systematic and effectual arrangement for
+the regular redemption and discharge of the public debt, according to
+the right which has been reserved to the government. No measure can be
+more desirable, whether viewed with an eye to its intrinsic
+importance, or to the general sentiments and wish of the nation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The addresses of the two houses in answer to the speech, were, as
+usual, respectful and affectionate. The several subjects recommended
+to the attention of congress were noticed either in general terms, or
+in a manner to indicate a coincidence of sentiment between the
+legislative and executive departments. The turbulent spirit which had
+manifested itself in certain parts of the union was mentioned by both
+houses with a just degree of censure, and the measures adopted by the
+President, as well as the resolution he expressed to compel obedience
+to the laws, were approved; and the house of representatives, in the
+most unqualified terms, declared opinions in favour of systematic and
+effectual arrangements for discharging the public debt. But the
+subsequent proceedings of the legislature did not fulfil the
+expectations excited by this auspicious commencement of the session.</p>
+
+<p>At an early day, in a committee of the whole house on the President's
+speech, Mr. Fitzsimmons moved &quot;that measures for the reduction of so
+much of the public debt as the United States have a right to redeem,
+ought to be adopted: and that the secretary of the treasury be
+directed to report a plan for that purpose.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This motion was objected to by Mr. Madison as being premature. The
+state of the finances, he thought, was not sufficiently understood to
+authorize the adoption of the measure it contemplated. The debate
+however soon took a different direction. That part of the resolution
+which proposed a reference to the secretary of the treasury was
+particularly opposed; and an ardent discussion ensued, in which,
+without much essential variation, the arguments which had before been
+urged on the same subject were again employed. After a vehement
+contest, the motion to amend the resolution by striking out the
+proposed reference was overruled, and it was carried in its original
+form.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenotey">1793</div>
+
+<p>In obedience to this order, the secretary made a report, in which he
+proposed a plan for the annual redemption of that portion of the debt,
+the payment of which was warranted by the contract between the United
+States and their creditors. But the expenses of the Indian war
+rendering it, in his opinion, unsafe to rest absolutely on the
+existing revenue, he proposed to extend the internal taxes to pleasure
+horses, or pleasure carriages, as the legislature might deem most
+eligible. The consideration of this report was deferred on various
+pretexts; and a motion was made to reduce the military establishment.
+The debate on this subject was peculiarly earnest; and, in its
+progress, the mode of conducting the Indian war, the relative merits
+and expensiveness of militia and of regular troops, and the danger to
+liberty from standing armies, were elaborately discussed. It was not
+until the fourth of January that the motion was rejected. While that
+question remained undecided, the report of the secretary was
+unavoidably postponed, because, on its determination would depend, in
+the opinion of many, the necessity of additional taxes. It would seem
+not improbable that the opponents of the American system of finances,
+who constituted rather a minority of the present congress, but who
+indulged sanguine hopes of becoming the majority in the next, were
+desirous of referring every question relating to the treasury
+department to the succeeding legislature, in which there would be a
+more full representation of the people. Whatever might be the
+operating motives for delay, neither the extension of the law imposing
+a duty on spirits distilled within the United States to the territory
+north-west of the river Ohio, nor the plan for redeeming the public
+debt, which was earnestly pressed by the administration, could be
+carried through the present congress. Those who claimed the favour and
+confidence of the people as a just reward for their general attachment
+to liberty, and especially for their watchfulness to prevent every
+augmentation of debt, were found in opposition to a system for its
+diminution, which was urged by men who were incessantly charged with
+entertaining designs for its excessive accumulation, in order to
+render it the corrupt instrument of executive influence. It might be
+expected that the public attention would be attracted to such a
+circumstance. But when party passions are highly inflamed, reason
+itself submits to their control, and becomes the instrument of their
+will. The assertion that the existing revenues, if not prodigally or
+corruptly wasted, were sufficient for the objects contemplated by the
+President in his speech, would constitute an ample apology for the
+impediments thrown in the way of a system which could not be directly
+disapproved, and would justify a continuance of the charge that the
+supporters of the fiscal system were friends to the augmentation of
+the public debt.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the motion for the reduction of the military establishment
+was disposed of, another subject was introduced, which effectually
+postponed, for the present session, every measure connected with the
+finances of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>An act of congress, which passed on the fourth of August, 1790,
+authorized the President to cause to be borrowed any sum not exceeding
+twelve millions of dollars, to be applied in payment of the foreign
+debt of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>A subsequent act, which passed on the 12th of the same month,
+authorized another loan not exceeding two millions, to be applied, in
+aid of the sinking fund, towards the extinguishment of the domestic
+debt.</p>
+
+<p>A power to make these loans was delegated by the President to the
+secretary of the treasury by a general commission referring to the
+acts. This commission was accompanied by written instructions,
+directing the payment of such parts of the foreign debt as should
+become due at the end of the year 1791; but leaving the secretary,
+with respect to the residue, to be regulated by the interests of the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>Under this commission two loans were negotiated in 1790, and others at
+subsequent periods.</p>
+
+<p>As many considerations of convenience opposed such an arrangement as
+would appropriate all the monies arising from either of these loans to
+one object, to the total exclusion of the other; and no motive was
+perceived for thus unnecessarily fettering the operations of the
+treasury; each loan was negotiated under both laws; and consequently
+the monies produced by each were applicable to both objects, in such
+proportions as the President might direct. It has been already
+observed that his written instructions had ordered the payment of
+those instalments of the foreign debt which should become due before
+the first of January, 1792; but no further sums on that account were
+to be borrowed until supplemental orders to that effect should be
+given, unless a loan could be made on such terms as would render it
+advantageous to the United States to anticipate the payments to their
+foreign creditors. It being the opinion of both the President and
+secretary that the official powers of the latter authorized him to
+draw the monies borrowed for domestic purposes into the treasury,
+where they would form a part of the sinking fund, and be applicable to
+the objects of that fund in conformity with the laws of appropriation,
+no written instructions were given respecting that part of the
+subject; but in the progress of the business, every material step
+which was taken was communicated to the President, and his directions
+obtained upon it. While the chief magistrate remained at the seat of
+government, these communications were verbal; when absent, they were
+made by letter.</p>
+
+<p>At this period, the domestic debt bore a low price in the market, and
+foreign capital was pouring into the United States for its purchase.
+The immediate application of the sinking fund to this object would
+consequently acquire a large portion of the debt, and would also
+accelerate its appreciation. The best interests of the United States,
+and his own fame, thus impelling the secretary to give the operations
+of the sinking fund the utmost activity of which it was susceptible,
+he had, with the approbation of the President, directed a part of the
+first loan to be paid in discharge of the instalments of the foreign
+debt which were actually due, and had drawn a part of it into the
+public treasury in aid of the sinking fund.</p>
+
+<p>In May, 1791, instructions were given to the agent of the United
+States in Europe, to apply the proceeds of future loans, as they
+should accrue, in payments to France, except such sums as should be
+previously and specially reserved. In the execution of these
+instructions, some delay intervened, which was to be ascribed, among
+other causes, to representations made by the French minister of marine
+that a plan would be adopted, to which a decree of the national
+assembly was requisite, for converting a large sum into supplies for
+St. Domingo: and to a desire on the part of the agent to settle,
+previously to further payments, a definitive rule by which the monies
+paid should be liquidated, and credited to the United States. The
+disordered state of French affairs protracted both the one and the
+other of these causes of delay, to a later period than had been
+expected; and, in the mean time, the secretary continued to draw into
+the United States such portions of these loans, as were destined to be
+brought in aid of the sinking fund. Such was the state of this
+transaction, when the commencement of those calamities, which have
+finally overwhelmed St. Domingo, induced the American government, on
+the urgent application of the French minister, to furnish supplies to
+that ill fated colony, in payment of the debt to France. This being a
+mode of payment which, to a certain extent, was desired by the
+creditor, and was advantageous to the debtor, a consequent disposition
+prevailed to use it so far as might comport with the wish of the
+French government; and a part of the money designed for foreign
+purposes, was drawn into the United States. In the course of these
+operations, a portion of the instalments actually due to France, had
+been permitted to remain unsatisfied.</p>
+
+<p>A part of the money borrowed in Europe being thus applicable to the
+extinguishment of the domestic debt, and a part of the domestic
+revenue being applicable to the payment of interest due on the loans
+made in Europe, the secretary of the treasury had appropriated a part
+of the money arising from foreign loans to the payment of interest due
+abroad, which had been replaced by the application of money in the
+treasury arising from domestic resources, to the purchase of the
+domestic debt.</p>
+
+<p>The secretary had not deemed it necessary to communicate these
+operations in detail to the legislature: but some hints respecting
+them having been derived either from certain papers which accompanied
+a report made to the house of representatives early in the session, or
+from some other source, Mr. Giles, on the 23d of January, moved
+several resolutions, requiring information, among other things, on the
+various points growing out of these loans, and the application of the
+monies arising from them, and respecting the unapplied revenues of the
+United States, and the places in which the sums so unapplied were
+deposited. In the speech introducing these resolutions, observations
+were made which very intelligibly implied charges of a much more
+serious nature than inattention to the exact letter of an
+appropriation law. Estimates were made to support the position that a
+large balance of public money was unaccounted for.</p>
+
+<p>The resolutions were agreed to without debate; and, in a few days, the
+secretary transmitted a report containing the information that was
+required.</p>
+
+<p>This report comprehended a full exposition of the views and motives
+which had regulated the conduct of the department, and a very able
+justification of the measures which had been adopted; but omitted to
+state explicitly that part of the money borrowed in Europe had been
+drawn into the United States with the sanction of the President.&#8212;It
+is also chargeable with some expressions which can not be pronounced
+unexceptionable, but which may find their apology in the feelings of a
+mind conscious of its own uprightness, and wounded by the belief that
+the proceedings against him had originated in a spirit hostile to fair
+inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>These resolutions, the observations which accompanied them, and the
+first number of the report, were the signals for a combined attack on
+the secretary of the treasury, through the medium of the press. Many
+anonymous writers appeared, who assailed the head of that department
+with a degree of bitterness indicative of the spirit in which the
+inquiry was to be conducted.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Resolutions implicating the secretary of the treasury
+rejected.</div>
+
+<p>On the 27th of February, not many days after the last number of the
+report was received, Mr. Giles moved sundry resolutions which were
+founded on the information before the house. The idea of a balance
+unaccounted for was necessarily relinquished; but the secretary of the
+treasury was charged with neglect of duty in failing to give congress
+official information of the monies drawn by him from Europe into the
+United States; with violating the law of the 4th of August, 1790, by
+applying a portion of the principal borrowed under it to the payment
+of interest, and by drawing a part of the same monies into the United
+States, without instructions from the President; with deviating from
+the instructions of the President in other respects; with negotiating
+a loan at the bank, contrary to the public interest, while public
+monies to a greater amount than were required, lay unemployed in the
+bank; and with an indecorum to the house, in undertaking to judge of
+its motives in calling for information which was demandable of him
+from the constitution of his office; and in failing to give all the
+necessary information within his knowledge relative to subjects on
+which certain specified references had been previously made to him.</p>
+
+<p>These resolutions were followed by one, directing that a copy of them
+should be transmitted to the President of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><a name="p479">The</a> debate on this subject, which commenced on the 28th of February,
+was continued to the 1st of March, and was conducted with a spirit of
+acrimony towards the secretary, demonstrating the soreness of the
+wounds that had been given and received in the political and party
+wars which had been previously waged.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> It terminated in a rejection
+of all the resolutions. The highest number voting in favour of any one
+of them was sixteen.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Congress adjourns.</div>
+
+<p>On the 3d of March, a constitutional period was put to the existence
+of the present congress. The members separated with obvious symptoms
+of extreme irritation. Various causes, the most prominent of which
+have already been noticed, had combined to organize two distinct
+parties in the United States, which were rapidly taking the form of a
+ministerial and an opposition party. By that in opposition, the
+President was not yet openly renounced. His personal influence was too
+great to be encountered by a direct avowal that he was at the head of
+their adversaries; and his public conduct did not admit of a suspicion
+that he could allow himself to rank as the chief of a party. Nor could
+public opinion be seduced to implicate him in the ambitious plans and
+dark schemes for the subversion of liberty, which were ascribed to a
+part of the administration, and to the leading members who had
+supported the measures of finance adopted by the legislature.</p>
+
+<p>Yet it was becoming apparent that things were taking a course which
+must inevitably involve him in the political conflicts which were
+about to take place. It was apparent that the charges against the
+secretary of the treasury would not be relinquished, and that they
+were of a nature to affect the chief magistrate materially, should his
+countenance not be withdrawn from that officer. It was equally
+apparent that the fervour of democracy, which was perpetually
+manifesting itself in the papers, in invectives against levees,
+against the trappings of royalty, and against the marks of peculiar
+respect<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> which were paid to the President, must soon include him
+more pointedly in its strictures.</p>
+
+<p>These divisions, which are inherent in the nature of popular
+governments, by which the chief magistrate, however unexceptionable
+his conduct, and however exalted his character, must, sooner or later,
+be more or less affected, were beginning to be essentially influenced
+by the great events of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Progress of the French revolution and its effects on
+parties in the United States.</div>
+
+<p>That revolution which has been the admiration, the wonder, and the
+terror of the civilized world, had, from its commencement, been viewed
+in America with the deepest interest. In its first stage, but one
+sentiment respecting it prevailed; and that was a belief, accompanied
+with an ardent wish, that it would improve the condition of France,
+extend the blessings of liberty, and promote the happiness of the
+human race. When the labours of the convention had terminated in a
+written constitution, this unanimity of opinion was in some degree
+impaired. By a few who had thought deeply on the science of
+government, and who, if not more intelligent, certainly judged more
+dispassionately than their fellow citizens, that instrument was
+believed to contain the principles of self destruction. It was feared
+that a system so ill balanced could not be permanent. A deep
+impression was made on the same persons by the influence of the
+galleries over the legislature, and of mobs over the executive; by the
+tumultuous assemblages of the people, and their licentious excesses
+during the short and sickly existence of the regal authority. These
+did not appear to be the symptoms of a healthy constitution, or of
+genuine freedom. Persuaded that the present state of things could not
+last, they doubted, and they feared for the future.</p>
+
+<p>In total opposition to this sentiment was that of the public. There
+seems to be something infectious in the example of a powerful and
+enlightened nation verging towards democracy, which imposes on the
+human mind, and leads human reason in fetters. Novelties, introduced
+by such a nation, are stripped of the objections which had been
+preconceived against them; and long settled opinions yield to the
+overwhelming weight of such dazzling authority. It wears the semblance
+of being the sense of mankind, breaking loose from the shackles which
+had been imposed by artifice, and asserting the freedom, and the
+dignity, of his nature.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution of France, therefore, was generally received with
+unqualified plaudits. The establishment of a legislature consisting of
+a single body, was defended not only as being adapted to the
+particular situation of that country, but as being right in itself.
+Certain anonymous writers, who supported the theory of a balanced
+government, were branded as the advocates of royalty, and of
+aristocracy. To question the duration of the present order of things
+was thought to evidence an attachment to unlimited monarchy, or a
+blind prejudice in favour of British institutions; and the partiality
+of America in favour of a senate was visibly declining.</p>
+
+<p>In this stage of the revolution, however, the division of sentiment
+was not marked with sufficient distinctness, nor the passions of the
+people agitated with sufficient violence, for any powerful effect to
+be produced on the two parties in America. But when the monarchy was
+completely overthrown, and a republic decreed,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> the people of the
+United States seemed electrified by the measure, and its influence was
+felt by the whole society. The war in which the several potentates of
+Europe were engaged against France, although in almost every instance
+declared by that power, was pronounced to be a war for the extirpation
+of human liberty, and for the banishment of free government from the
+face of the earth. The preservation of the constitution of the United
+States was supposed to depend on its issue; and the coalition against
+France was treated as a coalition against America also.</p>
+
+<p>A cordial wish for the success of the French arms, or rather that the
+war might terminate without any diminution of French power, and in
+such a manner as to leave the people of that country free to choose
+their own form of government, was, perhaps, universal; but, respecting
+the probable issue of their internal conflicts, perfect unanimity of
+opinion did not prevail. By some few individuals, the practicability
+of governing by a system formed on the republican model, an immense,
+populous, and military nation, whose institutions, habits, and morals,
+were adapted to monarchy, and which was surrounded by armed
+neighbours, was deemed a problem which time alone could solve. The
+circumstances under which the abolition of royalty was declared, the
+massacres which preceded it, the scenes of turbulence and violence
+which were acted in every part of the nation, appeared to them, to
+present an awful and doubtful state of things, respecting which no
+certain calculations could be made; and the idea that a republic was
+to be introduced and supported by force, was, to them, a paradox in
+politics. Under the influence of these appearances, the apprehension
+was entertained that, if the ancient monarchy should not be restored,
+a military despotism would be established. By the many, these
+unpopular doubts were deemed unpardonable heresies; and the few to
+whom they were imputed, were pronounced hostile to liberty. A
+suspicion that the unsettled state of things in France had contributed
+to suspend the payment of the debt to that nation, had added to the
+asperity with which the resolutions on that subject were supported;
+and the French revolution will be found to have had great influence on
+the strength of parties, and on the subsequent political transactions
+of the United States.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES.</h2>
+
+
+<h3><a name="NOTE1">NOTE</a>&#8212;No. I. <i>See <a href="#p98">Page 98</a>.</i></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> following is an extract from the orders of the preceding day. &quot;The
+Commander-in-chief orders the cessation of hostilities between the
+United States of America and the king of Great Britain to be publicly
+proclaimed to-morrow at twelve at the new building; and that the
+proclamation which will be communicated herewith, be read to-morrow
+evening at the head of every regiment, and corps of the army; after
+which the chaplains with the several brigades will render thanks to
+Almighty God for all his mercies, particularly for his overruling the
+wrath of man to his own glory, and causing the rage of war to cease
+among the nations.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Although the proclamation before alluded to, extends only to the
+prohibition of hostilities and not to the annunciation of a general
+peace, yet it must afford the most rational and sincere satisfaction
+to every benevolent mind, as it puts a period to a long and doubtful
+contest, stops the effusion of human blood, opens the prospect to a
+more splendid scene, and like another morning star, promises the
+approach of a brighter day than hath hitherto illuminated the western
+hemisphere. On such a happy day, which is the harbinger of peace, a
+day which completes the eighth year of the war, it would be
+ingratitude not to rejoice; it would be insensibility not to
+participate in the general felicity.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The Commander-in-chief, far from endeavouring to stifle the feelings
+of joy in his own bosom, offers his most cordial congratulations on
+the occasion to all the officers of every denomination, to all the
+troops of the United States in general, and in particular to those
+gallant and persevering men, who had resolved to defend the rights of
+their invaded country, so long as the war should continue. For these
+are the men who ought to be considered as the pride and boast of the
+American Army; and who, crowned with well-earned laurels, may soon
+withdraw from the field of glory, to the more tranquil walks of civil
+life.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;While the general recollects the almost infinite variety of scenes
+through which we have passed with a mixture of pleasure, astonishment
+and gratitude; while he contemplates the prospect before us with
+rapture, he can not help wishing that all the brave men (of whatever
+condition they may be,) who have shared in the toils and dangers of
+effecting this glorious revolution, of rescuing millions from the hand
+of oppression, and of laying the foundation of a great empire, might
+be impressed with a proper idea of the dignified part they have been
+called to act (under the smiles of Providence) on the stage of human
+affairs. For happy, thrice happy shall they be pronounced hereafter,
+who have contributed any thing; who have performed the meanest office
+in erecting this stupendous <i>fabric of freedom</i> and empire on the
+broad basis of independency; who have assisted in protecting the
+rights of human nature, and establishing an asylum for the poor and
+oppressed of all nations and religions. The glorious task for which we
+first flew to arms being thus accomplished, the liberties of our
+country being fully acknowledged and firmly secured by the smiles of
+heaven, on the purity of our cause, and on the honest exertions of a
+feeble people determined to be free, against a powerful nation
+disposed to oppress them, and the character of those who have
+persevered through every extremity of hardship, suffering, and danger,
+being immortalized by the illustrious appellation of the <i>patriot
+army</i>, nothing now remains but for the actors of this mighty scene to
+preserve a perfect unvarying consistency of character through the very
+last act; to close the drama with applause, and to retire from the
+military theatre with the same approbation of angels and men which has
+crowned all their former virtuous actions. For this purpose, no
+disorder or licentiousness must be tolerated: every considerate and
+well disposed soldier must remember, it will be absolutely necessary
+to wait with patience until peace shall be declared, or congress shall
+be enabled to take proper measures for the security of the public
+stores, &amp;c. As soon as these arrangements shall be made, the general
+is confident there will be no delay in discharging with every mark of
+distinction and honour all the men enlisted for the war who will then
+have faithfully performed their engagements with the public. The
+general has already interested himself in their behalf, and he thinks
+he need not repeat the assurances of his disposition to be useful to
+them on the present and every other proper occasion. In the mean time,
+he is determined that no military neglects or excesses shall go
+unpunished while he retains the command of the army.&quot;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="NOTE2">NOTE</a>&#8212;No. II. <i>See <a href="#p106">Page 106</a>.</i></h3>
+
+<p>On his way, he stopped a few days at Philadelphia, for the purpose of
+settling his accounts with the comptroller. The following account of
+this part of his duty is extracted from Mr. Gordon; &quot;while in the city
+he delivered in his accounts to the comptroller, down to December the
+13th, all in his own hand writing, and every entry made in the most
+particular manner, stating the occasion of each charge, so as to give
+the least trouble in examining and comparing them with the vouchers
+with which they were attended.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The heads as follows, copied from the folio manuscript paper book in
+the file of the treasury office, number 3700, being a black box of tin
+containing, under lock and key, both that and the vouchers.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="expenditures">
+  <tbody>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Total of expenditures from 1775 to 1783, exclusive of provisions from commissaries
+and contractors, and of liquors, &amp;c. from them and others,</td>
+<td>&#160;</td>
+<td style="text-align: right;">3,387</td>
+<td style="text-align: right;">14</td>
+<td style="text-align: right;">4</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Secret intelligence and service,</td>
+      <td>&#160;</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">1,982 </td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">10</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">0</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Spent in reconnoitring and travelling,</td>
+      <td>&#160;</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">1,874 </td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">8</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">0</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Miscellaneous charges,</td>
+      <td>&#160;</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">2,952 </td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">10</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">1</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Expended besides, dollars according to the scale of depreciation,</td>
+      <td>&#160;</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">6,114 </td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">14</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">0</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td>&#160;</td>
+        <td>&#160;<br /><i>l.</i></td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;<br />16,311</td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">&#8212;<br />17</td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">&#8212;<br />1</td>
+      </tr>
+    </tbody>
+    </table>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Two hundred guineas advanced to General M'Dougal are not included in
+the <i>l.</i> 1982 10 0 not being yet settled, but included in some of the
+other charges, and so reckoned in the general sum.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Note; 104,364, of the dollars were received after March, 1780, and
+although credited at forty for one, many did not fetch at the rate of
+a hundred for one; while 27,775 of them are returned without deducting
+any thing from the above account (and, therefore, actually made a
+present of to the public).&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="account">
+  <tbody>
+  <tr>
+    <td>General Washington's account from June, 1778 to the end of June, 1783,</td>
+    <td>&#160;</td>
+    <td style="text-align: right;">16,311</td>
+    <td style="text-align: right;">17</td>
+    <td style="text-align: right;">1</td>
+    <td rowspan="5">&#160;<p>&#160;</p>
+    &#160;<p>&#160;</p>
+    &#160;</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Expenditure from July 1, 1783, to December 13,</td>
+      <td>&#160;</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">1,717</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">5</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">4</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Added afterward from thence to December 28,</td>
+      <td>&#160;</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">213</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">8</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">4</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Mrs. Washington's travelling expenses in coming to the general and returning,</td>
+      <td>&#160;</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">1,064</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">1</td>
+      <td style="text-align: right;">0</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td>&#160;</td>
+        <td>&#160;<br /><i>l.</i></td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;<br />19,306</td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">&#8212;<br />11</td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">&#8212;<br />9</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td colspan="6">&#160;</td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td>Lawful money of Virginia, the same as Massachusetts, or sterling,</td>
+        <td><i>l.</i></td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">14,479</td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">18</td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">9</td>
+        <td style="text-align: right;">3-4</td>
+        </tr>
+    </tbody>
+    </table>
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+<p>The general entered in his book&#8212;&quot;I find upon the final adjustment of
+these accounts, that I am a considerable loser, my disbursements
+falling a good deal short of my receipts, and the money I had upon
+hand of my own: for besides the sums I carried with me to Cambridge in
+1775, I received monies afterwards on private account in 1777, and
+since, which (except small sums, that I had occasion now and then to
+apply to private uses) were all expended in the public service:
+through hurry, I suppose, and the perplexity of business, (for I know
+not how else to account for the deficiency) I have omitted to charge
+the same, whilst every debit against me is here credited.&quot;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right">July 1st, 1783.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="NOTE3">NOTE</a>&#8212;No. III. <i>See <a href="#p179">Page 179</a>.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The year 1784 had nearly passed away before the determination of the
+British cabinet not to evacuate the western posts was known to the
+government of the United States. In the spring of that year, General
+Knox, who commanded the troops still retained in the service of the
+United States, was directed to &quot;open a correspondence with the
+Commander-in-chief of his Britannic majesty's forces in Canada, in
+order to ascertain the precise time when each of the posts within the
+territories of the United States then occupied by the British troops
+should be delivered up.&quot; The measures produced by this resolution
+exhibit a curious specimen of the political opinions on the subject of
+federal powers, which then prevailed in congress.</p>
+
+<p>It being at that time believed that the British garrisons would
+certainly be withdrawn, it became necessary to provide for occupying
+the posts when surrendered, with troops belonging to the United
+States. A number deemed sufficient for the purpose not having been
+retained in service, a motion was made for raising seven hundred men,
+by requisitions on the states for that and other objects specified in
+the resolution. The power of congress to make these requisitions was
+seriously contested, and it was gravely urged that such a power,
+connected with the rights to borrow money, and to emit bills of
+credit, would be dangerous to liberty, and alarming to the states. The
+motion for raising this small number of regulars did not prevail; and
+an order was made that except twenty-five privates to guard the stores
+at fort Pitt, and fifty-five to guard those at West Point and other
+magazines, with a proportionable number of officers, no one to exceed
+the rank of captain, the troops already in service should be
+discharged, unless congress, before its recess, should dispose of them
+in some other manner. For the purpose of garrisoning the posts, seven
+hundred militia were required from Connecticut, New York, New Jersey
+and Pennsylvania, who should serve twelve months. While the
+discussions on this subject were pending, instructions from the
+legislature of New York to their delegates were laid before congress,
+requesting that body in terms of great strength, in pursuance of the
+confederation, to declare the number of troops of which the garrisons
+of those posts which were within the limits of that state should
+consist. The resolutions asserted a constitutional right to demand
+from congress a declaration upon this point, and avowed a
+determination to raise the troops should such declaration be withheld.
+After the determination of the British government not to surrender the
+posts was known, the militia ordered to be raised to garrison them,
+who were not in actual service, were discharged.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="NOTE4">NOTE</a>&#8212;No. IV. <i>See <a href="#p370">Page 370</a>.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the formation of this treaty, a question came on to be considered
+and decided which involved a principle that on an after occasion, and
+in a different case, excited a ferment never to be forgotten by those
+who took an active part in the politics of the day.</p>
+
+<p>The whole commerce of the Creek nation was in the hands of
+M'Gillivray, who received his supplies from a company of British
+merchants, free from duty, through the territories belonging to Spain.
+This circumstance constituted no inconsiderable impediment to the
+progress of the negotiation. M'Gillivray derived emoluments from the
+arrangement which he would not consent to relinquish; and was not
+without apprehensions, that Spain, disgusted by his new connexions
+with the United States, might throw embarrassments in the way of this
+profitable traffic. In addition to this consideration, it was, on the
+part of the United States, desirable to alter the channel through
+which the Indians should receive their supplies, and thereby to render
+them more dependent on the American government. But it would be
+necessary to exempt the goods designed for the Indian nation from the
+duties imposed by law on imported articles, and the propriety of such
+an exemption might well be questioned.</p>
+
+<p>With that cautious circumspection which marked his political course,
+the president took this point into early consideration, and required
+the opinion of his constitutional advisers respecting it. The
+secretary of state was of opinion that the stipulation for importing
+his goods through the United States, duty free, might safely be made.
+&quot;A treaty made by the president with the concurrence of two-thirds of
+the senate, was,&quot; he said, &quot;a law of the land,&quot; and a law of superior
+order, because it not only repeals past laws, but can not itself be
+repealed by future ones. The treaty then will legally control the duty
+act, and the act for licensing traders in this particular instance.
+From this opinion there is no reason to suppose that any member of the
+cabinet dissented. A secret article providing for the case was
+submitted to the senate, and it has never been understood that in
+advising and consenting to it, that body was divided.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="NOTE5">NOTE</a>&#8212;No. V. <i>See <a href="#p394">Page 394</a>.</i></h3>
+
+<p>This question was investigated with great labour, and being one
+involving principles of the utmost importance to the United States, on
+which the parties were divided, the subject was presented in all the
+views of which it was susceptible. A perusal of the arguments used on
+the occasion would certainly afford much gratification to the curious,
+and their insertion at full length would perhaps be excused by those
+who recollect the interest which at the time was taken in the measure
+to which they related, and the use which was made of it by the
+opponents of the then administration; but the limits prescribed for
+this work will not permit the introduction of such voluminous papers.
+It may, however, be expected that the outline of that train of
+reasoning with which each opinion was supported, and on which the
+judgment of the president was most probably formed, should be briefly
+stated.</p>
+
+<p>To prove that the measure was not sanctioned by the constitution, the
+general principle was asserted, that the foundation of that instrument
+was laid on this ground, &quot;that all powers not delegated to the United
+States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are
+reserved to the states or to the people.&quot; To take a single step beyond
+the boundaries thus specially drawn around the powers of congress, is
+to take possession of a boundless field of power, no longer
+susceptible of definition.</p>
+
+<p>The power in question was said not to be among those which were
+specially enumerated, nor to be included within either of the general
+phrases which are to be found in the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>The article which contains this enumeration was reviewed; each
+specified power was analyzed; and the creation of a corporate body was
+declared to be distinct from either of them.</p>
+
+<p>The general phrases are,</p>
+
+<p>1st. To lay taxes to provide for the general welfare of the United
+States. The power here conveyed, it was observed, was &quot;to lay taxes,&quot;
+the purpose was &quot;the general welfare.&quot; Congress could not lay taxes
+<i>ad libitum</i>, but could only lay them for the general welfare; nor did
+this clause authorize that body to provide for the general welfare
+otherwise than by laying taxes for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>2dly. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for
+carrying into execution the enumerated powers.</p>
+
+<p>But they can all be carried into execution without a bank. A bank,
+therefore, is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this
+phrase.</p>
+
+<p>It had been much urged that a bank would give great facility or
+convenience in the collection of taxes. Suppose this were true; yet
+the constitution allows only the means which are necessary, not those
+which are convenient. If such a latitude of construction be allowed
+this phrase, as to give any non-enumerated power, it will go to every
+one; for there is no one which ingenuity may not torture into a
+<i>convenience, in some way or other, to some one</i> of so long a list of
+enumerated powers. It would swallow up all the list of enumerated
+powers, and reduce the whole to one phrase. Therefore it was that the
+constitution restrained them to <i>necessary</i> means, that is to say, to
+those means without which the grant of the power must be nugatory.</p>
+
+<p>The convenience was then examined. This had been stated in the report
+of the secretary of the treasury to congress, to consist in the
+augmentation of the circulation medium, and in preventing the
+transportation and retransportation of money between the states and
+the treasury.</p>
+
+<p>The first was considered as a demerit. The second, it was said, might
+be effected by other means. Bills of exchange and treasury drafts
+would supply the place of bank notes. Perhaps indeed bank bills would
+be a more convenient vehicle than treasury orders; but a little
+difference in the degree of convenience can not constitute the
+<i>necessity</i> which the constitution makes the ground for assuming any
+non-enumerated power.</p>
+
+<p>Besides, the existing state banks would, without doubt, enter into
+arrangements for lending their agency. This expedient alone suffices
+to prevent the existence of that <i>necessity</i> which may justify the
+assumption of a non-enumerated power as a means for carrying into
+effect an enumerated one.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that a bank whose bills would have a currency all over
+the states, would be more convenient than one whose currency is
+limited to a single state. So it would be still more convenient that
+there should be a bank whose bills should have a currency all over the
+world; but it does not follow from this superior conveniency, that
+there exists any where a power to establish such a bank, or that the
+world may not go on very well without it.</p>
+
+<p>For a shade or two of convenience, more or less, it can not be
+imagined that the constitution intended to invest congress with a
+power so important as that of erecting a corporation.</p>
+
+<p>In supporting the constitutionality of the act, it was laid down as a
+general proposition, &quot;that every power vested in a government is in
+its nature <i>sovereign</i>,&quot; and includes by <i>force</i> of the <i>term</i>, a
+right to employ all the <i>means</i> requisite and <i>fairly applicable to</i>
+the attainment of the <i>ends</i> of such power; and which are not
+precluded by restrictions and exceptions specified in the
+constitution, are not immoral, are not contrary to the essential ends
+of political society.</p>
+
+<p>This principle, in its application to government in general, would be
+admitted as an axiom; and it would be incumbent on those who might
+refuse to acknowledge its influence in American affairs to <i>prove</i> a
+distinction; and to show that a rule which, in the general system of
+things, is essential to the preservation of the social order, is
+inapplicable to the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The circumstance that the powers of sovereignty are divided between
+the national and state governments, does not afford the distinction
+required. It does not follow from this, that each of the portions of
+power delegated to the one or to the other, is not sovereign with
+regard to its <i>proper objects</i>. It will only follow from it, that each
+has sovereign power as to certain things, and not as to other things.
+If the government of the United States does not possess sovereign
+power as to its declared purposes and trusts, because its power does
+not extend to all cases, neither would the several states possess
+sovereign power in any case; for their powers do not extend to every
+case. According to the opinion intended to be combated, the United
+States would furnish the singular spectacle of <i>a political society</i>
+without <i>sovereignty</i>, or a people <i>governed</i> without a <i>government</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If it could be necessary to bring proof of a proposition so clear as
+that which affirms that the powers of the federal government, <i>as to
+its objects</i>, were sovereign, there is a clause in the constitution
+which is decisive. It is that which declares the constitution of the
+United States, the laws made in pursuance of it, and the treaties made
+under its authority to be the supreme law of the land. The power which
+can create the supreme law in any case, is doubtless sovereign as to
+such case.</p>
+
+<p>This general and indisputable principle puts an end to the abstract
+question, whether the United States have power to erect a corporation:
+for it is unquestionably incident to sovereign power to erect
+corporations, and consequently to that of the United States, in
+relation to the objects intrusted to the management of the government.
+The difference is this: where the authority of the government is
+general, it can create corporations <i>in all cases</i>; where it is
+confined to certain branches of legislation, it can create
+corporations only <i>in those cases</i>.</p>
+
+<p>That the government of the United States can exercise only those
+powers which are delegated by the constitution, is a proposition not
+to be controverted; neither is it to be denied on the other hand, that
+there are implied as well as express powers, and that the former are
+as effectually delegated as the latter. For the sake of accuracy it
+may be observed, that there are also <i>resulting</i> powers. It will not
+be doubted that if the United States should make a conquest of any of
+the territories of its neighbours, they would possess sovereign
+jurisdiction over the conquered territory. This would rather be a
+result of the whole mass of the powers of the government, and from the
+nature of political society, than a consequence of either of the
+powers specially enumerated. This is an extensive case in which the
+power of erecting corporations is either implied in, or would result
+from some or all of the powers vested in the national government.</p>
+
+<p>Since it must be conceded that implied powers are as completely
+delegated as those which are expressed, it follows that, as a power of
+erecting a corporation may as well be implied as any other thing, it
+may as well be employed as an <i>instrument</i> or <i>mean</i> of carrying into
+execution any of the specified powers as any other <i>instrument</i> or
+<i>mean</i> whatever. The question in this as in every other case must be,
+whether the mean to be employed has a natural relation to any of the
+acknowledged objects or lawful ends of the government. Thus a
+corporation may not be created by congress for superintending the
+police of the city of Philadelphia, because they are not authorized to
+regulate the police of that city; but one may be created in relation
+to the collection of the taxes, or to the trade with foreign
+countries, or between the states, or with the Indian tribes, because
+it is in the province of the federal government to regulate those
+objects; and because it is incident to a general sovereign or
+legislative power to regulate a thing, to employ all the means which
+relate to its regulation, to the best and greatest advantage.</p>
+
+<p>A strange fallacy seems to have crept into the manner of thinking and
+reasoning upon this subject. The imagination has presented an
+incorporation as some great, <i>independent, substantive</i> thing&#8212;as a
+political end of peculiar magnitude and moment; whereas it is truly to
+be considered as a quality, capacity, or mean to an end. Thus a
+mercantile company is formed with a certain capital for the purpose of
+carrying on a particular branch of business. The business to be
+prosecuted is the <i>end</i>. The association in order to form the
+requisite capital is the primary <i>mean</i>. Let an incorporation be
+added, and you only add a new quality to that association which
+enables it to prosecute the business with more safety and convenience.
+The association when incorporated still remains the <i>mean</i>, and can
+not become the <i>end</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To this reasoning respecting the inherent right of government to
+employ all the means requisite to the execution of its specified
+powers, it is objected, that none but <i>necessary</i> and <i>proper</i> means
+can be employed; and none can be <i>necessary</i>, but those without which
+the grant of the power would be nugatory. So far has this restrictive
+interpretation been pressed as to make the case of <i>necessity</i> which
+shall warrant the constitutional exercise of a power, to depend on
+casual and temporary circumstances; an idea, which alone confutes the
+construction. The expedience of exercising a particular power, at a
+particular time, must indeed depend on circumstances, but the
+constitutional right of exercising it must be uniform and invariable.
+All the arguments, therefore, drawn from the accidental existence of
+certain state banks which happen to exist to-day, and for aught that
+concerns the government of the United States may disappear to-morrow,
+must not only be rejected as fallacious, but must be viewed as
+demonstrative that there is a radical source of error in the
+reasoning.</p>
+
+<p>But it is essential to the being of the government that so erroneous a
+conception of the meaning of the word <i>necessary</i> should be exploded.</p>
+
+<p>It is certain that neither the grammatical nor popular sense of the
+term requires that construction. According to both, <i>necessary</i> often
+means no more than <i>needful, requisite, incidental, useful</i>, or
+<i>conducive to</i>. It is a common mode of expression to say that it is
+necessary for a government or a person to do this or that thing, where
+nothing more is intended or understood than that the interests of the
+government or person require, or will be promoted by doing this or
+that thing.</p>
+
+<p>This is the true sense in which the word is used in the constitution.
+The whole turn of the clause containing it indicates an intent to give
+by it a liberal latitude to the exercise of the specified powers. The
+expressions have peculiar comprehensiveness. They are &quot;to make <i>all
+laws</i> necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing
+powers, and <i>all other</i> powers vested by the constitution in the
+government of the United States, or in any <i>department</i> or <i>office</i>
+thereof.&quot; To give the word &quot;necessary&quot; the restrictive operation
+contended for, would not only depart from its obvious and popular
+sense, but would give it the same force as if the word <i>absolutely</i> or
+<i>indispensably</i> had been prefixed to it.</p>
+
+<p>Such a construction would beget endless uncertainty and embarrassment.
+The cases must be palpable and extreme in which it could be pronounced
+with certainty that a measure was absolutely necessary, or one without
+which a given power would be nugatory. There are few measures of any
+government which would stand so severe a test. To insist upon it would
+be to make the criterion of the exercise of an implied power <i>a case
+of extreme necessity</i>; which is rather a rule to justify the
+overleaping the bounds of constitutional authority than to govern the
+ordinary exercise of it.</p>
+
+<p>The degree in which a measure is necessary can never be a test of the
+legal right to adopt it. The relation between the <i>measure</i> and the
+<i>end</i>; between the nature of the <i>mean</i> employed towards the execution
+of a power, and the object of that power must be the criterion of
+constitutionality, not the more or less <i>necessity</i> or <i>utility</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The means by which national exigencies are to be provided for,
+national inconveniences obviated, and national prosperity promoted,
+are of such infinite variety, extent, and complexity, that here must
+of necessity be great latitude of discretion in the selection and
+application of those means. Hence the necessity and propriety of
+exercising the authority intrusted to a government on principles of
+liberal construction.</p>
+
+<p>While on the one hand, the restrictive interpretation of the word
+<i>necessary</i> is deemed inadmissible, it will not be contended on the
+other, that the clause in question gives any new and independent
+power. But it gives an explicit sanction to the doctrine of implied
+powers, and is equivalent to an admission of the proposition that the
+government, <i>as to its specified powers and objects</i>, has plenary and
+sovereign authority.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that the power to create corporations is not granted in
+terms. Neither is the power to pass any particular law, nor to employ
+any of the means by which the ends of the government are to be
+attained. It is not expressly given in cases in which its existence is
+not controverted. For by the grant of a power to exercise exclusive
+legislation in the territory which may be ceded by the states to the
+United States, it is admitted to pass; and in the power &quot;to make all
+needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other
+property of the United States,&quot; it is acknowledged to be implied. In
+virtue of this clause, has been implied the right to create a
+government; that is, to create a body politic or corporation of the
+highest nature; one that, in its maturity, will be able itself to
+create other corporations. Thus has the constitution itself refuted
+the argument which contends that, had it been designed to grant so
+important a power as that of erecting corporations, it would have been
+mentioned. But this argument is founded on an exaggerated and
+erroneous conception of the nature of the power. It is not of so
+transcendent a kind as the reasoning supposes. Viewed in a just light,
+it is a <i>mean</i> which ought to have been left to implication, rather
+than an <i>end</i> which ought to have been expressly granted.</p>
+
+<p>The power of the government then to create corporations in certain
+cases being shown, it remained to inquire into the right to
+incorporate a banking company, in order to enable it the more
+effectually to accomplish <i>ends</i> which were in themselves lawful.</p>
+
+<p>To establish such a right it would be necessary to show the relation
+of such an institution to one or more of the specified powers of
+government.</p>
+
+<p>It was then affirmed to have a relation more or less direct to the
+power of collecting taxes, to that of borrowing money, to that of
+regulating trade between the states, to those of raising, supporting,
+and maintaining fleets and armies; and in the last place to that which
+authorizes the making of all needful rules and regulations concerning
+the property of the United States, as the same had been practised upon
+by the government.</p>
+
+<p>The secretary of the treasury next proceeded, by a great variety of
+arguments and illustrations, to prove the position that the measure in
+question was a proper mean for the execution of the several powers
+which were enumerated, and also contended that the right to employ it
+resulted from the whole of them taken together. To detail those
+arguments would occupy too much space, and is the less necessary,
+because their correctness obviously depends on the correctness of the
+principles which have been already stated.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="NOTE6">NOTE</a>&#8212;No. VI. <i>See <a href="#p434">Page 434</a>.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The officer to whom the management of the finances was confided was so
+repeatedly charged with a desire to increase the public debt and to
+render it perpetual, and this charge had such important influence in
+the formation of parties, that an extract from this report can not be
+improperly introduced.</p>
+
+<p>After stating the sum to be raised, the secretary says, &quot;three
+expedients occur to the option of the government for providing this:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;One, to dispose of the interest to which the United States are
+entitled in the bank of the United States. This at the present market
+price of bank stock would yield a clear gain to the government much
+more than adequate to the sum required.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Another, to borrow the money upon an establishment of funds either
+merely commensurate with the interest to be paid, or affording a
+surplus which will discharge the principal by instalments within a
+short term.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The third is to raise the amount by taxes.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After stating his objections to the first and second expedients, the
+report proceeds thus, &quot;but the result of mature reflection is, in the
+mind of the secretary, a strong conviction that the last of the three
+expedients which have been mentioned, is to be preferred to either of
+the other two.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Nothing can more interest the national credit and prosperity than a
+constant and systematic attention to husband all the means previously
+possessed for extinguishing the present debt, and to avoid, as much as
+possible, the incurring of any new debt.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Necessity alone, therefore, can justify the application of any of the
+public property, other than the annual revenues, to the current
+service, or the temporary and casual exigencies; or the contracting of
+an additional debt by loans, to provide for those exigencies.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Great emergencies indeed might exist, in which loans would be
+indispensable. But the occasions which will justify them must be truly
+of that description.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The present is not of such a nature. The sum to be provided is not of
+magnitude enough to furnish the plea of necessity.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Taxes are never welcome to a community. They seldom fail to excite
+uneasy sensations more or less extensive. Hence a too strong
+propensity in the governments of nations, to anticipate and mortgage
+the resources of posterity, rather than to encounter the
+inconveniencies of a present increase of taxes.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;But this policy, when not dictated by very peculiar circumstances, is
+of the worst kind. Its obvious tendency is, by enhancing the permanent
+burdens of the people, to produce lasting distress, and its natural
+issue is in national bankruptcy.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It will be happy if the councils of this country, sanctioned by the
+voice of an enlightened community, shall be able to pursue a different
+course.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="NOTE7">NOTE</a>&#8212;No. VII. <i>See <a href="#p450">Page 450</a>.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>About the same time a letter was addressed to the attorney
+general on the same subject. The following extract is taken
+from one of the twenty-sixth of August to the secretary of
+the treasury.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>&quot;Differences in political opinions are as unavoidable as, to a certain
+point, they may be necessary; but it is exceedingly to be regretted
+that subjects can not be discussed with temper, on the one hand, or
+decisions submitted to on the other, without improperly implicating
+the motives which led to them; and this regret borders on chagrin when
+we find that men of abilities, zealous patriots, having the same
+<i>general</i> objects in view, and the same upright intentions to
+prosecute them, will not exercise more charity in deciding on the
+opinions and actions of each other. When matters get to such lengths,
+the natural inference is that both sides have strained the cords
+beyond their bearing, that a middle course would be found the best
+until experience shall have decided on the right way; or, which is not
+to be expected, because it is denied to mortals, until there shall be
+some infallible rule by which to forejudge events.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Having premised these things, I would fain hope that liberal
+allowances will be made for the political opinions of each other; and
+instead of those wounding suspicions, and irritating charges with
+which some of our gazettes are so strongly impregnated, and which can
+not fail, if persevered in, of pushing matters to extremity, and
+thereby tearing the machine asunder, that there might be mutual
+forbearance and temporising yieldings on <i>all sides</i>. Without these, I
+do not see how the reins of government are to be managed, or how the
+union of the states can be much longer preserved.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;How unfortunate would it be if a fabric so goodly, erected under so
+many providential circumstances, after acquiring in its first stages,
+so much respectability, should, from diversity of sentiment, or
+internal obstructions to some of the acts of government (for I can not
+prevail on myself to believe that these measures are as yet the acts
+of a determined party) be brought to the verge of dissolution.
+Melancholy thought! But while it shows the consequences of diversified
+opinions, where pushed with too much tenacity, it exhibits evidence
+also of the necessity of accommodation, and of the propriety of
+adopting such healing measures as may restore harmony to the
+discordant members of the union, and the governing powers of it.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I do not mean to apply this advice to any measures which are passed,
+or to any particular character. I have given it, in the same <i>general</i>
+terms, to other officers of the government. My earnest wish is that
+balm may be poured into <i>all</i> the wounds which have been given, to
+prevent them from gangrening, and to avoid those fatal consequences
+which the community may sustain if it is withheld. The friends of the
+union must wish this: those who are not, but who wish to see it
+rended, will be disappointed; and all things I hope will go well.&quot;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="NOTE8">NOTE</a>&#8212;No. VIII. <i>See <a href="#p479">Page 479</a>.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The gazettes of the day contain ample proofs on this subject. All the
+bitterness of party spirit had poured itself out in the most severe
+invectives against the heads of the state and treasury departments.</p>
+
+<p>The secretary of the treasury was represented as the advocate of
+&quot;aristocracy, monarchy, hereditary succession, a titled order of
+nobility, and all the other mock pageantry of kingly government.&quot; He
+was arraigned at the bar of the public for holding principles
+unfavourable to the sovereignty of the people, and with inculcating
+doctrines insinuating their inability to rule themselves. The theory
+of the British monarchy was said to have furnished his model for a
+perfect constitution; and all his systems of finance, which were
+represented as servile imitations of those previously adopted by
+England, were held up to public execration as being intended to
+promote the favourite project of assimilating the government of the
+United States to that of Great Britain. With this view, he had
+entailed upon the nation a heavy debt, and perpetual taxes; had
+created an artificial monied interest which had corrupted, and would
+continue to corrupt the legislature; and was endeavouring to prostrate
+the local authorities as a necessary step towards erecting that great
+consolidated monarchy which he contemplated.</p>
+
+<p>To support some of these charges, sentences and parts of sentences
+were selected from his reports, which expressed the valuable purposes
+to which a funded debt might be applied, and were alleged to affirm,
+as an abstract principle, &quot;that a public debt was a public blessing.&quot;
+He was, it was added, the inveterate enemy of Mr. Jefferson, because,
+in the republican principles of that gentleman, he perceived an
+invincible obstacle to his views.</p>
+
+<p>If the counter charges exhibited against the secretary of state were
+less capable of alarming the fears of the public for liberty, and of
+directing the resentments of the people against that officer as the
+enemy of their rights, they were not less calculated to irritate his
+personal friends, and to wound his own feelings.</p>
+
+<p>The adversaries of this gentleman said, that he had been originally
+hostile to the constitution of the United States, and adverse to its
+adoption; and &quot;that his avowed opinions tended to national disunion,
+national insignificance, public disorder, and discredit.&quot; Under the
+garb of democratic simplicity, and modest retiring philosophy, he
+covered an inordinate ambition which grasped unceasingly at power, and
+sought to gratify itself, by professions of excessive attachment to
+liberty, and by traducing and lessening in the public esteem, every
+man in whom he could discern a rival. To this aspiring temper they
+ascribed, not only &quot;those pestilent whispers which, clandestinely
+circulating through the country, had, as far as was practicable,
+contaminated some of its fairest and worthiest characters,&quot; but also
+certain publications affecting the reputation of prominent individuals
+whom he might consider as competitors with himself for the highest
+office in the state. A letter written by Mr. Jefferson to a printer,
+transmitting for publication the first part of &quot;the rights of man,&quot;
+which letter was prefixed to the American edition of that pamphlet,
+contained allusions to certain &quot;political heresies&quot; of the day, which
+were understood to imply a serious censure on the opinions of the vice
+president: and the great object of the national gazette, a paper known
+to be edited by a clerk in the department of state, was &quot;to calumniate
+and blacken public characters, and, particularly, to destroy the
+public confidence in the secretary of the treasury, who was to be
+hunted down for the unpardonable sin of having been the steady and
+invariable friend of broad principles of national government.&quot; It was
+also said that his connexions with this paper, and the patronage he
+afforded it, authorized the opinion that it might fairly be considered
+&quot;the mirror of his views,&quot; and thence was adduced an accusation not
+less serious in its nature than that which has been already stated.</p>
+
+<p>The national gazette was replete with continual and malignant
+strictures on the leading measures of the administration, especially
+those which were connected with the finances. &quot;If Mr. Jefferson's
+opposition to these measures had ceased when they had received the
+sanction of law, nothing more could have been said than that he had
+transgressed the rules of official decorum in entering the lists with
+the head of another department, and had been culpable in pursuing a
+line of conduct which was calculated to sow the seeds of discord in
+the executive branch of the government in the infancy of its
+existence. But when his opposition extended beyond that point, when it
+was apparent that he wished to <i>render odious</i>, and of course to
+<i>subvert</i> (for in a popular government these are convertible terms)
+all those deliberate and solemn acts of the legislature which had
+become the pillars of the public credit, his conduct deserved to be
+regarded with a still severer eye.&quot; It was also said to be peculiarly
+unfit for a person remaining at the head of one of the great executive
+departments, openly to employ all his influence in exciting the public
+rage against the laws and the legislature of the union, and in giving
+circulation to calumnies against his colleagues in office, from the
+contamination of which the chief magistrate himself could not hope
+entirely to escape.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h3>END OF VOLUME IV.</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</a></h2>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Higher up, this river is called the Catawba.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> This account of the battle of Hobkirk's Hill varies in
+several particulars from that contained in the first edition. In
+making the alteration the author has followed the letter of General
+Davie, published in Mr. Johnson's biography of General Greene. General
+Davie was known to the author to be a gentleman in whose
+representations great confidence is to be placed on every account, and
+his situation in the army enabled him to obtain the best information.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> There is some variance between this statement and that
+which has been made by Mr. Ramsay and Mr. Gordon, although their
+estimates are supposed to have been formed on the same document&#8212;the
+field return made by the adjutant general of the southern army, dated
+the 26th of April. This return contains a column of the present fit
+for duty, and also exhibits the killed, wounded, and missing, but
+contains no column of total numbers. Mr. Ramsay and Mr. Gordon are
+supposed to have taken the column of present fit for duty as
+exhibiting the strength of the army on the day of the battle; but as
+this return was made the day after the action, the author has supposed
+that the killed, wounded, and missing, must be added to the numbers
+fit for duty on the day of the return, to give the actual strength of
+the army at the time of the engagement.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Mr. Johnson states that Captain M'Cauley, of South
+Carolina, had joined Armstrong and Carrington. Some of the troopers
+were killed on the bridge.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The execution of Colonel Hayne has been generally
+ascribed to Lord Rawdon, and that gallant nobleman has been censured
+throughout America for an act which has been universally execrated. A
+letter addressed by him to the late General Lee, on receiving the
+memoirs of the southern war, written by that gentleman, which has been
+published in the &quot;View of the Campaign of 1781, in the Carolinas, by
+H. Lee,&quot; gives the British view of that transaction, and exonerates
+Lord Rawdon from all blame. Lieutenant Colonel Balfour commanded, and
+Lord Rawdon sought to save Colonel Hayne.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The British accounts acknowledge only two hundred and
+fifty-seven missing; but General Greene, in his letter of the ninth of
+September, says, that including seventy wounded who were left at
+Eutaw, he made five hundred prisoners.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> During this campaign a very effective expedition against
+the Cherokees was conducted by General Pickens. When the struggle for
+South Carolina recommenced, those savages were stimulated to renew
+their incursions into the settlements of the whites. At the head of
+about four hundred mounted militia, Pickens penetrated into their
+country, burned thirteen of their villages, killed upwards of forty
+Indians, and took a number of prisoners, without the loss of a single
+man. On this occasion a new and formidable mode of attack was
+introduced. The militia horse rushed upon the Indians, and charged
+them sword in hand. Terrified at the rapidity of the pursuit, the
+Cherokees humbly sued for peace, which was granted on terms calculated
+to restrain depredations in future.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> In the judicious orders given to Wayne, Greene
+endeavoured to impress on that officer the importance of a course of
+conduct, always observed by himself, which might tend to conciliate
+parties. &quot;Try,&quot; says he, &quot;by every means in your power, to soften the
+malignity and dreadful resentments subsisting between the Whig and
+Tory; and put a stop as much as possible to that cruel custom of
+putting men to death after they surrender themselves prisoners. The
+practice of plundering you will endeavour to check as much as
+possible; and point out to the militia the ruinous consequences of the
+policy. Let your discipline be as regular and as rigid as the nature
+and constitution of your troops will admit.&quot;&#8212;2 <i>Johnson</i>, 277.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The distresses of the southern army were such that, if
+plainly described, truth would wear the appearance of fiction. They
+were almost naked and barefooted, frequently without food, and always
+without pay. That he might relieve them when in the last extremity,
+without diminishing the exertions of their general to derive support
+from other sources, by creating an opinion that supplies could be
+drawn from him, Mr. Morris, as was stated by himself in conversation
+with the author, employed an agent to attend the southern army as a
+volunteer, whose powers were unknown to General Greene. This agent was
+instructed to watch its situation; and, whenever it appeared
+impossible for the general to extricate himself from his
+embarrassments, to furnish him, on his pledging the public faith for
+repayment, with a draught on the financier for such a sum as would
+relieve the urgency of the moment. Thus was Greene occasionally
+rescued from impending ruin by aids which appeared providential, and
+for which he could not account.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Secret Journals of Congress, vol. 2, pp. 305, 399, 400,
+452.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Secret Journals of Congress, v. 2, pp. 412, 418, 454.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Secret Journals of Congress, v. 3, p. 249.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> In addition to the public documents and accounts, the
+author received a statement of this action in a letter from his friend
+Captain Parker.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> By a resolution of the preceding year, the inquiry into
+his conduct had been dispensed with, and he had been restored to his
+command in the army.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See note,
+  <a href="#NOTE1">No. I.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Gordon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See note,
+  <a href="#NOTE2">No. II.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> General Mifflin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> &quot;Resolved that the statue be of bronze: the general to
+be represented in a Roman dress, holding a truncheon in his right
+hand, and his head encircled with a laurel wreath. The statue to be
+supported by a marble pedestal on which are to be represented, in
+basso relievo, the following principal events of the war, in which
+General Washington commanded in person: the evacuation of Boston:&#8212;the
+capture of the Hessians at Trenton:&#8212;the battle of Princeton:&#8212;the
+action of Monmouth:&#8212;and the surrender of York.&#8212;On the upper part of
+the front of the pedestal to be engraved as follows: the United States
+in congress assembled, ordered this statue to be erected in the year
+of our Lord 1783, in honour of George Washington, the illustrious
+Commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States of America,
+during the war which vindicated and secured their liberty, sovereignty
+and independence.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> This resolution has been carried into execution. The
+statue it ordained now stands in the capitol of Virginia, in a
+spacious area in the centre of the building. A bust of the Marquis de
+Lafayette, which was also directed by the legislature, is placed in a
+niche of the wall in the same part of the building.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> About one hundred and fifty miles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Mr. Jefferson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> General Gates was associated with him in the mission.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> It is in these words; &quot;whereas it is the desire of the
+representatives of this commonwealth to embrace every suitable
+occasion of testifying their sense of the unexampled merits of George
+Washington, esquire, towards his country, and it is their wish in
+particular that those great works for its improvement, which both as
+springing from the liberty which he has been so instrumental in
+establishing, and as encouraged by his patronage, will be durable
+monuments of his glory, may be made monuments also of the gratitude of
+his country. Be it enacted, &amp;c.&quot; This bill is understood to have been
+drawn by Mr. Madison.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Mr. Madison.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Mr. Fitzsimmons, and Mr. Rutledge.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> On a subsequent occasion, an attempt was made to obtain
+a resolution of congress, recommending as an additional amendment to
+the eighth article of the confederation, that the taxes for the use of
+the continent should be laid and levied separate from any other tax,
+and should be paid directly into the national treasury; and that the
+collectors respectively should be liable to an execution to be issued
+by the treasurer, or his deputy, under the direction of congress, for
+any arrears of taxes by him to be collected, which should not be paid
+into the treasury in conformity with the requisitions of congress.
+</p><p>
+Such was the prevalence of state policy, even in the government of the
+union, or such the conviction of the inutility of recommending such an
+amendment, that a vote of congress could not be obtained for asking
+this salutary regulation as a security for the revenue only for eight
+years.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> See note,
+  <a href="#NOTE3">No. III.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> The facts relative to this negotiation were stated in
+the correspondence of General Washington. The statement is supported
+by the Secret Journals of Congress, vol. 4, p. 329, and those which
+follow.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Edmund Randolph, James Madison, Walter Jones, St. George
+Tucker, and Meriwether Smith.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Mr. Jay.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
+and Virginia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Mr. Madison.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Mr. Randolph.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> General Knox.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> This sentiment was far from being avowed by any
+correspondent of General Washington, but is stated in the private
+letters to him, to have been taken up by some.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> In a subsequent part of the same letter, this gentleman
+draws the outlines of a constitution such as he would wish. It is
+essentially the same with that which was recommended by the
+convention.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> This valuable officer died in Georgia in the year 1786.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Colonel Hamilton, Mr. Madison, and Mr. Jay.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> North Carolina and Rhode Island did not at first accept
+the constitution, and New York was apparently dragged into it by a
+repugnance to being excluded from the confederacy. By the convention
+of that state a circular letter was addressed to the several states in
+the union inviting them to unite in calling a general convention to
+revise the constitution. Its friends seem to have been persuaded that
+this measure, if successful, would effectually destroy the edifice
+they had erected with so much labour, before an experience of its
+advantages could dissipate the prejudices which had been excited
+against it. &quot;You will have seen,&quot; said one of its most effective
+advocates, &quot;the circular letter from the convention of this state. It
+has a most pernicious tendency. If an early general convention can not
+be parried, it is seriously to be feared that the system which has
+resisted so many direct attacks, may be at length successfully
+undermined by its enemies. It is now perhaps to be wished that Rhode
+Island may not accede until this new crisis of danger be over; some
+think it would be better if even New York had held out until the
+operation of the government could have dissipated the fears which
+artifice had created, and the attempts resulting from those fears and
+artifices.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The reluctance with which General Washington assumed his
+new dignity, and that genuine modesty which was a distinguished
+feature of his character, are further illustrated by the following
+extract from a letter to General Knox. &quot;I feel for those members of
+the new congress, who, hitherto, have given an unavailing attendance
+at the theatre of action. For myself, the delay may be compared to a
+reprieve; for in confidence, I tell <i>you</i> (with the <i>world</i> it would
+obtain <i>little credit</i>,) that my movements to the chair of government
+will be accompanied by feelings not unlike those of a culprit who is
+going to the place of his execution; so unwilling am I in the evening
+of life, nearly consumed in public cares, to quit a peaceful abode for
+an ocean of difficulties, without that competency of political skill,
+abilities, and inclination, which are necessary to manage the helm. I
+am sensible that I am embarking the voice of the people, and a good
+name of my own on this voyage; but what returns will be made for them
+heaven alone can foretell.&#8212;Integrity and firmness are all I can
+promise; these, be the voyage long or short, shall never forsake me,
+although I may be deserted by all men; for of the consolations which
+are to be derived from these, under any circumstances, the world can
+not deprive me.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> This has since been denominated the department of
+state.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The following extract from a letter written July 1789,
+to Doctor Stuart, who had communicated to him this among other private
+insinuations, shows the ideas entertained by the President on this
+subject. &quot;It is to be lamented that a question has been stirred which
+has given rise to so much animadversion, and which I confess has given
+me much uneasiness, lest it should be supposed by some unacquainted
+with facts that the object in view was not displeasing to me. The
+truth is, the question was moved before I arrived, without any privity
+or knowledge of it on my part, and urged after I was apprised of it
+contrary to my opinion;&#8212;for I foresaw and predicted the reception it
+has met with, and the use that would be made of it by the enemies of
+the government. Happily the matter is now done with, I hope never to
+be revived.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Just before his departure from New York the President
+received from the Count de Moustiers, the minister of France, official
+notice that he was permitted by his court to return to Europe. By the
+orders of his sovereign he added, &quot;that His Majesty was pleased at the
+alteration which had taken place in the government, and congratulated
+America on the choice they had made of a President.&quot; As from himself,
+he observed that the government of this country had been hitherto of
+so fluctuating a nature, that no dependence could be placed on its
+proceedings; in consequence of which foreign nations had been cautious
+of entering into treaties, or engagements of any kind with the United
+States: but that in the present government there was a head to look up
+to, and power being placed in the hands of its officers, stability in
+its measures might be expected. The disposition of his Christian
+Majesty to cultivate the good will of the new government was also
+manifested by his conduct in the choice of a minister to replace the
+Count de Moustiers. Colonel Ternan was named as a person who would be
+particularly acceptable to America, and his appointment was preceded
+by the compliment of ascertaining the sense of the President
+respecting him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> It has ever been understood that these members were, on
+principle, in favour of the assumption as modified in the amendment
+made by the senate; but they withheld their assent from it when
+originally proposed in the house of representatives, in the opinion
+that the increase of the national debt, added to the necessity of
+giving to the departments of the national government a more central
+residence. It is understood that a greater number would have changed
+had it been necessary.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> On the first information at St. Augustine that
+M'Gillivray was about to repair to New York, the intelligence was
+communicated to the governor at the Havanna, and the secretary of East
+Florida came to New York, with a large sum of money to purchase flour,
+as it was said; but to embarrass the negotiations with the Creeks was
+believed to be his real design. He was closely watched, and measures
+were taken to render any attempts he might make abortive.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> See note,
+  <a href="#NOTE4">No. IV.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> On giving his assent to the bill &quot;regulating the
+military establishment of the United States,&quot; the President subjoined
+to the entry in his diary the remark, that although he gave it his
+sanction, &quot;he did not conceive that the military establishment was
+adequate to the exigencies of the government, and to the protection it
+was intended to afford.&quot; It consisted of one regiment of infantry, and
+one battalion of artillery, amounting in the total, exclusive of
+commissioned officers, to twelve hundred and sixteen men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Rhode Island had adopted the constitution in the
+preceding May, and had thus completed the union.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> In a more confidential message to the senate, all the
+objects of the negotiation in which Mr. Morris had been employed were
+detailed, and the letters of that gentleman, with the full opinion of
+the President were communicated.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The interest on the assumed debt was to commence with
+the year 1792.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See note,
+  <a href="#NOTE5">No. V.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> He stopped several days on the Potomac, where he
+executed finally the powers vested in him by the legislature for
+fixing on a place which should become the residence of congress, and
+the metropolis of the United States.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> The following is the message which he delivered on this
+occasion.
+</p><p>
+<i>Gentlemen of the house of representatives&#8212;</i>
+</p><p>
+I have maturely considered the act passed by the two houses, entitled
+&quot;an act for the apportionment of representatives among the several
+states according to the first enumeration,&quot; and I return it to your
+house, wherein it originated, with the following objections.
+</p><p>
+First. The constitution has prescribed that representatives shall be
+apportioned among the several states according to their respective
+numbers, and there is no proportion or divisor which, applied to the
+respective numbers of the states, will yield the number and allotment
+of representatives proposed by the bill.
+</p><p>
+Secondly. The constitution has also provided, that the number of
+representatives shall not exceed one for thirty thousand, which
+restriction is by the context, and by fair and obvious construction,
+to be applied to the separate and respective numbers of the states,
+and the bill has allotted to eight of the states more than one for
+thirty thousand.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Forts Hamilton and Jefferson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> In his official letter, General St. Clair says that the
+ground would not admit a larger interval.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> The following extract from the official letter of the
+Commander-in-chief is inserted, as showing both his own situation and
+his opinion of the behaviour of his troops. &quot;I have nothing, sir, to
+lay to the charge of the troops but their want of discipline, which,
+from the short time they had been in service, it was impossible they
+should have acquired; and which rendered it very difficult when they
+were thrown into confusion, to reduce them again to order; and is one
+reason why the loss has fallen so heavily upon the officers who did
+every thing in their power to effect it. Neither were my own exertions
+wanting; but worn down with illness, and suffering under a painful
+disease, unable either to mount, or dismount a horse without
+assistance, they were not so great as they otherwise would, or perhaps
+ought to have been.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Although his leg had been broken by a ball, Major
+Butler, mounted on horseback, led his battalion to the charge.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> See note,
+  <a href="#NOTE6">No. VI.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> The salary of the secretary of state, which was the
+highest, was three thousand five hundred dollars.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> See Mr. Jefferson's correspondence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> See note,
+  <a href="#NOTE7">No. VII.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> In his letter enclosing the proclamation to the
+secretary of the treasury, the President observed, &quot;I have no doubt
+but that the proclamation will undergo many strictures; and, as the
+effect proposed may not be answered by it, it will be necessary to
+look forward in time to ulterior arrangements. And here, not only the
+constitution and laws must strictly govern, but the employment of the
+regular troops avoided, if it be possible to effect order without
+their aid; yet if no other means will effectually answer, and the
+constitution and laws will authorize these, they must be used as the
+dernier ressort.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> In consequence of these nominations of foreign
+ministers, a motion was made in the senate on a point which is of some
+importance in settling the principles of the American government. It
+was contended that the power of that body over the appointment of a
+foreign minister gave the right to inquire into the policy of making
+any appointment whatever; and that in exercising this power, they were
+not to confine themselves to a consideration of the fitness of the
+person nominated, but were to judge of the propriety of the mission;
+and were consequently to be informed of the motives which had decided
+the President to adopt the measure. This opinion was overruled by a
+small majority.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> See note,
+  <a href="#NOTE8">No. VIII.</a> at the end of the volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> On the 22d of February, the birthday of the President, a
+motion was made to adjourn for half an hour. It was perfectly
+understood that this motion was made to give the members an
+opportunity of waiting on the chief magistrate to make the compliments
+adapted to the occasion.
+</p><p>
+This was seriously opposed, and the ayes and noes called upon the
+question. The adjournment was carried by forty-one to eighteen. The
+day was celebrated by several companies, and some toasts were
+published manifesting the deep sense which was entertained of the
+exalted services of this illustrious citizen. These circumstances gave
+great umbrage to some of those who could perceive monarchical
+tendencies in every act of respect, and the offenders were rebuked in
+the National Gazette for setting up an idol who might become dangerous
+to liberty, and for the injustice of neglecting all his compatriots of
+the revolution, and ascribing to him the praise which was due to
+others.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> This event was announced to the President by the
+minister plenipotentiary of France at Philadelphia, in February, 1793.
+Through the secretary of state, an answer was returned, of which the
+following is an extract, &quot;the President receives with great
+satisfaction this attention of the executive council, and the desire
+they have manifested of making known to us the resolution entered into
+by the national convention even before a definitive regulation of
+their new establishment could take place. Be assured, sir, that the
+government and the citizens of the United States, view with the most
+sincere pleasure, every advance of your nation towards its happiness,
+an object essentially connected with its liberty, and they consider
+the union of principles and pursuits between our two countries as a
+link which binds still closer their interests and affections.
+</p><p>
+&quot;We earnestly wish, on our part, that these our mutual dispositions
+may be improved to mutual good, by establishing our commercial
+intercourse on principles as friendly to natural right and freedom as
+are those of our governments.&quot;</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of George Washington, Vol. 4
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of George Washington, Vol. 4 (of 5), by
+John Marshall
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Life of George Washington, Vol. 4 (of 5)
+       Commander in Chief of the American Forces During the War
+       which Established the Independence of his Country and First
+       President of the United States
+
+Author: John Marshall
+
+Release Date: June 15, 2006 [EBook #18594]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Linda Cantoni and  David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+LIFE
+
+OF
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON,
+
+COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF THE
+
+AMERICAN FORCES,
+
+DURING THE WAR WHICH ESTABLISHED THE INDEPENDENCE OF HIS COUNTRY, AND
+
+FIRST PRESIDENT
+
+OF THE
+
+UNITED STATES.
+
+COMPILED UNDER THE INSPECTION OF
+
+THE HONOURABLE BUSHROD WASHINGTON,
+
+FROM
+
+_ORIGINAL PAPERS_
+
+BEQUEATHED TO HIM BY HIS DECEASED RELATIVE, AND NOW IN POSSESSION OF
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+TO WHICH IS PREFIXED,
+
+AN INTRODUCTION,
+
+CONTAINING A COMPENDIOUS VIEW OF THE COLONIES PLANTED BY THE ENGLISH
+ON THE
+
+CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA,
+
+FROM THEIR SETTLEMENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THAT WAR WHICH TERMINATED
+IN THEIR
+
+INDEPENDENCE.
+
+
+BY JOHN MARSHALL.
+
+
+VOL. IV.
+
+
+THE CITIZENS' GUILD
+OF WASHINGTON'S BOYHOOD HOME
+FREDERICKSBURG, VA.
+
+1926
+
+Printed in the U.S.A.
+
+
+[Illustration: George Washington
+
+_From the painting by James Sharples_
+
+_Sharples is distinguished for having painted what the Washington
+family regarded as the most faithful likenesses of the Father of His
+Country. This portrait in particular is the best resemblance we have
+of Washington during the period between his resignation as
+Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and his inauguration as
+First President of the United States. The Sharples portraits of
+Washington were commissioned by Robert Cary, a London merchant and
+admirer of our First President, who sent the artist on a special trip
+to America to do the work. This and other portraits by Sharples of
+Washington and his compeers long remained in England, but are now in
+the Collection of Herbert L. Pratt, New York._]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+Greene invests Camden.... Battle of Hobkirk's Hill.... Progress of
+Marion and Lee.... Lord Rawdon retires into the lower country....
+Greene invests Ninety Six.... Is repulsed.... Retires from that
+place.... Active movements of the two armies.... After a short repose
+they resume active operations.... Battle of Eutaw.... The British army
+retires towards Charleston.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Preparations for another campaign.... Proceedings in the Parliament of
+Great Britain. Conciliatory conduct of General Carleton....
+Transactions in the south.... Negotiations for peace.... Preliminary
+and eventual articles agreed upon between the United States and Great
+Britain.... Discontents of the American army.... Peace.... Mutiny of a
+part of the Pennsylvania line.... Evacuation of New York.... General
+Washington resigns his commission and retires to Mount Vernon.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+General Washington devotes his time to rural pursuits.... to the
+duties of friendship.... and to institutions of public utility....
+Resolves of Congress and of the Legislature of Virginia for erecting
+statues to his honour.... Recommends improvement in inland
+navigation.... Declines accepting a donation made to him by his native
+state.... The society of the Cincinnati.... He is elected
+President.... The causes which led to a change of the government of
+the United States.... Circular letter of General Washington to the
+governors of the several states.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Differences between Great Britain and the United States.... Mr. Adams
+appointed minister to Great Britain.... Discontents excited by the
+commercial regulations of Britain.... Parties in the United States....
+The convention at Annapolis.... Virginia appoints deputies to a
+convention at Philadelphia.... General Washington chosen one of
+them.... Insurrection at Massachusetts.... Convention at
+Philadelphia.... A form of government submitted to the respective
+states, as ratified by eleven of them.... Correspondence of General
+Washington respecting the chief magistracy.... He is elected
+president.... Meeting of the first congress.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+The election of General Washington officially announced to him.... His
+departure for the seat of government.... Marks of affection shown him
+on his journey.... His inauguration and speech to Congress.... His
+system of intercourse with the world.... Letters on this and other
+subjects.... Answers of both houses of Congress to the speech....
+Domestic and foreign relations of the United States.... Debates on the
+impost and tonnage bills.... On the power of removal from office....
+On the policy of the secretary of the treasury reporting plans of
+revenue.... On the style of the President.... Amendments to the
+constitution.... Appointment of executive officers, and of the
+judges.... Adjournment of the first session of congress.... The
+President visits New England.... His reception.... North Carolina
+accedes to the union.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... Report of the secretary
+of the treasury on public credit.... Debate thereon.... Bill for
+fixing the permanent seat of government.... Adjournment of
+congress.... Treaty with the Creek Indians.... Relations of the United
+States with Great Britain and Spain.... The President visits Mount
+Vernon.... Session of congress.... The President's speech.... Debates
+on the excise.... On a national bank.... The opinions of the cabinet
+on the law.... Progress of parties.... War with the Indians.... Defeat
+of Harmar.... Adjournment of congress.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+General St. Clair appointed Commander-in-chief.... The President makes
+a tour through the southern states.... Meeting of congress....
+President's speech.... Debate on the bill for apportioning
+representatives.... Military law.... Defeat of St. Clair....
+Opposition to the increase of the army.... Report of the Secretary of
+the Treasury for raising additional supplies.... Congress adjourns....
+Strictures on the conduct of administration, with a view of
+parties.... Disagreement between the Secretaries of State and
+Treasury.... Letters from General Washington.... Opposition to the
+excise law.... President's proclamation.... Insurrection and massacre
+in the island of St. Domingo.... General Wayne appointed to the
+command of the army.... Meeting of congress.... President's speech....
+Resolutions implicating the Secretary of the Treasury, rejected....
+Congress adjourns.... Progress of the French revolution, and its
+effects on parties in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+THE LIFE
+
+OF
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+     Greene invests Camden.... Battle of Hobkirk's Hill....
+     Progress of Marion and Lee.... Lord Rawdon retires into the
+     lower country.... Greene invests Ninety Six.... Is
+     repulsed.... Retires from that place.... Active movements of
+     the two armies.... After a short repose they resume active
+     operations.... Battle of Eutaw.... The British army retires
+     towards Charleston.
+
+
+{1781}
+
+In South Carolina and Georgia, the campaign of 1781 was uncommonly
+active. The importance of the object, the perseverance with which it
+was pursued, the talents of the generals, the courage, activity, and
+sufferings of the armies, and the accumulated miseries of the
+inhabitants, gave to the contest for these states, a degree of
+interest seldom bestowed on military transactions, in which greater
+numbers have not been employed.
+
+When Lord Cornwallis entered North Carolina, the military operations
+in the more southern states were committed to Lord Rawdon. For the
+preservation of his power, a line of posts slightly fortified had been
+continued from Charleston, by the way of Camden and Ninety Six, to
+Augusta, in Georgia. The spirit of resistance was still kept up in the
+north-western and north-eastern parts of the state, by Generals
+Sumpter and Marion, who respectively commanded a corps of militia.
+Their exertions, though great, seem not to have been successful; and
+they excited no alarm, because no addition to their strength was
+apprehended.
+
+Such was the situation of the country when General Greene formed the
+bold resolution of endeavouring to reannex it to the American union.
+His army consisted of about eighteen hundred men. The prospect of
+procuring subsistence was unpromising, and the chance of
+reinforcements precarious. He was apprized of the dangers to be
+encountered, but believed it to be for the public interest to meet
+them. "I shall take every measure," said this gallant officer, in a
+letter communicating his plan of operations to General Washington, "to
+avoid a misfortune. But necessity obliges me to commit myself to
+chance, and if any accident should attend me, I trust my friends will
+do justice to my reputation."
+
+The extensive line of posts maintained by Lord Rawdon, presented to
+Greene many objects, at which, it was probable he might strike with
+advantage. The day preceding his march from the camp on Deep river, he
+detached Lee to join General Marion, and communicated his intention of
+entering South Carolina to General Pickens with a request that he
+would assemble the western militia, and lay siege to Ninety Six, and
+Augusta.
+
+{April.}
+
+[Sidenote: Green invests Camden.]
+
+Having made these arrangements, he moved from Deep river on the
+seventh of April, and encamped before Camden on the nineteenth of the
+same month, within half a mile of the British works. Lord Rawdon had
+received early notice of his approach, and was prepared for his
+reception.
+
+{April 24.}
+
+Camden stands on a gentle elevation, and is covered on the south and
+south-west by the Wateree,[1] and on the east by Pine-tree creek. A
+strong chain of redoubts, extending from the river to the creek,
+protected the north and west sides of the town. Being unable to storm
+the works or to invest them on all sides, Greene contented himself
+with lying before the place in the hope of being reinforced by
+militia, or of some event which might bring on an action in the open
+field. With this view he retired a small distance, and encamped on
+Hobkirk's hill, about a mile and a half from the town. While in this
+situation, he received information that Colonel Watson was marching up
+the Santee with about four hundred men. A junction between these two
+divisions of the British army, could be prevented only by intercepting
+Watson while at a distance from Camden. For this purpose, he crossed
+Sand-hill creek and encamped east of Camden, on the road leading to
+Charleston. It being impracticable to transport the artillery and
+baggage over the deep marshes adjoining the creek, Colonel Carrington
+with the North Carolina militia was directed to convey them to a place
+of safety, and to guard them till farther orders. The army continued a
+few days in its new encampment, during which the troops subsisted on
+the scanty supplies furnished by the neighbourhood. Greene was
+compelled at length, by the want of provisions, to relinquish this
+position. About the same time he received intelligence which induced
+him to doubt the approach of Watson. On which he ordered Lieutenant
+Colonel Carrington to rejoin him; and on the 24th, returned to the
+north side of the town, and again encamped on Hobkirk's hill, a ridge
+covered with uninterrupted wood through which the great Waxhaw road
+passes. The army was encamped in order of battle, its left covered by
+the swamp of Pine-tree creek.
+
+     [Footnote 1: Higher up, this river is called the Catawba.]
+
+{April 25.}
+
+A drummer, who deserted on the morning after Greene's return, and
+before he was rejoined by Lieutenant Colonel Carrington, gave
+information to Lord Rawdon that the artillery and militia had been
+detached. His lordship determined to seize this favourable occasion
+for fighting his enemy to advantage, and, at the head of nine hundred
+men, marched out of town on the morning of the twenty-fifth to attack
+the American army.
+
+Lieutenant Colonel Carrington had arrived in camp that morning, and
+brought with him a supply of provisions which had been issued to the
+troops, some of whom were employed in cooking and others in washing
+their clothes. Notwithstanding those occupations, they were in reach
+of their arms, and were in readiness to take their ground and engage
+at a moment's warning.
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Hobkirk's Hill.]
+
+By keeping close to the swamp, and making a circuit of some distance,
+Lord Rawdon gained the American left without being perceived; and
+about eleven, his approach was announced by the fire of the advanced
+piquets, who were half a mile in front of Greene's encampment. Orders
+were instantly given to form the American line of battle.
+
+The Virginia brigade commanded by General Huger, consisting of two
+regiments under Campbell and Hawes, was drawn up on the right of the
+great road. The Maryland brigade commanded by Colonel Williams,
+consisting also of two regiments, under Gunby and Ford, was on the
+left, and the artillery was placed in the centre. The North Carolina
+militia under Colonel Read formed a second line; and Captain Kirkwood
+with the light infantry was placed in front for the purpose of
+supporting the piquets, and retarding the advance of the enemy.
+General Greene remained on the right, with Campbell's regiment.
+
+Captain Morgan of Virginia, and Captain Benson of Maryland, who
+commanded the piquets, gave the enemy a warm reception; but were soon
+compelled to retire. Captain Kirkwood also was driven in, and the
+British troops appeared in view. Rawdon continued his march through
+the wood along the low ground in front of the Maryland brigade which
+was in the act of forming, until he reached the road, where he
+displayed his column.
+
+Perceiving that the British advanced with a narrow front, Greene
+ordered Colonel Ford, whose regiment was on the extreme left, and
+Lieutenant Colonel Campbell, whose regiment was on the extreme right,
+severally to attack their flanks, while Gunby and Hawes should advance
+upon their front with charged bayonets. To complete their destruction
+by cutting off their retreat to the town, Lieutenant Colonel
+Washington was ordered to pass their left flank and charge them in the
+rear.
+
+The regiments commanded by Ford and Campbell, being composed chiefly
+of new levies, did not change their ground, and perform the evolutions
+necessary for the duty assigned to them, with the requisite rapidity
+and precision; in consequence of which Rawdon, who instantly perceived
+the danger that threatened his flanks, had time to extend his front by
+bringing the volunteers of Ireland into his line.
+
+This judicious movement disconcerted the design on his flanks, and
+brought the two armies into action fronting each other. But the
+regiments of Ford and Campbell were thrown into some confusion by the
+abortive attempt to gain the flanks of the British.
+
+Colonel Washington too was compelled by the thick underwood and felled
+trees which obstructed his direct course, to make so extensive a
+circuit, that he came into the rear of the British at a greater
+distance from the scene of action than was intended, in consequence of
+which he fell in with their medical and other staff, and with a number
+of the followers of the army and idle spectators, who took no part in
+the action. Too humane to cut his way through this crowd, he employed
+so much time in taking their verbal parole, that he could not reach
+the rear of the British line until the battle was ended. These
+casualties disappointed this very interesting part of Greene's
+intended operations.[2]
+
+     [Footnote 2: This account of the battle of Hobkirk's Hill
+     varies in several particulars from that contained in the
+     first edition. In making the alteration the author has
+     followed the letter of General Davie, published in Mr.
+     Johnson's biography of General Greene. General Davie was
+     known to the author to be a gentleman in whose
+     representations great confidence is to be placed on every
+     account, and his situation in the army enabled him to obtain
+     the best information.]
+
+The artillery, however, played on the enemy with considerable effect;
+and the regiments of Gunby and Hawes advanced on the British front
+with resolution. Some companies on the right of the Maryland regiment
+returned the fire of the enemy, and their example was followed by the
+others. Notwithstanding this departure from orders, they continued to
+advance with intrepidity, and Greene entertained sanguine hopes of
+victory. His prospects were blasted by one of those incidents against
+which military prudence can make no provision.
+
+Captain Beaty, who commanded on the right of Gunby's regiment, was
+killed, upon which his company with that adjoining it got into
+confusion and dropped out of the line. Gunby ordered the other
+companies, which were still advancing, to fall back, and form, with
+the two companies, behind the hill which the British were ascending.
+This retrograde movement was mistaken for a retreat, and the regiment
+gave way. Encouraged by this circumstance, the British pressed forward
+with increased ardour, and all the efforts of Colonel Williams, and of
+Gunby and Howard, to rally the regiment were, for a time, ineffectual.
+This veteran regiment, distinguished alike for its discipline and
+courage, which with the cavalry of Washington, had won the battle of
+the Cowpens, and nearly won that at Guilford court house, was seized
+with an unaccountable panic which, for a time, resisted all the
+efforts of their officers.
+
+The flight of the first Maryland regiment increased the confusion
+which the change of ground had produced in the second; and, in
+attempting to restore order, Colonel Ford was mortally wounded. Lord
+Rawdon improved these advantages to the utmost. His right gained the
+summit of the hill, forced the artillery to retire, and turned the
+flank of the second Virginia regiment, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel
+Hawes, which had advanced some distance down the hill. By this time
+the first Virginia regiment, which Greene had endeavoured to lead in
+person against the left flank of the British, being also in some
+disorder, began to give ground. Perceiving this reverse in his
+affairs, and knowing that he could not rely on his second line, Greene
+thought it most adviseable to secure himself from the hazard of a
+total defeat by withdrawing the second Virginia regiment from the
+action.
+
+The Maryland brigade was in part rallied; but Lord Rawdon had gained
+the hill, and it was thought too late to retrieve the fortune of the
+day. Greene determined to reserve his troops for a more auspicious
+moment, and ordered a retreat.
+
+Finding that the infantry had retreated, Colonel Washington also
+retired with the loss of only three men, bringing with him about fifty
+prisoners, among whom were all the surgeons belonging to the British
+army.
+
+The Americans retreated in good order about four miles from the field
+of battle, and proceeded, next day, to Rugeley's mills. The pursuit
+was continued about three miles. In the course of it, some sharp
+skirmishing took place, which was terminated by a vigorous charge made
+by Colonel Washington on a corps of British horse who led their van.
+This corps being broken and closely pursued, the infantry in its rear
+retreated precipitately into Camden.
+
+{April 26.}
+
+The number of continental troops engaged in this action amounted to
+about twelve hundred[3] men, and the loss in killed, wounded, and
+missing, to two hundred and sixty-six. Among the killed was Captain
+Beaty, of Maryland, who was mentioned by General Greene as an ornament
+to his profession; and among the wounded was Colonel Ford, of
+Maryland, a gallant officer, whose wounds proved mortal. The militia
+attached to the army amounted to two hundred and sixty-six, of whom
+two were missing. The total loss sustained by the British army has
+been stated at two hundred and fifty-eight, of whom thirty-eight were
+killed in the field.
+
+     [Footnote 3: There is some variance between this statement
+     and that which has been made by Mr. Ramsay and Mr. Gordon,
+     although their estimates are supposed to have been formed on
+     the same document--the field return made by the adjutant
+     general of the southern army, dated the 26th of April. This
+     return contains a column of the present fit for duty, and
+     also exhibits the killed, wounded, and missing, but contains
+     no column of total numbers. Mr. Ramsay and Mr. Gordon are
+     supposed to have taken the column of present fit for duty as
+     exhibiting the strength of the army on the day of the
+     battle; but as this return was made the day after the
+     action, the author has supposed that the killed, wounded,
+     and missing, must be added to the numbers fit for duty on
+     the day of the return, to give the actual strength of the
+     army at the time of the engagement.]
+
+The plan which the strength of Camden and his own weakness had induced
+General Greene originally to adopt, was still substantially pursued.
+He remained in the vicinity of that place, and by the activity of his
+cavalry, straightened the communication of the garrison with the
+neighbouring country. Their distress for provisions had been
+considerably increased by the progress of Marion and Lee.
+
+[Sidenote: Several British posts taken.]
+
+Lieutenant Colonel Lee joined Marion a few days after he was detached
+from the camp on Deep river; and these two officers commenced their
+operations against the line of communication between Camden and
+Charleston, by laying siege to fort Watson, which capitulated in a few
+days. The acquisition of this fort afforded the means of interrupting
+the intercourse between Camden and Charleston, and opposed an obstacle
+to the retreat of Lord Rawdon which he would have found it difficult
+to surmount.
+
+From the increasing perils of his situation, his lordship was relieved
+by the arrival of Colonel Watson.
+
+In attempting to obey the orders, which were given by Lord Rawdon on
+the approach of Greene, to join him at Camden, that officer found
+himself opposed by Marion and Lee, who had seized the passes over the
+creeks in his route; and had thus completely arrested his march. To
+elude these vigilant adversaries, Watson returned down the Santee, and
+crossing that river near its mouth, marched up its southern side, and
+recrossing it above the American detachment, and, eluding all the
+measures taken to intercept him, accomplished his object with much
+toil and hazard.
+
+This reinforcement gave the British general a decided superiority; and
+Greene entertained no doubt of its being immediately employed. On the
+day of its arrival, therefore, he withdrew from the neighbourhood of
+Camden, and took a strong position behind Sawney's creek.
+
+{May 7.}
+
+On the night of the seventh, as had been conjectured, Rawdon passed
+the Wateree at Camden ferry, intending to turn the flank of his enemy,
+and to attack his rear, where the ground was less difficult than in
+front. On being informed that the American army had changed its
+position, he followed it to its new encampment. This was so
+judiciously chosen that he despaired of being able to force it; and,
+after some ineffectual manoeuvres to draw Greene from it, returned to
+Camden.
+
+{Eighth.}
+
+Lord Rawdon had been induced to relinquish, thus hastily, his designs
+upon Greene, by the insecurity of his situation. The state of the
+British power in South Carolina was such as to require a temporary
+surrender of the upper country. Marion and Lee, after completely
+destroying his line of communication on the north side of the Santee,
+had crossed that river, and permitted no convoy from Charleston to
+escape their vigilance. On the eighth of May, after Watson had passed
+them, they laid siege to a post at Motte's house, on the south side of
+the Congaree, near its junction with the Wateree, which had been made
+the depot of all the supplies designed for Camden.
+
+From the energy of this party as well as from the defection of the
+inhabitants, Lord Rawdon had reason to apprehend the loss of all his
+lower posts, unless he should take a position which would support
+them. He had therefore determined to evacuate Camden, unless the issue
+of a battle with Greene should be such as to remove all fears of
+future danger from that officer.
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Rawdon retires into the lower country.]
+
+{May 12.}
+
+Having failed in his hope of bringing on a general engagement, he
+evacuated Camden, and marched down the river on its north side to
+Neilson's ferry. Among the objects to be obtained by this movement was
+the security of the garrison at Motte's house. But the siege of that
+place had been so vigorously prosecuted that, on crossing the river,
+his lordship received the unwelcome intelligence that it had
+surrendered on the twelfth, and that its garrison, consisting of one
+hundred and sixty-five men, had become prisoners. On the preceding
+day, the post at Orangeburg had surrendered to Sumpter.
+
+On the evening of the fourteenth, Lord Rawdon moved from Neilson's
+ferry, and marched to Monk's Corner, a position which enabled him to
+cover those districts from which Charleston drew its supplies.
+
+{May.}
+
+While the British army was thus under the necessity of retiring, the
+American force was exerted with a degree of activity which could not
+be surpassed. After the post at Motte's house had fallen, Marion
+proceeded against Georgetown, on the Black river, which place he
+reduced; and Lee marched against fort Granby, a post on the south of
+the Congaree, which was garrisoned by three hundred and fifty-two men,
+principally militia. The place was invested on the evening of the
+fourteenth, and the garrison capitulated the next morning.
+
+The late movement of the British army had left the garrison of Ninety
+Six and of Augusta exposed to the whole force of Greene, and he
+determined to direct his operations against them. Lee was ordered to
+proceed against the latter, while the general should march in person
+to the former.
+
+The post at Ninety Six was fortified. The principal work, which, from
+its form, was called the Star, and which was on the right of the
+village, consisted of sixteen salient and reentering angles, and was
+surrounded by a dry ditch, fraize, and abattis. On the left was a
+valley, through which ran a rivulet that supplied the place with
+water. This valley was commanded on one side by the town prison, which
+had been converted into a block-house, and on the other by a stockade
+fort, in which a block-house had been erected. The garrison, commanded
+by Lieutenant Colonel Cruger, was ample for the extent of the place,
+but was furnished with only three pieces of artillery.
+
+On evacuating Camden, Lord Rawdon had given directions that the
+garrison of Ninety Six should retire to Augusta; but his messengers
+were intercepted; and Cruger, remaining without orders, determined to
+put his post in the best possible state of defence.
+
+[Sidenote: Greene invests Ninety Six.]
+
+On the 22nd of May the American army, consisting of about one thousand
+continental troops, appeared before the town, and encamped in a wood,
+within cannon shot of the place. On the following night they broke
+ground, within seventy yards of the British works; but the besieged
+having mounted several guns in the star, made a vigorous sally under
+their protection, and drove the advanced party of the besiegers from
+their trenches, put several of them to the bayonet, and brought off
+their intrenching tools.
+
+This sortie was made with such rapidity, that, though General Greene
+put his whole army in motion, the party making it had accomplished the
+object and retired into the fort, before he could support his troops
+in the trenches. After this check, the siege was conducted with more
+caution, but with indefatigable industry.
+
+On the 8th of June, Lee rejoined the army with the troops under his
+command.
+
+The day after the fall of fort Granby, that active officer proceeded
+with great celerity to join General Pickens, and lay siege to Augusta.
+On the march, he took possession of fort Golphin, on the northern bank
+of the Savannah, which surrendered on the 21st of May; immediately
+after which the operations against Augusta were commenced.
+
+The place was bravely defended by Lieutenant Colonel Brown; but the
+approaches of the besiegers were so well conducted, that on the 5th of
+June he was reduced to the necessity of capitulating; and the
+prisoners, amounting to about three hundred, were conducted by Lee to
+the main army.
+
+This reinforcement enabled General Greene, who had till then made his
+approaches solely against the star, to commence operations against the
+works on the left also. The direction of the advances to be made in
+that quarter was entrusted to Lieutenant Colonel Lee. While the
+besiegers urged their approaches in the confidence that the place must
+soon capitulate, Lord Rawdon received a reinforcement which enabled
+him once more to overrun the state of South Carolina.
+
+{June 7.}
+
+On the third of June three regiments arrived from Ireland; and, on the
+seventh of that month, Lord Rawdon marched at the head of two thousand
+men to the relief of Ninety Six. Greene received intelligence of his
+approach on the eleventh, and ordered Sumpter, to whose aid the
+cavalry was detached, to continue in his front, and to impede his
+march by turning to the best account every advantage afforded by the
+face of the country. But Lord Rawdon passed Sumpter below the junction
+of the Saluda and Broad rivers, after which that officer was probably
+unable to regain his front.
+
+Greene had also intended to meet the British and fight them at some
+distance from Ninety Six, but found it impossible to draw together
+such aids of militia as would enable him to execute that intention
+with any prospect of success. The only remaining hope was to press the
+siege so vigorously as to compel a surrender before Lord Rawdon could
+arrive.
+
+{June 17.}
+
+In the execution of this plan, the garrison was reduced to
+extremities, when the near approach of his lordship was communicated
+to Cruger, by a loyalist who passed through the American lines, and
+extinguished every hope of carrying the place otherwise than by storm.
+Unwilling to relinquish a prize he was on the point of obtaining,
+Greene resolved to essay every thing which could promise success; but
+the works were so strong that it would be madness to assault them,
+unless a partial attempt to make a lodgement on one of the curtains of
+the star redoubt, and at the same time to carry the fort on the left,
+should the first succeed.
+
+{June 18.}
+
+[Sidenote: Is repulsed and retires from before that place.]
+
+The proper dispositions for this partial assault being made,
+Lieutenant Colonel Lee, at the head of the legion infantry and
+Kirkwood's company, was ordered to assault the works on the left of
+the town; while Lieutenant Colonel Campbell was to lead the first
+regiment of Maryland, and the first of Virginia, against the star
+redoubt. The lines of the third parallel were manned, and all the
+artillery opened on the besieged. About noon the detachments on this
+service marched cheerfully to the assault. Lee's attack on the left
+was successful. He forced the works in that quarter and took
+possession of them. But the resistance on the right was more
+determined, and Campbell, though equally brave, was less fortunate.
+Lieutenants Duval of Maryland, and Selden of Virginia, led the forlorn
+hope, and entered the ditch with great intrepidity; but its depth, and
+the height of the parapet opposed obstructions which could not be
+surmounted. After a severe conflict of more than half an hour, during
+which Lieutenants Duval and Selden were both badly wounded, and nearly
+all the forlorn hope were either killed or wounded, the assault was
+relinquished, and the few who remained alive were recalled from the
+ditch. The next day, Greene raised the siege, and, crossing the
+Saluda, encamped on Little River. The loss of the besieging army, in
+killed and wounded, amounted to one hundred and fifty-five men, among
+the former of whom was Captain Armstrong of Maryland. That of the
+garrison has been stated at eighty-five.
+
+On the morning of the 21st of June, Lord Rawdon arrived at Ninety Six;
+and, on the evening of the same day, marched in quest of the American
+army. In the preceding operations of the campaign, he had felt the
+want of cavalry so severely that, while at Monk's Corner, and in
+Charleston, he had formed a corps of one hundred and fifty horse.
+
+[Sidenote: Active movements of the two armies.]
+
+Greene, foreseeing that his active adversary would avail himself to
+the utmost of his superiority, had sent his sick and wounded
+northward; and, as soon as Rawdon had crossed the Saluda, he retreated
+towards Virginia. Lord Rawdon pursued him to the Eunora, whence he
+returned to Ninety Six.
+
+The retreat ceased with the pursuit. General Greene halted near the
+cross roads, on the north of Broad River.
+
+As Rawdon retired, he was followed close by the legion as far as
+Ninety Six, at which place he remained but two days. Still retaining
+the opinion that circumstances required him to contract his posts, he
+left the principal part of his army, under the command of Lieutenant
+Colonel Cruger, to protect the loyalists while removing within those
+limits which were to be maintained by the British forces; and, at the
+head of less than one thousand men, marched in person towards the
+Congaree.
+
+Supposing that his adversary intended to preserve the post at Ninety
+Six, where the royalists were numerous, and to establish one or two on
+the Congaree, where provisions were more plentiful than in any other
+part of the state, Greene determined to interrupt the execution of the
+plan which he believed to have been formed. Leaving his sick and
+baggage at Wynnsborough, to be conducted to Camden, he marched with
+the utmost expedition for Friday's ferry on the Congaree, at which
+place Lord Rawdon had arrived two days before him. As Greene drew near
+to his enemy, a detachment from the legion under the command of
+Captain Eggleston, announced his approach by attacking a foraging
+party within a mile of the British camp, and bringing off a troop
+consisting of forty-five men, with their officers and horses. Rawdon
+retreated the next day to Orangeburg, where he formed a junction with
+a detachment from Charleston, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Stuart.
+
+{July 11.}
+
+On the Congaree, Greene was reinforced by Sumpter and Marion with
+about one thousand men; and, on the 11th of July, marched towards
+Orangeburg with the intention of attacking the British army at that
+place. He arrived there the next day, but found it so strongly posted
+as to be unassailable. He offered battle, but prudence restrained him
+from attacking the enemy in his camp.
+
+{July 13.}
+
+At this place, intelligence was received of the evacuation of Ninety
+Six, and that Lieutenant Colonel Cruger was marching down to
+Orangeburg. The north branch of the Edisto, which, for thirty miles,
+was passable only at the place occupied by Rawdon, interposed an
+insuperable obstacle to any attempt on Cruger; and Greene thought it
+most adviseable to force the British out of the upper country by
+threatening their lower posts at Monk's corner and at Dorchester.
+Sumpter, Marion, and Lee, were detached on this service; and, on the
+same day, Greene moved towards the high hills of Santee, a healthy
+situation, where he purposed to give some refreshment and repose to
+his harassed army, and where he hoped to be joined by a few
+continental troops and militia from North Carolina.
+
+The detachments ordered against the posts in the north-eastern parts
+of the state, under the command of Sumpter, were not so completely
+successful as their numbers, courage, and enterprise deserved. The
+several corps took distinct routes, intending to fall on the different
+posts between Ashley and Cooper rivers, at the same time. That at
+Dorchester was broken up, on the approach of Lee, who captured horses,
+military stores, and baggage to a considerable amount, and obtained
+some trivial successes over the flying enemy. Lieutenant Colonel Wade
+Hampton, of the state cavalry, fell in with a body of mounted
+refugees, dispersed the whole, and made forty or fifty prisoners.
+
+Sumpter advanced against Monk's corner. This post was defended by
+Lieutenant Colonel Coates with the 19th British regiment, and a troop
+of horse. He had taken possession of a brick church at a bridge over
+Biggin creek, the most northern of the water courses which form the
+west branch of Cooper river. After passing Biggin, the road to
+Charleston crosses first Wattoo, and then Quinby creek; neither of
+which is passable except at the bridges over which the road leads, and
+at a ferry over Quinby.
+
+On the sixteenth, Sumpter approached Monk's corner, but, not supposing
+himself strong enough to hazard an attack until all his detachments
+should be collected, sent a party to seize the bridge over Wattoo, and
+either to hold or to destroy it. This party being attacked by a
+superior force, retired from the bridge without completing its
+destruction, and without informing Sumpter that his orders had not
+been fully executed.
+
+Marion had joined Sumpter. Lee arrived late in the evening, and the
+resolution was taken to attack Coates early next morning.
+
+In the course of the night he set fire to the church, in order to
+destroy the stores which were collected in it, and commenced his march
+to Charleston, by the road east of Cooper. Having repaired the bridge
+over Wattoo, he met with no obstruction; and proceeded with his
+infantry on the road leading to Quinby bridge, directed his cavalry to
+take a road turning to the right, and crossing the creek at the ferry.
+
+About three next morning, the flames bursting through the roof of the
+church announced the retreat of the British; and the pursuit was
+immediately commenced. Sumpter was preceded by the legion, supported
+by the state cavalry. A detachment from this regiment followed the
+British horse, in the vain hope of overtaking the troop at the ferry,
+while Lee pursued the infantry. Within a short distance of the bridge,
+which is eighteen miles from Monk's corner, he perceived the rear
+guard of the British, consisting of about one hundred men, commanded
+by Captain Campbell, which the cavalry charged, sword in hand. They
+threw down their arms, and begged for quarter; upon which they were
+placed under the care of a few militia horsemen, and the American
+cavalry resumed the pursuit.
+
+They had not proceeded far, when Lee was called to the rear, by
+information that the prisoners had been ordered to resume their arms.
+At this critical moment, Armstrong, at the head of the leading
+section, came in sight of Coates, who having passed the bridge, and
+loosened the planks, lay, unapprehensive of danger, intending to
+destroy it as soon as his rear guard should cross the creek.
+Armstrong, in obedience to orders, given in the expectation that he
+would overtake Coates before passing the creek, dashed over the bridge
+on the guard stationed at the opposite end with a howitzer, which he
+seized. In this operation, his horses threw off some of the loosened
+planks, and made a chasm, over which the following section, led by
+Lieutenant Carrington, leaped with difficulty. In doing this some
+other planks were thrown off, and the horses of the third section
+refused to take the leap. At this time Lee came up, and every effort
+was made to replace the planks, but without success. The creek was too
+deep and miry to afford foot hold to those who attempted to raise them
+from the water.
+
+This halt revived the courage of the British soldiers, who returned to
+the support of their commander, then engaged in an equal conflict with
+the cavalry who had passed the bridge. These gallant men[4] finding
+themselves overpowered by numbers, and that their comrades could not
+support them, pressed over the causeway, and wheeling into the woods,
+made their escape.
+
+     [Footnote 4: Mr. Johnson states that Captain M'Cauley, of
+     South Carolina, had joined Armstrong and Carrington. Some of
+     the troopers were killed on the bridge.]
+
+After finding the impracticability of replacing the planks on the
+bridge, in attempting which, Doctor Irvin, surgeon of the legion
+cavalry, and several of the troopers were wounded, Lee withdrew from
+the contest, and moved some distance up the creek, to a ford where he
+was soon joined by the infantry of the legion.
+
+Coates then completed the demolition of the bridge, and retired to an
+adjoining plantation, where he took possession of the dwelling house
+and out buildings that surrounded it.
+
+As the Americans were obliged to make a considerable circuit, Sumpter,
+who unfortunately left his artillery behind, did not arrive on the
+ground till three in the afternoon, and at four the house was
+attacked. The fire was kept up chiefly by Marion's division, from a
+fence near the house, till evening, when the ammunition was exhausted,
+and the troops were called off. In the course of the night, it was
+perceived that the loss had fallen almost entirely on Marion. Great
+discontent prevailed, and many of the men left him. The infection was
+communicated to Sumpter's troops, and there being reason to fear the
+approach of Lord Rawdon, the enterprise was abandoned. Sumpter crossed
+the Santee; and the legion rejoined the army, then encamped at the
+high hills of that river.
+
+The intense heat of this sultry season demanded some relaxation from
+the unremitting toils which the southern army had encountered. From
+the month of January, it had been engaged in one course of incessant
+fatigue, and of hardy enterprise. All its powers had been strained,
+nor had any interval been allowed to refresh and recruit the almost
+exhausted strength and spirits of the troops.
+
+The continued labours and exertions of all were highly meritorious;
+but the successful activity of one corps will attract particular
+attention. The legion, from its structure, was peculiarly adapted to
+the partisan war of the southern states; and, by being detached
+against the weaker posts of the enemy, had opportunities for
+displaying with advantage all the energies it possessed. In that
+extensive sweep which it made from the Santee to Augusta, which
+employed from the 15th of April to the 5th of June, this corps, acting
+in conjunction, first with Marion, afterwards with Pickens, and
+sometimes alone, had constituted an essential part of the force which
+carried five British posts, and made upwards of eleven hundred
+prisoners. Its leader, in the performance of these services, displayed
+a mind of so much fertility of invention and military resource, as to
+add greatly to his previous reputation as a partisan.
+
+The whole army had exhibited a degree of activity, courage, and
+patient suffering, surpassing any expectation that could have been
+formed of troops composed chiefly of new levies; and its general had
+manifested great firmness, enterprise, prudence, and skill.
+
+The suffering sustained in this ardent struggle for the southern
+states was not confined to the armies. The inhabitants of the country
+felt all the miseries which are inflicted by war in its most savage
+form. Being almost equally divided between the two contending parties,
+reciprocal injuries had gradually sharpened their resentments against
+each other, and had armed neighbour against neighbour, until it became
+a war of extermination. As the parties alternately triumphed,
+opportunities were alternately given for the exercise of their
+vindictive passions. They derived additional virulence from the
+examples occasionally afforded by the commanders of the British
+forces. After overrunning Georgia and South Carolina, they seem to
+have considered those states as completely reannexed to the British
+empire; and they manifested a disposition to treat those as rebels,
+who had once submitted and again taken up arms, although the temporary
+ascendency of the continental troops should have induced the measure.
+One of these executions, that of Colonel Hayne, took place on the
+third of August, while Lord Rawdon[5] was in Charleston, preparing to
+sail for Europe. The American army being at this time in possession of
+great part of the country, the punishment inflicted on this gentleman
+was taken up very seriously by General Greene, and was near producing
+a system of retaliation. The British officers, pursuing this policy,
+are stated to have executed several of the zealous partisans of the
+revolution who fell into their hands. These examples had
+unquestionably some influence in unbridling the revengeful passions of
+the royalists, and letting loose the spirit of slaughter which was
+brooding in their bosoms. The disposition to retaliate to the full
+extent of their power, if not to commit original injury, was equally
+strong in the opposite party. When fort Granby surrendered, the
+militia attached to the legion manifested so strong a disposition to
+break the capitulation, and to murder the most obnoxious among the
+prisoners who were inhabitants of the country, as to produce a solemn
+declaration from General Greene, that any man guilty of so atrocious
+an act should be executed. When fort Cornwallis surrendered, no
+exertions could have saved Colonel Brown, had he not been sent to
+Savannah protected by a guard of continental troops. Lieutenant
+Colonel Grierson, of the royal militia, was shot by unknown marksmen;
+and, although a reward of one hundred guineas was offered to any
+person who would inform against the perpetrator of the crime, he could
+never be discovered. "The whole country," said General Greene in one
+of his letters, "is one continued scene of blood and slaughter."
+
+     [Footnote 5: The execution of Colonel Hayne has been
+     generally ascribed to Lord Rawdon, and that gallant nobleman
+     has been censured throughout America for an act which has
+     been universally execrated. A letter addressed by him to the
+     late General Lee, on receiving the memoirs of the southern
+     war, written by that gentleman, which has been published in
+     the "View of the Campaign of 1781, in the Carolinas, by H.
+     Lee," gives the British view of that transaction, and
+     exonerates Lord Rawdon from all blame. Lieutenant Colonel
+     Balfour commanded, and Lord Rawdon sought to save Colonel
+     Hayne.]
+
+Greene was too humane, as well as too judicious, not to discourage
+this exterminating spirit. Perceiving in it the total destruction of
+the country, he sought to appease it by restraining the excesses of
+those who were attached to the American cause.
+
+At the high hills of Santee the reinforcements expected from North
+Carolina were received. The American army, counting every person
+belonging to it, was augmented to two thousand six hundred men; but
+its effective force did not exceed sixteen hundred.
+
+[Sidenote: Active movements of the two armies.]
+
+After the retreat of General Greene from Orangeburg, Lord Rawdon was
+induced by ill health to avail himself of a permit to return to Great
+Britain, and the command of the British forces in South Carolina
+devolved on Lieutenant Colonel Stuart. He again advanced to the
+Congaree; and encamping near its junction with the Wateree, manifested
+a determination to establish a permanent post at that place. Though
+the two armies were within sixteen miles of each other on a right
+line, two rivers ran between them which could not be crossed without
+making a circuit of seventy miles; in consequence of which Lieutenant
+Colonel Stuart felt himself so secure, that his foraging parties were
+spread over the country. To restrain them, and to protect the
+inhabitants, General Greene detached Marion towards Combahee ferry,
+and Washington over the Wateree. Frequent skirmishes ensued, which,
+from the superior courage and activity of the American cavalry,
+uniformly terminated in their favour.
+
+Finding that Lieutenant Colonel Stuart designed to maintain his
+important position on the Congaree, Greene prepared to recommence
+active operations. Breaking up his camp at the high hills of Santee,
+he crossed the Wateree near Camden, and marched towards Friday's
+ferry.
+
+[Sidenote: After a short repose, they resume active operations.]
+
+On being informed of his approach, the British army retired to Eutaw,
+where it was reinforced by a detachment from Charleston. Greene
+followed by slow and easy marches, for the double purpose of
+preserving his soldiers from the effects of fatigue under a hot sun,
+and of giving Marion, who was returning from a critical expedition to
+the Edisto, time to rejoin him. In the afternoon of the seventh that
+officer arrived; and it was determined to attack the British camp next
+day.
+
+{September 8.}
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Eutaw.]
+
+At four in the morning of the eighth, the American army moved from its
+ground, which was seven miles from Eutaw, in the following order: The
+legion of Lee and the state troops of South Carolina formed the
+advance. The militia moved next, and were followed by the regulars.
+The cavalry of Washington and the infantry of Kirkwood brought up the
+rear. The artillery moved between the columns.
+
+At eight in the morning, about four miles from the British camp, the
+van fell in with a body of horse and foot, who were escorting an
+unarmed foraging party, and a brisk action ensued. The British were
+instantly routed. The cavalry made their escape at the sight of the
+legion dragoons, and the infantry were killed or taken. About forty,
+including their captain, were made prisoners. The foraging party which
+followed in the rear saved themselves by flight, on hearing the first
+musket. Supposing this party to be the van of the English, Greene
+arranged his army in order of battle.
+
+The militia, commanded by Generals Marion and Pickens, composed the
+first line. The second was formed of the continental infantry. The
+North Carolina brigade, commanded by General Sumner, was placed on the
+right; the Virginians, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Campbell,
+formed the centre; and the Marylanders, commanded by Colonel Williams,
+the left. The legion of Lee was to cover the right flank; the state
+troops of South Carolina, commanded by Colonel Henderson, the left;
+and the cavalry of Washington, with the infantry of Kirkwood, formed
+the reserve. Captain Lieutenant Gaines, with two three-pounders, was
+attached to the first line; and Captain Brown, with two sixes, to the
+second.
+
+The British line also was immediately formed. It was drawn up across
+the road, in an oblique direction, in a wood, on the heights near the
+Eutaw springs, having its right flank on Eutaw creek. This flank was
+also covered by a battalion commanded by Major Majoribanks, which was
+posted in a thicket, in a line forming an obtuse angle with the main
+body. The left flank was protected by the cavalry commanded by Major
+Coffin, and by a body of infantry held in reserve. A detachment of
+infantry was pushed forward about a mile, with a field piece to employ
+the Americans until his arrangements should be completed.
+
+The American van continuing to move forward, encountered the British
+advanced party; upon which Captain Lieutenant Gaines came up with his
+field pieces, which opened on the enemy with considerable effect.
+General Greene also ordered up his first line with directions to move
+on briskly, and to advance as they fired. As this line came into
+action, the legion formed on its right flank, and the state troops of
+South Carolina on its left.
+
+The British advanced party was soon driven in; and the Americans,
+continuing to press forward, were engaged with the main body.
+Lieutenant Colonel Stuart, perceiving the materials of which this line
+was composed, and probably anticipating its speedy discomfiture, to
+avoid exposing his flanks to the American cavalry, had directed his
+troops not to change their position. His design was to meet the
+American regulars without any alteration of the arrangement originally
+made. But the militia, many of whom had frequently faced an enemy,
+being commanded by generals of experience and courage, exhibited a
+degree of firmness not common to that species of force, and maintained
+their ground with unexpected obstinacy. In the ardour of action, the
+order not to advance was disregarded, and the British pressed forward
+as the militia retired. The artillery which was placed in the road was
+well served on both sides, and did great execution till both the
+three-pounders commanded by Captain Lieutenant Gaines were dismounted.
+About the same time, one of the British shared the same fate.
+
+When the militia gave way, Lee and Henderson still maintained the
+engagement on the flanks, General Sumner was ordered up to fill the
+place from which Marion and Pickens were receding; and his brigade,
+ranging itself with the legion infantry, and the state regiment of
+South Carolina, came into action with great intrepidity. The British,
+who had advanced upon the militia, fell back to their first ground,
+upon which Stuart ordered the corps of infantry posted in the rear of
+his left wing into the line, and directed Major Coffin with his
+cavalry to guard that flank. About this time Henderson received a
+wound which disabled him from keeping the field, and the command of
+his corps devolved on Lieutenant Colonel Hampton.
+
+After sustaining the fire of the enemy with considerable resolution,
+Sumner's brigade began to give way, and the British rushed forward in
+some disorder. Greene then directed Williams and Campbell to charge
+with the bayonet, and at the same time ordered Washington to bring up
+the reserve, and to act on his left. Williams charged without firing a
+musket; but the soldiers of Campbell's regiment, being chiefly new
+levies, returned the fire of the enemy as they advanced. In this
+critical moment, Lee, perceiving that the American right extended
+beyond the British left, ordered Captain Rudolph, of the legion
+infantry, to turn their flank and give them a raking fire. This order
+was instantly executed with precision and effect. Charged thus both in
+front and flank, 'the British broke successively on the left, till the
+example was followed by all that part of the line. The Marylanders
+under Williams, had already used the bayonet, and before the troops
+opposed to them gave way, several had fallen on both sides, transfixed
+with that weapon.
+
+The British left, when driven off the field, retreated through their
+encampment towards Eutaw creek, near which stood a three story brick
+house, surrounded with offices, and connected with a strongly enclosed
+garden, into which Major Sheridan, in pursuance of orders previously
+given by Lieutenant Colonel Stuart, threw himself with the New York
+volunteers. The Americans pursued them closely, and took three hundred
+prisoners and two pieces of cannon. Unfortunately for their hopes of
+victory, the refreshments found in camp furnished a temptation too
+strong to be resisted; and many of the soldiers left their ranks, and,
+under cover of the tents, seized the spirits and food within their
+view. The legion infantry, however, pressed the rear so closely as to
+make a serious struggle to enter the house with the British. The door
+was forcibly shut in their faces, and several British officers and men
+were excluded. These were made prisoners, and mixed with the
+Americans, so as to save them from the fire of the house while
+retiring from it.
+
+As the British left gave way, Washington was directed to charge their
+right. He advanced with his accustomed impetuosity, but found it
+impossible, with cavalry, to penetrate the thicket occupied by
+Majoribanks. Perceiving an interval between the British right and the
+creek, he determined to pass through it round their flank and to
+charge them in the rear. In making the attempt, he received a fire
+which did immense execution. The British occupied a thicket almost
+impervious to horse. In attempting to force it, Lieutenant Stuart who
+commanded the leading section was badly wounded, his horse killed
+under him, and every man in his section killed or wounded. Captain
+Watts, the second in command, fell pierced with two balls. Colonel
+Washington was wounded, and his horse was killed. They fell together;
+and, before he could extricate himself, he was made a prisoner.
+
+After nearly all the officers, and a large portion of the men were
+killed or wounded, the residue of the corps was drawn off by Captain
+Parsons, assisted by Lieutenant Gordon. Soon after the repulse of
+Washington, Lieutenant Colonel Hampton and Captain Kirkwood with his
+infantry, came up and renewed the attack on Majoribanks. Great efforts
+were made to dislodge him, but they were ineffectual. Finding it
+impracticable to employ horse to advantage on that ground, Hampton
+drew off his troops and retired to the road.
+
+The corps commanded by Sheridan kept up a continual and destructive
+fire from the house in which they had taken shelter; and Greene
+ordered up the artillery to batter it. The guns were too light to make
+a breach in the walls, and, having been brought within the range of
+the fire from the house, almost every artillerist was killed, and the
+pieces were abandoned.
+
+The firm stand made by Majoribanks, and the disorder which had taken
+place among a part of the Americans, gave Stuart an opportunity of
+rallying his broken regiments, and bringing them again into action.
+They were formed between the thicket occupied by Majoribanks, and the
+house in possession of Sheridan.
+
+Major Coffin, who had repulsed the legion cavalry about the time the
+British infantry was driven off the field, still maintained a
+formidable position on their left; and no exertions could dislodge
+Majoribanks or Sheridan from the cover under which they fought.
+Perceiving that the contest was maintained on ground, and under
+circumstances extremely disadvantageous to the Americans, Greene
+withdrew them a small distance, and formed them again in the wood in
+which the battle had been fought. Thinking it unadviseable to renew
+the desperate attempt which had just failed, he collected his wounded,
+and retired with his prisoners to the ground from which he had marched
+in the morning, determined again to fight the British army when it
+should retreat from the Eutaws.
+
+Every corps engaged in this hard fought battle received the applause
+of the general. Almost every officer whose situation enabled him to
+attract notice was named with distinction. "Never," he said, "was
+artillery better served;" but, "he thought himself principally
+indebted for the victory he had gained, to the free use made of the
+bayonet by the Virginians and Marylanders, and by the infantry of the
+legion and of Kirkwood." To Colonel Williams he acknowledged himself
+to be particularly indebted. He gave that praise too to the valour of
+his enemy which it merited. "They really fought," he said, "with
+courage worthy a better cause."
+
+The loss on both sides bore a great proportion to the numbers engaged.
+That of the Americans was five hundred and fifty-five, including sixty
+officers. One hundred and thirty were killed on the spot. Seventeen
+commissioned officers were killed, and four mortally wounded. "This
+loss of officers," said their general, "is still more heavy on account
+of their value than their numbers."
+
+Among the slain was Lieutenant Colonel Campbell, who received a mortal
+wound while leading the Virginia brigade to that bold and decisive
+charge which broke the adverse line.
+
+The loss of the British army was stated by themselves at six hundred
+and ninety-three men, of whom only eighty-five were killed in the
+field. If this statement be correct,[6] the American dead greatly
+exceeded that of the adversary, which was probably the fact, as the
+carnage of the former, during their unavailing efforts to dislodge the
+latter from the house and strong adjoining ground, was immense.
+
+     [Footnote 6: The British accounts acknowledge only two
+     hundred and fifty-seven missing; but General Greene, in his
+     letter of the ninth of September, says, that including
+     seventy wounded who were left at Eutaw, he made five hundred
+     prisoners.]
+
+Each party had pretensions to the victory, and each claimed the merit
+of having gained it with inferior numbers. The truth probably is that
+their numbers were nearly equal.
+
+Nor can the claim of either to the victory be pronounced unequivocal.
+Unconnected with its consequences, the fortune of the day was nearly
+balanced. But if the consequences be taken into the account, the
+victory unquestionably belonged to Greene. The result of this, as of
+the two preceding battles fought by him in the Carolinas, was the
+expulsion of the hostile army from the territory which was the
+immediate object of contest.
+
+Four six-pounders, two of which had been taken in the early part of
+the day, were brought to play upon the house, and, being pushed so
+near as to be within the command of its fire, were unavoidably
+abandoned; but a three-pounder which had been also taken, was brought
+off by Captain Lieutenant Gaines, whose conduct was mentioned with
+distinction by General Greene. Thus the trophies of victory were
+divided.
+
+The thanks of congress were voted to every corps in the army; and a
+resolution was passed for "presenting to Major General Greene, as an
+honourable testimony of his merit, a British standard, and a golden
+medal, emblematic of the battle and of his victory."
+
+{September 9.}
+
+On the day succeeding the action, Lieutenant Colonel Stuart marched
+from Eutaw to meet Major M'Arthur, who was conducting a body of troops
+from Charleston. The junction was effected about fourteen miles from
+Eutaw; and this movement saved M'Arthur from Marion and Lee, who had
+been detached on the morning of the same day to intercept any
+reinforcement which might be coming from below. Stuart continued his
+retreat to Monk's corner, to which place he was followed by Greene,
+who, on finding that the numbers and position of the British army were
+such as to render an attack unadviseable, returned to the high hills
+of Santee.
+
+The ravages of disease were added to the loss sustained in battle, and
+the army remained for some time in too feeble a condition for active
+enterprise.
+
+{Nov. 18.}
+
+{Nov. 28.}
+
+The capitulation at Yorktown was soon followed by the evacuation of
+Wilmington, in North Carolina, and the British seemed to limit their
+views in the south to the country adjacent to the sea coast. As the
+cool season approached, the diseases of the American army abated; and
+Greene, desirous of partaking in the abundance of the lower country,
+marched from the high hills of Santee towards the Four Holes, a branch
+of the Edisto. Leaving the army to be conducted by Colonel Williams,
+he proceeded in person at the head of his cavalry, supported by about
+two hundred infantry, towards the British posts at Dorchester, where
+six hundred and fifty regular troops and two hundred royal militia
+were understood to be stationed.
+
+[Sidenote: The British army retires towards Charleston.]
+
+Though his march was conducted with the utmost secrecy, the country
+through which he passed contained so many disaffected, that it was
+impossible to conceal this movement; and intelligence of his approach
+was communicated to the officer commanding in Dorchester, the night
+before he reached that place. The advance, commanded by Lieutenant
+Colonel Hampton, met a small party, which he instantly charged, and,
+after killing and taking several, drove the residue over the bridge
+under cover of their works. In the course of the following night, the
+stores at Dorchester were burnt, and the garrison retired to the
+Quarter House, where their principal force was encamped. Greene
+returned to the army at the Round O, at which place he purposed to
+await the arrival of the reinforcements marching from the north under
+the command of General St. Clair. In the mean time, General Marion and
+Lieutenant Colonel Lee were stationed on each side of Ashley, so as to
+cover the country between the Cooper and the Edisto; thus confining
+the influence of the British arms to Charleston neck, and the adjacent
+islands.[7]
+
+     [Footnote 7: During this campaign a very effective
+     expedition against the Cherokees was conducted by General
+     Pickens. When the struggle for South Carolina recommenced,
+     those savages were stimulated to renew their incursions into
+     the settlements of the whites. At the head of about four
+     hundred mounted militia, Pickens penetrated into their
+     country, burned thirteen of their villages, killed upwards
+     of forty Indians, and took a number of prisoners, without
+     the loss of a single man. On this occasion a new and
+     formidable mode of attack was introduced. The militia horse
+     rushed upon the Indians, and charged them sword in hand.
+     Terrified at the rapidity of the pursuit, the Cherokees
+     humbly sued for peace, which was granted on terms calculated
+     to restrain depredations in future.]
+
+While in his camp at the Round O, General Greene was informed that
+large reinforcements from Ireland and from New York were expected by
+the army in Charleston. This intelligence excited the more alarm,
+because the term of service for which the levies from Virginia were
+engaged was about expiring, and no adequate measures had been taken
+for supplying their places. It proved untrue; but such was its
+impression, that the general addressed a letter to the governors of
+South Carolina, in which, after taking a serious view of the state of
+his army, he recommended that it should be recruited from the slaves.
+The governor thought the proposition of sufficient importance to be
+laid before the legislature, which was soon afterwards convened; but
+the measure was not adopted.
+
+On the fourth of January, General St. Clair, who conducted the
+reinforcement from the north, arrived in camp, and, five days
+afterward, General Wayne,[8] with his brigade, and the remnant of the
+third regiment of dragoons, commanded by Colonel White, was detached
+over the Savannah for the recovery of Georgia.
+
+     [Footnote 8: In the judicious orders given to Wayne, Greene
+     endeavoured to impress on that officer the importance of a
+     course of conduct, always observed by himself, which might
+     tend to conciliate parties. "Try," says he, "by every means
+     in your power, to soften the malignity and dreadful
+     resentments subsisting between the Whig and Tory; and put a
+     stop as much as possible to that cruel custom of putting men
+     to death after they surrender themselves prisoners. The
+     practice of plundering you will endeavour to check as much
+     as possible; and point out to the militia the ruinous
+     consequences of the policy. Let your discipline be as
+     regular and as rigid as the nature and constitution of your
+     troops will admit."--2 _Johnson_, 277.]
+
+General Greene crossed the Edisto and took post six miles in advance
+of Jacksonborough, on the road leading to Charleston, for the purpose
+of covering the state legislature, which assembled at that place on
+the eighteenth. Thus was civil government re-established in South
+Carolina, and that state restored to the union.
+
+It is impossible to review this active and interesting campaign
+without feeling that much is due to General Greene; and that he amply
+justified the favourable opinion of the Commander-in-chief. He found
+the country completely conquered, and defended by a regular army
+estimated at four thousand men. The inhabitants were so divided, as to
+leave it doubtful to which side the majority was attached. At no time
+did the effective continental force which he could bring into the
+field, amount to two thousand men; and of these a considerable part
+were raw troops. Yet he could keep the field without being forced into
+action; and by a course of judicious movement, and of hardy
+enterprise, in which invincible constancy was displayed, and in which
+courage was happily tempered with prudence, he recovered the southern
+states. It is a singular fact, well worthy of notice, which marks
+impressively the soundness of his judgment, that although he never
+gained a decisive victory, he obtained, to a considerable extent, even
+when defeated, the object for which he fought.
+
+A just portion of the praise deserved by these achievements, is
+unquestionably due to the troops he commanded. These real patriots
+bore every hardship and privation[9] with a degree of patience and
+constancy which can not be sufficiently admired. And never was a
+general better supported by his inferior officers. Not shackled by men
+who, without merit, held stations of high rank obtained by political
+influence, he commanded young men of equal spirit and intelligence,
+formed under the eye of Washington, and trained in the school
+furnished in the severe service of the north, to all the hardships and
+dangers of war.
+
+     [Footnote 9: The distresses of the southern army were such
+     that, if plainly described, truth would wear the appearance
+     of fiction. They were almost naked and barefooted,
+     frequently without food, and always without pay. That he
+     might relieve them when in the last extremity, without
+     diminishing the exertions of their general to derive support
+     from other sources, by creating an opinion that supplies
+     could be drawn from him, Mr. Morris, as was stated by
+     himself in conversation with the author, employed an agent
+     to attend the southern army as a volunteer, whose powers
+     were unknown to General Greene. This agent was instructed to
+     watch its situation; and, whenever it appeared impossible
+     for the general to extricate himself from his
+     embarrassments, to furnish him, on his pledging the public
+     faith for repayment, with a draught on the financier for
+     such a sum as would relieve the urgency of the moment. Thus
+     was Greene occasionally rescued from impending ruin by aids
+     which appeared providential, and for which he could not
+     account.]
+
+A peculiar importance was given to these successes in the south by the
+opinion that a pacific temper was finding its way into the cabinets of
+the belligerent powers of Europe. The communications from the court of
+Versailles rendered it probable that negotiations for peace would take
+place in the course of the ensuing winter; and dark hints had been
+given on the part of Great Britain to the minister of his most
+Christian Majesty, that all the American states could not reasonably
+expect to become independent, as several of them were subdued.
+Referring to the precedent of the low countries, it was observed that
+of the seventeen provinces originally united against the Spanish
+crown, only seven obtained their independence.
+
+Additional motives for exertion were furnished by other communications
+from the French monarch. These were that, after the present campaign,
+no farther pecuniary or military aids were to be expected from France.
+The situation of affairs in Europe would, it was said, demand all the
+exertions which that nation was capable of making; and the forces of
+his most Christian Majesty might render as much real service to the
+common cause elsewhere as in America.[10]
+
+     [Footnote 10: Secret Journals of Congress, vol. 2, pp. 305,
+     399, 400, 452.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+     Preparations for another campaign.... Proceedings in the
+     Parliament of Great Britain.... Conciliatory conduct of
+     General Carleton.... Transactions in the south....
+     Negotiations for peace.... Preliminary and eventual articles
+     agreed upon between the United States and Great Britain....
+     Discontents of the American army.... Peace.... Mutiny of a
+     part of the Pennsylvania line.... Evacuation of New York....
+     General Washington resigns his commission and retires to
+     Mount Vernon.
+
+
+{1782}
+
+[Sidenote: Preparations for another campaign.]
+
+The splendid success of the allied arms in Virginia, and the great
+advantages obtained still farther south, produced no disposition in
+General Washington to relax those exertions which might be necessary
+to secure the great object of the contest. "I shall attempt to
+stimulate congress," said he, in a letter to General Greene written at
+Mount Vernon, "to the best improvement of our late success, by taking
+the most vigorous and effectual measures to be ready for an early and
+decisive campaign the next year. My greatest fear is, that viewing
+this stroke in a point of light which may too much magnify its
+importance, they may think our work too nearly closed, and fall into a
+state of languor and relaxation. To prevent this error, I shall employ
+every means in my power, and, if unhappily we sink into this fatal
+mistake, no part of the blame shall be mine."
+
+On the 27th of November he reached Philadelphia, and congress passed a
+resolution granting him an audience on the succeeding day. On his
+appearance the President addressed him in a short speech, informing
+him that a committee was appointed to state the requisitions to be
+made for the proper establishment of the army, and expressing the
+expectation that he would remain in Philadelphia, in order to aid the
+consultations on that important subject.
+
+The secretary of war, the financier, and the secretary of foreign
+affairs, assisted at these deliberations; and the business was
+concluded with unusual celerity.
+
+A revenue was scarcely less necessary than an army; and it was obvious
+that the means for carrying on the war must be obtained, either by
+impressment, or by a vigorous course of taxation. But both these
+alternatives depended on the states; and the government of the union
+resorted to the influence of the Commander-in-chief in aid of its
+requisitions.
+
+But no exertions on the part of America alone could expel the invading
+army. A superiority at sea was indispensable to the success of
+offensive operations against the posts which the British still held
+within the United States. To obtain this superiority, General
+Washington pressed its importance on the minister of France and
+commanding officers of the French troops, as well as on the Marquis de
+Lafayette, who was about to return to his native country.
+
+[Sidenote: Proceedings in the British parliament.]
+
+The first intelligence from Europe was far from being calculated to
+diminish the anxieties still felt in America by the enlightened
+friends of the revolution. The parliament of Great Britain reassembled
+in November. The speech from the throne breathed a settled purpose to
+continue the war; and the addresses from both houses, which were
+carried by large majorities, echoed the sentiment.
+
+In the course of the animated debates which these addresses
+occasioned, an intention was indeed avowed by some members of the
+administration to change their system. The plan indicated for the
+future was to direct the whole force of the nation against France and
+Spain; and to suspend offensive operations in the interior of the
+United States, until the strength of those powers should be broken. In
+the mean time, the posts then occupied by their troops were to be
+maintained.
+
+This development of the views of administration furnished additional
+motives to the American government for exerting all the faculties of
+the nation, to expel the British garrisons from New York and
+Charleston. The efforts of the Commander-in-chief to produce these
+exertions were earnest and unremitting, but not successful. The state
+legislatures declared the inability of their constituents to pay
+taxes. Instead of filling the continental treasury, some were devising
+means to draw money from it; and some of those who passed bills
+imposing heavy taxes, directed that the demands of the state should be
+first satisfied, and that the residue only should be paid to the
+continental receiver. By the unwearied attention and judicious
+arrangements of the minister of finance, the expenses of the nation
+had been greatly reduced. The bank established in Philadelphia, and
+his own high character, had enabled him to support in some degree a
+system of credit, the advantages of which were incalculably great.
+
+He had through the Chevalier de la Luzerne obtained permission from
+his most Christian Majesty to draw for half a million of livres
+monthly, until six millions should be received. To prevent the
+diversion of any part of this sum from the most essential objects, he
+had concealed the negotiation even from congress, and had communicated
+it only to the Commander-in-chief; yet, after receiving the first
+instalment, it was discovered that Doctor Franklin had anticipated the
+residue of the loan, and had appropriated it to the purposes of the
+United States. At the commencement of the year 1782, not a dollar
+remained in the treasury; and, although congress had required the
+payment of two millions on the 1st of April, not a cent had been
+received on the twenty-third of that month; and, so late as the 1st of
+June, not more than twenty thousand dollars had reached the treasury.
+Yet to the financier every eye was turned; to him the empty hand of
+every public creditor was stretched forth; and against him, instead of
+the state governments, the complaints and imprecations of every
+unsatisfied claimant were directed. In July, when the second quarter
+annual payment of taxes ought to have been received, the minister of
+finance was informed by some of his agents, that the collection of the
+revenue had been postponed in some of the states, in consequence of
+which the month of December would arrive before any money could come
+into the hands of the continental receivers. In a letter communicating
+this unpleasant intelligence to the Commander-in-chief, he added,
+"with such gloomy prospects as this letter affords, I am tied here to
+be baited by continual clamorous demands; and for the forfeiture of
+all that is valuable in life, and which I hoped at this moment to
+enjoy, I am to be paid by invective. Scarce a day passes in which I am
+not tempted to give back into the hands of congress the power they
+have delegated, and to lay down a burden which presses me to the
+earth. Nothing prevents me but a knowledge of the difficulties I am
+obliged to struggle under. What may be the success of my efforts God
+only knows; but to leave my post at present, would, I know, be
+ruinous. This candid state of my situation and feelings I give to your
+bosom, because you who have already felt and suffered so much, will be
+able to sympathize with me."
+
+[Illustration: Livingston Manor, Dobbs Ferry, New York
+
+_A monument erected by the Sons of the Revolution on the lawn of this
+historic mansion, overlooking the Hudson River, states that here, on
+July 6, 1781, the French allies under Rochambeau joined the American
+Army. Here also, on August 14, 1781, Washington planned the Yorktown
+campaign which brought to a triumphant end the War for American
+Independence; and here, on May 6, 1783, Washington and Sir Guy
+Carleton arranged for the evacuation of American soil by the British.
+A concluding paragraph reads: "And opposite this point, May 8, 1783, a
+British sloop of war fired 17 guns in honor of the American
+Commander-in-Chief, the first salute by Great Britain to the United
+States of America."_]
+
+Fortunately for the United States, the temper of the British nation on
+the subject of continuing the war did not accord with that of its
+sovereign. That war, into which the people had entered with at least
+as much eagerness as the minister, had become almost universally
+unpopular.
+
+{February 27.}
+
+{March 4.}
+
+Motions against the measures of administration respecting America were
+repeated by the opposition; and, on every experiment, the strength of
+the minority increased. At length, on the 27th of February, General
+Conway moved in the house of commons, "that it is the opinion of this
+house that a farther prosecution of offensive war against America
+would, under present circumstances, be the means of weakening the
+efforts of this country against her European enemies, and tend to
+increase the mutual enmity so fatal to the interests both of Great
+Britain and America." The whole force of administration was exerted to
+get rid of this resolution, but was exerted in vain; and it was
+carried. An address to the king, in the words of the resolution, was
+immediately voted, and was presented by the whole house. The answer of
+the crown being deemed inexplicit, it was on the 4th of March
+resolved, "that the house will consider as enemies to his majesty and
+the country, all those who should advise, or attempt a farther
+prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North America."
+
+These votes were soon followed by a change of ministers, and by
+instructions to the officers commanding the forces in America, which
+conformed to them.
+
+While General Washington was employed in addressing circular letters
+to the state governments, suggesting all those motives which might
+stimulate them to exertions better proportioned to the exigency,
+English papers containing the debates in parliament on the various
+propositions respecting America, reached the United States. Alarmed at
+the impression these debates might make, he introduced the opinions it
+was deemed prudent to inculcate respecting them, into the letters he
+was then about to transmit to the governors of the several states. "I
+have perused these debates," he said, "with great attention and care,
+with a view, if possible, to penetrate their real design; and upon the
+most mature deliberation I can bestow, I am obliged to declare it as
+my candid opinion, that the measure, in all its views, so far as it
+respects America, is merely delusory, having no serious intention to
+admit our independence upon its true principles, but is calculated to
+produce a change of ministers to quiet the minds of their own people,
+and reconcile them to a continuance of the war, while it is meant to
+amuse this country with a false idea of peace, to draw us from our
+connexion with France, and to lull us into a state of security and
+inactivity, which taking place, the ministry will be left to prosecute
+the war in other parts of the world with greater vigour and effect.
+Your excellency will permit me on this occasion to observe, that, even
+if the nation and parliament are really in earnest to obtain peace
+with America, it will undoubtedly be wisdom in us to meet them with
+great caution and circumspection, and by all means to keep our arms
+firm in our hands, and instead of relaxing one iota in our exertions,
+rather to spring forward with redoubled vigour, that we may take the
+advantage of every favourable opportunity, until our wishes are fully
+obtained. No nation yet suffered in treaty by preparing (even in the
+moment of negotiation) most vigorously for the field.
+
+"The industry which the enemy is using to propagate their pacific
+reports, appears to me a circumstance very suspicious; and the
+eagerness with which the people, as I am informed, are catching at
+them, is, in my opinion, equally dangerous."
+
+{May.}
+
+[Sidenote: Conciliatory conduct of General Carleton.]
+
+Early in May, Sir Guy Carleton, who had succeeded Sir Henry Clinton in
+the command of all the British forces in the United States, arrived at
+New York. Having been also appointed in conjunction with Admiral
+Digby, a commissioner to negotiate a peace, he lost no time in
+conveying to General Washington copies of the votes of the British
+Parliament, and of a bill which had been introduced on the part of
+administration, authorizing his Majesty to conclude a peace or truce
+with those who were still denominated "the revolted colonies of North
+America." These papers, he said, would manifest the dispositions
+prevailing with the government and people of England towards those of
+America; and, if the like pacific temper should prevail in this
+country, both inclination and duty would lead him to meet it with the
+most zealous concurrence. He had addressed to congress, he said, a
+letter containing the same communications, and he solicited a passport
+for the person who should convey it.
+
+At this time, the bill enabling the British monarch to conclude a
+peace or truce with America had not become a law; nor was any
+assurance given that the present commissioners were empowered to offer
+other terms than those which had been formerly rejected. General
+Carleton therefore could not hope that negotiations would commence on
+such a basis; nor be disappointed at the refusal of the passports he
+requested by congress, to whom the application was, of course,
+referred. The letter may have been written for the general purpose of
+conciliation, and of producing a disposition in the United States on
+the subject of hostilities, corresponding with that which had been
+expressed in the House of Commons. But the situation of the United
+States justified a suspicion of different motives; and prudence
+required that their conduct should be influenced by that suspicion.
+The repugnance of the king to a dismemberment of the empire was
+understood; and it was thought probable that the sentiments expressed
+in the House of Commons might be attributable rather to a desire of
+changing ministers, than to any fixed determination to relinquish the
+design of reannexing America to the crown.
+
+Under these impressions, the overtures now made were considered as
+opiates, administered to lull the spirit of vigilance which the
+guardians of the public safety laboured to keep up, into a state of
+fatal repose; and to prevent those measures of security which it might
+yet be necessary to adopt.
+
+This jealousy was nourished by all the intelligence received from
+Europe. The utmost address of the British cabinet had been employed to
+detach the belligerents from each other. The mediation of Russia had
+been accepted to procure a separate peace with Holland; propositions
+had been submitted both to France and Spain, tending to an
+accommodation of differences with each of those powers singly; and
+inquiries had been made of Mr. Adams, the American minister at the
+Hague, which seemed to contemplate the same object with regard to the
+United States. These political manoeuvres furnished additional motives
+for doubting the sincerity of the English cabinet. Whatever views
+might actuate the court of St. James on this subject, the resolution
+of the American government to make no separate treaty was
+unalterable.[11]
+
+     [Footnote 11: Secret Journals of Congress, v. 2, pp. 412,
+     418, 454.]
+
+But the public votes which have been stated, and probably his private
+instructions, restrained Sir Guy Carleton from offensive war; and the
+state of the American army disabled General Washington from making any
+attempt on the posts in possession of the British. The campaign of
+1782 consequently passed away without furnishing any military
+operations of moment between the armies under the immediate direction
+of the respective commanders-in-chief.
+
+{August.}
+
+[Sidenote: Negotiations for peace.]
+
+Early in August a letter was received by General Washington from Sir
+Guy Carleton and Admiral Digby, which, among other communications
+manifesting a pacific disposition on the part of England, contained
+the information that Mr. Grenville was at Paris, invested with full
+powers to treat with all the parties at war, that negotiations for a
+general peace were already commenced, and that his Majesty had
+commanded his minister to direct Mr. Grenville, that the independence
+of the thirteen provinces should be proposed by him in the first
+instance, instead of being made a condition of a general treaty. But
+that this proposition would be made in the confidence that the
+loyalists would be restored to their possessions, or a full
+compensation made them for whatever confiscations might have taken
+place.
+
+This letter was, not long afterwards, followed by one from Sir Guy
+Carleton, declaring that he could discern no further object of
+contest, and that he disapproved of all farther hostilities by sea or
+land, which could only multiply the miseries of individuals, without a
+possible advantage to either nation. In pursuance of this opinion, he
+had, soon after his arrival in New York, restrained the practice of
+detaching parties of Indians against the frontiers of the United
+States, and had recalled those which were previously engaged in those
+bloody incursions.
+
+These communications appear to have alarmed the jealousy of the
+minister of France. To quiet his fears, congress renewed the
+resolution "to enter into no discussion of any overtures for
+pacification, but in confidence and in concert with his most Christian
+Majesty;"[12] and again recommend to the several states to adopt such
+measures as would most effectually guard against all intercourse with
+any subjects of the British crown during the war.
+
+     [Footnote 12: Secret Journals of Congress, v. 3, p. 249.]
+
+The same causes which produced this inactivity in the north, operated
+to a considerable extent with the armies of the south.
+
+When General Wayne entered Georgia, the British troops in that state
+retired to the town of Savannah; and the Americans advanced to
+Ebenezer. Though inferior to their enemy in numbers, they interrupted
+his communications with the country, and even burned some magazines
+which had been collected and deposited under the protection of his
+guns.
+
+Not receiving the aids from the militia which he had expected, Wayne
+pressed Greene for reinforcements, which that officer was unable to
+furnish, until Lieutenant Colonel Posey arrived from Virginia with
+about two hundred men. He proceeded immediately to Georgia, and
+reached the camp at Ebenezer on the 1st of April.
+
+These troops, though new levies, were veteran soldiers, who, having
+served the times for which they enlisted, had become the substitutes
+of men who were designated, by lot, for tours of duty they were
+unwilling to perform. Being commanded by old officers of approved
+courage and experience, the utmost confidence was to be placed in
+them; and Wayne, though still inferior to his enemy in numbers, sought
+for opportunities to employ them.
+
+The Indians, who occupied the southern and western parts of Georgia,
+were in the habit of assembling annually at Augusta, for the purpose
+of receiving those presents which were indispensable to the
+preservation of British influence over them. The usual time for
+holding these meetings was arrived; but the Americans being in
+possession of Augusta, it was necessary to transfer them to a British
+post, and the Indians were invited to keep down the south side of the
+Altamaha to its mouth, whence they were to be conveyed through the
+inland passage to Savannah. Arrangements had been made for bringing a
+strong party of Creeks and Choctaws, assembled on the south side of
+Altamaha, to Harris's bridge, on the Ogechee, about seven miles from
+that town, and Colonel Brown marched at the head of a strong
+detachment to convoy them into it. The Indians having quarrelled,
+instead of proceeding to Ogechee, returned home, and Brown marched
+back his detachment.
+
+Wayne received intelligence of this movement; and, determining to
+avail himself of the opportunity given by this division of his enemy
+to fight him in detail, immediately put his army in motion. He was
+soon informed that Brown was on his return, and would reach Savannah
+that night. Disregarding the danger of throwing himself with inferior
+numbers between the two divisions of the British army, he determined
+on hazarding an action, and his advance, consisting of a troop of
+Virginia cavalry, commanded by Captain Hughes and Lieutenant Boyer,
+and a light company of Virginia infantry, commanded by Captain Parker,
+entered the road along which Brown was marching about twelve at night,
+just as his front appeared in view. A vigorous charge was instantly
+made, which, being entirely unexpected, was completely successful. The
+British, struck with a panic, dispersed among the thickets and fled in
+all directions. Colonel Douglass and about forty men were killed,
+wounded, or taken. The American loss was five men killed and two
+wounded. The next day, after parading in view of Savannah, Wayne
+resumed his position at Ebenezer.
+
+The resolution of Parliament against the farther prosecution of active
+war in America was followed by instructions to the officers commanding
+the armies of Britain, in consequence of which propositions for the
+suspension of hostilities were made in the southern department, about
+the time that they were rejected in the north. The same motives
+continuing to influence congress, they were rejected in the south
+also, and the armies still continued to watch each other with
+vigilance. To avoid surprise, Wayne frequently changed his ground, and
+was continually on the alert. While his whole attention was directed
+towards Savannah, an enemy entirely unlooked for came upon his rear,
+entered his camp in the night, and, had not his army been composed of
+the best materials, must have dispersed it.
+
+A strong party of Creeks, led by a gallant warrior, Emistasigo, or
+Guristersego, instead of moving down on the south side of the
+Altamaha, passed through the centre of Georgia with the determination
+of engaging the American posts. Marching entirely in the night,
+through unfrequented ways, subsisting on meal made of parched corn,
+and guided by white men, they reached the neighbourhood of the
+American army then encamped at Gibbon's plantation, near Savannah,
+without being perceived, and made arrangements to attack it. In the
+night they emerged from the deep swamp in which they had been
+concealed, and, approaching the rear of the American camp with the
+utmost secrecy, reached it about three in the morning. The sentinel
+was killed before he could sound the alarm, and the first notice was
+given by the fire and the yell of the enemy. The Indians rushed into
+the camp, and, killing the few men they fell in with, seized the
+artillery. Fortunately some time was wasted in the attempt to turn the
+pieces on the Americans. Captain Parker, who commanded the light
+company, had been employed on a very fatiguing tour of duty near
+Savannah, and had returned that evening to camp. To allow his harassed
+soldiers some repose, he was placed in the rear near the artillery,
+and was asleep when the Indians entered the camp. Roused by the fire,
+and perceiving that the enemy was amidst them, he judiciously drew off
+his men in silence, and formed them with the quarter guard behind the
+house in which the general was quartered. Wayne was instantly on
+horseback, and, believing the whole garrison from Savannah to be upon
+him, determined to repulse the enemy or die in the attempt. Parker was
+directed to charge immediately with the bayonet, and orders were
+despatched to Posey, the commanding officer in camp, to bring up the
+troops without delay. The orders to Parker were so promptly executed,
+that Posey, although he moved with the utmost celerity, could not
+reach the scene of action in time to join in it. The light troops and
+quarter guard under Parker drove every thing before them at the point
+of the bayonet. The Indians, unable to resist the bayonet, soon fled,
+leaving their chief, his white guides, and seventeen of his warriors
+dead upon the spot. Wayne, who accompanied his light troops, now first
+discovered the character of his enemy, and adapted his pursuit to it.
+Yet only twelve prisoners were made. The general's horse was shot
+under him, and twelve privates were killed and wounded.[13]
+
+     [Footnote 13: In addition to the public documents and
+     accounts, the author received a statement of this action in
+     a letter from his friend Captain Parker.]
+
+This sharp conflict terminated the war in Georgia. Information was
+soon given of the determination to withdraw the British troops from
+Savannah; and arrangements being made, with the sanction of the civil
+government, for the security of such individuals as might remain in
+town, the place was evacuated. The regular troops retired to
+Charleston, and Colonel Brown conducted his loyalists through the
+islands into Florida. Wayne was directed to rejoin General Greene.
+
+In South Carolina the American army maintained its position in front
+of Jacksonborough, and that of the British was confined to Charleston
+and its immediate vicinity. The situation of the ground as well as the
+condition of his army, was unfavourable to offensive operations on the
+part of General Greene; and General Leslie, who commanded in
+Charleston, was not strong enough to attempt the recovery of the lower
+country. While the two armies continued to watch each other,
+occasional enterprises were undertaken by detachments, in some of
+which a considerable degree of merit was displayed. In one of them,
+the corps of Marion, its general being attending in the legislature,
+was surprised and dispersed by the British Colonel Thompson; and in
+another, an English guard galley, mounting twelve guns, and manned
+with forty-three seamen, was captured by Captain Rudolph, of the
+legion.
+
+From the possession of the lower country of South Carolina, which was
+known to contain considerable quantities of rice and beef cattle, the
+army had anticipated more regular and more abundant supplies of food
+than it had been accustomed to receive. This hope was disappointed by
+the measures of the government.
+
+The generals, and other agents acting under the authority of congress,
+had been accustomed in extreme cases, which too frequently occurred,
+to seize provisions for the use of the armies. This questionable power
+had been exercised with forbearance, most commonly in concert with the
+government of the state, and under the pressure of such obvious
+necessity as carried its justification with it.
+
+The war being transferred to the south at a time when the depreciation
+of paper money had deprived congress of its only fund, it became
+indispensably necessary to resort more generally to coercive means in
+order to procure subsistence for the troops. Popular discontent was
+the natural consequence of this odious measure, and the feelings of
+the people were communicated to their representatives. After the
+termination of the very active campaign of 1781 in Virginia, the
+legislature of that state passed a law prohibiting all impressment,
+"unless it be by warrant from the executive in time of actual
+invasion;" and the assembly of South Carolina, during the session at
+Jacksonborough, also passed a law forbidding impressment, and
+enacting, "that no other persons than those who shall be appointed by
+the governor for that purpose, shall be allowed or permitted to
+procure supplies for the army."
+
+The effect of this measure was soon felt. The exertions of the agent
+appointed by the governor failed to procure subsistence for the
+troops, and General Greene, after a long course of suffering, was
+compelled to relieve his urgent wants by an occasional recurrence to
+means forbidden by the law.
+
+Privations, which had been borne without a murmur under the excitement
+of active military operations, produced great irritation during the
+leisure which prevailed after the enemy had abandoned the open field;
+and, in the Pennsylvania line, which was composed chiefly of
+foreigners, the discontent was aggravated to such a point as to
+produce a treasonable intercourse with the enemy, in which a plot is
+understood to have been laid for seizing General Greene and delivering
+him to a detachment of British troops, which would move out of
+Charleston for the purpose of favouring the execution of the design.
+It was discovered when it is supposed to have been on the point of
+execution; and a sergeant Gornell, believed to be the chief of the
+conspiracy, was condemned to death by a court martial, and executed on
+the 22nd of April. Some others, among whom were two domestics in the
+general's family, were brought before the court on suspicion of being
+concerned in the plot, but the testimony was not sufficient to convict
+them; and twelve deserted the night after it was discovered. There is
+no reason to believe that the actual guilt of this transaction
+extended farther.
+
+{July 11.}
+
+Charleston was held until the 14th of December. Previous to its
+evacuation, General Leslie had proposed a cessation of hostilities,
+and that his troops might be supplied with fresh provisions, in
+exchange for articles of the last necessity in the American camp. The
+policy of government being adverse to this proposition, General Greene
+was under the necessity of refusing his assent to it, and the British
+general continued to supply his wants by force. This produced several
+skirmishes with foraging parties, to one of which importance was given
+by the death of Lieutenant Colonel Laurens, whose loss was universally
+lamented.
+
+This gallant and accomplished young gentleman had entered into the
+family of the Commander-in-chief at an early period of the war, and
+had always shared a large portion of his esteem. Brave to excess, he
+sought every occasion to render service to his country, and to acquire
+that military fame which he pursued with the ardour of a young
+soldier, whose courage seems to have partaken largely of that romantic
+spirit which youth and enthusiasm produce in a fearless mind. No small
+addition to the regrets occasioned by his loss was derived from the
+reflection that he fell unnecessarily, in an unimportant skirmish, in
+the last moments of the war, when his rash exposure to the danger
+which proved fatal to him could no longer be useful to his country.
+
+From the arrival of Sir Guy Carleton at New York, the conduct of the
+British armies on the American continent was regulated by the spirit
+then recently displayed in the house of commons; and all the
+sentiments expressed by their general were pacific and conciliatory.
+But to these nattering appearances it was dangerous to yield implicit
+confidence. With a change of men, a change of measures might also take
+place; and, in addition to the ordinary suggestions of prudence, the
+military events in the West Indies were calculated to keep alive the
+attention, and to continue the anxieties of the United States.
+
+After the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, the arms of France and Spain
+in the American seas had been attended with such signal success, that
+the hope of annihilating the power of Great Britain in the West Indies
+was not too extravagant to be indulged. Immense preparations had been
+made for the invasion of Jamaica; and, early in April, Admiral Count
+de Grasse sailed from Martinique with a powerful fleet, having on
+board the land forces and artillery which were to be employed in the
+operations against that island. His intention was to form a junction
+with the Spanish Admiral Don Solano, who lay at Hispaniola; after
+which the combined fleet, whose superiority promised to render it
+irresistible, was to proceed on the important enterprise which had
+been concerted. On his way to Hispaniola, De Grasse was overtaken by
+Rodney, and brought to an engagement, in which he was totally
+defeated, and made a prisoner. This decisive victory disconcerted the
+plans of the combined powers, and gave security to the British
+islands. In the United States, it was feared that this alteration in
+the aspect of affairs might influence the councils of the English
+cabinet on the question of peace; and these apprehensions increased
+the uneasiness with which all intelligent men contemplated the state
+of the American finances.
+
+It was then in contemplation to reduce the army, by which many of the
+officers would be discharged. While the general declared, in a
+confidential letter to the secretary of war, his conviction of the
+alacrity with which they would retire into private life, could they be
+placed in a situation as eligible as they had left to enter into the
+service, he added--"Yet I cannot help fearing the result of the
+measure, when I see such a number of men goaded by a thousand stings
+of reflection on the past, and of anticipation on the future, about to
+be turned on the world, soured by penury, and what they call the
+ingratitude of the public; involved in debts, without one farthing of
+money to carry them home, after having spent the flower of their days,
+and, many of them, their patrimonies, in establishing the freedom and
+independence of their country; and having suffered every thing which
+human nature is capable of enduring on this side of death. I repeat
+it, when I reflect on these irritating circumstances, unattended by
+one thing to soothe their feelings, or brighten the gloomy prospect, I
+cannot avoid apprehending that a train of evils will follow of a very
+serious and distressing nature.
+
+"I wish not to heighten the shades of the picture so far as the real
+life would justify me in doing, or I would give anecdotes of
+patriotism and distress which have scarcely ever been paralleled,
+never surpassed, in the history of mankind. But you may rely upon it,
+the patience and long sufferance of this army are almost exhausted,
+and there never was so great a spirit of discontent as at this
+instant. While in the field, I think it may be kept from breaking out
+into acts of outrage; but when we retire into winter quarters (unless
+the storm be previously dissipated) I can not be at ease respecting
+the consequences. It is high time for a peace."
+
+To judge rightly of the motives which produced this uneasy temper in
+the army, it will be necessary to recollect that the resolution of
+October, 1780, granting half pay for life to the officers, stood on
+the mere faith of a government possessing no funds enabling it to
+perform its engagements. From requisitions alone, to be made on
+sovereign states, the supplies were to be drawn which should satisfy
+these meritorious public creditors; and the ill success attending
+these requisitions while the dangers of war were still impending,
+furnished melancholy presages of their unproductiveness in time of
+peace. In addition to this reflection, of itself sufficient to disturb
+the tranquillity which the passage of the resolution had produced,
+were other considerations of decisive influence. The dispositions
+manifested by congress itself were so unfriendly to the half pay
+establishment as to extinguish the hope that any funds the government
+might acquire, would be applied to that object. Since the passage of
+the resolution, the articles of confederation, which required the
+concurrence of nine states to any act appropriating public money, had
+been adopted; and nine states had never been in favour of the measure.
+Should the requisitions of congress therefore be respected, or should
+permanent funds be granted by the states, the prevailing sentiment of
+the nation was too hostile to the compensation which had been
+stipulated, to leave a probability that it would be substantially
+made. This was not merely the sentiment of the individuals then
+administering the government, which might change with a change of men.
+It was known to be the sense of the states they represented; and
+consequently the hope could not be indulged that, on this subject, a
+future congress would be more just, or would think more liberally. As
+therefore the establishment of that independence for which they had
+fought and suffered appeared to become more certain,--as the end of
+their toils approached--the officers became more attentive to their
+own situation; and the inquietude of the army increased with the
+progress of the negotiation.
+
+In October, the French troops marched to Boston, in order to embark
+for the West Indies; and the Americans retired into winter quarters.
+The apparent indisposition of the British general to act offensively,
+the pacific temper avowed by the cabinet of London, and the strength
+of the country in which the American troops were cantoned, gave ample
+assurance that no military operations would be undertaken during the
+winter, which could require the continuance of General Washington in
+camp. But the irritable temper of the army furnished cause for serious
+apprehension; and he determined to forego every gratification to be
+derived from a suspension of his toils, in order to watch its
+discontents.
+
+While the situation of the United States thus loudly called for peace,
+the negotiations in Europe were protracted by causes which, in
+America, were almost unknown, and which it would have been dangerous
+to declare. Although, so far as respected the dismemberment of the
+British empire, the war had been carried on with one common design,
+the ulterior views of the belligerent powers were not only different,
+but, in some respects, incompatible with each other. To depress a
+proud and hated rival was so eagerly desired by the house of Bourbon,
+that France and Spain might be disposed to continue hostilities for
+the attainment of objects in which America could feel no common
+interest. This circumstance, of itself, furnished motives for
+prolonging the war, after the causes in which it originated were
+removed; and additional delays were produced by the discordant views
+which were entertained in regard to those claims which were the
+subject of negotiation. These were, the boundaries which should be
+assigned to the United States, and the participation which should be
+allowed them in the fisheries. On both these points, the wishes of
+France and Spain were opposed to those of America; and the cabinets
+both of Versailles and Madrid, seemed disposed to intrigue with that
+of London, to prevent such ample concessions respecting them, as the
+British minister might be inclined to make.
+
+[Sidenote: Preliminary and eventual articles agreed upon between the
+United States and Great Britain.]
+
+{Nov. 30.}
+
+After an intricate negotiation, in which the penetration, judgment,
+and firmness, of the American commissioners were eminently displayed,
+eventual and preliminary articles were signed on the 30th of November.
+By this treaty every reasonable wish of America, especially on the
+questions of boundary and of the fisheries, was gratified.
+
+The liberality of the articles on these points attests the success
+which attended the endeavours of the plenipotentiaries of the United
+States, to prove that the real interests of England required that
+America should become independent in fact, as well as name; and that
+every cause of future discord between the two nations should be
+removed.
+
+{1783}
+
+The effect of this treaty was suspended until peace should be
+concluded between France and Great Britain. The connexions between
+their most Christian and Catholic Majesties not admitting of a
+separate peace on the part of either, the negotiations between the
+belligerent powers of Europe had been protracted by the persevering
+endeavours of Spain to obtain the cession of Gibraltar. At length, the
+formidable armament which had invested that fortress was repulsed with
+immense slaughter; after which the place was relieved by Lord Howe,
+and the besiegers abandoned the enterprise in despair. Negotiations
+were then taken up with sincerity; and preliminary articles of peace
+between Great Britain, France, and Spain, were signed on the 20th of
+January, 1783.
+
+[Sidenote: Discontents of the American Army.]
+
+In America, the approach of peace, combined with other causes,
+produced a state of things alike interesting and critical. The
+officers who had wasted their fortunes and their prime of life in
+unrewarded service, fearing, with reason, that congress possessed
+neither the power nor the inclination to comply with its engagements
+to the army, could not look with unconcern at the prospect which was
+opening to them. In December, soon after going into winter quarters,
+they presented a petition to congress, respecting the money actually
+due to them, and proposing a commutation of the half pay stipulated by
+the resolutions of October, 1780, for a sum in gross, which, they
+nattered themselves, would encounter fewer prejudices than the half
+pay establishment. Some security that the engagements of the
+government would be complied with was also requested. A committee of
+officers was deputed to solicit the attention of congress to this
+memorial, and to attend its progress through the house.
+
+Among the most distinguished members of the federal government, were
+persons sincerely disposed to do ample justice to the public creditors
+generally, and to that class of them particularly whose claims were
+founded in military service. But many viewed the army with jealous
+eyes, acknowledged its merit with unwillingness, and betrayed,
+involuntarily, their repugnance to a faithful observance of the public
+engagements. With this question, another of equal importance was
+connected, on which congress was divided almost in the same manner.
+One party was attached to a state, the other to a continental system.
+The latter laboured to fund the public debts on solid continental
+security, while the former opposed their whole weight to measures
+calculated to effect that object.
+
+In consequence of these divisions on points of the deepest interest,
+the business of the army advanced slowly, and the important question
+respecting the commutation of their half pay remained undecided, when
+intelligence was received of the signature of the preliminary and
+eventual articles of peace between the United States and Great
+Britain.
+
+[Sidenote: Anonymous letters and the proceedings in consequence
+thereof.]
+
+The officers, soured by their past sufferings, their present wants,
+and their gloomy prospects--exasperated by the neglect which they
+experienced, and the injustice which they apprehended, manifested an
+irritable and uneasy temper, which required only a slight impulse to
+give it activity. To render this temper the more dangerous, an opinion
+had been insinuated that the Commander-in-chief was restrained, by
+extreme delicacy, from supporting their interests with that zeal which
+his feelings and knowledge of their situation had inspired. Early in
+March, a letter was received from their committee in Philadelphia,
+showing that the objects they solicited had not been obtained. On the
+10th of that month, an anonymous paper was circulated, requiring a
+meeting of the general and field officers at the public building on
+the succeeding day at eleven in the morning; and announcing the
+expectation that an officer from each company, and a delegate from the
+medical staff would attend. The object of the meeting was avowed to
+be, "to consider the late letter from their representatives in
+Philadelphia, and what measures (if any) should be adopted to obtain
+that redress of grievances which they seemed to have solicited in
+vain."
+
+On the same day an address to the army was privately circulated, which
+was admirably well calculated to work on the passions of the moment,
+and to lead to the most desperate resolutions. Full justice can not be
+done to this eloquent paper without inserting it entire.
+
+"To the officers of the army.
+
+"Gentlemen,
+
+"A fellow soldier, whose interests and affections bend him strongly to
+you, whose past sufferings have been as great, and whose future
+fortune may be as desperate as yours, would beg leave to address you.
+
+"Age has its claims, and rank is not without its pretensions, to
+advise; but though unsupported by both, he flatters himself that the
+plain language of sincerity and experience will neither be unheard nor
+unregarded.
+
+"Like many of you, he loved private life, and left it with regret. He
+left it, determined to retire from the field with the necessity that
+called him to it, and not until then--not until the enemies of his
+country, the slaves of power, and the hirelings of injustice, were
+compelled to abandon their schemes, and acknowledge America as
+terrible in arms as she had been humble in remonstrance. With this
+object in view, he has long shared in your toils, and mingled in your
+dangers. He has felt the cold hand of poverty without a murmur, and
+has seen the insolence of wealth without a sigh. But too much under
+the direction of his wishes, and sometimes weak enough to mistake
+desire for opinion, he has until lately--very lately--believed in the
+justice of his country. He hoped that, as the clouds of adversity
+scattered, and as the sunshine of peace and better fortune broke in
+upon us, the coldness and severity of government would relax, and that
+more than justice, that gratitude would blaze forth upon those hands
+which had upheld her in the darkest stages of her passage from
+impending servitude to acknowledged independence. But faith has its
+limits, as well as temper, and there are points beyond which neither
+can be stretched without sinking into cowardice, or plunging into
+credulity. This, my friends, I conceive to be your situation. Hurried
+to the very verge of both, another step would ruin you for ever. To be
+tame and unprovoked when injuries press hard upon you, is more than
+weakness; but to look up for kinder usage without one manly effort of
+your own, would fix your character, and show the world how richly you
+deserve those chains you broke. To guard against this evil, let us
+take a review of the ground upon which we now stand, and from thence
+carry our thoughts forward for a moment into the unexplored field of
+expedient.
+
+"After a pursuit of seven long years, the object for which we set out
+is at length brought within our reach.--Yes, my friends, that
+suffering courage of yours was active once.--It has conducted the
+United States of America through a doubtful and a bloody war.--It has
+placed her in the chair of independency; and peace returns again to
+bless--whom?--A country willing to redress your wrongs, cherish your
+worth, and reward your services? A country courting your return to
+private life with tears of gratitude and smiles of admiration--longing
+to divide with you that independency which your gallantry has given,
+and those riches which your wounds have preserved? Is this the case?
+Or is it rather a country that tramples upon your rights, disdains
+your cries, and insults your distresses? Have you not more than once
+suggested your wishes and made known your wants to congress? Wants and
+wishes which gratitude and policy would have anticipated rather than
+evaded; and have you not lately, in the meek language of entreating
+memorials, begged from their justice what you could no longer expect
+from their favour? How have you been answered? Let the letter which
+you are called to consider to-morrow reply.
+
+"If this then be your treatment while the swords you wear are
+necessary for the defence of America, what have you to expect from
+peace, when your voice shall sink, and your strength dissipate by
+division? When those very swords, the instruments and companions of
+your glory, shall be taken from your sides, and no remaining mark of
+military distinction left but your wants, infirmities, and scars? Can
+you then consent to be the only sufferers by this revolution, and,
+retiring from the field, grow old in poverty, wretchedness, and
+contempt? Can you consent to wade through the vile mire of dependency,
+and owe the miserable remnant of that life to charity which has
+hitherto been spent in honour? If you can--go--and carry with you the
+jest of tories, and the scorn of whigs;--the ridicule, and, what is
+worse, the pity of the world. Go,--starve and be forgotten. But if
+your spirit should revolt at this; if you have sense enough to
+discover, and spirit enough to oppose, tyranny under whatever garb it
+may assume; whether it be the plain coat of republicanism, or the
+splendid robe of royalty; if you have yet learned to discriminate
+between a people and a cause, between men and principles,--awake;
+attend to your situation, and redress yourselves. If the present
+moment be lost, every future effort is in vain; and your threats then
+will be as empty as your entreaties now.
+
+"I would advise you therefore to come to some final opinion upon what
+you can bear, and what you will suffer. If your determination be in
+any proportion to your wrongs, carry your appeal from the justice to
+the fears of the government. Change the milk-and-water style of your
+last memorial. Assume a bolder tone,--decent, but lively, spirited,
+and determined; and suspect the man who would advise to more
+moderation and longer forbearance. Let two or three men who can feel
+as well as write, be appointed to draw up your _last remonstrance_;
+for I would no longer give it the sueing, soft, unsuccessful epithet
+of memorial. Let it be represented in language that will neither
+dishonour you by its rudeness, nor betray you by its fears, what has
+been promised by congress, and what has been performed;--how long and
+how patiently you have suffered;--how little you have asked, and how
+much of that little has been denied. Tell them that, though you were
+the first, and would wish to be the last to encounter danger; though
+despair itself can never drive you into dishonour, it may drive you
+from the field;--that the wound often irritated and never healed, may
+at length become incurable; and that the slightest mark of indignity
+from congress now must operate like the grave, and part you forever;
+that in any political event, the army has its alternative. If peace,
+that nothing shall separate you from your arms but death; if war, that
+courting the auspices, and inviting the directions of your illustrious
+leader, you will retire to some unsettled country, smile in your turn,
+and 'mock when their fear cometh on.' But let it represent also that,
+should they comply with the request of your late memorial, it would
+make you more happy and them more respectable. That while war should
+continue you would follow their standard into the field; and when it
+came to an end, you would withdraw into the shade of private life, and
+give the world another subject of wonder and applause;--an army
+victorious over its enemies, victorious over itself."
+
+Persuaded as the officers in general were of the indisposition of
+government to remunerate their services, this eloquent and impassioned
+address, dictated by genius and by feeling, found in almost every
+bosom a kindred though latent sentiment prepared to receive its
+impression. Quick as the train to which a torch is applied, the
+passions caught its flame, and nothing seemed to be required but the
+assemblage proposed for the succeeding day, to communicate the
+conflagration to the combustible mass, and to produce an explosion
+ruinous to the army and to the nation.
+
+Fortunately, the Commander-in-chief was in camp. His characteristic
+firmness and decision did not forsake him in this crisis. The occasion
+required that his measures should be firm, but prudent and
+conciliatory,--evincive of his fixed determination to oppose any rash
+proceedings, but calculated to assuage the irritation which was
+excited, and to restore confidence in government.
+
+Knowing well that it was much easier to avoid intemperate measures
+than to correct them, he thought it of essential importance to prevent
+the immediate meeting of the officers; but, knowing also that a sense
+of injury and a fear of injustice had made a deep impression on them,
+and that their sensibilities were all alive to the proceedings of
+congress on their memorial, he thought it more adviseable to guide
+their deliberations on that interesting subject, than to
+discountenance them.
+
+With these views, he noticed in his orders, the anonymous paper
+proposing a meeting of the officers, and expressed his conviction that
+their good sense would secure them from paying any "attention to such
+an irregular invitation; but his own duty, he conceived, as well as
+the reputation and true interest of the army, required his
+disapprobation of such disorderly proceedings. At the same time, he
+requested the general and field officers, with one officer from each
+company, and a proper representation from the staff of the army, to
+assemble at twelve on Saturday, the 15th, at the new building, to hear
+the report of the committee deputed by the army to congress. After
+mature deliberation they will devise what farther measures ought to be
+adopted as most rational and best calculated to obtain the just and
+important object in view." The senior officer in rank present was
+directed to preside, and report the result of the deliberations to the
+Commander-in-chief.
+
+The day succeeding that on which these orders were published, a second
+anonymous address appeared, from the same pen which had written the
+first. Its author, acquainted with the discontents of the army, did
+not seem to despair of impelling the officers to the desired point. He
+affected to consider the orders in a light favourable to his
+views:--"as giving system to their proceedings, and stability to their
+resolves."
+
+But Washington would not permit himself to be misunderstood. The
+interval between his orders and the general meeting they invited, was
+employed in impressing on those officers individually who possessed
+the greatest share of the general confidence, a just sense of the true
+interests of the army; and the whole weight of his influence was
+exerted to calm the agitations of the moment, and conduct them to a
+happy termination. This was a work of no inconsiderable difficulty. So
+convinced were many that government designed to deal unfairly by them,
+that only the reliance they placed on their general, and their
+attachment to his person and character, could have moderated their
+resentments so far as to induce them to adopt the measures he
+recommended.
+
+On the 15th, the convention of officers assembled, and General
+Gates[14] took the chair. The Commander-in-chief then addressed them
+in the following terms.
+
+     [Footnote 14: By a resolution of the preceding year, the
+     inquiry into his conduct had been dispensed with, and he had
+     been restored to his command in the army.]
+
+"Gentlemen,--
+
+"By an anonymous summons, an attempt has been made to convene you
+together. How inconsistent with the rules of propriety, how
+unmilitary, and how subversive of all order and discipline, let the
+good sense of the army decide.
+
+"In the moment of this summons, another anonymous production was sent
+into circulation, addressed more to the feelings and passions than to
+the judgment of the army. The author of the piece is entitled to much
+credit for the goodness of his pen; and I could wish he had as much
+credit for the rectitude of his heart; for as men see through
+different optics, and are induced by the reflecting faculties of the
+mind, to use different means to attain the same end, the author of the
+address should have had more charity, than to mark for suspicion the
+man who should recommend moderation and longer forbearance; or, in
+other words, who should not think as he thinks, and act as he advises.
+But he had another plan in view, in which candour and liberality of
+sentiment, regard to justice, and love of country, have no part; and
+he was right to insinuate the darkest suspicion to effect the blackest
+design. That the address was drawn with great art, and is designed to
+answer the most insidious purposes; that it is calculated to impress
+the mind with an idea of premeditated injustice, in the sovereign
+power of the United States, and rouse all those resentments which must
+unavoidably flow from such a belief; that the secret mover of this
+scheme, whoever he may be, intended to take advantage of the passions,
+while they were warmed by the recollection of past distresses, without
+giving time for cool deliberate thinking, and that composure of mind
+which is so necessary to give dignity and stability to measures, is
+rendered too obvious by the mode of conducting the business to need
+other proof than a reference to the proceedings.
+
+"Thus much, gentlemen, I have thought it incumbent on me to observe to
+you, to show upon what principles I opposed the irregular and hasty
+meeting which was proposed to have been held on Tuesday last, and not
+because I wanted a disposition to give you every opportunity
+consistent with your own honour, and the dignity of the army, to make
+known your grievances. If my conduct heretofore has not evinced to
+you, that I have been a faithful friend to the army, my declaration of
+it at this time would be equally unavailing and improper. But as I was
+among the first who embarked in the cause of our common country; as I
+have never left your side one moment but when called from you on
+public duty; as I have been the constant companion and witness of your
+distresses, and not among the last to feel and acknowledge your
+merits; as I have ever considered my own military reputation as
+inseparably connected with that of the army; as my heart has ever
+expanded with joy when I have heard its praises, and my indignation
+has arisen when the mouth of detraction has been opened against it; it
+can scarcely be supposed, at this last stage of the war, that I am
+indifferent to its interests. But how are they to be promoted? The way
+is plain, says the anonymous addresser.--If war continues, remove into
+the unsettled country; there establish yourselves, and leave an
+ungrateful country to defend itself! But who are they to defend? Our
+wives, our children, our farms and other property which we leave
+behind us? Or, in this state of hostile separation, are we to take the
+two first (the latter can not be removed) to perish in a wilderness
+with hunger, cold, and nakedness?
+
+"'If peace takes place, never sheath your swords,' says he, 'until you
+have obtained full and ample justice.' This dreadful alternative of
+either deserting our country in the extremest hour of her distress, or
+turning our arms against it, which is the apparent object, unless
+Congress can be compelled into instant compliance, has something so
+shocking in it, that humanity revolts at the idea. My God! what can
+this writer have in view by recommending such measures. Can he be a
+friend to the army? Can he be a friend to this country? Rather is he
+not an insidious foe: some emissary, perhaps, from New York, plotting
+the ruin of both, by sowing the seeds of discord and separation
+between the civil and military powers of the continent? And what a
+compliment does he pay to our understandings, when he recommends
+measures, in either alternative, impracticable in their nature? But
+here, gentlemen, I will drop the curtain, because it would be as
+imprudent in me to assign my reasons for this opinion, as it would be
+insulting to your conception to suppose you stood in need of them. A
+moment's reflection will convince every dispassionate mind of the
+physical impossibility of carrying either proposal into execution.
+There might, gentlemen, be an impropriety in my taking notice, in this
+address to you, of an anonymous production,--but the manner in which
+that performance has been introduced to the army, together with some
+other circumstances, will amply justify my observations on the
+tendency of that writing.
+
+"With respect to the advice given by the author, to suspect the man
+who shall recommend moderate measures and longer forbearance, I spurn
+it, as every man who regards that liberty, and reveres that justice
+for which we contend, undoubtedly must; for if men are to be precluded
+from offering their sentiments on a matter which may involve the most
+serious and alarming consequences that can invite the consideration of
+mankind, reason is of no use to us. The freedom of speech may be taken
+away, and dumb and silent, we may be led like sheep to the slaughter.
+I can not in justice to my own belief, and what I have great reason to
+conceive is the intention of congress, conclude this address, without
+giving it as my decided opinion, that that honourable body entertain
+exalted sentiments of the services of the army, and, from a full
+conviction of its merits and sufferings, will do it complete justice.
+That their endeavours to discover and establish funds for this purpose
+have been unwearied, and will not cease until they have succeeded, I
+have not a doubt.
+
+"But, like all other large bodies, where there is a variety of
+different interests to reconcile, their determinations are slow. Why
+then should we distrust them? And, in consequence of that distrust,
+adopt measures which may cast a shade over that glory which has been
+so justly acquired, and tarnish the reputation of an army which is
+celebrated through all Europe for its fortitude and patriotism? And
+for what is this done? To bring the object we seek nearer? No: most
+certainly, in my opinion, it will cast it at a greater distance. For
+myself, (and I take no merit in giving the assurance, being induced to
+it from principles of gratitude, veracity, and justice, and a grateful
+sense of the confidence you have ever placed in me,) a recollection of
+the cheerful assistance, and prompt obedience I have experienced from
+you, under every vicissitude of fortune, and the sincere affection I
+feel for an army I have so long had the honour to command, will oblige
+me to declare in this public and solemn manner, that in the attainment
+of complete justice for all your toils and dangers, and in the
+gratification of every wish, so far as may be done consistently with
+the great duty I owe my country, and those powers we are bound to
+respect, you may freely command my services to the utmost extent of my
+abilities.
+
+"While I give these assurances, and pledge myself in the most
+unequivocal manner to exert whatever abilities I am possessed of in
+your favour, let me entreat you, gentlemen, on your part, not to take
+any measures which, viewed in the calm light of reason, will lessen
+the dignity, and sully the glory you have hitherto maintained. Let me
+request you to rely on the plighted faith of your country, and place a
+full confidence in the purity of the intentions of congress;--that,
+previous to your dissolution as an army, they will cause all your
+accounts to be fairly liquidated, as directed in the resolutions which
+were published to you two days ago; and that they will adopt the most
+effectual measures in their power to render ample justice to you for
+your faithful and meritorious services. And let me conjure you, in the
+name of our common country, as you value your own honour, as you
+respect the rights of humanity, and as you regard the military and
+national character of America, to express your utmost horror and
+detestation of the man who wishes, under any specious pretences, to
+overturn the liberties of our country, and who wickedly attempts to
+open the flood gates of civil discord, and deluge our rising empire in
+blood.
+
+"By thus determining, and thus acting, you will pursue the plain and
+direct road to the attainment of your wishes; you will defeat the
+insidious designs of our enemies, who are compelled to resort from
+open force to secret artifice. You will give one more distinguished
+proof of unexampled patriotism and patient virtue, rising superior to
+the pressure of the most complicated sufferings; and you will by the
+dignity of your conduct, afford occasion for posterity to say, when
+speaking of the glorious example you have exhibited to mankind, had
+this day been wanting, the world had never seen the last stage of
+perfection to which human nature is capable of attaining."
+
+These sentiments from a person whom the army had been accustomed to
+love, to revere, and to obey; the solidity of whose judgment, and the
+sincerity of whose zeal for their interests, were alike unquestioned,
+could not fail to be irresistible. No person was hardy enough to
+oppose the advice he had given; and the general impression was
+apparent. A resolution moved by General Knox, and seconded by
+Brigadier General Putnam, "assuring him that the officers reciprocated
+his affectionate expressions with the greatest sincerity of which the
+human heart is capable," was unanimously voted. On the motion of
+General Putnam, a committee consisting of General Knox, Colonel
+Brooks, and Captain Howard was then appointed, to prepare resolutions
+on the business before them, and to report in half an hour. The report
+of the committee being brought in and considered, the following
+resolutions were passed.
+
+"Resolved unanimously, that at the commencement of the present war,
+the officers of the American army engaged in the service of their
+country from the purest love and attachment to the rights and
+privileges of human nature; which motives still exist in the highest
+degree; and that no circumstances of distress or danger shall induce a
+conduct that may tend to sully the reputation and glory which they
+have acquired at the price of their blood, and eight years faithful
+services.
+
+"Resolved unanimously, that the army continue to have an unshaken
+confidence in the justice of congress and their country, and are fully
+convinced that the representatives of America will not disband or
+disperse the army until their accounts are liquidated, the balances
+accurately ascertained, and adequate funds established for payment;
+and in this arrangement, the officers expect that the half pay, or a
+commutation for it, shall be efficaciously comprehended.
+
+"Resolved unanimously, that his excellency the Commander-in-chief, be
+requested to write to his excellency the president of congress,
+earnestly entreating the most speedy decision of that honourable body
+upon the subject of our late address, which was forwarded by a
+committee of the army, some of whom are waiting upon congress for the
+result. In the alternative of peace or war, this event would be highly
+satisfactory, and would produce immediate tranquillity in the minds of
+the army, and prevent any farther machinations of designing men, to
+sow discord between the civil and military powers of the United
+States.
+
+"On motion, resolved unanimously, that the officers of the American
+army view with abhorrence and reject with disdain, the infamous
+propositions contained in a late anonymous address to the officers of
+the army, and resent with indignation the secret attempts of some
+unknown person to collect the officers together in a manner totally
+subversive of all discipline and good order.
+
+"Resolved unanimously, that the thanks of the officers of the army be
+given to the committee who presented to congress the late address of
+the army; for the wisdom and prudence with which they have conducted
+that business; and that a copy of the proceedings of this day be
+transmitted by the president to Major General M'Dougal; and that he be
+requested to continue his solicitations at congress until the objects
+of his mission are accomplished."
+
+The storm which had been raised so suddenly and unexpectedly being
+thus happily dissipated, the Commander-in-chief exerted all his
+influence in support of the application the officers had made to
+congress. The following letter, written by him on the occasion, will
+show that he was not impelled to this measure by the engagements he
+had entered into more strongly than by his feelings.
+
+"The result of the proceedings of the grand convention of the
+officers, which I have the honour of enclosing to your excellency for
+the inspection of congress, will, I flatter myself, be considered as
+the last glorious proof of patriotism which could have been given by
+men who aspired to the distinction of a patriot army; and will not
+only confirm their claim to the justice, but will increase their title
+to the gratitude of their country.
+
+"Having seen the proceedings on the part of the army terminate with
+perfect unanimity, and in a manner entirely consonant to my wishes,
+being impressed with the liveliest sentiments of affection for those
+who have so long, so patiently, and so cheerfully, suffered and fought
+under my direction; having from motives of justice, duty, and
+gratitude, spontaneously offered myself as an advocate for their
+rights; and having been requested to write to your excellency,
+earnestly entreating the most speedy decision of congress upon the
+subjects of the late address from the army to that honourable body; it
+now only remains for me to perform the task I have assumed, and to
+intercede in their behalf, as I now do, that the sovereign power will
+be pleased to verify the predictions I have pronounced of, and the
+confidence the army have reposed in, the justice of their country.
+
+"And here I humbly conceive it is altogether unnecessary (while I am
+pleading the cause of an army which have done and suffered more than
+any other army ever did in the defence of the rights and liberties of
+human nature) to expatiate on their claims to the most ample
+compensation for their meritorious services, because they are
+perfectly known to the whole world, and because (although the topics
+are inexhaustible) enough has already been said on the subject. To
+prove these assertions, to evince that my sentiments have ever been
+uniform, and to show what my ideas of the rewards in question have
+always been, I appeal to the archives of congress, and call on those
+sacred deposites to witness for me. And in order that my observations
+and arguments in favour of a future adequate provision for the
+officers of the army may be brought to remembrance again, and
+considered in a single point of view, without giving congress the
+trouble of having recourse to their files, I will beg leave to
+transmit herewith an extract from a representation made by me to a
+committee of congress, so long ago as the 20th of January, 1778, and
+also the transcript of a letter to the president of congress, dated
+near Passaic falls, October the 11th, 1780.
+
+"That in the critical and perilous moment when the last mentioned
+communication was made, there was the utmost danger a dissolution of
+the army would have taken place unless measures similar to those
+recommended had been adopted, will not admit a doubt. That the
+adoption of the resolution granting half pay for life has been
+attended with all the happy consequences I foretold, so far as
+respected the good of the service, let the astonishing contrast
+between the state of the army at this instant and at the former
+period, determine. And that the establishment of funds, and security
+of the payment of all the just demands of the army, will be the most
+certain means of preserving the national faith, and future
+tranquillity of this extensive continent, is my decided opinion.
+
+"By the preceding remarks, it will readily be imagined that, instead
+of retracting and reprehending (from farther experience and
+reflection) the mode of compensation so strenuously urged in the
+enclosures, I am more and more confirmed in the sentiment; and if in
+the wrong, suffer me to please myself in the grateful delusion. For
+if, besides the simple payment of their wages, a farther compensation
+is not due to the sufferings and sacrifices of the officers, then have
+I been mistaken indeed. If the whole army have not merited whatever a
+grateful people can bestow, then have I been beguiled by prejudice,
+and built opinion on the basis of error. If this country should not in
+the event perform every thing which has been requested in the late
+memorial to congress, then will my belief become vain, and the hope
+that has been excited void of foundation. 'And if (as has been
+suggested for the purpose of inflaming their passions) the officers of
+the army are to be the only sufferers by this revolution; if, retiring
+from the field, they are to grow old in poverty, wretchedness, and
+contempt; if they are to wade through the vile mire of dependency, and
+owe the miserable remnant of that life to charity which has hitherto
+been spent in honour,' then shall I have learned what ingratitude is;
+then shall I have realized a tale which will embitter every moment of
+my future life.
+
+"But I am under no such apprehensions. A country rescued by their arms
+from impending ruin, will never leave unpaid the debt of gratitude.
+
+"Should any intemperate and improper warmth have mingled itself among
+the foregoing observations, I must entreat your excellency and
+congress that it may be attributed to the effusions of an honest zeal
+in the best of causes, and that my peculiar situation may be my
+apology; and I hope I need not, on this momentous occasion, make any
+new protestations of disinterestedness, having ever renounced for
+myself the idea of pecuniary reward. The consciousness of having
+attempted faithfully to discharge my duty, and the approbation of my
+country, will be a sufficient recompense for my services."
+
+{March 24.}
+
+[Sidenote: Peace concluded.]
+
+{April 19.}
+
+These proceedings of the army produced a concurrence of nine states in
+favour of a resolution commuting the half pay into a sum in gross
+equal to five years full pay; immediately after the passage of which,
+the fears still entertained in America that the war might continue,
+were dissipated by a letter from the Marquis de Lafayette, announcing
+a general peace. This intelligence, though not official, was certain;
+and orders were immediately issued, recalling all armed vessels
+cruising under the authority of the United States. Early in April, the
+copy of a declaration published in Paris, and signed by the American
+commissioners, announcing the exchange of ratifications of the
+preliminary articles between Great Britain and France, was received;
+and on the 19th of that month, the cessation[15] of hostilities was
+proclaimed.
+
+     [Footnote 15: See note, No. I. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Measures for disbanding the army.]
+
+The attention of congress might now be safely turned to the reduction
+of the army. This, in the empty state of the treasury, was a critical
+operation. In addition to the anxieties which the officers would
+naturally feel respecting their provision for the future, which of
+necessity remained unsecured, large arrears of pay were due to them,
+the immediate receipt of part of which was required by the most urgent
+wants. To disband an army to which the government was greatly
+indebted, without furnishing the individuals who composed it with the
+means of conveyance to their respective homes, was a perilous measure;
+and congress was unable to advance the pay of a single month.
+
+Although eight millions had been required for the year 1782, the
+payments into the public treasury had amounted to only four hundred
+and twenty thousand and thirty-one dollars, and twenty-nine
+ninetieths; and the foreign loans had not been sufficient to defray
+expenses it was impossible to avoid, at the close of that year, the
+expenditures of the superintendent of the finances had exceeded his
+receipts four hundred and four thousand seven hundred and thirteen
+dollars and nine ninetieths; and the excess continued to increase
+rapidly.
+
+Congress urged the states to comply so far with the requisitions as to
+enable the superintendent of the finances to advance a part of the
+arrears due to the soldiers; but, as the foreign danger diminished,
+they became still less attentive to these demands; and the financier
+was under the necessity of making farther anticipations of the
+revenue. Measures were taken to advance three months pay in his notes;
+but, before they could be prepared, orders were issued for complying
+with a resolution of Congress for granting unlimited furloughs to the
+non-commissioned officers and privates who were engaged to serve
+during the war. These orders produced a serious alarm. The generals,
+and officers commanding regiments and corps cantoned on the Hudson,
+assembled, and presented an address to the Commander-in-chief, in
+which the most ardent affection to his person, and confidence in his
+attachment to the interests of the army, were mingled with expressions
+of profound duty and respect for the government. But they declared
+that, after the late explanation on their claims, they had confidently
+expected that their accounts would be liquidated, the balances
+ascertained, and adequate funds for the payment of those balances
+provided, before they should be dispersed or disbanded.
+
+Bound to the army by the strongest ties of affection and gratitude,
+intimately convinced of the justice of their claims, and of the
+patriotic principles by which they were influenced, the General was
+induced by sentiment not less than by prudence, to regard this
+application. He returned an answer, on the succeeding day, in which,
+after declaring "that as no man could possibly be better acquainted
+than himself with the past merits and services of the army, so no one
+could possibly be more strongly impressed with their present
+ineligible situation; feel a keener sensibility at their distresses;
+or more ardently desire to alleviate or remove them." He added,
+"although the officers of the army very well know my official
+situation, that I am only a servant of the public, and that it is not
+for me to dispense with orders which it is my duty to carry into
+execution, yet as furloughs in all services are considered as a matter
+of indulgence, and not of compulsion; as congress, I am persuaded,
+entertain the best disposition towards the army; and as I apprehend in
+a very short time, the two principal articles of complaint will be
+removed; until the farther pleasure of congress can be known, I shall
+not hesitate to comply with the wishes of the army, under these
+reservations only, that officers sufficient to conduct the men who
+choose to receive furloughs, will attend them, either on furlough or
+by detachment."
+
+This answer satisfied the officers. The utmost good temper was
+manifested; and the arrangements for retiring on furlough were made
+without a murmur. In the course of the summer, a considerable
+proportion of the troops enlisted for three years were also permitted
+to return to their homes; and, in October, a proclamation was issued
+by congress, declaring all those who had engaged for the war to be
+discharged on the third of December.
+
+[Illustration: The Long Room in Fraunces' Tavern, New York City
+
+_It was here that Washington took formal leave of his officers,
+preparatory to resigning his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the
+Continental Army. Controlling his emotion with difficulty, the General
+arose, at the conclusion of a light repast, and proposed the following
+health: "With a heart full of love and gratitude I must now take my
+leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as
+prosperous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and
+honorable." The toast was drunk in silence, and Washington added: "I
+cannot come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be obliged to
+you if each will come and take me by the hand."_]
+
+[Sidenote: Mutiny of a part of the Pennsylvania line.]
+
+While these excellent dispositions were manifested by the veterans
+serving under the immediate eye of their patriot chief, the government
+was exposed to insult and outrage from the mutinous spirit of a small
+party of new levies. About eighty men of this description belonging to
+Pennsylvania, were stationed at Lancaster. Revolting against the
+authority of their officers, they marched in a body to Philadelphia,
+with the avowed purpose of obtaining redress of their grievances from
+the executive council of the state. The march of these insolent
+mutineers was not obstructed; and, after arriving in Philadelphia,
+their numbers were augmented by the junction of some troops quartered
+in the barracks. They then marched in military parade, with fixed
+bayonets, to the state-house, in which congress and the executive
+council of the state were sitting; and, after placing sentinels at the
+doors, sent in a written message, threatening the executive of the
+state with the vengeance of an enraged soldiery, if their demands were
+not gratified in twenty minutes. Although these threats were not
+directed particularly against congress, the government of the union
+was grossly insulted, and those who administered it were blockaded for
+several hours by licentious soldiers. After remaining in this
+situation about three hours, the members separated, having agreed to
+reassemble at Princeton.
+
+On receiving information of this outrage, the Commander-in-chief
+detached fifteen hundred men under the command of Major General Howe,
+to suppress the mutiny. His indignation at this insult to the civil
+authority, and his mortification at this misconduct of any portion of
+the American troops, were strongly marked in his letter to the
+president of congress.
+
+"While," said he, "I suffer the most poignant distress in observing
+that a handful of men, contemptible in numbers, and equally so in
+point of service, (if the veteran troops from the southward have not
+been seduced by their example,) and who are not worthy to be called
+soldiers, should disgrace themselves and their country as the
+Pennsylvania mutineers have done by insulting the sovereign authority
+of the United States, and that of their own, I feel an inexpressible
+satisfaction, that even this behaviour can not stain the name of the
+American soldiery. It can not be imputed to, or reflect dishonour on,
+the army at large; but, on the contrary, it will, by the striking
+contrast it exhibits, hold up to public view the other troops in the
+most advantageous point of light. Upon taking all the circumstances
+into consideration, I can not sufficiently express my surprise and
+indignation at the arrogance, the folly, and the wickedness of the
+mutineers; nor can I sufficiently admire the fidelity, the bravery,
+and patriotism, which must forever signalize the unsullied character
+of the other corps of our army. For when we consider that these
+Pennsylvania levies, who have now mutinied, are recruits, and soldiers
+of a day, who have not borne the heat and burden of the war, and who
+can have in reality very few hardships to complain of; and when we at
+the same time recollect that those soldiers, who have lately been
+furloughed from this army, are the veterans who have patiently endured
+hunger, nakedness, and cold; who have suffered and bled without a
+murmur, and who, with perfect good order, have retired to their homes,
+without a settlement of their accounts, or a farthing of money in
+their pockets; we shall be as much astonished at the virtues of the
+latter, as we are struck with horror and detestation at the
+proceedings of the former, and every candid mind, without indulging
+ill-grounded prejudices, will undoubtedly make the proper
+discrimination."
+
+Before the detachment from the army could reach Philadelphia, the
+disturbances were, in a great degree, quieted without bloodshed; but
+General Howe was ordered by congress to continue his march into
+Pennsylvania, "in order that immediate measures might be taken to
+confine and bring to trial all such persons belonging to the army as
+have been principally active in the late mutiny; to disarm the
+remainder; and to examine fully into all the circumstances relating
+thereto."
+
+The interval between the treaty with Great Britain and his retiring
+into private life, was devoted by the Commander-in-chief to objects of
+permanent utility.
+
+The independence of his country being established, he looked forward
+with anxiety to its future destinies. These might greatly depend on
+the systems to be adopted on the return of peace, and to those systems
+much of his attention was directed. The future peace establishment of
+the United States was one of the many interesting subjects which
+claimed the consideration of congress. As the experience of General
+Washington would certainly enable him to suggest many useful ideas on
+this important point, his opinions respecting it were requested by the
+committee to whom it was referred. His letter on this occasion, which
+was deposited, it is presumed, in the archives of state, will long
+deserve the attention of those to whom the interests of the United
+States may be confided. His strongest hopes of securing the future
+tranquillity, dignity and respectability of his country were placed on
+a well regulated and well disciplined militia, and his sentiments on
+this subject are entitled to the more regard, as a long course of
+severe experience had enabled him to mark the total incompetency of
+the existing system to the great purposes of national defence.
+
+[Sidenote: Evacuation of New York.]
+
+At length the British troops evacuated New York, and a detachment from
+the American army took possession of that town.
+
+Guards being posted for the security of the citizens, General
+Washington, accompanied by Governor Clinton, and attended by many
+civil and military officers, and a large number of respectable
+inhabitants on horseback, made his public entry into the city; where
+he was received with every mark of respect and attention. His military
+course was now on the point of terminating; and he was about to bid
+adieu to his comrades in arms. This affecting interview took place on
+the 4th of December. At noon, the principal officers of the army
+assembled at Frances' tavern, soon after which, their beloved
+commander entered the room. His emotions were too strong to be
+concealed. Filling a glass, he turned to them and said, "With a heart
+full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you; I most devoutly
+wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy, as your
+former ones have been glorious and honourable." Having drunk, he
+added, "I can not come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be
+obliged if each of you will come and take me by the hand." General
+Knox, being nearest, turned to him. Washington, incapable of
+utterance, grasped his hand, and embraced him. In the same
+affectionate manner he took leave of each succeeding officer. The tear
+of manly sensibility was in every eye; and not a word was articulated
+to interrupt the dignified silence, and the tenderness of the scene.
+Leaving the room, he passed through the corps of light infantry, and
+walked to White Hall, where a barge waited to convey him to Powles
+Hook. The whole company followed in mute and solemn procession, with
+dejected countenances, testifying feelings of delicious melancholy,
+which no language can describe. Having entered the barge, he turned to
+the company, and, waving his hat, bid them a silent adieu. They paid
+him the same affectionate compliment; and, after the barge had left
+them, returned in the same solemn manner to the place where they had
+assembled.[16]
+
+     [Footnote 16: Gordon.]
+
+Congress was then in session at Annapolis, in Maryland, to which place
+General Washington repaired, for the purpose of resigning into their
+hands the authority with which they had invested him.[17] He arrived
+on the 19th of December. The next day he informed that body of his
+intention to ask leave to resign the commission he had the honour of
+holding in their service; and requested to know whether it would be
+their pleasure that he should offer his resignation in writing, or at
+an audience.
+
+     [Footnote 17: See note, No. II. at the end of the volume.]
+
+To give the more dignity to the act, they determined that it should be
+offered at a public audience on the following Tuesday, at twelve.
+
+[Sidenote: General Washington resigns his commission and retires to
+Mount Vernon.]
+
+When the hour arrived for performing a ceremony so well calculated to
+recall the various interesting scenes which had passed since the
+commission now to be returned was granted, the gallery was crowded
+with spectators, and several persons of distinction were admitted on
+the floor of congress. The members remained seated and covered. The
+spectators were standing, and uncovered. The general was introduced by
+the secretary, and conducted to a chair. After a short pause, the
+president[18] informed him that "The United States in congress
+assembled were prepared to receive his communications." With native
+dignity improved by the solemnity of the occasion, the general rose
+and delivered the following address.
+
+     [Footnote 18: General Mifflin.]
+
+"Mr. President,
+
+"The great events on which my resignation depended, having at length
+taken place, I have now the honour of offering my sincere
+congratulations to congress, and of presenting myself before them, to
+surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to claim the
+indulgence of retiring from the service of my country.
+
+"Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and
+pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming a
+respectable nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I
+accepted with diffidence; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish
+so arduous a task, which however was superseded by a confidence in the
+rectitude of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the union,
+and the patronage of heaven.
+
+"The successful termination of the war has verified the most sanguine
+expectations; and my gratitude for the interposition of Providence,
+and the assistance I have received from my countrymen, increases with
+every review of the momentous contest.
+
+"While I repeat my obligations to the army in general, I should do
+injustice to my own feelings not to acknowledge in this place, the
+peculiar services and distinguished merits of the gentlemen who have
+been attached to my person during the war. It was impossible the
+choice of confidential officers to compose my family should have been
+more fortunate. Permit me, sir, to recommend in particular, those who
+have continued in the service to the present moment, as worthy of the
+favourable notice and patronage of congress.
+
+"I consider it as an indispensable duty to close this last act of my
+official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to
+the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence
+of them to his holy keeping.
+
+"Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great
+theatre of action, and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this
+august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my
+commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life."
+
+After advancing to the chair and delivering his commission to the
+president, he returned to his place, and received standing the
+following answer of congress, which was delivered by the president.
+
+"Sir,
+
+"The United States in congress assembled, receive with emotions too
+affecting for utterance, the solemn resignation of the authorities
+under which you have led their troops with success through a perilous
+and a doubtful war. Called upon by your country to defend its invaded
+rights, you accepted the sacred charge, before it had formed
+alliances, and whilst it was without funds or a government to support
+you. You have conducted the great military contest with wisdom and
+fortitude, invariably regarding the rights of the civil power, through
+all disasters and changes. You have by the love and confidence of your
+fellow citizens, enabled them to display their martial genius, and
+transmit their fame to posterity. You have persevered until these
+United States, aided by a magnanimous king and nation, have been
+enabled under a just Providence, to close the war in freedom, safety,
+and independence; on which happy event we sincerely join you in
+congratulations.
+
+"Having defended the standard of liberty in this new world, having
+taught a lesson useful to those who inflict and to those who feel
+oppression, you retire from the great theatre of action with the
+blessings of your fellow citizens. But the glory of your virtues will
+not terminate with your military command; it will continue to animate
+remotest ages.
+
+"We feel with you our obligations to the army in general, and will
+particularly charge ourselves with the interests of those confidential
+officers who have attended your person to this affecting moment.
+
+"We join you in commending the interests of our dearest country to the
+protection of Almighty God, beseeching him to dispose the hearts and
+minds of its citizens, to improve the opportunity afforded them of
+becoming a happy and respectable nation. And for you, we address to
+him our earnest prayers that a life so beloved, may be fostered with
+all his care; that your days may be as happy as they have been
+illustrious; and that he will finally give you that reward which this
+world can not give."
+
+This scene being closed, a scene rendered peculiarly interesting by
+the personages who appeared in it, by the great events it recalled to
+the memory, and by the singularity of the circumstances under which it
+was displayed, the American chief withdrew from the hall of congress,
+leaving the silent and admiring spectators deeply impressed with those
+sentiments which its solemnity and dignity were calculated to inspire.
+
+Divested of his military character, General Washington retired to
+Mount Vernon, followed by the enthusiastic love, esteem, and
+admiration of his countrymen. Relieved from the agitations of a
+doubtful contest, and from the toils of an exalted station, he
+returned with increased delight to the duties and the enjoyments of a
+private citizen. He indulged the hope that, in the shade of
+retirement, under the protection of a free government, and the
+benignant influence of mild and equal laws, he might taste that
+felicity which is the reward of a mind at peace with itself, and
+conscious of its own purity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+     General Washington devotes his time to rural pursuits.... to
+     the duties of friendship.... and to institutions of public
+     utility.... Resolves of Congress and of the Legislature of
+     Virginia for erecting statues to his honour.... Recommends
+     improvement in inland navigation.... Declines accepting a
+     donation made to him by his native state.... The society of
+     the Cincinnati.... He is elected President.... The causes
+     which led to a change of the government of the United
+     States.... Circular letter of General Washington to the
+     governors of the several states.
+
+
+{1783 to 1787}
+
+[Sidenote: After retiring to private life, General Washington devotes
+his time to rural pursuits, to the duties of friendship, and to
+institutions of public utility.]
+
+When an individual, long in possession of great power, and almost
+unlimited influence, retires from office with alacrity, and resumes
+the character of a private citizen with pleasure, the mind is
+gratified in contemplating the example of virtuous moderation, and
+dwells upon it with approving satisfaction. We look at man in his most
+estimable character; and this view of him exalts our opinion of human
+nature. Such was the example exhibited by General Washington to his
+country and to the world. His deportment, and his language, equally
+attest that he returned with these feelings to the employments of
+private life. In a letter to Governor Clinton, written only three days
+after his arrival at Mount Vernon, he says, "The scene is at length
+closed. I feel myself eased of a load of public care, and hope to
+spend the remainder of my days in cultivating the affections of good
+men, and in the practice of the domestic virtues." "At length, my dear
+marquis," said he to his noble and highly valued friend, Lafayette, "I
+have become a private citizen on the banks of the Potomac; and under
+the shadow of my own vine, and my own fig tree, free from the bustle
+of a camp, and the busy scenes of public life, I am solacing myself
+with those tranquil enjoyments, of which the soldier who is ever in
+pursuit of fame--the statesman whose watchful days and sleepless
+nights are spent in devising schemes to promote the welfare of his
+own--perhaps the ruin of other countries, as if this globe was
+insufficient for us all--and the courtier who is always watching the
+countenance of his prince in the hope of catching a gracious
+smile--can have very little conception. I have not only retired from
+all public employments, but am retiring within myself, and shall be
+able to view the solitary walk, and tread the paths of private life,
+with heartfelt satisfaction. Envious of none, I am determined to be
+pleased with all; and this, my dear friend, being the order of my
+march, I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with
+my fathers."
+
+But a mind accustomed to labour for a nation's welfare, does not
+immediately divest itself of ancient habits. That custom of thinking
+on public affairs, and that solicitude respecting them, which belong
+to the patriot in office, follow him into his retreat. In a letter to
+General Knox, written soon after his resignation, General Washington
+thus expressed the feelings attendant upon this sudden transition from
+public to private pursuits. "I am just beginning to experience the
+ease and freedom from public cares, which, however desirable, takes
+some time to realize; for strange as it may seem, it is nevertheless
+true, that it was not until lately, I could get the better of my usual
+custom of ruminating, as soon as I awoke in the morning, on the
+business of the ensuing day; and of my surprise at finding, after
+revolving many things in my mind, that I was no longer a public man,
+or had any thing to do with public transactions. I feel now, however,
+as I conceive a wearied traveller must do, who, after treading many a
+painful step with a heavy burden on his shoulders, is eased of the
+latter, having reached the haven to which all the former were
+directed; and from his house-top is looking back, and tracing with an
+eager eye, the meanders by which he escaped the quick-sands and mires
+which lay in his way, and into which none but the all powerful Guide
+and Dispenser of human events could have prevented his falling."
+
+For several months after arriving at Mount Vernon, almost every day
+brought him the addresses of an affectionate and grateful people. The
+glow of expression in which the high sense universally entertained of
+his services was conveyed, manifested the warmth of feeling which
+animated the American bosom. This unexampled tribute of voluntary
+applause, paid by a whole people, to an individual no longer in power,
+made no impression on the unassuming modesty of his character and
+deportment. The same firmness of mind, the same steady and well
+tempered judgment, which had guided him through the most perilous
+seasons of the war, still regulated his conduct; and the enthusiastic
+applauses of an admiring nation served only to cherish sentiments of
+gratitude, and to give greater activity to the desire still further to
+contribute to the general prosperity.
+
+[Sidenote: Resolves of Congress and of the legislature of Virginia for
+erecting statues in honour of him.]
+
+It was not by addresses alone that his country manifested its
+attachment to him. Soon after peace was proclaimed, congress
+unanimously passed a resolution for the erection of an equestrian
+statue of their general,[19] at the place which should be established
+for the residence of the government.
+
+     [Footnote 19: "Resolved that the statue be of bronze: the
+     general to be represented in a Roman dress, holding a
+     truncheon in his right hand, and his head encircled with a
+     laurel wreath. The statue to be supported by a marble
+     pedestal on which are to be represented, in basso relievo,
+     the following principal events of the war, in which General
+     Washington commanded in person: the evacuation of
+     Boston:--the capture of the Hessians at Trenton:--the battle
+     of Princeton:--the action of Monmouth:--and the surrender of
+     York.--On the upper part of the front of the pedestal to be
+     engraved as follows: the United States in congress
+     assembled, ordered this statue to be erected in the year of
+     our Lord 1783, in honour of George Washington, the
+     illustrious Commander-in-chief of the armies of the United
+     States of America, during the war which vindicated and
+     secured their liberty, sovereignty and independence."]
+
+The legislature of Virginia too, at its first session after his
+resignation, passed the following resolution.[20]
+
+     [Footnote 20: This resolution has been carried into
+     execution. The statue it ordained now stands in the capitol
+     of Virginia, in a spacious area in the centre of the
+     building. A bust of the Marquis de Lafayette, which was also
+     directed by the legislature, is placed in a niche of the
+     wall in the same part of the building.]
+
+"Resolved, that the executive be requested to take measures for
+procuring a statue of General Washington, to be of the finest marble
+and best workmanship, with the following inscription on its pedestal:
+
+"The general assembly of the commonwealth of Virginia have caused this
+statue to be erected as a monument of affection and gratitude to
+GEORGE WASHINGTON, who, uniting to the endowments of the HERO, the
+virtues of the PATRIOT, and exerting both in establishing the
+liberties of his country, has rendered his name dear to his fellow
+citizens, and given the world an immortal example of true glory."
+
+Although the toils of General Washington were no longer exhibited to
+the public eye, his time continued to be usefully employed. The
+judicious cultivation of the earth is justly placed among the most
+valuable sources of national prosperity, and nothing could be more
+wretched than the general state of agriculture in America. To its
+melioration by examples which might be followed, and by the
+introduction of systems adapted to the soil, the climate, and to the
+situation of the people, the energies of his active and intelligent
+mind were now in a great degree directed. No improvement of the
+implements to be used on a farm, no valuable experiments in husbandry,
+escaped his attention. His inquiries, which were equally minute and
+comprehensive, extended beyond the limits of his own country; and he
+entered into a correspondence on this interesting subject with those
+foreigners who had been most distinguished for their additions to the
+stock of agricultural science.
+
+[Illustration: The Old Senate Chamber at Annapolis, Maryland, Where
+Washington Resigned His Commission
+
+_The fate of the Republic was in the hands of Washington when he
+resigned his commission to Congress, then sitting at Annapolis,
+December 23, 1783, and retired to private life. Had he so desired, it
+is probable that he could have founded a monarchy, sustained by his
+army. Instead, as he wrote to Lafayette, shortly after his return to
+Mount Vernon: "I have not only retired from all public employments but
+am retiring within myself, and shall be able to view the solitary
+walk, and tread the paths of private life, with heartfelt
+satisfaction. Envious of none, I am determined to be pleased with all;
+and this, my dear friend, being the order of my march, I will move
+gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers."_]
+
+Mingled with this favourite pursuit, were the multiplied avocations
+resulting from the high office he had lately filled. He was engaged in
+an extensive correspondence with the friends most dear to his
+heart--the foreign and American officers who had served under him
+during the late war--and with almost every conspicuous political
+personage of his own, and with many of other countries. Literary men
+also were desirous of obtaining his approbation of their works, and
+his attention was solicited to every production of American genius.
+His countrymen who were about to travel, were anxious to receive from
+the first citizen of this rising republic, some testimonial of their
+worth; and all those strangers of distinction who visited this newly
+created empire, were ambitious of being presented to its founder.
+Among those who were drawn across the Atlantic by curiosity, and
+perhaps by a desire to observe the progress of the popular governments
+which were instituted in this new world, was Mrs. Macauley Graham. By
+the principles contained in her History of the Stuarts, this lady had
+acquired much reputation in republican America, and by all was
+received with marked attention. For the sole purpose of paying her
+respects to a person whose fame had spread over Europe, she paid a
+visit to Mount Vernon; and, if her letters may be credited, the
+exalted opinion she had formed of its proprietor, was "not diminished
+by a personal acquaintance with him."
+
+To these occupations, which were calculated to gratify an intelligent
+mind, or which derived a value from the indulgence they afforded to
+the feelings of the heart, others were unavoidably added, in the
+composition of which, no palatable ingredient was intermixed. Of these
+unwelcome intrusions upon his time, General Washington thus complained
+to an intimate military friend. "It is not, my dear sir, the letters
+of my friends which give me trouble, or add aught to my perplexity. I
+receive them with pleasure, and pay as much attention to them as my
+avocations will permit. It is references to old matters with which I
+have nothing to do--applications which oftentimes can not be complied
+with--inquiries, to satisfy which would employ the pen of a
+historian--letters of compliment, as unmeaning perhaps as they are
+troublesome, but which must be attended to; and the common-place
+business--which employ my pen and my time often disagreeably. Indeed,
+these, with company, deprive me of exercise; and, unless I can obtain
+relief, must be productive of disagreeable consequences. Already I
+begin to feel their effects. Heavy and painful oppressions of the
+head, and other disagreeable sensations often trouble me. I am
+determined therefore to employ some person who shall ease me of the
+_drudgery_ of this business. At any rate, if the whole of it is
+thereby suspended, I am determined to use exercise. My private affairs
+also require infinitely more attention than I have given, or can give
+them, under present circumstances. They can no longer be neglected
+without involving my ruin."
+
+It was some time after the date of this letter before he could
+introduce into his family a young gentleman, whose education and
+manners enabled him to fill the station of a private secretary and of
+a friend.
+
+This multiplicity of private avocations could not entirely withdraw
+the mind of Washington from objects tending to promote and secure the
+public happiness. His resolution never again to appear in the busy
+scenes of political life, though believed by himself, and by his bosom
+friends, to be unalterable, could not render him indifferent to those
+measures on which the prosperity of his country essentially depended.
+
+To a person looking beyond the present moment, it was only necessary
+to glance over the map of the United States, to be impressed with the
+importance of connecting the western with the eastern territory, by
+facilitating the means of intercourse between them. To this subject,
+the attention of General Washington had been directed in the early
+part of his life. While the American states were yet British colonies,
+he had obtained the passage of a bill for opening the Potomac so as to
+render it navigable from tide water to Wills creek.[21] The river
+James had also been comprehended in this plan; and he had triumphed so
+far over the opposition produced by local interests and prejudices,
+that the business was in a train which promised success, when the
+revolutionary war diverted the attention of its patrons, and of all
+America, from internal improvements to the still greater objects of
+liberty and independence. As that war approached its termination,
+subjects which for a time had yielded their pretensions to
+consideration, reclaimed that place to which their real magnitude
+entitled them; and internal navigation again attracted the attention
+of the wise and thinking part of society. Accustomed to contemplate
+America as his country, and to consider with solicitude the interests
+of the whole, Washington now took a more enlarged view of the
+advantages to be derived from opening both the eastern and the western
+waters; and for this, as well as for other purposes, after peace had
+been proclaimed, he traversed the western parts of New England and New
+York. "I have lately," said he in a letter to the Marquis of
+Chastellux, a nobleman in pursuit of literary as well as of military
+fame, "made a tour through the lakes George and Champlain as far as
+Crown Point;--then returning to Schenectady, I proceeded up the Mohawk
+river to fort Schuyler, crossed over to Wood creek which empties into
+the Oneida lake, and affords the water communication with Ontario. I
+then traversed the country to the head of the eastern branch of the
+Susquehanna, and viewed the lake Otswego, and the portage between that
+lake and the Mohawk river at Cotnajohario. Prompted by these actual
+observations, I could not help taking a more contemplative and
+extensive view of the vast inland navigation of these United States,
+and could not but be struck with the immense diffusion and importance
+of it; and with the goodness of that Providence which has dealt his
+favours to us with so profuse a hand. Would to God we may have wisdom
+enough to improve them. I shall not rest contented until I have
+explored the western country, and traversed those lines (or great part
+of them) which have given bounds to a new empire."
+
+     [Footnote 21: About one hundred and fifty miles.]
+
+Scarcely had he answered those spontaneous offerings of the heart,
+which flowed in upon him from every part of a grateful nation, when
+his views were once more seriously turned to this truly interesting
+subject. Its magnitude was also impressed on others; and the value of
+obtaining the aid which his influence and active interference would
+afford to any exertions for giving this direction to the public mind,
+and for securing the happy execution of the plan which might be
+devised, was perceived by all those who attached to the great work its
+real importance. A gentleman[22] who had taken an expanded view of it,
+concluded a letter to General Washington, containing a detailed
+statement of his ideas on the subject in these terms:
+
+     [Footnote 22: Mr. Jefferson.]
+
+"But a most powerful objection always arises to propositions of this
+kind. It is, that public undertakings are carelessly managed, and much
+money spent to little purpose. To obviate this objection is the
+purpose of my giving you the trouble of this discussion. You have
+retired from public life. You have weighed this determination, and it
+would be impertinence in me to touch it. But would the superintendence
+of this work break in too much on the sweets of retirement and repose?
+If they would, I stop here. Your future time and wishes are sacred in
+my eye. If it would be only a dignified amusement to you, what a
+monument of your retirement would it be! It is one which would follow
+that of your public life, and bespeak it the work of the same great
+hand. I am confident, that would you either alone, or jointly with any
+persons you think proper, be willing to direct this business, it would
+remove the only objection, the weight of which I apprehend."
+
+[Sidenote: Recommends the opening and improving the inland navigation
+of the great rivers in Virginia.]
+
+In the autumn of 1784, General Washington made a tour as far west as
+Pittsburgh; after returning from which, his first moments of leisure
+were devoted to the task of engaging his countrymen in a work which
+appeared to him to merit still more attention from its political, than
+from its commercial influence on the union. In a long and interesting
+letter to Mr. Harrison, then governor of Virginia, he detailed the
+advantages which might be derived from opening the great rivers, the
+Potomac and the James, as high as should be practicable. After stating
+with his accustomed exactness the distances, and the difficulties to
+be surmounted in bringing the trade of the west to different points on
+the Atlantic, he expressed unequivocally the opinion, that the rivers
+of Virginia afforded a more convenient, and a more direct course than
+could be found elsewhere, for that rich and increasing commerce. This
+was strongly urged as a motive for immediately commencing the work.
+But the rivers of the Atlantic constituted only a part of the great
+plan he contemplated. He suggested the appointment of commissioners of
+integrity and abilities, exempt from the suspicion of prejudice, whose
+duty it should be, after an accurate examination of the James and the
+Potomac, to search out the nearest and best portages between those
+waters and the streams capable of improvement, which run into the
+Ohio. Those streams were to be accurately surveyed, the impediments to
+their navigation ascertained, and their relative advantages examined.
+The navigable waters west of the Ohio, towards the great lakes, were
+also to be traced to their sources, and those which empty into the
+lakes to be followed to their mouths. "These things being done, and an
+accurate map of the whole presented to the public, he was persuaded
+that reason would dictate what was right and proper." For the
+execution of this latter part of his plan he had also much reliance on
+congress; and in addition to the general advantages to be drawn from
+the measure, he laboured, in his letters to the members of that body,
+to establish the opinion, that the surveys he recommended would add to
+the revenue, by enhancing the value of the lands offered for sale.
+"Nature," he said, "had made such an ample display of her bounties in
+those regions, that the more the country was explored, the more it
+would rise in estimation."
+
+The assent and co-operation of Maryland being indispensable to the
+improvement of the Potomac, he was equally earnest in his endeavours
+to impress a conviction of its superior advantages on those
+individuals who possessed most influence in that state. In doing so,
+he detailed the measures which would unquestionably be adopted by New
+York and Pennsylvania, for acquiring the monopoly of the western
+commerce, and the difficulty which would be found in diverting it from
+the channel it had once taken. "I am not," he added, "for discouraging
+the exertions of any state to draw the commerce of the western country
+to its sea-ports. The more communications we open to it, the closer we
+bind that rising world (for indeed it may be so called) to our
+interests, and the greater strength shall we acquire by it. Those to
+whom nature affords the best communication, will, if they are wise,
+enjoy the greatest share of the trade. All I would be understood to
+mean, therefore, is, that the gifts of Providence may not be
+neglected."
+
+But the light in which this subject would be viewed with most
+interest, and which gave to it most importance, was its political
+influence on the union. "I need not remark to you, sir," said he in
+his letter to the governor of Virginia, "that the flanks and rear of
+the United States are possessed by other powers,--and formidable ones
+too: need I press the necessity of applying the cement of
+interest to bind all parts of the union together by indissoluble
+bonds,--especially of binding that part of it which lies immediately
+west of us, to the middle states. For what ties, let me ask, should we
+have upon those people, how entirely unconnected with them shall we
+be, and what troubles may we not apprehend, if the Spaniards on their
+right, and Great Britain on their left, instead of throwing
+impediments in their way as they now do, should hold out lures for
+their trade and alliance? when they get strength, which will be sooner
+than most people conceive, what will be the consequence of their
+having formed close commercial connexions with both, or either of
+those powers? it needs not, in my opinion, the gift of prophecy to
+foretell."
+
+This idea was enlarged and pressed with much earnestness, in his
+letters to several members of congress.
+
+The letter to the governor was communicated to the assembly of
+Virginia, and the internal improvements it recommended were zealously
+supported by the wisest members of that body. While the subject
+remained undecided, General Washington, accompanied by the Marquis de
+Lafayette, who had crossed the Atlantic, and had devoted a part of his
+time to the delights of an enthusiastic friendship, paid a visit to
+the capital of the state. Never was reception more cordial, or more
+demonstrative of respect and affection, than was given to these
+beloved personages. But amidst the display of addresses and of
+entertainments which were produced by the occasion, the great business
+of internal improvements was not forgotten; and the ardour of the
+moment was seized to conquer those objections to the plan, which yet
+lingered in the bosoms of members who could perceive in it no future
+advantages to compensate for the present expense.
+
+An exact conformity between the acts of Virginia and of Maryland,
+being indispensable to the improvement of the Potomac, the friends of
+the measure deemed it adviseable to avail themselves of the same
+influence with the latter state, which had been successfully employed
+with the former; and a resolution was passed, soon after the return of
+General Washington to Mount Vernon, requesting him[23] to attend the
+legislature of Maryland, in order to agree on a bill which might
+receive the sanction of both states. This agreement being happily
+completed, the bills were enacted which form the first essay towards
+connecting the navigation of the eastern with the western waters of
+the United States.
+
+     [Footnote 23: General Gates was associated with him in the
+     mission.]
+
+These acts were succeeded by one, which conveys the liberal wishes of
+the legislature, with a delicacy scarcely less honourable to its
+framers, than to him who was its object. The treasurer had been
+instructed to subscribe, in behalf of the state, for a specified
+number of shares in each company. Just at the close of the session,
+when no refusal of their offer could be communicated to them, a bill
+was suddenly brought in, which received the unanimous assent of both
+houses, authorizing the treasurer to subscribe for the benefit of
+General Washington, the same number of shares in each company as were
+to be taken for the state. A preamble was prefixed to the enacting
+clause of this bill[24] in which its greatest value consisted. With
+simple elegance, it conveyed the sentiment, that in seizing this
+occasion, to make a donation which would in some degree testify their
+sense of the merits of their most favoured and most illustrious
+citizen, the donors would themselves be the obliged.
+
+     [Footnote 24: It is in these words; "whereas it is the
+     desire of the representatives of this commonwealth to
+     embrace every suitable occasion of testifying their sense of
+     the unexampled merits of George Washington, esquire, towards
+     his country, and it is their wish in particular that those
+     great works for its improvement, which both as springing
+     from the liberty which he has been so instrumental in
+     establishing, and as encouraged by his patronage, will be
+     durable monuments of his glory, may be made monuments also
+     of the gratitude of his country. Be it enacted, &c." This
+     bill is understood to have been drawn by Mr. Madison.]
+
+However delightful might be the sensations produced by this delicate
+and flattering testimony of the affection of his fellow citizens, it
+was not without its embarrassments. From his early resolution to
+receive no pecuniary compensation for his services, he could not
+permit himself to depart; and yet this mark of the gratitude and
+attachment of his country, could not easily be rejected without
+furnishing occasion for sentiments he was unwilling to excite. To the
+friend[25] who conveyed to him the first intelligence of this bill,
+his difficulties were thus expressed.
+
+     [Footnote 25: Mr. Madison.]
+
+[Sidenote: He declines accepting a donation made to him by his native
+state.]
+
+"It is not easy for me to decide by which my mind was most affected
+upon the receipt of your letter of the sixth instant--surprise or
+gratitude. Both were greater than I had words to express. The
+attention and good wishes which the assembly has evidenced by their
+act for vesting in me one hundred and fifty shares in the navigation
+of the rivers Potomac and James, is more than mere compliment,--there
+is an unequivocal and substantial meaning annexed. But, believe me,
+sir, no circumstance has happened since I left the walks of public
+life which has so much embarrassed me. On the one hand, I consider
+this act, as I have already observed, as a noble and unequivocal proof
+of the good opinion, the affection, and disposition of my country to
+serve me; and I should be hurt, if by declining the acceptance of it,
+my refusal should be construed into disrespect, or the smallest slight
+upon the generous intention of the legislature; or that an
+ostentatious display of disinterestedness, or public virtue, was the
+source of refusal.
+
+"On the other hand, it is really my wish to have my mind and my
+actions, which are the result of reflection, as free and independent
+as the air, that I may be more at liberty (in things which my
+opportunities and experience have brought me to the knowledge of) to
+express my sentiments, and if necessary, to suggest what may occur to
+me, under the fullest conviction that, although my judgment may be
+arraigned, there will be no suspicion that sinister motives had the
+smallest influence in the suggestion. Not content then with the bare
+consciousness of my having in all this navigation business, acted upon
+the clearest conviction of the political importance of the measure, I
+would wish that every individual who may hear that it was a favourite
+plan of mine, may know also, that I had no other motive for promoting
+it, than the advantage of which I conceived it would be productive to
+the union at large, and to this state in particular, by cementing the
+eastern and western territory together, at the same time that it will
+give vigour and increase to our commerce, and be a convenience to our
+citizens."
+
+At length he determined, in the same letter which should convey his
+resolution not to retain the shares for his private emolument, to
+signify his willingness to hold them in trust for such public
+institution as the legislature should approve. The following letter
+conveyed this resolution to the general assembly, through the governor
+of the state.
+
+(October, 1785.)
+
+"Sir,
+
+"Your excellency having been pleased to transmit me a copy of the act
+appropriating to my benefit certain shares in the companies for
+opening the navigation of James and Potomac rivers, I take the liberty
+of returning to the general assembly through your hands, the profound
+and grateful acknowledgments inspired by so signal a mark of their
+beneficent intentions towards me. I beg you, sir, to assure them, that
+I am filled on this occasion with every sentiment which can flow from
+a heart warm with love for my country, sensible to every token of its
+approbation and affection, and solicitous to testify in every instance
+a respectful submission to its wishes.
+
+"With these sentiments in my bosom, I need not dwell on the anxiety I
+feel in being obliged, in this instance, to decline a favour which is
+rendered no less flattering by the manner in which it is conveyed,
+than it is affectionate in itself. In explaining this, I pass over a
+comparison of my endeavours in the public service, with the many
+honourable testimonies of approbation which have already so far
+overrated, and overpaid them--reciting one consideration only which
+supersedes the necessity of recurring to every other.
+
+"When I was first called to the station with which I was honoured
+during the late conflict for our liberties, to the diffidence which I
+had so many reasons to feel in accepting it, I thought it my duty to
+join a firm resolution to shut my hand against every pecuniary
+recompense. To this resolution I have invariably adhered, and from it
+(if I had the inclination) I do not consider myself at liberty now to
+depart.
+
+"Whilst I repeat therefore my fervent acknowledgments to the
+legislature, for their very kind sentiments and intentions in my
+favour, and at the same time beg them to be persuaded that a
+remembrance of this singular proof of their goodness towards me, will
+never cease to cherish returns of the warmest affection and gratitude,
+I must pray that their act, so far as it has for its object my
+personal emolument, may not have its effect; but if it should please
+the general assembly to permit me to turn the destination of the fund
+vested in me, from my private emolument, to objects of a public
+nature, it will be my study, in selecting these, to prove the
+sincerity of my gratitude for the honour conferred upon me, by
+preferring such as may appear most subservient to the enlightened and
+patriotic views of the legislature."
+
+The wish suggested in this letter, immediately received the sanction
+of the legislature; and at a subsequent time, the trust was executed
+by conveying the shares respectively to the use of a seminary of
+learning established in the vicinity of each river.
+
+General Washington felt too strong an interest in the success of these
+works, to refuse the presidency of the companies instituted for their
+completion. In conducting the affairs of the Potomac company, he took
+an active part: to that formed for opening the navigation of the
+James, he could only give his counsel.
+
+These were not the only institutions which occasionally drew the
+farmer of Mount Vernon from his retreat, and continued him in the
+public view.
+
+The sentiments with which the officers of the American army
+contemplated a final separation from each other, will be comprehended
+by all who are conversant with the finest feelings of the human heart.
+Companions in virtuous suffering, in danger, and in glory--attached to
+each other by common exertions made in a severe struggle for the
+attainment of a common object--they felt that to part for ever was a
+calamity too afflicting to be supported. The means of perpetuating
+those friendships which had been formed, and of renewing that
+endearing social intercourse which had taken place in camp, were
+universally desired. Perhaps, too, that _esprit de corps_ which,
+identifying the individual with the community, transfers to the
+aggregate of the society a portion of that self-love which is felt by
+every private person, and which inspires in the members with a
+repugnance to the dissolution of the political, not unlike in effect
+to that which is excited at the dissolution of the natural body, was
+not without its influence in suggesting some expedient which might
+preserve the memory of the army, while it cheered the officers who
+were on the point of separating, with the hope that the separation
+would not be eternal: that at distant intervals, they might still
+communicate with each other: that the bonds by which they were
+connected would not be totally dissolved: and that, for many
+beneficial purposes, the patriots of the American army would still
+form one great society.
+
+[Sidenote: Establishment of the society of the Cincinnati of which he
+is elected president.]
+
+This idea was suggested by General Knox, and was matured in a meeting
+composed of the generals, and of deputies from the regiments, at which
+Major General the Baron Steuben presided. An agreement was then
+entered into, by which the officers were to constitute themselves into
+one society of friends, to endure as long as they should endure, or
+any of their eldest male posterity; and, in failure thereof, any
+collateral branches who might be judged worthy of becoming its
+supporters and members, were to be admitted into it. To mark their
+veneration for that celebrated Roman between whose situation and their
+own they found some similitude, they were to be denominated, "The
+Society of the Cincinnati." Individuals of the respective states,
+distinguished for their patriotism and abilities, might be admitted as
+honorary members for life, provided their numbers should at no time
+exceed a ratio of one to four.
+
+The society was to be designated by a medal of gold representing the
+American eagle bearing on its breast the devices of the order, which
+was to be suspended by a ribbon of deep blue edged with white,
+descriptive of the union of America and France. To the ministers who
+had represented his Most Christian Majesty at Philadelphia, to the
+admirals who had commanded in the American seas, to the Count de
+Rochambeau, and the generals and colonels of the French troops who had
+served in the United States, the insignia of the order were to be
+presented, and they were to be invited to consider themselves as
+members of the society; at the head of which the Commander-in-chief
+was respectfully solicited to place his name. An incessant attention,
+on the part of the members, to the preservation of the exalted rights
+and liberties of human nature for which they had fought and bled, and
+an unalterable determination to promote and cherish between the
+respective states, union and national honour, were declared to be the
+immutable principles of the society. Its objects were, to perpetuate
+the remembrance of the American revolution, as well as cordial
+affection and the spirit of brotherly kindness among the officers; and
+to extend acts of beneficence to those officers and their families,
+whose situation might require assistance. To give effect to the
+charitable object of the institution, a common fund was to be created
+by the deposite of one month's pay on the part of every officer
+becoming a member; the product of which fund, after defraying certain
+necessary charges, was to be sacredly appropriated to this humane
+purpose.
+
+The military gentlemen of each state were to constitute a distinct
+society, deputies from which were to assemble triennially, in order to
+form a general meeting for the regulation of general concerns.
+
+Without encountering any open opposition, this institution was carried
+into complete effect; and its honours were sought, especially by the
+foreign officers, with great avidity. But soon after it was organized,
+those jealousies which in its first moments had been concealed, burst
+forth into open view. In October, 1783, a pamphlet was published by
+Mr. Burk of South Carolina, for the purpose of rousing the
+apprehensions of the public, and of directing its resentments against
+the society. Perceiving or believing that he perceived, in the
+Cincinnati, the foundation of an hereditary order, whose base, from
+associating with the military the chiefs of the powerful families in
+each state, would acquire a degree of solidity and strength admitting
+of any superstructure, he portrayed, in the fervid and infectious
+language of passion, the dangers to result from the fabric which would
+be erected on it. The ministers of the United States too in Europe,
+and the political theorists who cast their eyes towards the west for
+support to favourite systems, having the privileged orders constantly
+in view, were loud in their condemnations of an institution from which
+a race of nobles was expected to spring. The alarm was spread
+throughout every state, and a high degree of jealousy pervaded the
+mass of the people. In Massachusetts, the subject was even taken up by
+the legislature; and it was well understood that, in congress, the
+society was viewed with secret disapprobation.
+
+"It was impossible for General Washington to view with indifference
+this state of the public feeling. Bound to the officers of his army by
+the strictest ties of esteem and affection, conscious of their merits,
+and assured of their attachment to his person, he was alive to every
+thing which might affect their reputation, or their interests. However
+innocent the institution might be in itself, or however laudable its
+real objects, if the impression it made on the public mind was such as
+to draw a line of distinction between the military men of America and
+their fellow citizens, he was earnest in his wishes to adopt such
+measures as would efface that impression. However ill founded the
+public prejudices might be, he thought this a case in which they ought
+to be respected; and, if it should be found impracticable to convince
+the people that their fears were misplaced, he was disposed to yield
+to them in a degree, and not to suffer that which was intended for the
+best of purposes, to produce a bad one."
+
+A general meeting was to be held in Philadelphia in May, 1784; and, in
+the mean time, he had been appointed the temporary president.
+
+To prepare the officers for those fundamental changes in the
+principles of the society, which he contemplated as a necessary
+sacrifice to the public apprehensions, his ideas were suggested to his
+military correspondents; and to give weight to the measures which
+might be recommended, his utmost influence was exerted to obtain a
+full assemblage of deputies, which should be respectable for its
+numbers, and for its wisdom.
+
+Officers of high respectability entertained different opinions on
+surrendering those parts of the institution which were deemed
+objectionable. By some, the public clamour was attributed to a spirit
+of persecution, which only attached them more closely to the order.
+Many, it was said, were in quest of a cause of quarrel with their late
+protectors; and the removal of one ground of accusation against them,
+would only induce the substitution of some other. The source of the
+uneasiness which had been manifested was to be found in the temper of
+the people, not in the matters of which they complained; and if the
+present cause of irritation was removed, their ill humour would be
+openly and avowedly directed against the commutation.
+
+General Washington was too much in the habit of considering subjects
+of difficulty in various points of view, and of deciding on them with
+coolness and deliberation, to permit his affections to influence his
+judgment. The most exact inquiries, assiduously made into the true
+state of the public mind, resulted in a conviction that opinions
+unfriendly to the institution, in its actual form, were extensively
+entertained; and that those opinions were founded, not in hostility to
+the late army, but in real apprehensions for equal liberty.
+
+A wise and necessary policy required, he thought, the removal of these
+apprehensions; and, at the general meeting in May, the hereditary
+principle, and the power of adopting honorary members, were
+relinquished. The result demonstrated the propriety of this
+alteration. Although a few who always perceive most danger where none
+exists, and the visionaries then abounding in Europe, continued their
+prophetic denunciations against the order, America dismissed her
+fears; and, notwithstanding the refusal of one or two of the state
+societies to adopt the measures recommended by the general meeting,
+the members of the Cincinnati were received as brethren into the bosom
+of their country.
+
+[Sidenote: The causes which led to a change of the government of the
+United States.]
+
+While General Washington thus devoted a great part of his time to
+rural pursuits, to the duties of friendship, and to institutions of
+public utility, the political state of his country, becoming daily
+more embarrassed, attracted more and more deeply the anxious
+solicitude of every enlightened and virtuous patriot. From peace, from
+independence, and from governments of their own choice, the United
+States had confidently anticipated every blessing. The glorious
+termination of their contest with one of the most powerful nations of
+the earth; the steady and persevering courage with which that contest
+had been maintained; and the unyielding firmness with which the
+privations attending it had been supported, had surrounded the infant
+republics with a great degree of splendour, and had bestowed upon them
+a character which could be preserved only by a national and dignified
+system of conduct. A very short time was sufficient to demonstrate,
+that something not yet possessed was requisite, to insure the public
+and private prosperity expected to flow from self government. After a
+short struggle so to administer the existing system, as to make it
+competent to the great objects for which it was instituted, the effort
+became apparently desperate; and American affairs were impelled
+rapidly to a crisis, on which the continuance of the United States, as
+a nation, appeared to depend.
+
+In tracing the causes which led to this interesting state of things,
+it will be necessary to carry back our attention to the conclusion of
+the war.
+
+A government authorized to declare war, but relying on independent
+states for the means of prosecuting it; capable of contracting debts,
+and of pledging the public faith for their payment, but depending on
+thirteen distinct sovereignties for the preservation of that faith,
+could not be rescued from ignominy and contempt, but by finding those
+sovereignties administered by men exempt from the passions incident to
+human nature.
+
+The debts of the union were computed, on the first of January, 1783,
+at somewhat more than forty millions of dollars. "If," say congress,
+in an address to the states, urging that the means of payment should
+be placed in their hands, "other motives than that of justice could be
+requisite on this occasion, no nation could ever feel stronger; for to
+whom are the debts to be paid?
+
+"_To an ally_, in the first place, who to the exertion of his arms in
+support of our cause has added the succours of his treasure; who to
+his important loans has added liberal donations, and whose loans
+themselves carry the impression of his magnanimity and friendship.
+
+"_To individuals in a foreign country_, in the next place, who were
+the first to give so precious a token of their confidence in our
+justice, and of their friendship for our cause, and who are members of
+a republic which was second in espousing our rank among nations.
+
+"Another class of creditors is, that _illustrious and patriotic band of
+fellow citizens_, whose blood and whose bravery have defended the
+liberties of their country, who have patiently borne, among other
+distresses, the privation of their stipends, whilst the distresses of
+their country disabled it from bestowing them: and who, even now, ask
+for no more than such a portion of their dues, as will enable them to
+retire from the field of victory and glory, into the bosom of peace
+and private citizenship, and for such effectual security for the
+residue of their claims, as their country is now unquestionably able
+to provide.
+
+"The remaining class of creditors is composed partly of such of our
+fellow citizens as originally lent to the public the use of their
+funds, or have since manifested most confidence in their country, by
+receiving transfers from the lenders; and partly of those whose
+property has been either advanced or assumed for the public service.
+To discriminate the merits of these several descriptions of creditors,
+would be a task equally unnecessary and invidious. If the voice of
+humanity plead more loudly in favour of some than of others, the voice
+of policy, no less than of justice, pleads in favour of all. A wise
+nation will never permit those who relieve the wants of their country,
+or who rely most on its faith, its firmness, and its resources, when
+either of them is distrusted, to suffer by the event."
+
+In a government constituted like that of the United States, it would
+readily be expected that great contrariety of sentiment would prevail,
+respecting the principles on which its affairs should be conducted. It
+has been already stated that the continent was divided into two great
+political parties, the one of which contemplated America as a nation,
+and laboured incessantly to invest the federal head with powers
+competent to the preservation of the union. The other attached itself
+to the state government, viewed all the powers of congress with
+jealousy, and assented reluctantly to measures which would enable the
+head to act, in any respect, independently of the members. Men of
+enlarged and liberal minds who, in the imbecility of a general
+government, by which alone the capacities of the nation could be
+efficaciously exerted, could discern the imbecility of the nation
+itself; who, viewing the situation of the world, could perceive the
+dangers to which these young republics were exposed, if not held
+together by a cement capable of preserving a beneficial connexion; who
+felt the full value of national honour, and the full obligation of
+national faith; and who were persuaded of the insecurity of both, if
+resting for their preservation on the concurrence of thirteen distinct
+sovereigns; arranged themselves generally in the first party. The
+officers of the army, whose local prejudices had been weakened by
+associating with each other, and whose experience had furnished
+lessons on the inefficacy of requisitions which were not soon to be
+forgotten, threw their weight almost universally into the same scale.
+
+The other party, if not more intelligent, was more numerous, and more
+powerful. It was sustained by prejudices and feelings which grew
+without effort, and gained strength from the intimate connexions
+subsisting between a state and its citizens. It required a concurrence
+of extrinsic circumstances to force on minds unwilling to receive the
+demonstration, a conviction of the necessity of an effective national
+government, and to give even a temporary ascendency to that party
+which had long foreseen and deplored the crisis to which the affairs
+of the United States were hastening.
+
+Sensible that the character of the government would be decided, in a
+considerable degree, by the measures which should immediately follow
+the treaty of peace, gentlemen of the first political abilities and
+integrity sought a place in the congress of 1783. Combining their
+efforts for the establishment of principles on which the honour and
+the interest of the nation were believed to depend, they exerted all
+their talents to impress on the several states, the necessity of
+conferring on the government of the union, powers which might be
+competent to its preservation, and which would enable it to comply
+with the engagements it had formed. With unwearied perseverance they
+digested and obtained the assent of congress to a system, which,
+though unequal to what their wishes would have prepared, or their
+judgments have approved, was believed to be the best that was
+attainable. The great object in view was, "to restore and support
+public credit," to effect which it was necessary, "to obtain from the
+states substantial funds for funding the whole debt of the United
+States."
+
+The committee[26] to whom this interesting subject was referred,
+reported sundry resolutions, recommending it to the several states, to
+vest in congress permanent and productive funds adequate to the
+immediate payment of the interest on the national debt, and to the
+gradual extinction of the principal. A change in the rule by which the
+proportions of the different states were to be ascertained, was also
+recommended. In lieu of that article of the confederation which
+apportions on them the sums required for the public treasury,
+according to the value of their located lands with the improvements
+thereon, it was proposed to substitute another more capable of
+execution, which should make the population of each state the measure
+of its contribution.[27]
+
+     [Footnote 26: Mr. Fitzsimmons, and Mr. Rutledge.]
+
+     [Footnote 27: On a subsequent occasion, an attempt was made
+     to obtain a resolution of congress, recommending as an
+     additional amendment to the eighth article of the
+     confederation, that the taxes for the use of the continent
+     should be laid and levied separate from any other tax, and
+     should be paid directly into the national treasury; and that
+     the collectors respectively should be liable to an execution
+     to be issued by the treasurer, or his deputy, under the
+     direction of congress, for any arrears of taxes by him to be
+     collected, which should not be paid into the treasury in
+     conformity with the requisitions of congress.
+
+     Such was the prevalence of state policy, even in the
+     government of the union, or such the conviction of the
+     inutility of recommending such an amendment, that a vote of
+     congress could not be obtained for asking this salutary
+     regulation as a security for the revenue only for eight
+     years.]
+
+To the application which congress had made during the war for power to
+levy an impost of five per cent on imported and prize goods, one state
+had never assented, and another had withdrawn the assent it had
+previously given.
+
+It was impossible to yield to some of the objections which had been
+made to this measure, because they went to the certain destruction of
+the system itself; but in points where the alterations demanded,
+though mischievous, were not fatal to the plan, it was thought
+adviseable to accommodate the recommendations of the government to the
+prejudices which had been disclosed. It had been insisted that the
+power of appointing persons to collect the duties, would enable
+congress to introduce into a state, officers unknown and unaccountable
+to the government thereof; and that a power to collect an indefinite
+sum for an indefinite time, for the expenditure of which that body
+could not be accountable to the states, would render it independent of
+its constituents, and would be dangerous to liberty. To obviate these
+objections, the proposition now made was so modified, that the grant
+was to be limited to twenty-five years; was to be strictly
+appropriated to the debt contracted on account of the war; and was to
+be collected by persons to be appointed by the respective states.
+
+After a debate, which the tedious mode of conducting business
+protracted for several weeks, the report was adopted; and a committee,
+consisting of Mr. Madison, Mr. Hamilton, and Mr. Ellsworth, was
+appointed to prepare an address, which should accompany the
+recommendation to the several states.
+
+After a full explanation of the principles on which the system had
+been framed, this address proceeds:--"The plan thus communicated and
+explained by congress, must now receive its fate from their
+constituents. All the objects comprised in it are conceived to be of
+great importance to the happiness of this confederated republic, are
+necessary to render the fruits of the revolution a full reward for the
+blood, the toils, the cares and the calamities which have purchased
+it. But the object of which the necessity will be peculiarly felt, and
+which it is peculiarly the duty of congress to inculcate, is the
+provision recommended for the national debt. Although this debt is
+greater than could have been wished, it is still less on the whole
+than could have been expected; and when referred to the cause in which
+it has been incurred, and compared with the burthens which wars of
+ambition and of vain glory have entailed on other nations, ought to be
+borne not only with cheerfulness but with pride. But the magnitude of
+the debt makes no part of the question. It is sufficient that the debt
+has been fairly contracted, and that justice and good faith demand
+that it should be fully discharged. Congress had no option but between
+different modes of discharging it. The same option is the only one
+that can exist with the states. The mode which has, after long and
+elaborate discussion, been preferred, is, we are persuaded, the least
+objectionable of any that would have been equal to the purpose. Under
+this persuasion, we call upon the justice and plighted faith of the
+several states to give it its proper effect, to reflect on the
+consequences of rejecting it, and to remember that congress will not
+be answerable for them."
+
+After expatiating on the merits of the several creditors, the report
+concludes, "let it be remembered finally, that it ever has been the
+pride and boast of America, that the rights for which she contended,
+were the rights of human nature. By the blessing of the Author of
+these rights, on the means exerted for their defence, they have
+prevailed against all opposition, and formed the basis of thirteen
+independent states. No instance has heretofore occurred, nor can any
+instance be expected hereafter to occur, in which the unadulterated
+forms of republican government can pretend to so fair an opportunity
+of justifying themselves by their fruits. In this view, the citizens
+of the United States are responsible for the greatest trust ever
+confided to a political society. If justice, good faith, honour,
+gratitude, and all the other good qualities which ennoble the
+character of a nation, and fulfil the ends of government, be the
+fruits of our establishments, the cause of liberty will acquire a
+dignity and lustre which it has never yet enjoyed; and an example will
+be set, which can not but have the most favourable influence on the
+rights of mankind. If, on the other side, our governments should be
+unfortunately blotted with the reverse of these cardinal and essential
+virtues, the great cause which we have engaged to vindicate will be
+dishonoured and betrayed; the last and fairest experiment in favour of
+the rights of human nature will be turned against them, and their
+patrons and friends exposed to be insulted and silenced by the
+votaries of tyranny and usurpation."
+
+For the complete success of the plan recommended by congress, no
+person felt more anxious solicitude than General Washington. Of the
+vital importance of UNION, no man could be more entirely persuaded;
+and of the obligations of the government to its creditors, no man
+could feel a stronger conviction. His conspicuous station had rendered
+him peculiarly sensible to their claims; and he had unavoidably been
+personally instrumental in the creation of a part of them. All the
+feelings of his heart were deeply engaged in the payment of some of
+the creditors, and that high sense of national honour, of national
+justice, and of national faith, of which elevated minds endowed with
+integrity can never be divested, impelled him to take a strong
+interest in the security of all. Availing himself of the usage of
+communicating on national subjects with the state governments, and of
+the opportunity, which his approaching resignation of the command of
+the army gave, impressively to convey his sentiments to them, he had
+determined to employ all the influence which the circumstances of his
+life had created, in a solemn recommendation of measures, on which he
+believed the happiness and prosperity of his country to depend. On the
+eighth of June, 1783, he addressed to the governors of the several
+states respectively, the paternal and affectionate letter which
+follows.
+
+[Sidenote: Letters of General Washington to the governors of the
+several states.]
+
+"Sir,
+
+"The great object for which I had the honour to hold an appointment in
+the service of my country being accomplished, I am now preparing to
+resign it into the hands of congress, and to return to that domestic
+retirement which, it is well known, I left with the greatest
+reluctance; a retirement for which I have never ceased to sigh through
+a long and painful absence, and in which (remote from the noise and
+trouble of the world) I meditate to pass the remainder of life in a
+state of undisturbed repose. But before I carry this resolution into
+effect, I think it a duty incumbent upon me, to make this my last
+official communication; to congratulate you on the glorious events
+which heaven has been pleased to produce in our favour; to offer my
+sentiments respecting some important subjects which appear to me to be
+intimately connected with the tranquillity of the United States: to
+take my leave of your excellency as a public character: and to give my
+final blessing to that country in whose service I have spent the prime
+of my life, for whose sake I have consumed so many anxious days and
+watchful nights, and whose happiness, being extremely dear to me, will
+always constitute no inconsiderable part of my own.
+
+"Impressed with the liveliest sensibility on this pleasing occasion, I
+will claim the indulgence of dilating the more copiously on the
+subjects of our mutual felicitation. When we consider the magnitude of
+the prize we contended for, the doubtful nature of the contest, and
+the favourable manner in which it has terminated, we shall find the
+greatest possible reason for gratitude and rejoicing. This is a theme
+that will afford infinite delight to every benevolent and liberal
+mind, whether the event in contemplation be considered as the source
+of present enjoyment, or the parent of future happiness: and we shall
+have equal occasion to felicitate ourselves on the lot which
+Providence has assigned us, whether we view it in a natural, a
+political, or moral point of light.
+
+"The citizens of America, placed in the most enviable condition, as
+the sole lords and proprietors of a vast tract of continent,
+comprehending all the various soils and climates of the world, and
+abounding with all the necessaries and conveniencies of life, are now,
+by the late satisfactory pacification, acknowledged to be possessed of
+absolute freedom and independency. They are from this period, to be
+considered as the actors on a most conspicuous theatre, which seems to
+be peculiarly designated by Providence for the display of human
+greatness and felicity. Here they are not only surrounded with every
+thing which can contribute to the completion of private and domestic
+enjoyment; but heaven has crowned all its other blessings, by giving a
+fairer opportunity for political happiness, than any other nation has
+ever been favoured with. Nothing can illustrate these observations
+more forcibly, than a recollection of the happy conjuncture of times
+and circumstances, under which our republic assumed its rank among the
+nations. The foundation of our empire was not laid in the gloomy age
+of ignorance and superstition, but at an epoch when the rights of
+mankind were better understood, and more clearly defined, than at any
+former period. The researches of the human mind after social happiness
+have been carried to a great extent; the treasures of knowledge
+acquired by the labours of philosophers, sages, and legislators,
+through a long succession of years, are laid open for our use; and
+their collected wisdom may be happily employed in the establishment of
+our forms of government. The free cultivation of letters; the
+unbounded extension of commerce; the progressive refinement of
+manners; the growing liberality of sentiment; and above all, the pure
+and benign light of revelation; have had a meliorating influence on
+mankind, and increased the blessings of society. At this auspicious
+period, the United States came into existence as a nation; and if
+their citizens should not be completely free and happy, the fault will
+be entirely their own.
+
+"Such is our situation, and such are our prospects. But
+notwithstanding the cup of blessing is thus reached out to us;
+notwithstanding happiness is ours, if we have a disposition to seize
+the occasion, and make it our own; yet, it appears to me, there is an
+option still left to the United States of America; that it is in their
+choice, and depends upon their conduct, whether they will be
+respectable and prosperous, or contemptible and miserable as a nation.
+This is the time of their political probation; this is the moment when
+the eyes of the whole world are turned upon them; this is the moment
+to establish or ruin their national character forever; this is the
+favourable moment to give such a tone to our federal government, as
+will enable it to answer the ends of its institution, or this may be
+the ill-fated moment for relaxing the powers of the union,
+annihilating the cement of the confederation, and exposing us to
+become the sport of European politics, which may play one state
+against another, to prevent their growing importance, and to serve
+their own interested purposes. For according to the system of policy
+the states shall adopt at this moment, they will stand or fall; and by
+their confirmation or lapse, it is yet to be decided, whether the
+revolution must ultimately be considered a blessing or a curse:--a
+blessing or a curse not to the present age alone, for with our fate
+will the destiny of unborn millions be involved.
+
+"With this conviction of the importance of the present crisis, silence
+in me would be a crime. I will therefore speak to your excellency the
+language of freedom and of sincerity, without disguise. I am aware,
+however, that those who differ from me in political sentiment, may
+perhaps remark that I am stepping out of the proper line of my duty,
+and may possibly ascribe to arrogance or ostentation, what I know is
+alone the result of the purest intentions. But the rectitude of my own
+heart, which disdains such unworthy motives; the part I have hitherto
+acted in life; the determination I have formed of not taking any share
+in public business hereafter; the ardent desire I feel, and shall
+continue to manifest, of quietly enjoying, in private life, after all
+the toils of war, the benefits of a wise and liberal government: will,
+I flatter myself, sooner or later convince my countrymen, that I could
+have no sinister views in delivering with so little reserve the
+opinions contained in this address.
+
+"There are four things which I humbly conceive are essential to the
+well being, I may even venture to say, to the existence of the United
+States as an independent power.
+
+1st. An indissoluble union of the states under one federal head.
+
+2d. A sacred regard to public justice.
+
+3d. The adoption of a proper peace establishment, and,
+
+4th. The prevalence of that pacific and friendly disposition, among
+the people of the United States, which will induce them to forget
+their local prejudices and politics, to make those mutual concessions
+which are requisite to the general prosperity, and in some instances,
+to sacrifice their individual advantages to the interest of the
+community.
+
+"These are the pillars on which the glorious fabric of our
+independency and national character must be supported. Liberty is the
+basis, and whoever would dare to sap the foundation, or overturn the
+structure, under whatever specious pretext he may attempt it, will
+merit the bitterest execration, and the severest punishment, which can
+be inflicted by his injured country.
+
+"On the three first articles, I will make a few observations, leaving
+the last to the good sense and serious consideration of those
+immediately concerned.
+
+"Under the first head, although it may not be necessary or proper for
+me, in this place, to enter into a particular disquisition of the
+principles of the union, and to take up the great question which has
+frequently been agitated, whether it be expedient and requisite for
+the states to delegate a larger proportion of power to congress or
+not; yet it will be a part of my duty, and that of every true patriot,
+to assert without reserve, and to insist upon the following positions:
+that unless the states will suffer congress to exercise those
+prerogatives they are undoubtedly invested with by the constitution,
+every thing must very rapidly tend to anarchy and confusion: that it
+is indispensable to the happiness of the individual states, that there
+should be lodged somewhere a supreme power to regulate and govern the
+general concerns of the confederated republic, without which the union
+can not be of long duration: that there must be a faithful and pointed
+compliance, on the part of every state, with the late proposals and
+demands of congress, or the most fatal consequences will ensue: that
+whatever measures have a tendency to dissolve the union, or contribute
+to violate or lessen the sovereign authority, ought to be considered
+as hostile to the liberty and independence of America, and the authors
+of them treated accordingly: and lastly, that unless we can be
+enabled, by the concurrence of the states, to participate of the
+fruits of the revolution, and enjoy the essential benefits of civil
+society, under a form of government so free and uncorrupted, so
+happily guarded against the danger of oppression as has been devised
+and adopted by the articles of confederation, it will be a subject of
+regret, that so much blood and treasure have been lavished for no
+purpose; that so many sufferings have been encountered without a
+compensation; and that so many sacrifices have been made in vain. Many
+other considerations might here be adduced to prove, that without an
+entire conformity to the spirit of the union, we can not exist as an
+independent power. It will be sufficient for my purpose to mention one
+or two, which seem to me of the greatest importance. It is only in our
+united character that we are known as an empire, that our independence
+is acknowledged, that our power can be regarded, or our credit
+supported among foreign nations. The treaties of the European powers
+with the United States of America, will have no validity on a
+dissolution of the union. We shall be left nearly in a state of
+nature, or we may find, by our own unhappy experience, that there is a
+natural and necessary progression from the extreme of anarchy to the
+extreme of tyranny; and that arbitrary power is most easily
+established on the ruins of liberty abused to licentiousness.
+
+"As to the second article, which respects the performance of public
+justice, congress have in their late address to the United States,
+almost exhausted the subject. They have explained their ideas so
+fully, and have enforced the obligations the states are under, to
+render complete justice to all the public creditors, with so much
+dignity and energy, that in my opinion, no real friend to the honour
+and independency of America, can hesitate a single moment respecting
+the propriety of complying with the just and honourable measures
+proposed. If their arguments do not produce conviction, I know of
+nothing that will have greater influence; especially when we recollect
+that the system referred to, being the result of the collected wisdom
+of the continent, must be esteemed, if not perfect, certainly the
+least objectionable of any that could be devised; and that if it
+should not be carried into immediate execution, a national bankruptcy,
+with all its deplorable consequences, will take place before any
+different plan can possibly be proposed and adopted. So pressing are
+the present circumstances, and such is the alternative now offered to
+the states.
+
+"The ability of the country to discharge the debts which have been
+incurred in its defence is not to be doubted; an inclination I flatter
+myself will not be wanting. The path of our duty is plain before
+us--honesty will be found, on every experiment, to be the best and
+only true policy. Let us then as a nation, be just; let us fulfil the
+public contracts which congress had undoubtedly a right to make, for
+the purpose of carrying on the war, with the same good faith we
+suppose ourselves bound to perform our private engagements. In the
+mean time, let an attention to the cheerful performance of their
+proper business as individuals, and as members of society, be
+earnestly inculcated on the citizens of America. Then will they
+strengthen the hands of government, and be happy under its protection.
+Every one will reap the fruit of his labours; every one will enjoy his
+own acquisitions, without molestation, and without danger.
+
+"In this state of absolute freedom and perfect security, who will
+grudge to yield a very little of his property to support the common
+interest of society, and insure the protection of government? Who does
+not remember the frequent declarations, at the commencement of the
+war, that we should be completely satisfied, if at the expense of one
+half, we could defend the remainder of our possessions? Where is the
+man to be found who wishes to remain indebted for the defence of his
+own person and property, to the exertions, the bravery, and the blood
+of others, without making one generous effort to repay the debt of
+honour and of gratitude? In what part of the continent shall we find
+any man or body of men, who would not blush to stand up and propose
+measures purposely calculated to rob the soldier of his stipend, and
+the public creditor of his due? And were it possible that such a
+flagrant instance of injustice could ever happen, would it not excite
+the general indignation, and tend to bring down upon the authors of
+such measures, the aggravated vengeance of heaven? If, after all, a
+spirit of disunion, or a temper of obstinacy and perverseness, should
+manifest itself in any of the states; if such an ungracious
+disposition should attempt to frustrate all the happy effects that
+might be expected to flow from the union; if there should be a refusal
+to comply with the requisitions for funds to discharge the annual
+interest of the public debts; and if that refusal should revive again
+all those jealousies, and produce all those evils, which are now
+happily removed; congress, who have in all their transactions, shown a
+great degree of magnanimity and justice, will stand justified in the
+sight of God and man; and the state alone which puts itself in
+opposition to the aggregate wisdom of the continent, and follows such
+mistaken and pernicious counsels, will be responsible for all the
+consequences.
+
+"For my own part, conscious of having acted while a servant of the
+public, in the manner I conceived best suited to promote the real
+interests of my country; having, in consequence of my fixed belief, in
+some measure pledged myself to the army, that their country would
+finally do them complete and ample justice; and not wishing to conceal
+any instance of my official conduct from the eyes of the world; I have
+thought proper to transmit to your excellency the enclosed collection
+of papers, relative to the half pay and commutation granted by
+congress to the officers of the army. From these communications, my
+decided sentiments will be clearly comprehended, together with the
+conclusive reasons which induced me, at an early period, to recommend
+the adoption of the measure, in the most earnest and serious manner.
+As the proceedings of congress, the army, and myself, are open to all,
+and contain, in my opinion, sufficient information to remove the
+prejudices, and errors, which may have been entertained by any, I
+think it unnecessary to say any thing more than just to observe, that
+the resolutions of congress now alluded to, are undoubtedly as
+absolutely binding upon the United States, as the most solemn acts of
+confederation or legislation. As to the idea which I am informed, has
+in some instances prevailed, that the half pay and commutation are to
+be regarded merely in the odious light of a pension, it ought to be
+exploded for ever. That provision should be viewed as it really was, a
+reasonable compensation offered by congress, at a time when they had
+nothing else to give to the officers of the army, for services then to
+be performed. It was the only means to prevent a total dereliction of
+the service.--It was a part of their hire.--I may be allowed to say it
+was the price of their blood, and of your independence. It is
+therefore more than a common debt; it is a debt of honour. It can
+never be considered as a pension, or gratuity; nor be cancelled until
+it is fairly discharged.
+
+"With regard to a distinction between officers and soldiers, it is
+sufficient that the uniform experience of every nation of the world,
+combined with your own, proves the utility and propriety of the
+discrimination. Rewards in proportion to the aids the public derives
+from them, are unquestionably due to all its servants. In some lines,
+the soldiers have perhaps generally had as ample a compensation for
+their services, by the large bounties which have been paid to them, as
+their officers will receive in the proposed commutation; in others, if
+besides the donation of lands, the payment of arrearages, of clothing
+and wages, (in which articles all the component parts of the army must
+be put upon the same footing,) we take into the estimate the bounties
+many of the soldiers have received, and the gratuity of one year's
+full pay which is promised to all, possibly their situation (every
+circumstance duly considered) will not be deemed less eligible than
+that of the officers. Should a further reward, however, be judged
+equitable, I will venture to assert, no one will enjoy greater
+satisfaction than myself, on seeing an exemption from taxes for a
+limited time, (which has been petitioned for in some instances,) or
+any other adequate immunity or compensation, granted to the brave
+defenders of their country's cause. But neither the adoption nor
+rejection of this proposition will in any manner affect, much less
+militate against, the act of congress, by which they have offered five
+years full pay, in lieu of the half pay for life, which had been
+before promised to the officers of the army.
+
+"Before I conclude the subject of public justice, I can not omit to
+mention the obligations this country is under to that meritorious
+class of veteran non-commissioned officers and privates who have been
+discharged for inability, in consequence of the resolution of congress
+of the 23d April, 1782, on an annual pension for life. Their peculiar
+sufferings, their singular merits, and claims to that provision, need
+only be known, to interest all the feelings of humanity in their
+behalf. Nothing but a punctual payment of their annual allowance can
+rescue them from the most complicated misery, and nothing could be a
+more melancholy and distressing sight, than to behold those who have
+shed their blood or lost their limbs in the service of their country,
+without a shelter, without a friend, and without the means of
+obtaining any of the necessaries or comforts of life; compelled to beg
+their daily bread from door to door. Surfer me to recommend those of
+this description, belonging to your state, to the warmest patronage of
+your excellency and your legislature.
+
+"It is necessary to say but a few words on the third topic which was
+proposed, and which regards particularly the defence of the republic,
+as there can be little doubt but congress will recommend a proper
+peace establishment for the United States, in which a due attention
+will be paid to the importance of placing the militia of the union
+upon a regular and respectable footing. If this should be the case, I
+would beg leave to urge the great advantage of it in the strongest
+terms. The militia of this country must be considered as the palladium
+of our security, and the first effectual resort in case of hostility.
+It is essential, therefore, that the same system should pervade the
+whole; that the formation and discipline of the militia of the
+continent should be absolutely uniform, and that the same species of
+arms, accoutrements, and military apparatus should be introduced in
+every part of the United States. No one who has not learned it from
+experience, can conceive the difficulty, expense, and confusion, which
+result from a contrary system, or the vague arrangements which have
+hitherto prevailed.
+
+"If in treating of political points, a greater latitude than usual has
+been taken in the course of this address, the importance of the
+crisis, and magnitude of the objects in discussion, must be my
+apology. It is, however, neither my wish nor expectation, that the
+preceding observations should claim any regard, except so far as they
+shall appear to be dictated by a good intention, consonant to the
+immediate rules of justice, calculated to produce a liberal system of
+policy, and founded on whatever experience may have been acquired by a
+long and close attention to public business. Here I might speak with
+the more confidence, from my actual observations; and, if it would not
+swell this letter (already too prolix) beyond the bounds I had
+prescribed myself, I could demonstrate to every mind open to
+conviction, that in less time, and with much less expense than has
+been incurred, the war might have been brought to the same happy
+conclusion, if the resources of the continent could have been properly
+drawn forth; that the distresses and disappointments which have very
+often occurred, have, in too many instances, resulted more from a want
+of energy in the continental government, than a deficiency of means in
+the particular states: that the inefficacy of measures, arising from
+the want of an adequate authority in the supreme power, from a partial
+compliance with the requisitions of congress in some of the states,
+and from a failure of punctuality in others, while it tended to damp
+the zeal of those which were more willing to exert themselves, served
+also to accumulate the expenses of the war, and to frustrate the best
+concerted plans; and that the discouragement occasioned by the
+complicated difficulties and embarrassments in which our affairs were
+by this means involved, would have long ago produced the dissolution
+of any army less patient, less virtuous, and less persevering, than
+that which I have had the honour to command. But while I mention these
+things which are notorious facts, as the defects of our federal
+constitution, particularly in the prosecution of a war, I beg it may
+be understood, that as I have ever taken a pleasure in gratefully
+acknowledging the assistance and support I have derived from every
+class of citizens, so shall I always be happy to do justice to the
+unparalleled exertions of the individual states, on many interesting
+occasions.
+
+"I have thus freely disclosed what I wished to make known before I
+surrendered up my public trust to those who committed it to me. The
+task is now accomplished. I now bid adieu to your excellency as the
+chief magistrate of your state; at the same time I bid a last farewell
+to the cares of office and all the employments of public life.
+
+"It remains then to be my final and only request, that your excellency
+will communicate these sentiments to your legislature at their next
+meeting; and that they may be considered as the legacy of one who has
+ardently wished, on all occasions, to be useful to his country; and
+who, even in the shade of retirement, will not fail to implore the
+divine benediction upon it.
+
+"I now make it my earnest prayer that God would have you, and the
+state over which you preside, in his holy protection, that he would
+incline the hearts of the citizens to cultivate a spirit of
+subordination and obedience to government; to entertain a brotherly
+affection and love for one another, for their fellow citizens of the
+United States at large, and particularly for their brethren who have
+served in the field, and finally, that he would most graciously be
+pleased to dispose us all to do justice, to love mercy, and to demean
+ourselves with that charity, humility, and pacific temper of mind,
+which were the characteristics of the Divine Author of our blessed
+religion; without an humble imitation of whose example in these things
+we can never hope to be a happy nation."
+
+The impression made by this solemn and affecting admonition could not
+be surpassed. The circumstances under which it was given, added to the
+veneration with which it was received; and, like the counsel of a
+parent on whom the grave is about to close forever, it sunk deep into
+the hearts of all. But, like the counsels of a parent withdrawn from
+view, the advice was too soon forgotten, and the impression it had
+made was too soon effaced.
+
+The recommendations of congress did not receive that prompt
+consideration which the public exigence demanded, nor did they meet
+that universal assent which was necessary to give them effect.
+
+Not immediately perceiving that the error lay in a system which was
+unfit for use, the distinguished patriots of the revolution
+contemplated with increasing anxiety, the anti-American temper which
+displayed itself in almost every part of the union. The letters
+addressed to the late Commander-in-chief, by many of those who had
+borne a conspicuous part in the arduous struggle for independence,
+manifest the disappointment and chagrin occasioned by this temper. The
+venerable Trumbull, who had rendered great service to the cause of
+united America; who, like Washington, had supported the burden of
+office throughout a hazardous contest, and like Washington, had
+determined to withdraw from the cares of a public station when that
+contest should be terminated, in a letter communicating to his friend
+and compatriot the resolution he had taken, thus disclosed the fears
+which the dispositions manifested by many of his countrymen inspired.
+"The fruits of our peace and independence do not at present wear so
+promising an appearance as I had fondly painted to my mind. The
+prejudices, the jealousies, and turbulence of the people, at times,
+almost stagger my confidence in our political establishments; and
+almost occasion me to think that they will show themselves unworthy of
+the noble prize for which we have contended, and which, I had pleased
+myself with the hope, we were so near enjoying. But again, I check
+this rising impatience, and console myself under the present prospect
+with the consideration, that the same beneficent and wise Providence
+which has done so much for this country, will not eventually leave us
+to ruin our own happiness, to become the sport of chance, or the scoff
+of a once admiring world; but that great things are yet in store for
+this people, which time, and the wisdom of the Great Director will
+produce in its best season."
+
+"It is indeed a pleasure," said General Washington in reply, "from the
+walks of private life to view in retrospect the difficulties through
+which we have waded, and the happy haven into which our ship has been
+brought. Is it possible after this that it should founder? will not
+the all wise and all powerful Director of human events preserve it? I
+think he will. He may, however, for some wise purpose of his own,
+suffer our indiscretions and folly to place our national character low
+in the political scale;--and this, unless more wisdom and less
+prejudice take the lead in our government, will most certainly
+happen."
+
+That the imbecility of the federal government, the impotence of its
+requisitions, and the inattention of some of the states to its
+recommendations, would, in the estimation of the world, abase the
+American character, could scarcely be termed a prediction. That course
+of national degradation had already commenced.
+
+As the system recommended to the states on the 18th of April, 1783,
+had been matured by the best wisdom in the federal councils, a
+compliance with it was the last hope of the government; and congress
+continued to urge its adoption on the several states. While its fate
+remain undecided, requisitions for the intermediate supply of the
+national demands were annually repeated, and were annually neglected.
+Happily, a loan had been negotiated in Holland by Mr. Adams, after the
+termination of the war, out of which the interest of the foreign debt
+had been partly paid; but that fund was exhausted, and the United
+States possessed no means of replacing it. Unable to pay the interest,
+they would, in the course of the succeeding year, be liable for the
+first instalment of the principal; and the humiliating circumstance
+was to be encountered of a total failure to comply with the most
+solemn engagements, unaccompanied with the prospect of being enabled
+to give assurances, that, at any future time, their situation would be
+more eligible. If the condition of the domestic creditors was not
+absolutely desperate, the prospect of obtaining satisfaction for their
+claims was so distant and uncertain, that their evidences of debt were
+transferred at an eighth, and even at a tenth of their nominal value.
+The distress consequent on this depreciation was great and afflicting.
+"The requisitions of congress for eight years past," say the committee
+in February, 1786, to whom the subject of the revenue had been
+referred, "have been so irregular in their operation, so uncertain in
+their collection, and so evidently unproductive, that a reliance on
+them in future as a source from whence moneys are to be drawn to
+discharge the engagements of the confederacy, definite as they are in
+time and amount, would be not less dishonourable to the understandings
+of those who entertain such confidence, than it would be dangerous to
+the welfare and peace of the union." Under public embarrassments which
+were daily increasing, it had become, it was said, "the duty of
+congress to declare most explicitly that the crisis _had_ arrived,
+when the people of the United States, by whose will, and for whose
+benefit, the federal government was instituted, must decide whether
+they will support their rank as a nation, by maintaining the public
+faith at home and abroad, or whether, for want of a timely exertion in
+establishing a general revenue, and thereby giving strength to the
+confederacy, they will hazard not only the existence of the union, but
+of those great and invaluable privileges for which they have so
+arduously and so honourably contended."
+
+The revenue system of the 18th of April, 1783, was again solemnly
+recommended to the consideration of the several states, and their
+unanimous and early accession to it was declared to be the only
+measure which could enable congress to preserve the public faith, and
+to avoid the fatal evils which will inevitably flow from "a violation
+of those principles of justice which are the only solid basis of the
+honour and prosperity of nations."
+
+In framing this system, a revenue adequate to the funding of the whole
+national debt had been contemplated, and no part of it was to go into
+operation until the whole should be adopted. By suspending partial
+relief to the pressing necessities of the government, it was believed
+that complete relief would be the more certainly secured.
+
+The enlightened and virtuous statesmen with whom that measure
+originated, thought it impossible that their countrymen would be so
+unmindful of the obligations of honour and of justice, or could so
+mistake their real interests, as to withhold their assent from the
+entire plan, if convinced that no partial compliance with it would be
+received. In the progress of the business, however, there was reason
+to believe that the impost might be conceded, but that the application
+for internal taxes would encounter difficulties not to be surmounted.
+In the impoverished state of the federal treasury, an incompetent
+revenue was preferred to no revenue; and it was deemed more adviseable
+to accept a partial compliance with the recommendations of congress,
+than, by inflexibly adhering to the integrity of the system, to lose
+the whole. The states therefore, were requested to enable congress,
+"to carry into effect that part which related to impost so soon as it
+should be acceded to." In the course of the year 1786, every state in
+the union had acted upon the recommendation, and, with the exception
+of New York, had granted the impost duty which had been required. New
+York had passed an act upon the subject; but, influenced by its
+jealousy of the federal government, had not vested in congress the
+power of collection, but had reserved to itself the sole right of
+levying the duties according to its own laws. Neither did the act
+permit the collectors to be made accountable to congress. To the state
+only were they amenable. In addition to these deviations from the plan
+recommended, New York had emitted bills of credit, which were liable
+to depreciation, and in them the duties were payable. As the failure
+on the part of this single state, suspended the operation of the
+grants made by all the others, the executive thereof was requested
+again to convene the legislature, in order to lay the subject once
+more before them. To a similar resolution Governor Clinton had already
+replied, that "he had not power to convene the legislature before the
+time fixed by law for their stated meeting, except on extraordinary
+occasions, and as the present business proposed for their
+consideration had already been repeatedly laid before them, and so
+recently as at their last session had received their determination, it
+could not come within that description." This second resolution was
+not more successful than that which preceded it, and thus was finally
+defeated the laborious and persevering effort made by the federal
+government to obtain from the states the means of preserving, in whole
+or in part, the faith of the nation. General Washington's letters of
+that period abound with passages showing the solicitude with which he
+watched the progress of this recommendation, and the chagrin with
+which he viewed the obstacles to its adoption. In a letter of October,
+1785, he said, "the war, as you have very justly observed, has
+terminated most advantageously for America, and a fair field is
+presented to our view; but I confess to you freely, my dear sir, that
+I do not think we possess wisdom or justice enough to cultivate it
+properly. Illiberality, jealousy, and local policy, mix too much in
+our public councils, for the good government of the union. In a word,
+the confederation appears to me to be little more than a shadow
+without the substance; and congress a nugatory body, their
+ordinances being little attended to. To _me_, it is a solecism in
+politics:--indeed it is one of the most extraordinary things in
+nature, that we should confederate as a nation, and yet be afraid to
+give the rulers of that nation, who are the creatures of our own
+making, appointed for a limited and short duration, and who are
+amenable for every action, recallable at any moment, and subject to
+all the evils which they may be instrumental in producing,--sufficient
+powers to order and direct the affairs of the same. By such policy as
+this, the wheels of government are clogged, and our brightest
+prospects, and that high expectation which was entertained of us by
+the wondering world, are turned into astonishment; and from the high
+ground on which we stood, we are descending into the vale of confusion
+and darkness.
+
+"That we have it in our power to become one of the most respectable
+nations upon earth, admits, in my humble opinion, of no doubt, if we
+would but pursue a wise, just, and liberal policy towards one another,
+and would keep good faith with the rest of the world:--that our
+resources are ample and increasing, none can deny; but while they are
+grudgingly applied, or not applied at all, we give a vital stab to
+public faith, and will sink in the eyes of Europe, into contempt."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+     Differences between Great Britain and the United States....
+     Mr. Adams appointed minister to Great Britain....
+     Discontents excited by the commercial regulations of
+     Britain.... Parties in the United States.... The convention
+     at Annapolis.... Virginia appoints deputies to a convention
+     at Philadelphia.... General Washington chosen one of
+     them.... Insurrection at Massachusetts.... Convention at
+     Philadelphia.... A form of government submitted to the
+     respective states, as ratified by eleven of them....
+     Correspondence of General Washington respecting the chief
+     magistracy.... He is elected president.... Meeting of the
+     first congress.
+
+
+{1783 to 1787}
+
+While the friends of the national government were making these
+unavailing efforts to invest it with a revenue which might enable it
+to preserve the national faith, many causes concurred to prepare the
+public mind for some great and radical change in the political system
+of America.
+
+[Sidenote: Misunderstandings between Great Britain and the United
+States.]
+
+Scarcely had the war of the revolution terminated, when the United
+States and Great Britain reciprocally charged each other with
+violations of the treaty of peace. On the construction of that part of
+the seventh article which stipulates against the "destruction or
+carrying away of any negroes, or other property of the American
+inhabitants," a serious difference of opinion prevailed which could
+not be easily accommodated. As men seldom allow much weight to the
+reasoning of an adversary, the construction put upon that article by
+the cabinet of London was generally treated in America as a mere
+evasion; and the removal of the negroes who had joined the British
+army on the faith of a proclamation offering them freedom, was
+considered as a flagrant breach of faith. In addition to this
+circumstance, the troops of his Britannic Majesty still retained
+possession of the posts on the American side of the great lakes. As
+those posts gave their possessors a decided influence over the warlike
+tribes of Indians in their neighbourhood, this was a subject to which
+the United States were peculiarly sensible.
+
+On the other hand, the United States were charged with infringing the
+fourth, fifth, and sixth articles, which contain agreements respecting
+the payment of debts, the confiscation of property, and prosecution of
+individuals for the part taken by them during the war.
+
+On the 14th of January, 1784, the day on which the definitive articles
+were ratified, congress passed a resolution containing a
+recommendation in the words of the treaty, respecting confiscated
+property, which was transmitted without delay to the several states.
+They considered this resolution as merely formal; and contended that
+neither the American nor the British government expected from it any
+beneficial results. But other stipulations which are explicit, the
+performance of which was not to rest on the recommendation of the
+government, especially that respecting the payment of debts, were also
+neglected. These causes of mutual complaint being permitted to rankle
+for some time in the bosoms of both nations, produced a considerable
+degree of irritation. The British merchants had large credits in
+America. Those engaged in the colonial trade had been nearly ruined by
+the rupture between the two countries; and, without taking into the
+account the embarrassments in which the war had involved their
+debtors, they calculated, after the restoration of peace, on the
+prompt collection of the vast sums which were due to them. But the
+impediments to the recovery of debts were, in many instances,
+permitted to remain; and the dispositions manifested by those states
+in which they were chiefly due, did not authorize a belief that any
+favourable change of measures was about to take place. The complaints
+of the creditors were loud and incessant. They openly charged the
+American government with violating the most solemn obligations which
+public and private contract could create; and this charge affected the
+national character the more seriously, because the terms of the treaty
+were universally deemed highly advantageous to the United States. The
+recriminations on the part of individuals in America, were also
+uttered with the angry vehemence of men who believe themselves to be
+suffering unprovoked injuries. The negroes in possession of the
+British armies at the restoration of peace, belonged, in many cases,
+to actual debtors; and in all, to persons who required the labour of
+which they were thus deprived, to repair the multiplied losses
+produced by the war. To the detention of the posts on the lakes was
+ascribed the hostile temper manifested by the Indians; and thus, to
+the indignity of permitting a foreign power to maintain garrisons
+within the limits of the nation, were superadded the murders
+perpetrated by the savages, and the consequent difficulty of settling
+the fertile and vacant lands of the west.[28] On the north-eastern
+frontier too, the British were charged with making encroachments on
+the territory of the United States. On that side, the river St. Croix,
+from its source to its mouth in the bay of Passamaquoddy, is the
+boundary between the two nations. Three rivers of that name empty into
+the bay. The Americans claimed the most eastern, as the real St.
+Croix, while settlements were actually made under the authority of the
+government of Nova Scotia to the middle river, and the town of St.
+Andrews was established on its banks.
+
+     [Footnote 28: See note, No. III. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Mr. Adams appointed to negotiate with the British cabinet.]
+
+But the cause of most extensive disquiet was the rigorous commercial
+system pursued by Great Britain. While colonists, the Americans had
+carried on a free and gainful trade with the British West Indies.
+Those ports were closed against them as citizens of an independent
+state; and their accustomed intercourse with other parts of the empire
+also was interrupted by the navigation act. To explore new channels
+for the commerce of the nation was, in the actual state of things,
+opposed by obstacles which almost discouraged the attempt. On every
+side they met with rigorous and unlooked for restrictions. Their trade
+with the colonies of other powers, as well as with those of England,
+was prohibited; and in all the ports of Europe they encountered
+regulations which were extremely embarrassing. From the Mediterranean,
+they were excluded by the Barbary powers, whose hostility they had no
+force to subdue, and whose friendship they had no money to purchase.
+Thus, the characteristic enterprise of their merchants, which, in
+better times, has displayed their flag in every ocean, was then in a
+great measure restrained from exerting itself by the scantiness of
+their means. These commercial difficulties suggested the idea of
+compelling Great Britain to relax the rigour of her system, by
+opposing it with regulations equally restrictive; but to render
+success in such a conflict possible, it was necessary that the whole
+power of regulating commerce should reside in a single legislature.
+Few were so sanguine as to hope that thirteen independent governments,
+jealous of each other, could be induced to concur for a length of
+time, in measures capable of producing the desired effect. With many,
+therefore, the desire of counteracting a system which appeared to them
+so injurious, triumphed over their attachment to state sovereignty;
+and the converts to the opinion that congress ought to be empowered to
+regulate trade, were daily multiplied. Meanwhile, the United States
+were unremitting in their endeavours to form commercial treaties in
+Europe. Three commissioners had been appointed for that purpose; and
+at length, as the trade with England was peculiarly important, and the
+growing misunderstandings between the two countries threatened serious
+consequences should their adjustment be much longer delayed, Mr. John
+Adams was appointed minister plenipotentiary to the court of St.
+James. His endeavours to form a commercial treaty were not successful.
+His overtures were declined by the cabinet of London, because the
+government of the United States was unable to secure the observance of
+any general commercial regulations; and it was deemed unwise to enter
+into stipulations which could not be of reciprocal obligation. In
+fact, it is not probable that, had even this difficulty been
+surmounted, Britain could have been induced to grant advantages that
+would have been satisfactory to America. The latter expected great
+relaxations of the navigation act, and a free admission into the
+colonies of the former; and believed its commerce of sufficient
+importance to obtain these objects, if it could be regulated by a
+single legislature. The reflecting part of America did not require
+this additional evidence of the sacrifice which had been made of
+national interest on the altars of state jealousy, to demonstrate the
+defectiveness of the existing system. On the mind of no person had
+this impression been more strongly made, than on that of General
+Washington. His extensive correspondence bears ample testimony to the
+solicitude with which he contemplated the proceedings of the states on
+this interesting subject.
+
+The opinion he sought to inculcate was, that the trade between the
+United States and Great Britain was equally important to each; and
+therefore, that a commercial intercourse between the two nations might
+be established on equal terms, if the political arrangements in
+America would enable its government to guard its interests; but
+without such arrangements, those interests could not be protected, and
+America must appear in a very contemptible point of view to those with
+whom she was endeavouring to form commercial treaties, without
+possessing the means of carrying them into effect:--who "must see and
+feel that the union, or the states individually are sovereign as best
+suits their purposes:--in a word, that we are one nation to day, and
+thirteen to-morrow. Who," he added, "will treat with us on such
+terms?"
+
+About this time, General Washington received a long and affectionate
+letter from the Marquis de Lafayette, who had just returned from a
+tour through the north of Europe. In communicating the occurrences at
+the courts he had visited, and especially at that of Prussia, whose
+aged and distinguished monarch, uniting the acquirements of the
+scholar and the statesman with the most profound skill in the art of
+war, could confer either literary or military fame, he dwelt with
+enthusiasm on the plaudits which were universally bestowed on his
+military patron and paternal friend. "I wish," he added, "the other
+sentiments I have had occasion to discover with respect to America,
+were equally satisfactory with those that are personal to yourself. I
+need not say that the spirit, the firmness, with which the revolution
+was conducted, has excited universal admiration:--That every friend to
+the rights of mankind is an enthusiast for the principles on which
+those constitutions are built:--but I have often had the mortification
+to hear, that the want of powers in congress, of union between the
+states, of energy in their government, would make the confederation
+very insignificant. By their conduct in the revolution," he added,
+"the citizens of America have commanded the respect of the world; but
+it grieves me to think they will in a measure lose it, unless they
+strengthen the confederation, give congress power to regulate their
+trade, pay off their debt, or at least the interest of it, establish a
+well regulated militia, and, in a word, complete all those measures
+which you have recommended to them."
+
+"Unhappily for us," said the general in reply, "though the reports you
+mention are greatly exaggerated, our conduct has laid the foundation
+for them. It is one of the evils of democratic governments, that the
+people, not always seeing, and frequently misled, must often feel
+before they act right. But evils of this nature seldom fail to work
+their own cure. It is to be lamented, nevertheless, that the remedies
+are so slow, and that those who wish to apply them seasonably, are not
+attended to before they suffer in person, in interest, and in
+reputation. I am not without hopes that matters will soon take a
+favourable turn in the federal constitution. The discerning part of
+the community have long since seen the necessity of giving adequate
+powers to congress for national purposes, and those of a different
+description must yield to it ere long."
+
+[Sidenote: Discontents of the Americans against the commercial
+regulations of Britain.]
+
+While the recommendation of the 30th of April, 1784, was before the
+states, many causes contributed to diffuse through the community such
+a general dissatisfaction with the existing state of things, as to
+prepare the way for some essential change in the American system. In
+the course of the long war which had been carried on in the bosom of
+their country, the people of the United States had been greatly
+impoverished. Their property had been seized for the support of both
+armies; and much of their labour had been drawn from agriculture for
+the performance of military service. The naval power of their enemy
+had almost annihilated their commerce; from which resulted the
+two-fold calamity, that imported commodities were enhanced to an
+enormous price, while those for exportation were reduced much below
+their ordinary value. The inevitable consequence was, that those
+consumable articles which habit had rendered necessary, were
+exhausted; and peace found the American people, not only destitute of
+the elegancies, and even of the conveniences of life, but also without
+the means of procuring them, otherwise than by anticipating the
+proceeds of future industry. On opening their ports, an immense
+quantity of foreign merchandise was introduced into the country, and
+they were tempted by the sudden cheapness of imported goods, and by
+their own wants, to purchase beyond their capacities for payment. Into
+this indiscretion, they were in some measure beguiled by their own
+sanguine calculations on the value which a free trade would bestow on
+the produce of their soil, and by a reliance on those evidences of the
+public debt which were in the hands of most of them. So extravagantly
+too did many estimate the temptation which equal liberty and vacant
+lands would hold out to emigrants from the old world, as to entertain
+the opinion that Europe was about to empty itself into America, and
+that the United States would derive from that source such an increase
+of population, as would enhance their lands to a price heretofore not
+even conjectured. Co-operating with the cause last mentioned, was the
+impression which had been made by paper money on public morals, and on
+public opinion. It had not escaped observation that every purchaser on
+credit, however excessive the price might apparently be, had not only
+been relieved by the depreciation, but had derived great gains from
+his contract. Speculating on a similar course of things, many
+individuals had made extensive purchases at high prices; and had thus
+contributed to continue for a time, the deception imposed on
+themselves by those who supposed that the revolution was a talisman,
+whose magic powers were capable of changing the nature of things. The
+delusive hopes created by these visionary calculations were soon
+dissipated, and a great proportion of the inhabitants found themselves
+involved in debts they were unable to discharge. One of the
+consequences resulting from this unprosperous state of things was a
+general discontent with the course of trade. It had commenced with the
+native merchants of the north, who found themselves incapable of
+contending in their own ports with foreigners; and was soon
+communicated to others. The gazettes of Boston contained some very
+animated and angry addresses, which produced resolutions for the
+government of the citizens of that town, applications to their state
+legislature, a petition to congress, and a circular letter to the
+merchants of the several sea-ports throughout the United States. After
+detailing the disadvantages under which the trade and navigation of
+America laboured, and expressing their confidence that the necessary
+powers to the federal government would be soon, if not already,
+delegated, the petition to congress thus concludes: "Impressed with
+these ideas, your petitioners beg leave to request of the very august
+body which they have now the honour to address, that the numerous
+impositions of the British, on the trade and exports of these states,
+may be forthwith contravened by similar expedients on our part: else
+may it please your excellency and honours, the commerce of this
+country, and of consequence its wealth, and perhaps the union itself,
+may become victims to the artifice of a nation whose arms have been in
+vain exerted to accomplish the ruin of America."
+
+The merchants of the city of Philadelphia presented a memorial to the
+legislature of that state, in which, after lamenting it as a
+fundamental defect in the constitution that full and entire power over
+the commerce of the United States had not been originally vested in
+congress, "as no concern common to many could be conducted to a good
+end, but by a unity of councils;" they say, "hence it is that the
+intercourses of the states are liable to be perplexed and injured by
+various and discordant regulations, instead of that harmony of
+measures on which the particular, as well as general interests depend;
+productive of mutual disgusts, and alienation among the several
+members of the empire.
+
+"But the more certain inconveniences foreseen and now experimentally
+felt, flow from the unequal footing this circumstance puts us on with
+other nations, and by which we stand in a very singular and
+disadvantageous situation; for while the whole of our trade is laid
+open to these nations, they are at liberty to limit us to such
+branches of theirs as interest or policy may dictate:--unrestrained by
+any apprehensions, as long as the power remains severally with the
+states, of being met and opposed by any consistent and effectual
+restrictions on our part."
+
+This memorial prayed that the legislature would endeavour to procure
+from congress, a recommendation to the several states, to vest in that
+body the necessary powers over the commerce of the United States.
+
+It was immediately taken into consideration, and resolutions were
+passed conforming to its prayer. Similar applications were made by
+other commercial towns.
+
+From these proceedings, and from the general representations made by
+the American merchants, General Washington had augured the most happy
+effects.
+
+In a letter to the Marquis de Lafayette, he thus expressed his hope of
+the consequences which would attend the efforts then making to enlarge
+the powers of congress. "However unimportant America may be considered
+at present, and however Britain may affect to despise her trade, there
+will assuredly come a day when this country will have some weight in
+the scale of empires."
+
+But a concurrence of the states in granting to the general government
+the beneficial powers in question, was not so near being effected as
+was hoped by its friends. A resolution was moved in congress,
+recommending it to the several states to vest in that body full
+authority to regulate their commerce, both external and internal, and
+to impose such duties as might be necessary for that purpose. This
+power was to be fettered with several extraordinary limitations, which
+might render it more acceptable to the governments who were asked to
+bestow it, among which was a provision that the duties should be
+"collectible under the authority, and accrue to the use of the state
+in which the same should be made payable." Notwithstanding these
+restrictions, marking the keen sighted jealousy with which any
+diminution of state sovereignty was watched, this resolution
+encountered much opposition even in congress.
+
+During these transactions, the public attention was called to another
+subject which served to impress still more powerfully on every
+reflecting mind, the necessity of enlarging the powers of the general
+government, were it only to give efficacy to those which in theory it
+already possessed.
+
+The uneasiness occasioned by the infractions of the treaty of peace on
+the part of Great Britain, has been already noticed. To obtain its
+complete execution, constituted one of the objects for which Mr. Adams
+had been deputed to the court of St. James. A memorial presented by
+that minister in December, 1785, urging the complaints of America, and
+pressing for a full compliance with the treaty, was answered by an
+enumeration of the violations of that compact on the part of the
+United States. The Marquis of Carmarthen acknowledged explicitly the
+obligation created by the seventh article to withdraw the British
+garrisons from every post within the United States; but insisted that
+the obligation created by the fourth article, to remove every lawful
+impediment to the recovery of _bona fide_ debts, was equally clear and
+explicit.
+
+"The engagements entered into by a treaty ought," he said, "to be
+mutual, and equally binding on the respective contracting parties. It
+would, therefore, be the height of folly as well as injustice, to
+suppose one party alone obliged to a strict observance of the public
+faith, while the other might remain free to deviate from its own
+engagements as often as convenience might render such deviation
+necessary, though at the expense of its own credit and importance."
+
+He concluded with the assurance, "that whenever America should
+manifest a real determination to fulfil her part of the treaty, Great
+Britain would not hesitate to prove her sincerity to co-operate in
+whatever points depended upon her, for carrying every article of it
+into real and complete effect."
+
+This letter was accompanied by a statement of the infractions of the
+fourth article.
+
+Copies of both documents were immediately transmitted by Mr. Adams to
+congress, by whom they were referred to Mr. Jay, the secretary for
+foreign affairs. The report of that upright minister did not, by
+contravening facts, affect to exculpate his country. "Some of the
+facts," said he in a letter to General Washington, written after
+permission to communicate the papers had been given, "are inaccurately
+stated and improperly coloured; but it is too true that the treaty has
+been violated. On such occasions, I think it better fairly to confess
+and correct errors, than attempt to deceive ourselves and others, by
+fallacious though plausible palliations and excuses.
+
+"To oppose popular prejudices, to censure the proceedings and expose
+the impropriety of states, is an unpleasant task, but it must be
+done."[29]
+
+     [Footnote 29: The facts relative to this negotiation were
+     stated in the correspondence of General Washington. The
+     statement is supported by the Secret Journals of Congress,
+     vol. 4, p. 329, and those which follow.]
+
+That the United States might with reason be required to fulfil the
+treaty before they could entitle themselves to demand a strict
+performance of it on the part of Great Britain, was a position the
+propriety of which they were prevented from contesting by the
+miserably defective organization of the government. If their treaties
+were obligatory in theory, the inability of congress to enforce their
+execution had been demonstrated in practice. Restrained by this defect
+in the constitution from insisting that the evacuation of the western
+posts should precede the removal of the impediments to the _bona fide_
+execution of the treaty on the part of America, government exerted its
+earnest endeavours to prevail on the several states to repeal all
+existing laws which might be repugnant to that compact. The
+resolutions which were passed on that subject, and the circular
+letters which accompanied them to the several governors, contain
+arguments which ought to have demonstrated to all, the constitutional
+obligation of a treaty negotiated under the authority of congress, and
+the real policy, as well as the moral duty of faithfully executing
+that which had been formed with Great Britain. To the deep
+mortification of those who respected the character of the nation,
+these earnest representations did not produce the effect which was
+expected from them. "It was impolitic and unfortunate, if not unjust
+in these states," said General Washington to a member of congress by
+whom the objectionable conduct of America was first intimated to him,
+"to pass laws which by fair construction might be considered as
+infractions of the treaty of peace. It is good policy at all times to
+place one's adversary in the wrong. Had we observed good faith, and
+the western posts had been withheld from us by Great Britain, we might
+have appealed to God and man for justice."
+
+"What a misfortune it is," said he in reply to the secretary for
+foreign affairs, "that the British should have so well grounded a
+pretext for their palpable infractions, and what a disgraceful part,
+out of the choice of difficulties before us, are we to act!"
+
+[Sidenote: Rise of parties in the United States.]
+
+The discontents arising from the embarrassments in which individuals
+were involved, continued to increase. At length, two great parties
+were formed in every state, which were distinctly marked, and which
+pursued distinct objects, with systematic arrangement.
+
+The one struggled with unabated zeal for the exact observance of
+public and private engagements. By those belonging to it, the faith of
+a nation, or of a private man was deemed a sacred pledge, the
+violation of which was equally forbidden by the principles of moral
+justice, and of sound policy. The distresses of individuals were, they
+thought, to be alleviated only by industry and frugality, not by a
+relaxation of the laws, or by a sacrifice of the rights of others.
+They were consequently the uniform friends of a regular administration
+of justice, and of a vigorous course of taxation which would enable
+the state to comply with its engagements. By a natural association of
+ideas, they were also, with very few exceptions, in favour of
+enlarging the powers of the federal government, and of enabling it to
+protect the dignity and character of the nation abroad, and its
+interests at home.
+
+The other party marked out for themselves a more indulgent course.
+Viewing with extreme tenderness the case of the debtor, their efforts
+were unceasingly directed to his relief. To exact a faithful
+compliance with contracts was, in their opinion, a harsh measure which
+the people would not bear. They were uniformly in favour of relaxing
+the administration of justice, of affording facilities for the payment
+of debts, or of suspending their collection, and of remitting taxes.
+The same course of opinion led them to resist every attempt to
+transfer from their own hands into those of congress, powers, which by
+others were deemed essential to the preservation of the union. In many
+of these states, the party last mentioned, constituted a decided
+majority of the people; and in all of them, it was very powerful. The
+emission of paper money, the delay of legal proceedings, and the
+suspension of the collection of taxes, were the fruits of their rule
+wherever they were completely predominant. Even where they failed to
+carry their measures, their strength was such as to encourage the hope
+of succeeding in a future attempt; and annual elections held forth to
+them the prospect of speedily repairing the loss of a favourite
+question. Throughout the union, the contest between these parties was
+periodically revived; and the public mind was perpetually agitated
+with hopes and fears on subjects which essentially affected the
+fortunes of a considerable proportion of the society.
+
+These contests were the more animated, because, in the state
+governments generally, no principle had been introduced which could
+resist the wild projects of the moment, give the people an opportunity
+to reflect, and allow the good sense of the nation time for exertion.
+This uncertainty with respect to measures of great importance to every
+member of the community, this instability in principles which ought,
+if possible, to be rendered immutable, produced a long train of ills;
+and is seriously believed to have been among the operating causes of
+those pecuniary embarrassments, which, at that time, were so general
+as to influence the legislation of almost every state in the union.
+Its direct consequence was the loss of confidence in the government,
+and in individuals. This, so far as respected the government, was
+peculiarly discernible in the value of state debts.
+
+The war having been conducted by nations in many respects independent
+of each other, the debts contracted in its prosecution were due, in
+part from the United States, and in part from the individual states
+who became immediately responsible to the creditors, retaining their
+claim against the government of the union for any balances which might
+appear to be due on a general settlement of accounts.
+
+That the debt of the United States should have greatly depreciated
+will excite no surprise, when it is recollected that the government of
+the union possessed no funds, and, without the assent of jealous and
+independent sovereigns, could acquire none, to pay the accruing
+interest: but the depreciation of the debt due from those states which
+made an annual and adequate provision for the interest, can be
+ascribed only to a want of confidence in governments which were
+controlled by no fixed principles; and it is therefore not entirely
+unworthy of attention. In many of those states which had repelled
+every attempt to introduce into circulation a depreciated medium of
+commerce, or to defeat the annual provision of funds for the payment
+of the interest, the debt sunk in value to ten, five, and even less
+than four shillings in the pound. However unexceptionable might be the
+conduct of the existing legislature, the hazard from those which were
+to follow was too great to be encountered without an immense premium.
+In private transactions, an astonishing degree of distrust also
+prevailed. The bonds of men whose ability to pay their debts was
+unquestionable, could not be negotiated but at a discount of thirty,
+forty, and fifty _per centum_: real property was scarcely vendible;
+and sales of any article for ready money could be made only at a
+ruinous loss. The prospect of extricating the country from these
+embarrassments was by no means flattering. Whilst every thing else
+fluctuated, some of the causes which produced this calamitous state of
+things were permanent. The hope and fear still remained, that the
+debtor party would obtain the victory at the elections; and instead of
+making the painful effort to obtain relief by industry and economy,
+many rested all their hopes on legislative interference. The mass of
+national labour, and of national wealth, was consequently diminished.
+In every quarter were found those who asserted it to be impossible for
+the people to pay their public or private debts; and in some
+instances, threats were uttered of suspending the administration of
+justice by violence.
+
+By the enlightened friends of republican government, this gloomy state
+of things was viewed with deep chagrin. Many became apprehensive that
+those plans from which so much happiness to the human race had been
+anticipated, would produce only real misery; and would maintain but a
+short and a turbulent existence. Meanwhile, the wise and thinking part
+of the community, who could trace evils to their source, laboured
+unceasingly to inculcate opinions favourable to the incorporation of
+some principles into the political system, which might correct the
+obvious vices, without endangering the free spirit of the existing
+institutions.
+
+While the advocates for union were exerting themselves to impress its
+necessity on the public mind, measures were taken in Virginia, which,
+though originating in different views, terminated in a proposition for
+a general convention to revise the state of the union.
+
+To form a compact relative to the navigation of the rivers Potomac and
+Pocomoke, and of part of the bay of Chesapeake, commissioners were
+appointed by the legislatures of Virginia and Maryland, who assembled
+in Alexandria, in March, 1785. While at Mount Vernon on a visit, they
+agreed to propose to their respective governments, the appointment of
+other commissioners, with power to make conjoint arrangements, to
+which the assent of congress was to be solicited, for maintaining a
+naval force in the Chesapeake; and to establish a tariff of duties on
+imports, to which the laws of both states should conform. When these
+propositions received the assent of the legislature of Virginia, an
+additional resolution was passed, directing that which respected the
+duties on imports to be communicated to all the states in the union,
+who were invited to send deputies to the meeting.
+
+On the 21st of January, 1786, a few days after the passage of these
+resolutions, another was adopted appointing certain commissioners,[30]
+"who were to meet such as might be appointed by the other states in
+the union, at a time and place to be agreed on, to take into
+consideration the trade of the United States; to examine the relative
+situation and trade of the said states; to consider how far a uniform
+system in their commercial relations may be necessary to their common
+interest, and their permanent harmony; and to report to the several
+states such an act relative to this great object, as, when unanimously
+ratified by them, will enable the United States in congress assembled
+effectually to provide for the same."
+
+     [Footnote 30: Edmund Randolph, James Madison, Walter Jones,
+     St. George Tucker, and Meriwether Smith.]
+
+In the circular letter transmitting these resolutions to the
+respective states, Annapolis in Maryland was proposed as the place,
+and the ensuing September as the time of meeting.
+
+Before the arrival of the period at which these commissioners were to
+assemble, the idea was carried by those who saw and deplored the
+complicated calamities which flowed from the intricacy of the general
+government, much further than was avowed by the resolution of
+Virginia. "Although," said one of the most conspicuous patriots[31] of
+the revolution, in a letter to General Washington, dated the 16th of
+March, 1786, "you have wisely retired from public employments, and
+calmly view from the temple of fame, the various exertions of that
+sovereignty and independence which Providence has enabled you to be so
+greatly and gloriously instrumental in securing to your country, yet I
+am persuaded you can not view them with the eye of an unconcerned
+spectator.
+
+     [Footnote 31: Mr. Jay.]
+
+"Experience has pointed out errors in our national government which
+call for correction, and which threaten to blast the fruit we expected
+from our tree of liberty. The convention proposed by Virginia may do
+some good, and would perhaps do more, if it comprehended more objects.
+An opinion begins to prevail that a general convention for revising
+the articles of confederation would be expedient. Whether the people
+are yet ripe for such a measure, or whether the system proposed to be
+attained by it is only to be expected from calamity and commotion, is
+difficult to ascertain.
+
+"I think we are in a delicate situation, and a variety of
+considerations and circumstances give me uneasiness. It is in
+contemplation to take measures for forming a general convention. The
+plan is not matured. If it should be well connected and take effect, I
+am fervent in my wishes that it may comport with the line of life you
+have marked out for yourself, to favour your country with your
+counsels on such an important and _single_ occasion. I suggest this
+merely as a hint for consideration."
+
+In the moment of tranquillity, and of real or imaginary security, the
+mind delights to retrace the intricate path by which this point of
+repose has been attained. The patriots who accomplished that great
+revolution which has given to the American people a national
+government capable of maintaining the union of the states, and of
+preserving republican liberty, must be gratified with the review of
+that arduous and doubtful struggle, which terminated in the triumph of
+human reason, and the establishment of that government. Even to him
+who was not an actor in the busy scene, who enjoys the fruits of the
+labour without participating in the toils or the fears of the patriots
+who have preceded him, the sentiments entertained by the most
+enlightened and virtuous of America at the eventful period between the
+restoration of peace and the adoption of our present free and
+effective constitution, can not be uninteresting.
+
+"Our affairs," said the same gentleman in a letter of the 27th of
+June, "seem to lead to some crisis, some revolution--something that I
+can not foresee or conjecture. I am uneasy and apprehensive, more so
+than during the war. _Then_, we had a fixed object, and though the
+means and time of obtaining it were often problematical, yet I did
+firmly believe that we should ultimately succeed, because I did firmly
+believe that justice was with us. The case is now altered; we are
+going, and doing wrong, and therefore I look forward to evils and
+calamities, but without being able to guess at the instrument, nature,
+or measure of them.
+
+"That we shall again recover, and things again go well, I have no
+doubt. Such a variety of circumstances would not, almost miraculously,
+have combined to liberate and make us a nation, for transient and
+unimportant purposes. I therefore believe we are yet to become a great
+and respectable people--but when or how, only the spirit of prophecy
+can discern.
+
+"There doubtless is much reason to think and to say that we are
+wofully, and, in many instances, wickedly misled. Private rage for
+property suppresses public considerations, and personal rather than
+national interests have become the great objects of attention.
+Representative bodies will ever be faithful copies of their originals,
+and generally exhibit a chequered assemblage of virtue and vice, of
+abilities and weakness. The mass of men are neither wise nor good, and
+the virtue, like the other resources of a country, can only be drawn
+to a point by strong circumstances, ably managed, or strong
+governments, ably administered. New governments have not the aid of
+habit and hereditary respect, and being generally the result of
+preceding tumult and confusion, do not immediately acquire stability
+or strength. Besides, in times of commotion, some men will gain
+confidence and importance who merit neither; and who, like political
+mountebanks, are less solicitous about the health of the credulous
+crowd, than about making the most of their nostrums and prescriptions.
+
+"What I most fear is, that the better kind of people (by which I mean
+the people who are orderly and industrious, who are content with their
+situations, and not uneasy in their circumstances) will be led by the
+insecurity of property, the loss of confidence in their rulers, and
+the want of public faith and rectitude, to consider the charms of
+liberty as imaginary and delusive. A state of uncertainty and
+fluctuation must disgust and alarm such men, and prepare their minds
+for almost any change that may promise them quiet and security."
+
+To this interesting letter, General Washington made the following
+reply: "Your sentiments that our affairs are drawing rapidly to a
+crisis, accord with my own. What the event will be is also beyond the
+reach of my foresight. We have errors to correct; we have probably had
+too good an opinion of human nature in forming our confederation.
+Experience has taught us that men will not adopt and carry into
+execution measures the best calculated for their own good, without the
+intervention of coercive power. I do not conceive we can exist long as
+a nation, without lodging somewhere a power which will pervade the
+whole union in as energetic a manner, as the authority of the state
+governments extends over the several states. To be fearful of
+investing congress, constituted as that body is, with ample
+authorities for national purposes, appears to me the very climax of
+popular absurdity and madness. Could congress exert them for the
+detriment of the people, without injuring themselves in an equal or
+greater proportion? Are not their interests inseparably connected with
+those of their constituents? By the rotation of appointment, must they
+not mingle frequently with the mass of citizens? Is it not rather to
+be apprehended, if they were possessed of the powers before described,
+that the individual members would be induced to use them, on many
+occasions, very timidly and inefficaciously, for fear of losing their
+popularity and future election? We must take human nature as we find
+it: perfection falls not to the share of mortals. Many are of opinion
+that congress have too frequently made use of the suppliant humble
+tone of requisition in applications to the states, when they had a
+right to assert their imperial dignity, and command obedience. Be that
+as it may, requisitions are a perfect nullity, where thirteen
+sovereign, independent, disunited states, are in the habit of
+discussing, and refusing or complying with them at their option.
+Requisitions are actually little better than a jest and a bye-word
+throughout the land. If you tell the legislatures they have violated
+the treaty of peace, and invaded the prerogatives of the confederacy,
+they will laugh in your face. What then is to be done? Things can not
+go on in the same train for ever. It is much to be feared, as you
+observe, that the better kind of people, being disgusted with these
+circumstances, will have their minds prepared for any revolution
+whatever. We are apt to run from one extreme into another. To
+anticipate and prevent disastrous contingencies, would be the part of
+wisdom and patriotism.
+
+"What astonishing changes a few years are capable of producing! I am
+told that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical form of
+government without horror. From thinking, proceeds speaking, thence to
+acting is often but a single step. But how irrevocable and tremendous!
+what a triumph for our enemies to verify their predictions!--what a
+triumph for the advocates of despotism to find that we are incapable
+of governing ourselves, and that systems founded on the basis of equal
+liberty are merely ideal and fallacious! Would to God that wise
+measures may be taken in time to avert the consequences we have but
+too much reason to apprehend.
+
+"Retired as I am from the world, I frankly acknowledge I can not feel
+myself an unconcerned spectator. Yet having happily assisted in
+bringing the ship into port, and having been fairly discharged, it is
+not my business to embark again on a sea of troubles.
+
+"Nor could it be expected that my sentiments and opinions would have
+much weight on the minds of my countrymen.--They have been neglected,
+though given as a last legacy in the most solemn manner.--I had then
+perhaps some claims to public attention.--I consider myself as having
+none at present."
+
+[Sidenote: The convention at Annapolis.]
+
+The convention at Annapolis was attended by commissioners from only
+six states.[32] These, after appointing Mr. Dickinson their chairman,
+proceeded to discuss the objects for which they had convened.
+Perceiving that more ample powers would be required to effect the
+beneficial purposes which they contemplated, and hoping to procure a
+representation from a greater number of states, the convention
+determined to rise without coming to any specific resolutions on the
+particular subject which had been referred to them. Previous to their
+adjournment, however, they agreed on a report to be made to their
+respective states, in which they represented the necessity of
+extending the revision of the federal system to all its defects, and
+recommended that deputies for that purpose be appointed by the several
+legislatures, to meet in convention in the city of Philadelphia, on
+the second day of the ensuing May.
+
+     [Footnote 32: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware,
+     Maryland, and Virginia.]
+
+The reasons for preferring a convention to a discussion of this
+subject in congress were stated to be, "that in the latter body, it
+might be too much interrupted by the ordinary business before them,
+and would, besides, be deprived of the valuable counsels of sundry
+individuals who were disqualified by the constitution or laws of
+particular states, or by peculiar circumstances, from a seat in that
+assembly."
+
+A copy of this report was transmitted to congress in a letter from the
+chairman, stating the inefficacy of the federal government, and the
+necessity of devising such further provisions as would render it
+adequate to the exigencies of the union.
+
+[Sidenote: Virginia appoints deputies to meet those of other states at
+Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the federal system.]
+
+On receiving this report, the legislature of Virginia passed an act
+for the appointment of deputies to meet such as might be appointed by
+other states; to assemble in convention at Philadelphia, at the time,
+and for the purposes, specified in the recommendation from the
+convention which had met at Annapolis.
+
+In communicating this act to General Washington, its principal
+advocate[33] thus intimated the intention of aiding it by the
+influence and character of the chief of the revolution. "It has been
+thought adviseable to give the subject a very solemn dress, and all
+the weight which could be derived from a single state. This idea will
+also be pursued in the selection of characters to represent Virginia
+in the federal convention. You will infer our earnestness on this
+point, from the liberty which will be used of placing your name at the
+head of them. How far this liberty may correspond with the ideas by
+which you ought to be governed, will be best decided where it must
+ultimately be decided. In every event it will assist powerfully in
+marking the zeal of our legislature, and its opinion of the magnitude
+of the occasion."
+
+     [Footnote 33: Mr. Madison.]
+
+"Although," said the general in reply, "I have bid a public adieu to
+the public walks of life, and had resolved never more to tread that
+theatre; yet, if upon an occasion so interesting to the well being of
+the confederacy, it had been the wish of the assembly that I should be
+an associate in the business of revising the federal system, I should
+from a sense of the obligation I am under for repeated proofs of
+confidence in me, more than from any opinion I could entertain of my
+usefulness, have obeyed its call; but it is now out of my power to do
+this with any degree of consistency--the cause I will mention.
+
+"I presume you heard, sir, that I was first appointed, and have since
+been rechosen president of the society of the Cincinnati; and you may
+have understood also, that the triennial general meeting of this body
+is to be held in Philadelphia the first Monday in May next. Some
+particular reasons combining with the peculiar situation of my private
+concerns, the necessity of paying attention to them, a wish for
+retirement and relaxation from public cares, and rheumatic pains which
+I begin to feel very sensibly, induced me, on the 31st ultimo, to
+address a circular letter to each state society, informing them of my
+intention not to be at the next meeting, and of my desire not to be
+rechosen president. The vice-president is also informed of this, that
+the business of the society may not be impeded by my absence. Under
+these circumstances, it will readily be perceived that I could not
+appear at the same time and place on any other occasion, without
+giving offence to a very respectable and deserving part of the
+community--the late officers of the American army."
+
+[Sidenote: Washington chosen one of them.]
+
+Notwithstanding this letter, the name of General Washington was not
+withdrawn, and he was unanimously chosen a member of the convention.
+On receiving private information of this appointment, he addressed a
+second letter to his confidential friend, in which he detailed more at
+large, the motives which induced him to decline a service, the
+importance of which he felt sensibly, and which he would willingly
+have undertaken but for the peculiar circumstances which were stated.
+
+His name, however, was continued in the appointment. The gloomy aspect
+of affairs in the north rendered this the more necessary, and it was
+thus explained by his correspondent. "I have considered well the
+circumstances which it (your letter) confidentially discloses, as well
+as those contained in your preceding favour. The difficulties which
+they oppose to an acceptance of the appointment in which you are
+included, can as little be denied, as they can fail to be regretted.
+But I still am inclined to think, that the posture of our affairs, if
+it should continue, would prevent any criticism on the situation which
+the contemporary meetings would place you in; and wish that at least a
+door could be kept open for your acceptance hereafter, in case the
+gathering clouds should become so dark and menacing as to supersede
+every consideration but that of our national existence or safety. A
+suspense of your ultimate determination would be nowise inconvenient
+in a public view, as the executive are authorized to fill vacancies,
+and can fill them at any time; and in any event, three out of seven
+deputies are authorized to represent the state. How far it may be
+admissible in another view, will depend perhaps in some measure on the
+chance of your finally undertaking the service, but principally on the
+correspondence which is now passing on the subject, between yourself
+and the governor."
+
+The governor of Virginia,[34] who was himself also elected to the
+convention, transmitted to General Washington the act, and the vote of
+the assembly in the following letter. "By the enclosed act you will
+readily discover that the assembly are alarmed at the storms which
+threaten the United States. What our enemies have foretold seems to be
+hastening to its accomplishment, and can not be frustrated but by an
+instantaneous, zealous, and steady union among the friends of the
+federal government. To you I need not press our present dangers. The
+inefficiency of congress you have often felt in your official
+character; the increasing languor of our associated republics you
+hourly see; and a dissolution would be, I know, to you, a source of
+the deepest mortification.
+
+     [Footnote 34: Mr. Randolph.]
+
+"I freely then entreat you to accept the unanimous appointment of the
+general assembly to the convention at Philadelphia. For the gloomy
+prospect still admits one ray of hope, that those who began, carried
+on, and consummated the revolution, can yet rescue America from the
+impending ruin."
+
+"Sensible as I am," said the general in reply, "of the honour
+conferred on me by the general assembly of this commonwealth, in
+appointing me one of the deputies to a convention proposed to be held
+in the city of Philadelphia in May next, for the purpose of revising
+the federal constitution; and desirous as I am on all occasions of
+testifying a ready obedience to the calls of my country--yet, sir,
+there exist at this moment, circumstances which I am persuaded will
+render this fresh instance of confidence incompatible with other
+measures which I had previously adopted, and from which seeing little
+prospect of disengaging myself, it would be disingenuous not to
+express a wish that some other character, on whom greater reliance can
+be had, may be substituted in my place, the probability of my
+non-attendance being too great to continue my appointment.
+
+"As no mind can be more deeply impressed than mine is with the
+critical situation of our affairs, resulting in a great measure from
+the want of efficient powers in the federal head, and due respect to
+its ordinances, so consequently those who do engage in the important
+business of removing these defects, will carry with them every good
+wish of mine, which the best dispositions towards their attainment can
+bestow."
+
+The executive, unwilling to relinquish the advantages which the
+legislature had expected to derive from exhibiting the name of
+Washington at the head of the Virginia delegation, refused to consider
+him as having declined the appointment. That his judgment had not
+completely decided on the course which duty and patriotism required
+him to pursue; that in a crisis on which probably depended the union
+of the states, and the happiness of America, he refused himself
+reluctantly to the anxious wishes of his countrymen; were too apparent
+not to leave a hope that events might yet determine him to yield to
+their desires. He was therefore emphatically requested not to decide
+absolutely, and was informed that as no inconvenience would result
+from not appointing a successor, the option of complying with the
+earnest solicitations of those who considered the effort about to be
+made as the last hope of the union, would, as long as possible, be
+permitted to remain with him. In the mean time, those who persuaded
+themselves that much good might result from the proposed convention,
+continued to urge him with delicacy but with earnestness, not to
+withhold on this great and particular occasion, those inestimable
+services which the confidence so justly reposed by the public in his
+talents and character, enabled him alone to render.
+
+Placed in these circumstances, General Washington weighed deliberately
+in his own mind the arguments for and against accepting the
+appointment which was so seriously pressed upon him. That the proposed
+convention was, in any point of view in which it could be
+contemplated, an object of the first magnitude, appeared to him to be
+undeniable. It was apparent that the actual government could not exist
+much longer without additional means. It was therefore necessary to
+meet the solemn question whether it ought to be supported or
+annihilated. Those who embraced the former part of the alternative
+must consider the convention as the only remaining experiment from
+which the federal government could derive powers sufficiently ample
+for its preservation. Those who embraced the latter, who thought that
+on a full and dispassionate revision of the system, its continuance
+would be adjudged impracticable or unwise, could not hesitate to admit
+that their opinion would derive great additional weight from the
+sanction of so respectable a body as that which was about to assemble:
+and that in such an event, it was greatly desirable, and would afford
+some security against civil discord, to put the public in possession
+of a plan prepared and digested by such high authority. "I must
+candidly confess," he added in a letter to Colonel Humphries, "as we
+could not remain quiet more than three or four years in time of peace,
+under the constitutions of our own choosing, which were believed in
+many states to have been formed with deliberation and wisdom, I see
+little prospect either of our agreeing on any other, or that we should
+remain long satisfied under it, if we could. Yet I would wish any
+thing and every thing essayed to prevent the effusion of blood, and to
+avert the humiliating and contemptible figure we are about to make in
+the annals of mankind!"
+
+Earnestly as General Washington wished success to the experiment about
+to be made, he could not surrender his objections to the step its
+friends urged him to take, without the most serious consideration. In
+addition to that which grew out of his connexion with the Cincinnati,
+and to the reluctance with which he could permit himself to be drawn,
+on any occasion, into a political station, there were others which
+could not be disregarded. A convention, not originating in a
+recommendation of congress, was deemed by many an illegitimate
+meeting; and as the New England states had neglected the invitation to
+appear by their representatives at Annapolis, there was reason to
+apprehend they might be equally inattentive to the request now made
+them to assemble at Philadelphia. To appear in a public character, for
+a purpose not generally deemed of the utmost importance, would not
+only be unpleasant to himself, but might diminish his capacity to be
+useful on occasions which subsequent events might produce. "If," said
+he in a private letter to a military friend, "this second attempt to
+convene the states for the purposes proposed by the report of the
+partial representation at Annapolis in September, should also prove
+abortive, it may be considered as unequivocal evidence that the states
+are not likely to agree on any general measure which is to pervade the
+union, and of course, that there is an end of the federal government.
+The states which make this last dying essay to avoid this misfortune
+would be mortified at the issue, and their deputies would return home
+chagrined at their ill success and disappointment. This would be a
+disagreeable circumstance to any one of them, but more particularly to
+a person in my situation." His letters of consultation therefore, with
+a few confidential friends, also requested information respecting
+those points on which his own judgment might ultimately be formed. He
+was particularly desirous of knowing how the proposition made by
+Virginia was received in the other states, and what measures were
+taken to contravene, or to give it effect. He inquired too with the
+utmost solicitude how the members of the Cincinnati would receive his
+appearance in convention, after declining to be rechosen the president
+of that society.
+
+The enlightened friends of the union and of republican government,
+generally regarded the convention as a measure which afforded the best
+chance for preserving liberty and internal peace. And those whose
+hopes predominated over their fears, were anxious to increase the
+probability of deriving from it every practicable good, by retaining
+on the list of its members, the most conspicuous name of which America
+could boast. But this opinion was not universal. Among those who felt
+the importance of the crisis, and who earnestly wished that a free
+government, competent to the preservation of the union, might be
+established, there were some who despaired of a favourable issue to
+the attempt, and who were therefore anxious to rescue their general
+from the increased mortification which would attend its failure,
+should he be personally engaged in it. They believed that all the
+states would not be represented in the convention. In a letter of the
+20th of January, 1787, Colonel Humphries, who was himself under this
+impression, thus accounts for the omission of the federal men in the
+assembly of Connecticut, to press the appointment of deputies. "The
+reason," he said, "was a conviction that the persons who could be
+elected were some of the best anti-federal men in the state, who
+believed, or acted as if they believed, that the powers of congress
+were already too unlimited, and who would wish, apparently, to see the
+union dissolved. These demagogues," continued the letter, "really
+affect to persuade the people (to use their own phraseology) that they
+are only in danger of having their liberties stolen away by an artful
+designing aristocracy. But should the convention be formed under the
+most favourable auspices, and should the members be unanimous in
+recommending, in the most forcible, the most glowing, and the most
+pathetic terms which language can afford, that it is indispensable to
+the salvation of the country, congress should be clothed with more
+ample powers, the states," he thought, "would not all comply with the
+recommendation. They have a mortal reluctance to divest themselves of
+the smallest attribute of independent separate sovereignties." After
+assigning many reasons against accepting the appointment, this
+gentleman added: "the result of the convention may not perhaps be so
+important as is expected, in which case your character would be
+materially affected. Other people can work up the present scene. I
+know your personal influence and character is justly considered the
+last stake which America has to play. Should you not reserve yourself
+for the united call of a continent entire?
+
+"If you should attend on this convention, and concur in recommending
+measures which should be generally adopted, but opposed in some parts
+of the union, it would doubtless be understood that you had in a
+degree pledged yourself for their execution. This would at once sweep
+you back inevitably into the tide of public affairs."
+
+The same opinion was also intimated by another military friend[35] who
+had always possessed a large portion of the esteem and affection of
+his general. After stating the various and contradictory plans of
+government which were suggested by the schemers of the day, he added:
+"you will see by this sketch, my dear sir, how various are the
+opinions of men, and how difficult it will be to bring them to concur
+in any effective government. I am persuaded, if you were determined to
+attend the convention, and it should be generally known, it would
+induce the eastern states to send delegates to it. I should therefore
+be much obliged for information of your decision on this subject. At
+the same time, the principles of the purest and most respectful
+friendship induce me to say, that however strongly I wish for measures
+which would lead to national happiness and glory, yet I do not wish
+you to be concerned in any political operations, of which there are
+such various opinions. There may indeed arise some solemn occasion, in
+which you may conceive it to be your duty again to exert your utmost
+talents to promote the happiness of your country. But this occasion
+must be of an unequivocal nature, in which the enlightened and
+virtuous citizens should generally concur."
+
+     [Footnote 35: General Knox.]
+
+While the confidential friends of General Washington were thus divided
+on the part which it behoved him to act, there was much reason to fear
+that a full representation of the states would not be obtained. Among
+those who were disinclined to a convention, were persons who were
+actuated by different, and even by opposite motives. There were
+probably some who believed that a higher toned[36] government than was
+compatible with the opinions generally prevailing among the friends of
+order, of real liberty, and of national character, was essential to
+the public safety. They believed that men would be conducted to that
+point only through the road of misery into which their follies would
+lead them, and that "times must be worse before they could be better."
+Many had sketched in their own minds a plan of government strongly
+resembling that which had been actually adopted, but despaired of
+seeing so rational a system accepted, or even recommended; "some
+gentlemen," said the correspondent last mentioned, "are apprehensive
+that a convention of the nature proposed to meet in May next, might
+devise some expedient to brace up the present defective confederation,
+so as just to serve to keep us together, while it would prevent those
+exertions for a national character which are essential to our
+happiness: that in this point of view it might be attended with the
+bad effect of assisting us to creep on in our present miserable
+condition, without a hope of a generous constitution, that should, at
+the same time, shield us from the effects of faction, and of
+despotism."[37] Many discountenanced the convention, because the mode
+of calling it was deemed irregular, and some objected to it, because
+it was not so constituted as to give authority to the plan which
+should be devised. But the great mass of opposition originated in a
+devotion to state sovereignty, and in hostility to any considerable
+augmentation of federal power.
+
+     [Footnote 36: This sentiment was far from being avowed by
+     any correspondent of General Washington, but is stated in
+     the private letters to him, to have been taken up by some.]
+
+     [Footnote 37: In a subsequent part of the same letter, this
+     gentleman draws the outlines of a constitution such as he
+     would wish. It is essentially the same with that which was
+     recommended by the convention.]
+
+The ultimate decision of the states on this interesting proposition
+seems to have been in no inconsiderable degree influenced by the
+commotions which about that time agitated all New England, and
+particularly Massachusetts.
+
+[Sidenote: Insurrection in Massachusetts.]
+
+Those causes of discontent which existed, after the restoration of
+peace, in every part of the union, were particularly operative in New
+England. The great exertions which had been made by those states in
+the course of the war, had accumulated a mass of debt, the taxes for
+the payment of which were the more burdensome, because their fisheries
+had become unproductive. The restlessness produced by the uneasy
+situation of individuals, connected with lax notions concerning public
+and private faith, and erroneous opinions which confound liberty with
+an exemption from legal control, produced a state of things which
+alarmed all reflecting men, and demonstrated to many the indispensable
+necessity of clothing government with powers sufficiently ample for
+the protection of the rights of the peaceable and quiet, from the
+invasions of the licentious and turbulent part of the community.
+
+This disorderly spirit was cherished by unlicensed conventions, which,
+after voting their own constitutionality, and assuming the name of the
+people, arrayed themselves against the legislature, and detailed at
+great length the grievances by which they alleged themselves to be
+oppressed. Its hostility was principally directed against the
+compensation promised to the officers of the army, against taxes, and
+against the administration of justice: and the circulation of a
+depreciated currency was required, as a relief from the pressure of
+public and private burdens which had become, it was alleged, too heavy
+to be borne. Against lawyers and courts, the strongest resentments
+were manifested; and to such a dangerous extent were these
+dispositions indulged, that, in many instances, tumultuous assemblages
+of people arrested the course of law, and restrained the judges from
+proceeding in the execution of their duty. The ordinary recourse to
+the power of the country was found an insufficient protection, and the
+appeals made to reason were attended with no beneficial effect. The
+forbearance of the government was attributed to timidity rather than
+to moderation, and the spirit of insurrection appeared to be organized
+into a regular system for the suppression of courts.
+
+In the bosom of Washington, these tumults excited attention and alarm.
+"For God's sake tell me," said he in a letter to Colonel Humphries,
+"what is the cause of all these commotions? Do they proceed from
+licentiousness, British influence disseminated by the tories, or real
+grievances which admit of redress? if the latter, why was redress
+delayed until the public mind had become so much agitated? if the
+former, why are not the powers of government tried at once? It is as
+well to be without, as not to exercise them. Commotions of this sort,
+like snow-balls, gather strength as they roll, if there is no
+opposition in the way to divide and crumble them."
+
+"As to your question, my dear general," said Colonel Humphries in
+reply, "respecting the cause and origin of these commotions, I hardly
+find myself in condition to give a certain answer. If from all the
+information I have been able to obtain, I might be authorized to
+hazard an opinion, I should attribute them to all the three causes
+which you have suggested. In Massachusetts particularly, I believe
+there are a few real grievances; and also some wicked agents or
+emissaries who have been busy in magnifying the positive evils, and
+fomenting causeless jealousies and disturbances. But it rather appears
+to me, that there is a licentious spirit prevailing among many of the
+people; a levelling principle; a desire of change; and a wish to
+annihilate all debts, public and private." "It is indeed a fact," said
+General Knox, after returning from a visit to the eastern country,
+"that high taxes are the ostensible cause of the commotion, but that
+they are the real cause, is as far remote from truth, as light is from
+darkness. The people who are the insurgents have never paid any, or
+but very little taxes. But they see the weakness of government. They
+feel at once their own poverty compared with the opulent, and their
+own force; and they are determined to make use of the latter, in order
+to remedy the former. Their creed is, that the property of the United
+States has been protected from confiscation by the joint exertions of
+all, and therefore ought to be common to all. And he that attempts
+opposition to this creed is an enemy to equity and justice, and ought
+to be swept from the face of the earth."
+
+The force of this party throughout New England was computed by General
+Knox at twelve or fifteen thousand men. "They were chiefly," he said,
+"of the young and active part of the community, who were more easily
+collected than kept together. Desperate and unprincipled, they would
+probably commit overt acts of treason which would compel them, for
+their own safety, to embody and submit to discipline. Thus would there
+be a formidable rebellion against reason, the principle of all
+government, and the very name of liberty. This dreadful situation," he
+added, "has alarmed every man of principle and property in New
+England. They start as from a dream, and ask--what has been the cause
+of our delusion? What is to afford us security against the violence of
+lawless men? Our government must be braced, changed, or altered, to
+secure our lives and our property. We imagined that the mildness of
+the government, and the virtue of the people were so correspondent,
+that we were not as other nations, requiring brutal force to support
+the laws. But we find that we are men, actual men, possessing all the
+turbulent passions belonging to that animal; and that we must have a
+government proper and adequate for him. Men of reflection and
+principle are determined to endeavour to establish a government which
+shall have the power to protect them in their lawful pursuits, and
+which will be efficient in cases of internal commotions, or foreign
+invasions. They mean that liberty shall be the basis, a liberty
+resulting from the equal and firm administration of the laws."
+
+Deeply affected by these commotions, General Washington continued his
+anxious inquiries respecting the course they threatened to take. "I
+feel, my dear General Knox," said he, in answer to the letter from
+which the foregoing extracts are taken, "infinitely more than I can
+express to you, for the disorders which have arisen in these states.
+Good God! who besides a tory could have foreseen, or a Briton have
+predicted them? I do assure you that even at this moment, when I
+reflect upon the present aspect of our affairs, it seems to me like
+the visions of a dream. My mind can scarcely realize it as a thing in
+actual existence:--so strange, so wonderful does it appear to me. In
+this, as in most other matters, we are too slow. When this spirit
+first dawned, it might probably have been easily checked; but it is
+scarcely within the reach of human ken, at this moment, to say when,
+where, or how it will terminate. There are combustibles in every
+state, to which a spark might set fire.
+
+"In bewailing, which I have often done with the keenest sorrow, the
+death of our much lamented friend General Greene,[38] I have
+accompanied my regrets of late with a query, whether he would not have
+preferred such an exit to the scenes which it is more than probable,
+many of his compatriots may live to bemoan."
+
+     [Footnote 38: This valuable officer died in Georgia in the
+     year 1786.]
+
+Ostensibly, on account of the danger which threatened the frontiers,
+but, really, with a view to the situation of Massachusetts, congress
+had agreed to augment the military establishment to a legionary corps
+of two thousand and forty men, and had detached the secretary of war,
+General Knox, to that state, with directions to concert measures with
+its government for the safety of the arsenal at Springfield. So
+inauspicious was the aspect of affairs, as to inspire serious fears
+that the torch of civil discord, about to be lighted up in
+Massachusetts, would communicate its flame to all New England, and
+perhaps to the union. Colonel Lee, a member of congress, drew the
+following picture of the condition of the eastern country at that
+time. "General Knox has just returned, and his report, grounded on his
+own knowledge, is replete with melancholy information. A majority of
+the people of Massachusetts are in opposition to the government. Some
+of the leaders avow the subversion of it to be their object, together
+with the abolition of debts, the division of property, and a reunion
+with Great Britain. In all the eastern states, same temper prevails
+more or less, and will certainly break forth whenever the opportune
+moment may arrive. The malcontents are in close connexion with
+Vermont, and that district, it is believed, is in negotiation with the
+government of Canada. In one word, my dear general, we are all in dire
+apprehension that a beginning of anarchy with all its calamities is
+made, and we have no means to stop the dreadful work. Knowing your
+unbounded influence, and believing that your appearance among the
+seditious might bring them back to peace and reconciliation,
+individuals suggest the propriety of an invitation to you from
+congress to pay us a visit. This is only a surmise, and I take the
+liberty to mention it to you, that, should the conjuncture of affairs
+induce congress to make this request, you may have some previous time
+for reflection on it."
+
+"The picture which you have exhibited," replied the general, "and the
+accounts which are published of the commotions and temper of numerous
+bodies in the eastern country, present a state of things equally to be
+lamented and deprecated. They exhibit a melancholy verification of
+what our transatlantic foes have predicted; and of another thing
+perhaps which is still more to be regretted, and is yet more
+unaccountable--that mankind when left to themselves are unfit for
+their own government. I am mortified beyond expression when I view the
+clouds which have spread over the brightest morn that ever dawned upon
+any country. In a word, I am lost in amazement when I behold what
+intrigue, the interested views of desperate characters, ignorance and
+jealousy of the minor part, are capable of effecting as a scourge on
+the major part of our fellow citizens of the union; for it is hardly
+to be supposed that the great body of the people, though they will not
+act, can be so short sighted or enveloped in darkness, as not to see
+rays of a distant sun through all this mist of intoxication and folly.
+
+"You talk, my good sir, of employing influence to appease the present
+tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be
+found; nor if attainable, that it would be a proper remedy for these
+disorders. _Influence_ is not _government_. Let us have a
+_government_, by which our lives, liberties, and properties will be
+secured; or let us know the worst at once. Under these impressions, my
+humble opinion is, that there is a call for decision. Know precisely
+what the insurgents aim at. If they have _real_ grievances, redress
+them if possible; or acknowledge the justice of them, and your
+inability to do it in the present moment. If they have not, employ the
+force of the government against them at once. If this is inadequate,
+_all_ will be convinced that the superstructure is bad, or wants
+support. To be more exposed in the eyes of the world, and more
+contemptible than we already are, is hardly possible. To delay one or
+the other of these expedients, is to exasperate on the one hand, or to
+give confidence on the other, and will add to their numbers; for like
+snow-balls, such bodies increase by every movement, unless there is
+something in the way to obstruct and crumble them before their weight
+is too great and irresistible.
+
+"These are my sentiments. Precedents are dangerous things. Let the
+reins of government then be braced, and held with a steady hand; and
+every violation of the constitution be reprehended. If defective, let
+it be amended, but not suffered to be trampled upon while it has an
+existence."
+
+In a letter written about the same period, Colonel Humphries, after
+stating his apprehensions that the insurgents would seize the
+continental magazine at Springfield, proceeded to add: "a general
+failure to comply with the requisitions of congress for money, seems
+to prognosticate that we are rapidly advancing to a crisis. The wheels
+of the great political machine can scarcely continue to move much
+longer, under their present embarrassment. Congress, I am told, are
+seriously alarmed, and hardly know which way to turn, or what to
+expect. Indeed, my dear general, nothing but a good Providence can
+extricate us from our present difficulties, and prevent some terrible
+conclusion.
+
+"In case of civil discord I have already told you it was seriously my
+opinion that you could not remain neuter; and that you would be
+obliged in self defence, to take part on one side or the other, or
+withdraw from the continent. Your friends are of the same opinion; and
+I believe you are convinced that it is impossible to have more
+disinterested or zealous friends, than those who have been about your
+person."
+
+"It is," said the general in reply, "with the deepest and most
+heartfelt concern, I perceive by some late paragraphs extracted from
+the Boston papers, that the insurgents of Massachusetts, far from
+being satisfied with the redress offered by their general court, are
+still acting in open violation of law and government, and have obliged
+the chief magistrate, in a decided tone, to call upon the militia of
+the state to support the constitution. What, gracious God, is man!
+that there should be such inconsistency and perfidiousness in his
+conduct. It is but the other day that we were shedding our blood to
+obtain the constitutions under which we now live--constitutions of our
+own choice and making--and now, we are unsheathing the sword to
+overturn them. The thing is so unaccountable, that I hardly know how
+to realize it; or to persuade myself that I am not under the illusion
+of a dream.
+
+"My mind, previous to the receipt of your letter of the first ultimo,
+had often been agitated by a thought similar to the one you expressed
+respecting an old friend of yours: but heaven forbid that a crisis
+should come when he shall be driven to the necessity of making a
+choice of either of the alternatives there mentioned."
+
+Finding that the lenient measures which had been taken by the
+legislature to reclaim the insurgents, only enlarged their demands;
+and that they were proceeding systematically to organize a military
+force for the subversion of the constitution; Governor Bowdoin
+determined, with the advice of council, on a vigorous exertion of all
+the powers he possessed, for the protection and defence of the
+commonwealth. Upwards of four thousand militia were ordered into
+service, and were placed under the command of the veteran General
+Lincoln. "His military reputation," says Mr. Minot, "and mildness of
+temper, rendered him doubly capacitated for so delicate and important
+a trust." But the public treasury did not afford the means of keeping
+this force in the field a single week; and, the legislature not being
+in session, the government was incapable of putting the troops in
+motion. This difficulty was removed by individual patriotism. From the
+commencement of the commotions, the citizens of Boston had manifested,
+unequivocally, their fidelity to the constitution. On this occasion, a
+number of gentlemen, preceded by the governor, subscribed, in a few
+hours, a sufficient sum to carry on the proposed expedition.
+
+In the depth of winter, the troops from the eastern part of the state
+assembled near Boston, and marched towards the scene of action. Those
+from the western counties met in arms under General Shepard, and took
+possession of the arsenal at Springfield. Before the arrival of
+Lincoln, a party of the insurgents attempted to dislodge Shepard, but
+were repulsed with some loss. Not being pursued by that officer, who
+could not venture to weaken his post by detachments, they continued
+embodied, but did not venture again to undertake offensive operations.
+
+Urging his march with the utmost celerity, Lincoln soon came up; and,
+pressing the insurgent army, endeavoured, by a succession of rapid
+movements, in which the ardour of his troops triumphed over the
+severity of the season, to disperse, or to bring it to action. Their
+generals retreated from post to post with a rapidity which for some
+time eluded his designs; and, rejecting every proposition to lay down
+their arms, used all their address to produce a suspension of
+hostilities until an accommodation might be negotiated with the
+legislature. "Applications were also made," says General Lincoln, "by
+committees and select men of the several towns in the counties of
+Worcester and Hampshire, praying that the effusion of blood might be
+avoided, while the real design of these applications was supposed to
+be, to stay our operations until a new court should be elected. They
+had no doubt, if they could keep up their influence until another
+choice of the legislature and of the executive, that matters might be
+moulded in general court to their wishes. To avoid this, was the duty
+of government." In answer to these applications, Lincoln exhorted
+those towns who sincerely wished to put an end to the rebellion
+without the effusion of blood, "to recall their men now in arms, and
+to aid in apprehending all abettors of those who should persist in
+their treason, and all who should yield them any comfort or supplies."
+
+The army of government continued to brave the rigours of the climate,
+and to press the insurgents without intermission. At length, with the
+loss of a few killed, and several prisoners, the rebels were
+dispersed, their leaders driven out of the state, and this formidable
+and wicked rebellion was quelled.
+
+The same love of country which had supported the officers and soldiers
+of the late army through a perilous war, still glowed in their bosoms;
+and the patriot veterans of the revolution, uninfected by the wide
+spreading contagion of the times, arranged themselves almost
+universally under the banners of the constitution and of the laws.
+This circumstance lessened the prejudices which had been excited
+against them as creditors of the public, and diminished the odium
+which, in the eastern states, especially, had been directed against
+the order of the Cincinnati. But the most important effect of this
+unprovoked rebellion was, a deep conviction of the necessity of
+enlarging the powers of the general government; and the consequent
+direction of the public mind towards the convention which was to
+assemble at Philadelphia.
+
+In producing this effect, a resolution of congress had also
+considerable influence. New York had given her final _veto_ to the
+impost system, and in doing so, had virtually decreed the dissolution
+of the existing government. The confederation was apparently expiring
+from mere debility. The last hope of its friends having been
+destroyed, the vital necessity of some measure which might prevent the
+separation of the integral parts of which the American empire was
+composed, became apparent even to those who had been unwilling to
+perceive it; and congress was restrained from giving its sanction to
+the proposed convention, only by an apprehension that their taking an
+interest in the measure would impede rather than promote it. From this
+embarrassment, the members of that body were relieved by the
+legislature of New York. A vote of that state, which passed in the
+senate by a majority of only one voice, instructed its delegation to
+move in congress, a resolution, recommending to the several states, to
+appoint deputies to meet in convention, for the purpose of revising
+and proposing amendments to the federal constitution. On the 21st of
+February, 1787, the day succeeding the instructions given by New York,
+the subject, which had been for some time under consideration, was
+finally acted upon: and it was declared, "in the opinion of congress,
+to be expedient that, on the second Monday in May next, a convention
+of delegates, who shall have been appointed by the several states, be
+held at Philadelphia, for the sole and express purpose of revising the
+articles of confederation, and reporting to congress and the several
+legislatures, such alterations and provisions therein, as shall, when
+agreed to in congress, and confirmed by the states, render the federal
+constitution adequate to the exigencies of government, and the
+preservation of the union."
+
+This recommendation removed all objections to the regularity of the
+convention; and co-operated with the impressions made by the
+licentious and turbulent spirit which had lately endangered the peace
+and liberty of New England, to incline those states to favour the
+measure. By giving the proposed meeting a constitutional sanction, and
+by postponing it to a day subsequent to that on which the Cincinnati
+were to assemble, it also removed one impediment, and diminished
+another, to the attendance of General Washington as a member. He
+persuaded himself that by repairing to Philadelphia previous to the
+second Monday in May, in order to attend the general meeting of the
+Cincinnati, he should efface any impressions unfavourable to the
+attachment he felt to his military friends, which might otherwise be
+excited in their bosoms by his appearing in a public character, after
+declining the presidency of their society. The increasing probability
+that the convention would be attended by a full representation of the
+states, and would propose a scheme of government which, if accepted,
+might conduce to the public happiness, and would not be unworthy of
+his character, had also its influence on his mind. An opinion too
+began to prevail, that the government must be invigorated by agreement
+or by force, and that a part of the opposition to the convention
+originated in a desire to establish a system of greater energy than
+could spring from consent. The idea that his refusing his aid in the
+present crisis might be attributed to a dereliction of republican
+principles, furnished additional motives for yielding to the wishes of
+his fellow citizens. On the 28th of March, he addressed a letter to
+the governor of Virginia, in which, after stating the reasons which
+had induced him to decline attending the convention, the influence of
+which he still felt, he added--"However, as my friends, with a degree
+of solicitude which is unusual, seem to wish for my attendance on this
+occasion, I have come to a resolution to go if my health will permit,
+provided from the lapse of time between your excellency's letter and
+this reply, the executive may not (the reverse of which would be
+highly pleasing to me) have turned their thoughts to some other
+character."
+
+After communicating this determination to the executive of Virginia,
+he received a letter from the secretary of war, one of the small
+number of his friends who had endeavoured to dissuade him from the
+resolution he had ultimately taken, in which that officer avowed an
+entire change of opinion on this subject. "It is," said he, "the
+general wish that you should attend. It is conceived to be highly
+important to the success of the propositions which may be made by the
+convention.
+
+"The mass of the people feel the inconvenience of the present
+government, and ardently wish for such alterations as would remedy
+them. These must be effected by reason and by agreement, or by force.
+The convention appears to be the only mean by which to effect them
+peaceably. If it should not be attended by a proper weight of wisdom
+and character to carry into execution its propositions, we are to look
+to events, and to force, for a remedy. Were you not then to attend the
+convention, slander and malice might suggest that force would be the
+most agreeable mode of reform to you. When civil commotion rages, no
+purity of character, no services, however exalted, can afford a secure
+shield from the shafts of calumny.
+
+"On the other hand, the unbounded confidence the people have in your
+tried patriotism and wisdom, would exceedingly facilitate the adoption
+of any important alterations that might be proposed by a convention of
+which you were a member; and (as I before hinted) the president."
+
+[Sidenote: Convention at Philadelphia.]
+
+At the time and place appointed, the representatives of twelve states
+convened. In Rhode Island alone a spirit sufficiently hostile to every
+species of reform was found, to prevent the election of deputies on an
+occasion so generally deemed momentous. Having unanimously chosen
+General Washington for their president, the convention proceeded, with
+closed doors, to discuss the interesting and extensive subject
+submitted to their consideration.
+
+On the great principles which should constitute the basis of their
+system, not much contrariety of opinion is understood to have
+prevailed. But on the various and intricate modifications of those
+principles, an equal degree of harmony was not to be expected. More
+than once, there was reason to fear that the rich harvest of national
+felicity, which had been anticipated from the ample stock of worth
+collected in convention, would all be blasted by the rising of that
+body without effecting the object for which it was formed. At length
+the high importance attached to union triumphed over local interests;
+and, on the 17th of September, that constitution which has been alike
+the theme of panegyric and invective, was presented to the American
+public.
+
+The instrument with its accompanying resolutions was by the unanimous
+order of the convention, transmitted to congress in a letter
+subscribed by the president, in which it was said to be, "the result
+of a spirit of amity, and of that mutual deference and concession,
+which the peculiarity of their political situation rendered
+indispensable.
+
+[Sidenote: A form of government for the United States is submitted to
+the respective states, which is ratified by eleven of them.]
+
+"That it will meet the full and entire approbation of every state,"
+continued the letter, "is not, perhaps, to be expected; but each will
+doubtless consider, that had her interests been alone consulted, the
+consequences might have been particularly disagreeable or injurious to
+others. That it is liable to as few exceptions as could reasonably
+have been expected, we hope and believe; that it may promote the
+lasting welfare of that country so dear to us all, and secure her
+freedom and happiness, is our most ardent wish."
+
+Congress resolved unanimously, that the report with the letter
+accompanying it be transmitted to the several legislatures, in order
+to be submitted to a convention of delegates chosen in each state by
+the people thereof.
+
+Neither the intrinsic merits of the constitution nor the imposing
+weight of character by which it was supported, gave assurance to its
+friends that it would be ultimately adopted. A comparison of the views
+and interests by which a powerful party was actuated, with particular
+provisions in the constitution which were especially designed to
+counteract those views and interests, prepared them to expect a mass
+of zealous and active opposition, against which the powers of reason
+would be in vain directed, because the real motives in which it
+originated would not be avowed. There were also many individuals,
+possessing great influence and respectable talents, who, from
+judgment, or from particular causes, seemed desirous of retaining the
+sovereignty of the states unimpaired, and of reducing the union to an
+alliance between independent nations. To these descriptions of
+persons, joined by those who supposed that an opposition of interests
+existed between different parts of the continent, was added a numerous
+class of honest men, many of whom possessed no inconsiderable share of
+intelligence, who could identify themselves perfectly with the state
+government, but who considered the government of the United States as
+in some respects foreign. The representation of their particular state
+not composing a majority of the national legislature, they could not
+consider that body as safely representing the people, and were
+disposed to measure out power to it with the same sparing hand with
+which they would confer it on persons not chosen by themselves, not
+accountable to them for its exercise, nor having any common interest
+with them. That power might be abused, was, to persons of this
+opinion, a conclusive argument against its being bestowed; and they
+seemed firmly persuaded that the cradle of the constitution would be
+the grave of republican liberty. The friends and the enemies of that
+instrument were stimulated to exertion by motives equally powerful;
+and, during the interval between its publication and adoption, every
+faculty of the mind was strained to secure its reception or rejection.
+The press teemed with the productions of temperate reason, of genius,
+and of passion; and it was apparent that each party believed power,
+sovereignty, liberty, peace, and security;--things most dear to the
+human heart;--to be staked on the question depending before the
+public. From that oblivion which is the common destiny of fugitive
+pieces, treating on subjects which agitate only for the moment, was
+rescued, by its peculiar merit, a series of essays which first
+appeared in the papers of New York. To expose the real circumstances
+of America, and the dangers which hung over the republic; to detect
+the numerous misrepresentations of the constitution; to refute the
+arguments of its opponents; and to confirm, and increase, its friends,
+by a full and able development of its principles; three gentlemen,[39]
+distinguished for their political experience, their talents, and their
+love of union, gave to the public a series of numbers which, collected
+in two volumes under the title of the FEDERALIST, will be read and
+admired when the controversy in which that valuable treatise on
+government originated, shall be no longer remembered.
+
+     [Footnote 39: Colonel Hamilton, Mr. Madison, and Mr. Jay.]
+
+To decide the interesting question which agitated a continent, the
+best talents of the several states were assembled in their respective
+conventions. So balanced were parties in some of them, that, even
+after the subject had been discussed for a considerable time, the fate
+of the constitution could scarcely be conjectured; and so small, in
+many instances, was the majority in its favour, as to afford strong
+ground for the opinion that, had the influence of character been
+removed, the intrinsic merits of the instrument would not have secured
+its adoption. Indeed, it is scarcely to be doubted that, in some of
+the adopting states, a majority of the people were in the opposition.
+In all of them, the numerous amendments which were proposed,
+demonstrate the reluctance with which the new government was accepted;
+and that a dread of dismemberment, not an approbation of the
+particular system under consideration, had induced an acquiescence in
+it. The interesting nature of the question, the equality of the
+parties, the animation produced inevitably by ardent debate, had a
+necessary tendency to embitter the dispositions of the vanquished, and
+to fix more deeply, in many bosoms, their prejudices against a plan of
+government, in opposition to which all their passions were enlisted.
+
+{1788}
+
+At length, the conventions of eleven states[40] assented to and
+ratified the constitution; and the preparatory measures were taken for
+bringing it into operation.
+
+     [Footnote 40: North Carolina and Rhode Island did not at
+     first accept the constitution, and New York was apparently
+     dragged into it by a repugnance to being excluded from the
+     confederacy. By the convention of that state a circular
+     letter was addressed to the several states in the union
+     inviting them to unite in calling a general convention to
+     revise the constitution. Its friends seem to have been
+     persuaded that this measure, if successful, would
+     effectually destroy the edifice they had erected with so
+     much labour, before an experience of its advantages could
+     dissipate the prejudices which had been excited against it.
+     "You will have seen," said one of its most effective
+     advocates, "the circular letter from the convention of this
+     state. It has a most pernicious tendency. If an early
+     general convention can not be parried, it is seriously to be
+     feared that the system which has resisted so many direct
+     attacks, may be at length successfully undermined by its
+     enemies. It is now perhaps to be wished that Rhode Island
+     may not accede until this new crisis of danger be over; some
+     think it would be better if even New York had held out until
+     the operation of the government could have dissipated the
+     fears which artifice had created, and the attempts resulting
+     from those fears and artifices."]
+
+From the moment the public was possessed of this new arrangement of
+their political system, the attention of all was directed to General
+Washington as the first President of the United States. He alone was
+believed to fill so pre-eminent a station in the public opinion, that
+he might be placed at the head of the nation without exciting envy;
+and he alone possessed the confidence of the people in so unlimited a
+degree that under his auspices, the friends of the government might
+hope to see it introduced with a degree of firmness which would enable
+it to resist the open assaults, and secret plots of its numerous
+adversaries. By all who knew him, fears were entertained that his
+preference for private life would prevail over the wishes of the
+public; and, soon after the adoption of the constitution was
+ascertained, his correspondents began to press him on a point which
+was believed essential to the completion of the great work on which
+the grandeur and happiness of America was supposed to depend. "We can
+not," said Mr. Johnson, a gentleman of great political eminence in
+Maryland, "do without you, and I, and thousands more can explain to
+any body but yourself, why we can not do without you." "I have ever
+thought," said Mr. Gouverneur Morris, a gentleman who had been among
+the most valuable members of congress through great part of the war,
+and who had performed a most splendid part in the general convention,
+"and have ever said that you must be president; no other man can fill
+that office. No other man can draw forth the abilities of our country
+into the various departments of civil life. You alone can awe the
+insolence of opposing factions, and the greater insolence of assuming
+adherents. I say nothing of foreign powers, nor of their ministers.
+With these last you will have some plague. As to your feelings on this
+occasion, they are, I know, both deep and affecting; you embark
+property most precious on a most tempestuous ocean: for, as you
+possess the highest reputation, so you expose it to the perilous
+chance of popular opinion. On the other hand, you will, I firmly
+expect, enjoy the inexpressible felicity of contributing to the
+happiness of all your countrymen. You will become the father of more
+than three millions of children; and while your bosom glows with
+parental tenderness, in theirs, or at least in a majority of them, you
+will excite the duteous sentiments of filial affection. This, I repeat
+it, is what I firmly expect; and my views are not directed by that
+enthusiasm which your public character has impressed on the public
+mind. Enthusiasm is generally short sighted and too often blind. I
+form my conclusions from those talents and virtues which the world
+_believes_, and which your friends _know_ you possess."
+
+To those who attribute human action in every case to the motives which
+most usually guide the human mind, it will appear scarcely possible
+that the supreme magistracy could possess no charms for a man long
+accustomed to command others; and that ambition had no share in
+tempting the hero of the American revolution to tread once more the
+paths of public life. Yet, if his communications to friends to whom he
+unbosomed the inmost sentiments of his soul be inspected, it will be
+difficult to resist the conviction that the struggle produced by the
+occasion was unaffected, and that, in accepting the presidency of the
+United States, no private passion was gratified; but a decided
+preference for private life yielded to a sense of duty, and a deep
+conviction of his obligations to his country.
+
+As this is an important aera in the life of Washington, and the motives
+by which he was actuated will assist in developing his real character,
+the American reader, at least, will be gratified at seeing copious
+extracts from his correspondence on this interesting occasion.
+
+In a letter detailing those arrangements which were making for the
+introduction of the new government, Colonel Lee proceeded thus to
+speak of the presidency of the United States. "The solemnity of the
+moment, and its application to yourself, have fixed my mind in
+contemplations of a public and a personal nature, and I feel an
+involuntary impulse which I can not resist, to communicate without
+reserve to you some of the reflections which the hour has produced.
+Solicitous for our common happiness as a people, and convinced as I
+continue to be that our peace and prosperity depend on the proper
+improvement of the present period, my anxiety is extreme that the new
+government may have an auspicious beginning. To effect this, and to
+perpetuate a nation formed under your auspices, it is certain that
+again you will be called forth.
+
+"The same principles of devotion to the good of mankind, which have
+invariably governed your conduct, will no doubt continue to rule your
+mind, however opposite their consequences may be to your repose and
+happiness. It may be wrong, but I can not suppress, in my wishes for
+national felicity, a due regard for your personal fame and content.
+
+"If the same success should attend your efforts on this important
+occasion which has distinguished you hitherto, then, to be sure, you
+will have spent a life which Providence rarely if ever before gave to
+the lot of one man. It is my anxious hope, it is my belief, that this
+will be the case; but all things are uncertain, and perhaps nothing
+more so than political events." He then proceeded to state his
+apprehensions, that the government might sink under the active
+hostility of its foes, and in particular, the fears which he
+entertained from the circular letter of New York, around which the
+minorities in the several states might be expected to rally.
+
+To counteract its baneful influence with the legislature of Virginia,
+he expressed his earnest wish, that Mr. Madison might be prevailed on
+to take a seat in that assembly, and then added,
+
+"It would certainly be unpleasant to you, and obnoxious to all who
+feel for your just fame, to see you at the head of a trembling system.
+It is a sacrifice on your part unjustifiable in any point of view. But
+on the other hand no alternative seems to be presented.
+
+"Without you, the government can have but little chance of success;
+and the people, of that happiness which its prosperity must yield."
+
+{1789}
+
+[Sidenote: Letters from Gen. Washington respecting the chief
+magistracy of the new government.]
+
+In reply to this letter General Washington said, "Your observations on
+the solemnity of the crisis, and its application to myself, bring
+before me subjects of the most momentous and interesting nature. In
+our endeavours to establish a new general government, the contest,
+nationally considered, seems not to have been so much for glory, as
+existence. It was for a long time doubtful whether we were to survive
+as an independent republic, or decline from our federal dignity into
+insignificant and wretched fragments of empire. The adoption of the
+constitution so extensively, and with so liberal an acquiescence on
+the part of the minorities in general, promised the former; but
+lately, the circular letter of New York has manifested, in my
+apprehension, an unfavourable, if not an insidious tendency to a
+contrary policy. I still hope for the best; but before you mentioned
+it, I could not help fearing it would serve as a standard to which the
+disaffected might resort. It is now evidently the part of all honest
+men, who are friends to the new constitution, to endeavour to give it
+a chance to disclose its merits and defects, by carrying it fairly
+into effect, in the first instance.
+
+"The principal topic of your letter, is to me a point of great
+delicacy indeed;--insomuch that I can scarcely, without some
+impropriety, touch upon it. In the first place, the event to which you
+allude may never happen, among other reasons, because, if the
+partiality of my fellow citizens conceive it to be a mean by which the
+sinews of the new government would be strengthened, it will of
+consequence be obnoxious to those who are in opposition to it, many of
+whom, unquestionably, will be placed among the electors.
+
+"This consideration alone would supersede the expediency of announcing
+any definitive and irrevocable resolution. You are among the small
+number of those who know my invincible attachment to domestic life,
+and that my sincerest wish is to continue in the enjoyment of it
+solely, until my final hour. But the world would be neither so well
+instructed, nor so candidly disposed, as to believe me to be
+uninfluenced by sinister motives, in case any circumstance should
+render a deviation from the line of conduct I had prescribed for
+myself indispensable. Should the contingency you suggest take place,
+and (for argument sake alone, let me say) should my unfeigned
+reluctance to accept the office be overcome by a deference for the
+reasons and opinions of my friends; might I not, after the
+declarations I have made, (and heaven knows they were made in the
+sincerity of my heart,) in the judgment of the impartial world, and of
+posterity, be chargeable with levity and inconsistency, if not with
+rashness and ambition? Nay, farther, would there not even be some
+apparent foundation for the two former charges? Now, justice to
+myself, and tranquillity of conscience require that I should act a
+part, if not above imputation, at least capable of vindication. Nor
+will you conceive me to be too solicitous for reputation. Though I
+prize as I ought the good opinion of my fellow citizens, yet, if I
+know myself, I would not seek or retain popularity at the expense of
+one social duty, or moral virtue. While doing what my conscience
+informed me was right, as it respected my God, my country, and myself,
+I could despise all the party clamour and unjust censure which must be
+expected from some, whose personal enmity might be occasioned by their
+hostility to the government. I am conscious, that I fear alone to give
+any real occasion for obloquy, and that I do not dread to meet with
+unmerited reproach. And certain I am, whensoever I shall be convinced
+the good of my country requires my reputation to be put in risque,
+regard for my own fame will not come in competition with an object of
+so much magnitude.
+
+"If I declined the task, it would be upon quite another principle.
+Notwithstanding my advanced season of life, my increasing fondness for
+agricultural amusements, and my growing love of retirement, augment
+and confirm my decided predilection for the character of a private
+citizen, yet it will be no one of these motives, nor the hazard to
+which my former reputation might be exposed, or the terror of
+encountering new fatigues and troubles, that would deter me from an
+acceptance;--but a belief that some other person, who had less
+pretence and less inclination to be excused, could execute all the
+duties full as satisfactorily as myself. To say more would be
+indiscreet; as a disclosure of a refusal before hand might incur the
+application of the fable, in which the fox is represented as
+undervaluing the grapes he could not reach. You will perceive, my dear
+sir, by what is here observed (and which you will be pleased to
+consider in the light of a confidential communication), that my
+inclinations will dispose and decide me to remain as I am, unless a
+clear and insurmountable conviction should be impressed on my mind,
+that some very disagreeable consequences must in all human probability
+result from the indulgence of my wishes."
+
+About the same time, Colonel Hamilton concluded a letter on
+miscellaneous subjects with the following observations. "I take it for
+granted, sir, you have concluded to comply with what will, no doubt,
+be the general call of your country in relation to the new government.
+You will permit me to say that it is indispensable you should lend
+yourself to its first operations. It is to little purpose to have
+introduced a system, if the weightiest influence is not given to its
+firm establishment in the outset."
+
+"On the delicate subject," said General Washington in reply, "with
+which you conclude your letter, I can say nothing; because the event
+alluded to may never happen; and because in case it should occur, it
+would be a point of prudence to defer forming one's ultimate and
+irrevocable decision, so long as new data might be afforded for one to
+act with the greater wisdom and propriety. I would not wish to conceal
+my prevailing sentiment from you. For you know me well enough, my good
+sir, to be persuaded that I am not guilty of affectation, when I tell
+you it is my great and sole desire to live and die in peace and
+retirement on my own farm. Were it even indispensable a different line
+of conduct should be adopted, while you and some others who are
+acquainted with my heart would _acquit_, the world and posterity might
+probably _accuse_ me of _inconsistency_ and _ambition_. Still I hope,
+I shall always possess firmness and virtue enough to maintain (what I
+consider the most enviable of all titles) the character of _an honest
+man_."
+
+This answer drew from Colonel Hamilton the following reply: "I should
+be deeply pained, my dear sir, if your scruples in regard to a certain
+station should be matured into a resolution to decline it; though I am
+neither surprised at their existence, nor can I but agree in opinion
+that the caution you observe in deferring the ultimate determination
+is prudent. I have, however, reflected maturely on the subject, and
+have come to a conclusion (in which I feel no hesitation) that every
+public and personal consideration will demand from you an acquiescence
+in what will _certainly_ be the unanimous wish of your country.
+
+"The absolute retreat which you meditated at the close of the late war
+was natural and proper. Had the government produced by the revolution
+gone on in a _tolerable_ train, it would have been most adviseable to
+have persisted in that retreat. But I am clearly of opinion that the
+crisis which brought you again into public view left you no
+alternative but to comply; and I am equally clear in the opinion that
+you are by that act _pledged_ to take a part in the execution of the
+government. I am not less convinced that the impression of the
+necessity of your filling the station in question is so universal,
+that you run no risk of any uncandid imputation by submitting to it.
+But even if this were not the case, a regard to your own reputation,
+as well as to the public good, calls upon you in the strongest manner
+to run that risk.
+
+"It can not be considered as a compliment to say, that on your
+acceptance of the office of president, the success of the new
+government in its commencement may materially depend. Your agency and
+influence will be not less important in preserving it from the future
+attacks of its enemies, than they have been in recommending it in the
+first instance to the adoption of the people. Independent of all
+considerations drawn from this source, the point of light in which you
+stand at home and abroad, will make an infinite difference in the
+respectability with which the government will begin its operations, in
+the alternative of your being or not being at the head of it. I
+forbear to mention considerations which might have a more personal
+application. What I have said will suffice for the inferences I mean
+to draw.
+
+"First. In a matter so essential to the well being of society as the
+prosperity of a newly instituted government, a citizen of so much
+consequence as yourself to its success, has no option but to lend his
+services if called for. Permit me to say, it would be inglorious, in
+such a situation, not to hazard the glory, however great, which he
+might have previously acquired.
+
+"Secondly. Your signature to the proposed system, pledges your
+judgment for its being such an one as upon the whole was worthy of the
+public approbation. If it should miscarry, (as men commonly decide
+from success or the want of it) the blame will in all probability be
+laid on the system itself. And the framers of it will have to
+encounter the disrepute of having brought about a revolution in
+government, without substituting any thing that was worthy of the
+effort; they pulled down one Utopia, it will be said, to build up
+another. This view of the subject, if I mistake not, my dear sir, will
+suggest to your mind greater hazard to that fame, which must be, and
+ought to be dear to you, in refusing your future aid to the system,
+than in affording it. I will only add, that in my estimate of the
+matter, that aid is indispensable.
+
+"I have taken the liberty to express these sentiments, and to lay
+before you my view of the subject. I doubt not the considerations
+mentioned have fully occurred to you, and I trust, they will finally
+produce in your mind the same result which exists in mine. I flatter
+myself the frankness with which I have delivered myself, will not be
+displeasing to you. It has been prompted by motives which you would
+not disapprove."
+
+In answer to this letter General Washington opened himself without
+reserve. "In acknowledging," said he, "the receipt of your candid and
+kind letter by the last post, little more is incumbent on me than to
+thank you sincerely for the frankness with which you communicated your
+sentiments, and to assure you that the same manly tone of intercourse
+will always be more than barely welcome,--indeed it will be highly
+acceptable to me.
+
+"I am particularly glad, in the present instance, that you have dealt
+thus freely and like a friend. Although I could not help observing
+from several publications and letters that my name had been sometimes
+spoken of, and that it was possible the _contingency_ which is the
+subject of your letter might happen, yet I thought it best to maintain
+a guarded silence, and to lack the counsel of my best friends (which I
+certainly hold in the highest estimation) rather than to hazard an
+imputation unfriendly to the delicacy of my feelings. For, situated as
+I am, I could hardly bring the question into the slightest discussion,
+or ask an opinion even in the most confidential manner, without
+betraying, in my judgment, some impropriety of conduct, or without
+feeling an apprehension that a premature display of anxiety, might be
+construed into a vain glorious desire of pushing myself into notice as
+a candidate. Now; if I am not grossly deceived in myself, I should
+unfeignedly rejoice, in case the electors, by giving their votes in
+favour of some other person, would save me from the dreadful dilemma
+of being forced to accept or refuse. If that may not be, I am in the
+next place, earnestly desirous of searching out the truth, and of
+knowing whether there does not exist a probability that the government
+would be just as happily and effectually carried into execution
+without my aid, as with it. I am _truly_ solicitous to obtain all the
+previous information which the circumstances will afford, and to
+determine (when the determination can with propriety be no longer
+postponed) according to the principles of right reason, and the
+dictates of a clear conscience; without too great a reference to the
+unforeseen consequences which may affect my person or reputation.
+Until that period, I may fairly hold myself open to conviction, though
+I allow your sentiments to have weight in them; and I shall not pass
+by your arguments without giving them as dispassionate a consideration
+as I can possibly bestow upon them.
+
+"In taking a survey of the subject, in whatever point of light I have
+been able to place it, I will not suppress the acknowledgment, my dear
+sir, that I have always felt a kind of gloom upon my mind, as often as
+I have been taught to expect I might, and perhaps must ere long be
+called to make a decision. You will, I am well assured, believe the
+assertion (though I have little expectation it would gain credit from
+those who are less acquainted with me) that if I should receive the
+appointment, and should be prevailed upon to accept it; the acceptance
+would be attended with more diffidence and reluctance, than ever I
+experienced before in my life. It would be, however, with a fixed and
+sole determination of lending whatever assistance might be in my power
+to promote the public weal, in hopes that at a convenient and an early
+period, my services might be dispensed with; and that I might be
+permitted once more to retire--to pass an unclouded evening after the
+stormy day of life, in the bosom of domestic tranquillity."
+
+This correspondence was thus closed by Colonel Hamilton. "I feel a
+conviction that you will finally see your acceptance to be
+indispensable. It is no compliment to say that no other man can
+sufficiently unite the public opinion, or can give the requisite
+weight to the office, in the commencement of the government. These
+considerations appear to me of themselves decisive. I am not sure that
+your refusal would not throw every thing into confusion. I am sure
+that it would have the worst effect imaginable.
+
+"Indeed, as I hinted in a former letter, I think circumstances leave
+no option."
+
+Although this correspondence does not appear to have absolutely
+decided General Washington on the part he should embrace, it could not
+have been without its influence on his judgment, nor have failed to
+dispose him to yield to the wish of his country. "I would willingly,"
+said he to his estimable friend General Lincoln, who had also pressed
+the subject on him, "pass over in silence that part of your letter, in
+which you mention the persons who are candidates for the two first
+offices in the executive, if I did not fear the omission might seem to
+betray a want of confidence. Motives of delicacy have prevented me
+hitherto from conversing or writing on this subject, whenever I could
+avoid it with decency. I may, however, with great sincerity, and I
+believe without offending against modesty or propriety, _say_ to
+_you_, that I most heartily wish the choice to which you allude might
+not fall upon me: and that if it should, I must reserve to myself the
+right of making up my final decision, at the last moment, when it can
+be brought into one view, and when the expediency or inexpediency of a
+refusal can be more judiciously determined than at present. But be
+assured, my dear sir, if from any inducement I shall be persuaded
+ultimately to accept, it will not be (so far as I know my own heart)
+from any of a private or personal nature. Every personal consideration
+conspires, to rivet me (if I may use the expression) to retirement. At
+my time of life, and under my circumstances, nothing in this world can
+ever draw me from it, unless it be a _conviction_ that the partiality
+of my countrymen had made my services absolutely necessary, joined to
+a _fear_ that my refusal might induce a belief that I preferred the
+conservation of my own reputation and private ease, to the good of my
+country. After all, if I should conceive myself in a manner
+constrained to accept, I call heaven to witness, that this very act
+would be the greatest sacrifice of my personal feelings and wishes,
+that ever I have been called upon to make. It would be to forego
+repose and domestic enjoyment for trouble, perhaps for public obloquy:
+for I should consider myself as entering upon an unexplored field,
+enveloped on every side with clouds and darkness.
+
+"From this embarrassing situation I had naturally supposed that my
+declarations at the close of the war would have saved me; and that my
+sincere intentions, then publicly made known, would have effectually
+precluded me forever afterwards from being looked upon as a candidate
+for any office. This hope, as a last anchor of worldly happiness in
+old age, I had still carefully preserved; until the public papers and
+private letters from my correspondents in almost every quarter, taught
+me to apprehend that I might soon be obliged to answer the question,
+whether I would go again into public life or not?"
+
+"I can say little or nothing new," said he in a letter to the Marquis
+de Lafayette, "in consequence of the repetition of your opinion on the
+expediency there will be, for my accepting the office to which you
+refer. Your sentiments indeed coincide much more nearly with those of
+my ether friends, than with my own feelings. In truth, my difficulties
+increase and magnify as I draw towards the period, when, according to
+the common belief, it will be necessary for me to give a definitive
+answer in one way or other. Should circumstances render it, in a
+manner, inevitably necessary to be in the affirmative, be assured, my
+dear sir, I shall assume the task with the most unfeigned reluctance,
+and with a real diffidence, for which I shall probably receive no
+credit from the world. If I know my own heart, nothing short of a
+conviction of duty will induce me again to take an active part in
+public affairs. And in that case, if I can form a plan for my own
+conduct, my endeavours shall be unremittingly exerted (even at the
+hazard of former fame or present popularity) to extricate my country
+from the embarrassments in which it is entangled through want of
+credit; and to establish a general system of policy, which, if
+pursued, will ensure permanent felicity to the commonwealth. I think I
+see a path, as clear and as direct as a ray of light, which leads to
+the attainment of that object. Nothing but harmony, honesty, industry,
+and frugality, are necessary to make us a great and happy people.
+Happily, the present posture of affairs, and the prevailing
+disposition of my countrymen, promise to co-operate in establishing
+those four great and essential pillars of public felicity."
+
+[Illustration: The Room in Which the First Constitutional Convention
+Met in Philadelphia
+
+_Delegates from twelve of the thirteen States (Rhode Island alone
+being unrepresented) assembled at Philadelphia, where the opening
+sessions of the first Constitutional Convention were held in this room
+in Independence Hall, May 14, 1787. George Washington presided during
+the four months taken to draft the Constitution of the United States.
+When it was completed on September 17th, it is said that many of the
+delegates seemed awe-struck and that Washington himself sat with his
+head bowed in deep meditation. As the Convention adjourned, Franklin,
+who was then over eighty-one years of age, arose and pointing to the
+President's quaint armchair on the back of which was emblazoned a half
+sun, brilliant with gilded rays, observed: "As I have been sitting
+here all these weeks, I have often wondered whether yonder sun is
+rising or setting, but now I know that it is a rising sun."_]
+
+[Sidenote: He is unanimously elected president.]
+
+After the elections had taken place, a general persuasion prevailed
+that the public will, respecting the chief magistrate of the union,
+had been too unequivocally manifested not to be certainly obeyed; and
+several applications were made to General Washington for those offices
+in the respective states, which would be in the gift of the president
+of the United States.
+
+As marking the frame of mind with which he came into the government,
+the following extract is given from one of the many letters written to
+persons whose pretensions he was disposed to favour. "Should it become
+absolutely necessary for me to occupy the station in which your letter
+presupposes me, I have determined to go into it, perfectly free from
+all engagements of every nature whatsoever.--A conduct in conformity
+to this resolution, would enable me, in balancing the various
+pretensions of different candidates for appointments, to act with a
+sole reference to justice and the public good. This is, in substance,
+the answer that I have given to all applications (and they are not
+few) which have already been made. Among the places sought after in
+these applications, I must not conceal that the office to which you
+particularly allude is comprehended. This fact I tell you merely as
+matter of information. My general manner of thinking, as to the
+propriety of holding myself totally disengaged, will apologize for my
+not enlarging farther on the subject.
+
+"Though I am sensible that the public suffrage which places a man in
+office, should prevent him from being swayed, in the execution of it,
+by his private inclinations, yet he may assuredly, without violating
+his duty, be indulged in the continuance of his former attachments."
+
+[Sidenote: Meeting of the first congress.]
+
+The impotence of the late government, added to the dilatoriness
+inseparable from its perplexed mode of proceeding on the public
+business, and to its continued session, had produced among the members
+of congress such an habitual disregard of punctuality in their
+attendance on that body, that, although the new government was to
+commence its operations on the 4th of March, 1789, a house of
+representatives was not formed until the first, nor a senate until the
+6th day of April.
+
+At length, the votes for the president and vice president of the
+United States were opened and counted in the senate. Neither the
+animosity of parties, nor the preponderance of the enemies of the new
+government in some of the states, could deprive General Washington of
+a single vote. By the unanimous voice of an immense continent, he was
+called to the chief magistracy of the nation. The second number of
+votes was given to Mr. John Adams. George Washington and John Adams
+were therefore declared to be duly elected president and vice
+president of the United States, to serve for four years from the 4th
+of March, 1789.[41]
+
+     [Footnote 41: The reluctance with which General Washington
+     assumed his new dignity, and that genuine modesty which was
+     a distinguished feature of his character, are further
+     illustrated by the following extract from a letter to
+     General Knox. "I feel for those members of the new congress,
+     who, hitherto, have given an unavailing attendance at the
+     theatre of action. For myself, the delay may be compared to
+     a reprieve; for in confidence, I tell _you_ (with the
+     _world_ it would obtain _little credit_,) that my movements
+     to the chair of government will be accompanied by feelings
+     not unlike those of a culprit who is going to the place of
+     his execution; so unwilling am I in the evening of life,
+     nearly consumed in public cares, to quit a peaceful abode
+     for an ocean of difficulties, without that competency of
+     political skill, abilities, and inclination, which are
+     necessary to manage the helm. I am sensible that I am
+     embarking the voice of the people, and a good name of my own
+     on this voyage; but what returns will be made for them
+     heaven alone can foretell.--Integrity and firmness are all I
+     can promise; these, be the voyage long or short, shall never
+     forsake me, although I may be deserted by all men; for of
+     the consolations which are to be derived from these, under
+     any circumstances, the world can not deprive me."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+     The election of General Washington officially announced to
+     him.... His departure for the seat of government.... Marks
+     of affection shown him on his journey.... His inauguration
+     and speech to Congress.... His system of intercourse with
+     the world.... Letters on this and other subjects.... Answer
+     of both houses of Congress to the speech.... Domestic and
+     foreign relations of the United States.... Debates on the
+     impost and tonnage bills.... On the power of removal from
+     office.... On the policy of the secretary of the treasury
+     reporting plans of revenue.... On the style of the
+     President.... Amendments to the constitution.... Appointment
+     of executive officers, and of the judges.... Adjournment of
+     the first session of Congress.... The President visits New
+     England.... His reception.... North Carolina accedes to the
+     union.
+
+
+{1789}
+
+[Sidenote: The election of General Washington officially announced to
+him.]
+
+The election of General Washington to the office of chief magistrate
+of the United States, was announced to him at Mount Vernon on the 14th
+of April, 1789. Accustomed to respect the wishes of his fellow
+citizens, he did not think himself at liberty to decline an
+appointment conferred upon him by the suffrage of an entire people.
+His acceptance of it, and his expressions of gratitude for this fresh
+proof of the esteem and confidence of his country, were connected with
+declarations of diffidence in himself. "I wish," he said, "that there
+may not be reason for regretting the choice,--for indeed, all I can
+promise, is to accomplish that which can be done by an honest zeal."
+
+[Sidenote: His departure for the seat of government.]
+
+As the public business required the immediate attendance of the
+president at the seat of government, he hastened his departure; and,
+on the second day after receiving notice of his appointment, took
+leave of Mount Vernon.
+
+In an entry made by himself in his diary, the feelings inspired by an
+occasion so affecting to his mind are thus described, "About ten
+o'clock I bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life, and to domestic
+felicity; and with a mind oppressed with more anxious and painful
+sensations than I have words to express, set out for New York in
+company with Mr. Thompson, and Colonel Humphries, with the best
+dispositions to render service to my country in obedience to its call,
+but with less hope of answering its expectations."
+
+[Sidenote: Marks of respect and affection shown him on his journey.]
+
+He was met by a number of gentlemen residing in Alexandria, and
+escorted to their city, where a public dinner had been prepared to
+which he was invited. The sentiments of veneration and affection which
+were felt by all classes of his fellow citizens for their patriot
+chief, were manifested by the most flattering marks of heartfelt
+respect; and by addresses which evinced the unlimited confidence
+reposed in his virtues and his talents. A place can not be given to
+these addresses: but that from the citizens of Alexandria derives such
+pretensions to particular notice from the recollection that it is to
+be considered as an effusion from the hearts of his neighbours and
+private friends, that its insertion may be pardoned. It is in the
+following words:
+
+"Again your country commands your care. Obedient to its wishes,
+unmindful of your ease, we see you again relinquishing the bliss of
+retirement; and this too at a period of life, when nature itself seems
+to authorize a preference of repose!
+
+"Not to extol your glory as a soldier; not to pour forth our gratitude
+for past services; not to acknowledge the justice of the unexampled
+honour which has been conferred upon you by the spontaneous and
+unanimous suffrages of three millions of freemen, in your election to
+the supreme magistracy; nor to admire the patriotism which directs
+your conduct, do your neighbours and friends now address you. Themes
+less splendid but more endearing, impress our minds. The first and
+best of citizens must leave us: our aged must lose their ornament; our
+youth their model; our agriculture its improver; our commerce its
+friend; our infant academy its protector; our poor their benefactor;
+and the interior navigation of the Potomac (an event replete with the
+most extensive utility, already, by your unremitted exertions, brought
+into partial use) its institutor and promoter.
+
+"Farewell!--go! and make a grateful people happy, a people, who will
+be doubly grateful when they contemplate this recent sacrifice for
+their interest.
+
+"To that Being who maketh and unmaketh at his will, we commend you;
+and after the accomplishment of the arduous business to which you are
+called, may he restore to us again, the best of men, and the most
+beloved fellow citizen!"
+
+To this affectionate address General Washington returned the following
+answer:
+
+"Gentlemen,
+
+"Although I ought not to conceal, yet I can not describe the painful
+emotions which I felt in being called upon to determine whether I
+would accept or refuse the presidency of the United States. The
+unanimity in the choice, the opinion of my friends communicated from
+different parts of Europe, as well as from America, the apparent wish
+of those who were not entirely satisfied with the constitution in its
+present form; and an ardent desire on my own part to be instrumental
+in connecting the good will of my countrymen towards each other, have
+induced an acceptance. Those who know me best (and you my fellow
+citizens are, from your situation, in that number) know better than
+any others, my love of retirement is so great, that no earthly
+consideration, short of a conviction of duty, could have prevailed
+upon me to depart from my resolution, 'never more to take any share in
+transactions of a public nature.' For, at my age, and in my
+circumstances, what prospects or advantages could I propose to myself,
+from embarking again on the tempestuous and uncertain ocean of public
+life?
+
+"I do not feel myself under the necessity of making public
+declarations, in order to convince you, gentlemen, of my attachment to
+yourselves, and regard for your interests. The whole tenor of my life
+has been open to your inspection; and my past actions, rather than my
+present declarations, must be the pledge of my future conduct.
+
+"In the mean time, I thank you most sincerely for the expressions of
+kindness contained in your valedictory address. It is true, just after
+having bade adieu to my domestic connexions, this tender proof of your
+friendships is but too well calculated still further to awaken my
+sensibility, and increase my regret at parting from the enjoyments of
+private life.
+
+"All that now remains for me is to commit myself and you to the
+protection of that beneficent Being who, on a former occasion, hath
+happily brought us together, after a long and distressing separation.
+Perhaps, the same gracious Providence will again indulge me.
+Unutterable sensations must then be left to more expressive silence;
+while from an aching heart, I bid you all, my affectionate friends,
+and kind neighbours, farewell!"
+
+In the afternoon of the same day, he left Alexandria, and was attended
+by his neighbours to Georgetown, where a number of citizens from the
+state of Maryland had assembled to receive him.
+
+Throughout his journey the people continued to manifest the same
+feeling. Crowds flocked around him wherever he stopped; and corps of
+militia, and companies of the most respectable citizens, escorted him
+through their respective streets. At Philadelphia, he was received
+with peculiar splendour. Gray's bridge, over the Schuylkill, was
+highly decorated. In imitation of the triumphal exhibitions of ancient
+Rome, an arch, composed of laurel, in which was displayed the simple
+elegance of true taste, was erected at each end of it, and on each
+side was a laurel shrubbery. As the object of universal admiration
+passed under the arch, a civic crown was, unperceived by him, let down
+upon his head by a youth ornamented with sprigs of laurel, who was
+assisted by machinery. The fields and avenues leading from the
+Schuylkill to Philadelphia, were crowded with people, through whom
+General Washington was conducted into the city by a numerous and
+respectable body of citizens; and at night the town was illuminated.
+The next day, at Trenton, he was welcomed in a manner as new as it was
+pleasing. In addition to the usual demonstrations of respect and
+attachment which were given by the discharge of cannon, by military
+corps, and by private persons of distinction, the gentler sex prepared
+in their own taste, a tribute of applause indicative of the grateful
+recollection in which they held their deliverance twelve years before
+from a formidable enemy. On the bridge over the creek which passes
+through the town, was erected a triumphal arch highly ornamented with
+laurels and flowers: and supported by thirteen pillars, each entwined
+with wreaths of evergreen. On the front arch was inscribed in large
+gilt letters,
+
+THE DEFENDER OF THE MOTHERS
+
+WILL BE THE
+
+PROTECTOR OF THE DAUGHTERS.
+
+On the centre of the arch above the inscription, was a dome or cupola
+of flowers and evergreens, encircling the dates of two memorable
+events which were peculiarly interesting to New Jersey. The first was
+the battle of Trenton, and the second the bold and judicious stand
+made by the American troops at the same creek, by which the progress
+of the British army was arrested on the evening preceding the battle
+of Princeton.
+
+At this place, he was met by a party of matrons leading their
+daughters dressed in white, who carried baskets of flowers in their
+hands, and sang, with exquisite sweetness, an ode of two stanzas
+composed for the occasion.
+
+At Brunswick, he was joined by the governor of New Jersey, who
+accompanied him to Elizabethtown Point. A committee of congress
+received him on the road, and conducted him with military parade to
+the Point, where he took leave of the governor and other gentlemen of
+Jersey, and embarked for New York in an elegant barge of thirteen
+oars, manned by thirteen branch pilots prepared for the purpose by the
+citizens of New York.
+
+"The display of boats," says the general, in his private journal,
+"which attended and joined on this occasion, some with vocal, and
+others with instrumental music on board, the decorations of the ships,
+the roar of cannon, and the loud acclamations of the people, which
+rent the sky as I passed along the wharves, filled my mind with
+sensations as painful (contemplating the reverse of this scene, which
+may be the case after all my labours to do good) as they were
+pleasing."
+
+At the stairs on Murray's wharf, which had been prepared and
+ornamented for the purpose, he was received by the governor of New
+York, and conducted with military honours, through an immense
+concourse of people, to the apartments provided for him. These were
+attended by all who were in office, and by many private citizens of
+distinction, who pressed around him to offer their congratulations,
+and to express the joy which glowed in their bosoms at seeing the man
+in whom all confided, at the head of the American empire. This day of
+extravagant joy was succeeded by a splendid illumination.
+
+It is no equivocal mark of the worth of Washington, and of the
+soundness of his judgment, that it could neither be corrupted nor
+misguided by these flattering testimonials of attachment.
+
+Two days before the arrival of the President, the Vice President took
+his seat in the senate, and addressed that body in a dignified speech
+adapted to the occasion, in which, after manifesting the high opinion
+that statesman always entertained of his countrymen, he thus expressed
+his sentiments of the executive magistrate.
+
+"It is with satisfaction that I congratulate the people of America on
+the formation of a national constitution, and the fair prospect of a
+consistent administration of a government of laws: on the acquisition
+of a house of representatives, chosen by themselves; of a senate thus
+composed by their own state legislatures; and on the prospect of an
+executive authority, in the hands of one whose portrait I shall not
+presume to draw.--Were I blessed with powers to do justice to his
+character, it would be impossible to increase the confidence or
+affection of his country, or make the smallest addition to his glory.
+This can only be effected by a discharge of the present exalted trust
+on the same principles, with the same abilities and virtues which have
+uniformly appeared in all his former conduct, public or private. May I
+nevertheless be indulged to inquire, if we look over the catalogue of
+the first magistrates of nations, whether they have been denominated
+presidents or consuls, kings, or princes, where shall we find one,
+whose commanding talents and virtues, whose overruling good fortune,
+have so completely united all hearts and voices in his favour? who
+enjoyed the esteem and admiration of foreign nations, and fellow
+citizens, with equal unanimity? qualities so uncommon, are no common
+blessings to the country that possesses them. By these great
+qualities, and their benign effects, has Providence marked out the
+head of this nation, with a hand so distinctly visible, as to have
+been seen by all men, and mistaken by none."
+
+[Illustration: Washington Taking the Oath of Office
+
+_From the painting by Alonzo Chappell_
+
+_On the balcony of the old City Hall, Broad and Wall Streets, New
+York, Washington was sworn in as first President of the United States,
+April 30, 1789. The artist here accurately depicts him wearing a suit
+of dark brown, at his side a dress sword, and his hair powdered in the
+fashion of the period. White silk stockings and shoes with simple
+silver buckles completed his attire. On one side of him stood
+Chancellor Livingstone, who administered the oath. On the other side
+was Vice-President John Adams. Washington solemnly repeated the words
+of the oath, clearly enunciating, "I swear": adding in a whisper, with
+closed eyes, "So help me, God"._]
+
+[Sidenote: He forms a system of conduct to be observed in his
+intercourse with the world.]
+
+A President of the United States being a new political personage, to a
+great portion of whose time the public was entitled, it became proper
+to digest a system of conduct to be observed in his intercourse with
+the world, which would keep in view the duties of his station, without
+entirely disregarding his personal accommodation, or the course of
+public opinion. In the interval between his arrival in New York, and
+entering on the duties of his office, those most capable of advising
+on the subject were consulted; and some rules were framed by General
+Washington for his government in these respects. As one of them, the
+allotment of a particular hour for receiving visits not on business,
+became the subject of much animadversion; and, being considered merely
+as an imitation of the levee days established by crowned heads, has
+constituted not the least important of the charges which have been
+made against this gentleman. The motives assigned by himself for the
+rule may not be unworthy of attention.
+
+[Sidenote: Letters from him on this and other subjects.]
+
+Not long after the government came into operation, Doctor Stuart, a
+gentleman nearly connected with the President in friendship and by
+marriage, addressed to him a letter stating the accusations which were
+commonly circulating in Virginia on various subjects, and especially
+against the regal manners of those who administered the affairs of the
+nation. In answer to this letter the President observed, "while the
+eyes of America, perhaps of the world, are turned to this government,
+and many are watching the movements of all those who are concerned in
+its administration, I should like to be informed, through so good a
+medium, of the public opinion of both men and measures, and of none
+more than myself;--not so much of what may be thought commendable
+parts, if any, of my conduct, as of those which are conceived to be of
+a different complexion. The man who means to commit no wrong will
+never be guilty of enormities, consequently can never be unwilling to
+learn what are ascribed to him as foibles.--If they are really such,
+the knowledge of them in a well disposed mind will go half way towards
+a reform.--If they are not errors, he can explain and justify the
+motives of his actions.
+
+"At a distance from the theatre of action, truth is not always related
+without embellishment, and sometimes is entirely perverted from a
+misconception of the causes which produced the effects that are the
+subject of censure.
+
+"This leads me to think that a system which I found it indispensably
+necessary to adopt upon my first coming to this city, might have
+undergone severe strictures, and have had motives very foreign from
+those that governed me, assigned as causes thereof.--I mean first,
+returning _no_ visits: second, appointing certain days to receive them
+generally (not to the exclusion however of visits on any other days
+under particular circumstances;) and third, at first entertaining no
+company, and afterwards (until I was unable to entertain any at all)
+confining it to official characters. A few days evinced the necessity
+of the two first in so clear a point of view, that had I not adopted
+it, I should have been unable to have attended to any sort of
+business, unless I had applied the hours allotted to rest and
+refreshment to this purpose; for by the time I had done breakfast, and
+thence until dinner--and afterwards until bed-time, I could not get
+relieved from the ceremony of one visit before I had to attend to
+another. In a word, I had no leisure to read or to answer the
+despatches that were pouring in upon me from all quarters."
+
+In a subsequent letter written to the same gentleman, after his levees
+had been openly-censured by the enemies of his administration, he thus
+expressed himself:
+
+"Before the custom was established, which now accommodates foreign
+characters, strangers, and others who from motives of curiosity,
+respect to the chief magistrate, or any other cause, are induced to
+call upon me, I was unable to attend to any business whatsoever. For
+gentlemen, consulting their own convenience rather than mine, were
+calling from the time I rose from breakfast--often before--until I sat
+down to dinner. This, as I resolved not to neglect my public duties,
+reduced me to the choice of one of these alternatives; either to
+refuse them _altogether_, or to appropriate a time for the reception
+of them. The first would, I well knew, be disgusting to many;--the
+latter I expected, would undergo animadversion from those who would
+find fault with or without cause. To please every body was impossible.
+I therefore adopted that line of conduct which combined public
+advantage with private convenience, and which, in my judgment, was
+unexceptionable in itself.
+
+"These visits are optional. They are made without invitation. Between
+the hours of three and four every Tuesday, I am prepared to receive
+them. Gentlemen, often in great numbers, come and go;--chat with each
+other;--and act as they please. A porter shows them into the room; and
+they retire from it when they choose, and without ceremony. At their
+first entrance, they salute me, and I them, and as many as I can talk
+to, I do. What pomp there is in all this I am unable to discover.
+Perhaps it consists in not sitting. To this two reasons are opposed:
+first, it is unusual; secondly, (which is a more substantial one)
+because I have no room large enough to contain a third of the chairs
+which would be sufficient to admit it. If it is supposed that
+ostentation, or the fashions of courts (which by the by I believe
+originate oftener in convenience, not to say necessity, than is
+generally imagined) gave rise to this custom, I will boldly affirm
+that _no_ supposition was ever more erroneous; for were I to indulge
+my inclinations, every moment that I could withdraw from the fatigues
+of my station should be spent in retirement. That they are not,
+proceeds from the sense I entertain of the propriety of giving to
+every one as free access as consists with that respect which is due to
+the chair of government;--and that respect, I conceive, is neither to
+be acquired nor preserved, but by maintaining a just medium between
+too much state, and too great familiarity.
+
+"Similar to the above, but of a more familiar and sociable kind, are
+the visits every Friday afternoon to Mrs. Washington, where I always
+am. These public meetings, and a dinner once a week to as many as my
+table will hold, with the references to and from the different
+departments of state, and other communications with all parts of the
+union, is as much if not more than I am able to undergo; for I have
+already had within less than a year, two severe attacks;--the last
+worse than the first,--a third, it is more than probable will put me
+to sleep with my fathers--at what distance this may be, I know not."
+
+[Sidenote: His inauguration and speech to congress.]
+
+The ceremonies of the inauguration having been adjusted by congress,
+the President attended in the senate chamber, on the 30th of April, in
+order to take, in the presence of both houses, the oath prescribed by
+the constitution.
+
+To gratify the public curiosity, an open gallery adjoining the senate
+chamber had been selected by congress, as the place in which the oath
+should be administered. Having taken it in the view of an immense
+concourse of people, whose loud and repeated acclamations attested the
+joy with which his being proclaimed President of the United States
+inspired them, he returned to the senate chamber, where he delivered
+the following address:
+
+"_Fellow citizens of the Senate and of the House of Representatives:_
+
+"Among the vicissitudes incident to life, no event could have filled
+me with greater anxieties than that of which the notification was
+transmitted by your order, and received on the 14th day of the present
+month. On the one hand, I was summoned by my country, whose voice I
+can never hear but with veneration and love, from a retreat which I
+had chosen with the fondest predilection, and, in my flattering hopes,
+with an immutable decision, as the asylum of my declining years: a
+retreat which was rendered every day more necessary as well as more
+dear to me, by the addition of habit to inclination, and of frequent
+interruptions in my health to the gradual waste committed on it by
+time. On the other hand, the magnitude and difficulty of the trust to
+which the voice of my country called me, being sufficient to awaken in
+the wisest and most experienced of her citizens a distrustful scrutiny
+into his qualifications, could not but overwhelm with despondence,
+one, who, inheriting inferior endowments from nature, and unpractised
+in the duties of civil administration, ought to be peculiarly
+conscious of his own deficiencies. In this conflict of emotions, all I
+dare aver is, that it has been my faithful study to collect my duty
+from a just appreciation of every circumstance by which it might be
+effected. All I dare hope is, that, if in accepting this task, I have
+been too much swayed by a grateful remembrance of former instances, or
+by an affectionate sensibility to this transcendent proof of the
+confidence of my fellow citizens: and have thence too little consulted
+my incapacity, as well as disinclination for the weighty and untried
+cares before me; my ERROR will be palliated by the motives which
+misled me, and its consequences be judged by my country, with some
+share of the partiality in which they originated.
+
+"Such being the impressions under which I have, in obedience to the
+public summons, repaired to the present station, it will be peculiarly
+improper to omit in this first official act, my fervent supplications
+to that Almighty Being who rules over the universe--who presides in
+the councils of nations--and whose providential aids can supply every
+human defect, that his benediction may consecrate to the liberties and
+happiness of the people of the United States, a government instituted
+by themselves for these essential purposes: and may enable every
+instrument employed in its administration, to execute with success,
+the functions allotted to his charge. In tendering this homage to the
+great Author of every public and private good, I assure myself that it
+expresses your sentiments not less than my own; nor those of my fellow
+citizens at large, less than either. No people can be bound to
+acknowledge and adore the invisible hand which conducts the affairs of
+men, more than the people of the United States. Every step by which
+they have advanced to the character of an independent nation seems to
+have been distinguished by some token of providential agency; and in
+the important revolution just accomplished in the system of their
+united government, the tranquil deliberations and voluntary consent of
+so many distinct communities, from which the event has resulted, can
+not be compared with the means by which most governments have been
+established, without some return of pious gratitude along with an
+humble anticipation of the future blessings which the past seem to
+presage. These reflections, arising out of the present crisis, have
+forced themselves too strongly on my mind to be suppressed. You will
+join with me, I trust, in thinking that there are none, under the
+influence of which the proceedings of a new and free government can
+more auspiciously commence.
+
+"By the article establishing the executive department, it is made the
+duty of the President 'to recommend to your consideration, such
+measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.' The circumstances
+under which I now meet you will acquit me from entering into that
+subject, farther than to refer to the great constitutional charter
+under which you are assembled, and which in defining your powers,
+designates the objects to which your attention is to be given. It will
+be more consistent with those circumstances, and far more congenial
+with the feelings which actuate me, to substitute in place of a
+recommendation of particular measures, the tribute that is due to the
+talents, the rectitude, and the patriotism, which adorn the characters
+selected to devise and adopt them. In these honourable qualifications,
+I behold the surest pledges that, as on one side, no local prejudices
+or attachments, no separate views nor party animosities, will
+misdirect the comprehensive and equal eye which ought to watch over
+this great assemblage of communities and interests: so, on another,
+that the foundations of our national policy will be laid in the pure
+and immutable principles of private morality; and the pre-eminence of
+free government be exemplified by all the attributes which can win the
+affections of its citizens, and command the respect of the world. I
+dwell on this prospect with every satisfaction which an ardent love
+for my country can inspire, since there is no truth more thoroughly
+established than that there exists, in the economy and course of
+nature, an indissoluble union between virtue and happiness--between
+duty and advantage--between the genuine maxims of an honest and
+magnanimous policy, and the solid rewards of public prosperity and
+felicity; since we ought to be no less persuaded that the propitious
+smiles of heaven can never be expected on a nation that disregards the
+eternal rules of order and right which heaven itself has ordained: and
+since the preservation of the sacred fire of liberty, and the destiny
+of the republican model of government, are justly considered as
+DEEPLY, perhaps as FINALLY staked, on the experiment entrusted to the
+hands of the American people.
+
+"Besides the ordinary objects submitted to your care, it will remain
+with your judgment to decide, how far an exercise of the occasional
+power delegated by the fifth article of the constitution is rendered
+expedient, at the present juncture, by the nature of objections which
+have been urged against the system, or by the degree of inquietude
+which has given birth to them. Instead of undertaking particular
+recommendations on this subject, in which I could be guided by no
+lights derived from official opportunities, I shall again give way to
+my entire confidence in your discernment and pursuit of the public
+good: for I assure myself that whilst you carefully avoid every
+alteration which might endanger the benefits of a united and effective
+government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience,
+a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for
+the public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on
+the question how far the former can be more impregnably fortified, or
+the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.
+
+"To the preceding observations I have one to add, which will be most
+properly addressed to the house of representatives. It concerns
+myself, and will therefore be as brief as possible. When I was first
+honoured with a call into the service of my country, then on the eve
+of an arduous struggle for its liberties, the light in which I
+contemplated my duty required that I should renounce every pecuniary
+compensation. From this resolution I have in no instance departed. And
+being still under the impressions which produced it, I must decline,
+as inapplicable to myself, any share in the personal emoluments which
+may be indispensably included in a permanent provision for the
+executive department; and must accordingly pray that the pecuniary
+estimates for the station in which I am placed, may, during my
+continuance in it, be limited to such actual expenditures as the
+public good may be thought to require.
+
+"Having thus imparted to you my sentiments, as they have been awakened
+by the occasion which brings us together, I shall take my present
+leave; but not without resorting once more to the benign Parent of the
+human race, in humble supplication, that since he has been pleased to
+favour the American people with opportunities for deliberating in
+perfect tranquillity, and dispositions for deciding with unparalleled
+unanimity on a form of government, for the security of their union,
+and the advancement of their happiness, so his divine blessing may be
+equally _conspicuous_ in the enlarged views, the temperate
+consultations, and the wise measures on which the success of this
+government must depend."
+
+[Sidenote: Answer of both houses of congress to the speech.]
+
+In their answer to this speech, the senate say: "The unanimous
+suffrage of the elective body in your favour, is peculiarly expressive
+of the gratitude, confidence, and affection of the citizens of
+America, and is the highest testimonial at once of your merit, and
+their esteem. We are sensible, sir, that nothing but the voice of your
+fellow citizens could have called you from a retreat, chosen with the
+fondest predilection, endeared by habit, and consecrated to the repose
+of declining years. We rejoice, and with us all America, that, in
+obedience to the call of our common country, you have returned once
+more to public life. In you all parties confide; in you all interests
+unite; and we have no doubt that your past services, great as they
+have been, will be equalled by your future exertions; and that your
+prudence and sagacity, as a statesman, will tend to avert the dangers
+to which we were exposed, to give stability to the present government,
+and dignity and splendour to that country, which your skill and valour
+as a soldier, so eminently contributed to raise to independence and to
+empire."
+
+The affection for the person and character of the President with which
+the answer of the house of representatives glowed, promised that
+between this branch of the legislature also and the executive, the
+most harmonious co-operation in the public service might be expected.
+
+"The representatives of the people of the United States," says this
+address, "present their congratulations on the event by which your
+fellow citizens have attested the pre-eminence of your merit. You have
+long held the first place in their esteem. You have often received
+tokens of their affection. You now possess the only proof that
+remained of their gratitude for your services, of their reverence for
+your wisdom, and of their confidence in your virtues. You enjoy the
+highest, because the truest honour, of being the first magistrate, by
+the unanimous choice of the freest people on the face of the earth."
+
+After noticing the several communications made in the speech, intense
+of deep felt respect and affection, the answer concludes thus:
+
+"Such are the sentiments with which we have thought fit to address
+you. They flow from our own hearts, and we verily believe that among
+the millions we represent, there is not a virtuous citizen whose heart
+will disown them.
+
+"All that remains is, that we join in your fervent supplications for
+the blessing of heaven on our country; and that we add our own for the
+choicest of these blessings on the most beloved of her citizens."
+
+[Sidenote: Situation of the United States at this period in their
+domestic and foreign relations.]
+
+A perfect knowledge of the antecedent state of things being essential
+to a due administration of the executive department, its attainment
+engaged the immediate attention of the President; and he required the
+temporary heads of departments to prepare and lay before him such
+statements and documents as would give this information.
+
+But in the full view which it was useful to take of the interior, many
+objects were to be contemplated, the documents respecting which were
+not to be found in official records. The progress which had been made
+in assuaging the bitter animosities engendered in the sharp contest
+respecting the adoption of the constitution, and the means which might
+be used for conciliating the affections of all good men to the new
+government, without enfeebling its essential principles, were subjects
+of the most interesting inquiry.
+
+The agitation had been too great to be suddenly calmed; and for the
+active opponents of the system to become suddenly its friends, or even
+indifferent to its fate, would have been a victory of reason over
+passion, or a surrender of individual judgment to the decision of a
+majority, examples of which are rarely given in the progress of human
+affairs.
+
+In some of the states, a disposition to acquiesce in the decision
+which had been made, and to await the issue of a fair experiment of
+the constitution, was avowed by the minority. In others, the chagrin
+of defeat seemed to increase the original hostility to the instrument;
+and serious fears were entertained by its friends, that a second
+general convention might pluck from it the most essential of its
+powers, before their value, and the safety with which they might be
+confided where they were placed, could be ascertained by experience.
+
+From the same cause, exerting itself in a different direction, the
+friends of the new system had been still more alarmed. In all those
+states where the opposition was sufficiently formidable to inspire a
+hope of success, the effort was made to fill the legislature with the
+declared enemies of the government, and thus to commit it, in its
+infancy, to the custody of its foes. Their fears were quieted for the
+present. In both branches of the legislature, the federalists, an
+appellation at that time distinguishing those who had supported the
+constitution, formed the majority; and it soon appeared that a new
+convention was too bold an experiment to be applied for by the
+requisite number of states. The condition of individuals too, was
+visibly becoming more generally eligible. Industry, notwithstanding
+the causes which had diminished its profits, was gradually improving
+their affairs; and the new course of thinking, inspired by the
+adoption of a constitution prohibiting all laws impairing the
+obligation of contracts, had, in a great measure, restored that
+confidence which is essential to the internal prosperity of nations.
+From these, or from other causes, the crisis of the pressure on
+individuals seemed to be passing away, and brighter prospects to be
+opening on them.
+
+But, two states still remained out of the pale of the union; and a
+mass of ill humour existed among those who were included within it,
+which increased the necessity of circumspection in those who
+administered the government.
+
+To the western parts of the continent, the attention of the executive
+was attracted by discontents which were displayed with some violence,
+and which originated in circumstances, and in interests, peculiar to
+that country.
+
+Spain, in possession of the mouth of the Mississippi, had refused to
+permit the citizens of the United States to follow its waters into the
+ocean; and had occasionally tolerated or interdicted their commerce to
+New Orleans, as had been suggested by the supposed interest or caprice
+of the Spanish government, or of its representatives in America. The
+eyes of the inhabitants adjacent to the waters which emptied into that
+river, were turned down it, as the only channel through which the
+surplus produce of their luxuriant soil could be conveyed to the
+markets of the world. Believing that the future wealth and prosperity
+of their country depended on the use of that river, they gave some
+evidence of a disposition to drop from the confederacy, if this
+valuable acquisition could not otherwise be made. This temper could
+not fail to be viewed with interest by the neighbouring powers, who
+had been encouraged by it, and by the imbecility of the government, to
+enter into intrigues of an alarming nature.
+
+Previous to his departure from Mount Vernon, the President had
+received intelligence, too authentic to be disregarded, of private
+machinations by real or pretended agents both of Spain and Great
+Britain, which were extremely hostile to the peace, and to the
+integrity of the union.
+
+Spain had intimated that the navigation of the Mississippi could never
+be conceded, while the inhabitants of the western country remained
+connected with the Atlantic states, but might be freely granted to
+them, if they should form an independent empire.
+
+On the other hand, a gentleman from Canada, whose ostensible business
+was to repossess himself of some lands on the Ohio which had been
+formerly granted to him, frequently discussed the vital importance of
+the navigation of the Mississippi, and privately assured several
+individuals of great influence, that if they were disposed to assert
+their rights, he was authorized by Lord Dorchester, the governor of
+Canada, to say, that they might rely confidently on his assistance.
+With the aid it was in his power to give, they might seize New
+Orleans, fortify the Balise at the mouth of the Mississippi, and
+maintain themselves in that place against the utmost efforts of Spain.
+
+The probability of failing in any attempt to hold the mouth of the
+Mississippi by force, and the resentments against Great Britain which
+prevailed generally throughout the western country, diminished the
+danger to be apprehended from any machinations of that power; but
+against those of Spain, the same security did not exist.
+
+In contemplating the situation of the United States in their relations
+not purely domestic, the object demanding most immediate consideration
+was the hostility of several tribes of Indians. The military strength
+of the nations who inhabited the country between the lakes, the
+Mississippi, and the Ohio, was computed at five thousand men, of whom
+about fifteen hundred were at open war with the United States.
+Treaties had been concluded with the residue; but the attachment
+of young savages to war, and the provocation given by the
+undistinguishing vengeance which had been taken by the whites in their
+expeditions into the Indian country, furnished reasons for
+apprehending that these treaties would soon be broken.
+
+In the south, the Creeks, who could bring into the field six thousand
+fighting men, were at war with Georgia. In the mind of their leader,
+the son of a white man, some irritation had been produced by the
+confiscation of the lands of his father, who had resided in that
+state; and several other refugees whose property had also been
+confiscated, contributed still further to exasperate the nation. But
+the immediate point in contest between them was a tract of land on the
+Oconee, which the state of Georgia claimed under a purchase, the
+validity of which was denied by the Indians.
+
+The regular force of the United States was less than six hundred men.
+
+Not only the policy of accommodating differences by negotiation which
+the government was in no condition to terminate by the sword; but a
+real respect for the rights of the natives, and a regard for the
+claims of justice and humanity, disposed the President to endeavour,
+in the first instance, to remove every cause of quarrel by a treaty;
+and his message to congress on this subject evidenced his preference
+of pacific measures.
+
+Possessing many valuable articles of commerce for which the best
+market was often found on the coast of the Mediterranean, struggling
+to export them in their own bottoms, and unable to afford a single gun
+for their protection, the Americans could not view with unconcern the
+dispositions which were manifested towards them by the Barbary powers.
+A treaty had been formed with the emperor of Morocco; but from
+Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, peace had not been purchased; and those
+regencies consider all as enemies to whom they have not sold their
+friendship. The unprotected vessels of America presented a tempting
+object to their rapacity; and their hostility was the more terrible,
+because by their public law, prisoners became slaves.
+
+The United States were at peace with all the powers of Europe; but
+controversies of a delicate nature existed with some of them, the
+adjustment of which required a degree of moderation and firmness,
+which there was reason to fear, might not, in every instance, be
+exhibited.
+
+The early apprehensions with which Spain had contemplated the future
+strength of the United States, and the consequent disposition of the
+house of Bourbon to restrict them to narrow limits, have been already
+noticed. After the conclusion of the war, the attempt to form a treaty
+with that power had been repeated; but no advance towards an agreement
+on the points of difference between the two governments had been made.
+A long and intricate negotiation between the secretary of foreign
+affairs, and Don Guardoqui, the minister of his Catholic majesty, had
+terminated with the old government; and the result was an inflexible
+adherence on the part of Mr. Guardoqui to the exclusion of the
+citizens of the United States from navigating the Mississippi below
+their southern boundary. On this point there was much reason to fear
+that the cabinet of Madrid would remain immoveable. The violence with
+which the discontents of the western people were expressed, furnished
+Spain with additional motives for perpetuating the evil of which they
+complained. Aware of the embarrassments which this display of
+restlessness must occasion, and sensible of the increased difficulty
+and delay with which a removal of its primary cause must be attended,
+the executive perceived in this critical state of things, abundant
+cause for the exercise of its watchfulness, and of its prudence. With
+Spain, there was also a contest respecting boundaries. The treaty of
+peace had extended the limits of the United States to the thirty-first
+degree of north latitude, but the pretensions of the Catholic King
+were carried north of that line, to an undefined extent. He claimed as
+far as he had conquered from Britain, but the precise limits of his
+conquest were not ascertained.
+
+The circumstances attending the points of difference with Great
+Britain, were still more serious; because, in their progress, a temper
+unfavourable to accommodation had been uniformly displayed.
+
+The resentments produced by the various calamities war had occasioned,
+were not terminated with their cause. The idea that Great Britain was
+the natural enemy of America had become habitual. Believing it
+impossible for that nation to have relinquished its views of conquest,
+many found it difficult to bury their animosities, and to act upon the
+sentiment contained in the declaration of independence, "to hold them
+as the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends." In addition
+to the complaints respecting the violation of the treaty of peace,
+events were continually supplying this temper with fresh aliment. The
+disinclination which the cabinet of London had discovered to a
+commercial treaty with the United States was not attributed
+exclusively to the cause which had been assigned for it. It was in
+part ascribed to that jealousy with which Britain was supposed to view
+the growing trade of America.
+
+The general restrictions on commerce by which every maritime power
+sought to promote its own navigation, and that part of the European
+system in particular, by which each aimed at a monopoly of the trade
+of its colonies, were felt with peculiar keenness when enforced by
+England. The people of America were perhaps the more sensible to the
+British resolutions on this subject, because, having composed a part
+of that empire, they had grown up in the habit of a free intercourse
+with all its ports; and, without accurately appreciating the cause to
+which a change of this usage was to be ascribed, they attributed it to
+a jealousy of their prosperity, and to an inclination to diminish the
+value of their independence. In this suspicious temper, almost every
+unfavourable event which occurred was traced up to British hostility.
+
+That an attempt to form a commercial treaty with Portugal had failed,
+was attributed to the influence of the cabinet of London; and to the
+machinations of the same power were also ascribed the danger from the
+corsairs of Barbary, and the bloody incursions of the Indians. The
+resentment excited by these causes was felt by a large proportion of
+the American people; and the expression of it was common and public.
+That correspondent dispositions existed in England is by no means
+improbable, and the necessary effect of this temper was to increase
+the difficulty of adjusting the differences between the two nations.
+
+With France, the most perfect harmony subsisted. Those attachments
+which originated in the signal services received from his most
+Christian Majesty during the war of the revolution, had sustained no
+diminution. Yet, from causes which it was found difficult to
+counteract, the commercial intercourse between the two nations was not
+so extensive as had been expected. It was the interest, and of
+consequence the policy of France, to avail herself of the
+misunderstandings between the United States and Great Britain, in
+order to obtain such regulations as might gradually divert the
+increasing trade of the American continent from those channels in
+which it had been accustomed to flow; and a disposition was felt
+throughout the United States to co-operate with her, in enabling her
+merchants, by legislative encouragements, to rival those of Britain in
+the American market.
+
+A great revolution had commenced in that country, the first stage of
+which was completed by limiting the powers of the monarch, and by the
+establishment of a popular assembly. In no part of the globe was this
+revolution hailed with more joy than in America. The influence it
+would have on the affairs of the world was not then distinctly
+foreseen: and the philanthropist, without becoming a political
+partisan, rejoiced in the event. On this subject, therefore, but one
+sentiment existed.
+
+The relations of the United States with the other powers of Europe,
+did not require particular attention. Their dispositions were rather
+friendly than otherwise; and an inclination was generally manifested
+to participate in the advantages, which the erection of an independent
+empire on the western shores of the Atlantic, held forth to the
+commercial world.
+
+By the ministers of foreign powers in America, it would readily be
+supposed, that the first steps taken by the new government would, not
+only be indicative of its present system, but would probably affect
+its foreign relations permanently, and that the influence of the
+President would be felt in the legislature. Scarcely was the exercise
+of his executive functions commenced, when the President received an
+application from the Count de Moustiers, the minister of France,
+requesting a private conference. On being told that the department of
+foreign affairs was the channel through which all official business
+should pass, the Count replied that the interview he requested was,
+not for the purpose of actual business, but rather as preparatory to
+its future transaction.
+
+The next day, at one in the afternoon, was named for the interview.
+The Count commenced the conversation with declarations of his personal
+regard for America, the manifestations of which, he said, had been
+early and uniform. His nation too was well disposed to be upon terms
+of amity with the United States: but at his public reception, there
+were occurrences which he thought indicative of coolness in the
+secretary of foreign affairs, who had, he feared, while in Europe,
+imbibed prejudices not only against Spain, but against France also. If
+this conjecture should be right, the present head of that department
+could not be an agreeable organ of intercourse with the President. He
+then took a view of the modern usages of European courts, which, he
+said, favoured the practice he recommended of permitting foreign
+ministers to make their communications directly to the chief of the
+executive. "He then presented a letter," says the President in his
+private journal, "which he termed confidential, and to be considered
+as addressed to me in my private character, which was too strongly
+marked with an intention, as well as a wish, to have no person between
+the Minister and President, in the transaction of business between the
+two nations."
+
+In reply to these observations, the President gave the most explicit
+assurances that, judging from his own feelings, and from the public
+sentiment, there existed in America a reciprocal disposition to be on
+the best terms with France. That whatever former difficulties might
+have occurred, he was persuaded the secretary of foreign affairs had
+offered no intentional disrespect, either to the minister, or to his
+nation. Without undertaking to know the private opinions of Mr. Jay,
+he would declare that he had never heard that officer express,
+directly or indirectly, any sentiment unfavourable to either.
+
+Reason and usage, he added, must direct the mode of treating national
+and official business. If rules had been established, they must be
+conformed to. If they were yet to be framed, it was hoped that they
+would be convenient and proper. So far as ease could be made to
+comport with regularity, and with necessary forms, it ought to be
+consulted; but custom, and the dignity of office, were not to be
+disregarded. The conversation continued upwards of an hour, but no
+change was made in the resolution of the President.
+
+The subjects which pressed for immediate attention on the first
+legislature assembled under the new government, were numerous and
+important. Much was to be created, and much to be reformed.
+
+The subject of revenue, as constituting the vital spring without which
+the action of government could not long be continued, was taken up in
+the house of representatives, as soon as it could be introduced. The
+qualification of the members was succeeded by a motion for the house
+to resolve itself into a committee of the whole on the state of the
+union; and in that committee, a resolution was moved by Mr. Madison,
+declaring the opinion that certain duties ought to be levied on goods,
+wares, and merchandise, imported into the United States; and on the
+tonnage of vessels.
+
+As it was deemed important to complete a temporary system in time to
+embrace the spring importations, Mr. Madison presented the scheme of
+impost which had been recommended by the former congress, and had
+already received the approbation of a majority of the states; to which
+he added a general proposition for a duty on tonnage. By this scheme
+specific duties were imposed on certain enumerated articles; and an
+ad-valorem duty on those not enumerated. Mr. Fitzsimmons, of
+Pennsylvania, moved an amendment, enlarging the catalogue of
+enumerated articles.
+
+[Sidenote: Debates on the impost and tonnage bills.]
+
+Mr. Madison having consented to subjoin the amendment proposed by Mr.
+Fitzsimmons to the original resolution, it was received by the
+committee; but in proceeding to fill up the blanks with the sum
+taxable on each article, it was soon perceived that gentlemen had
+viewed the subject in very different lights. The tax on many articles
+was believed to press more heavily on some states than on others; and
+apprehensions were expressed that, in the form of protecting duties,
+the industry of one part of the union would be encouraged by premiums
+charged on the labour of another part. On the discrimination between
+the duty on the tonnage of foreign and American bottoms, a great
+degree of sensibility was discovered. The citizens of the United
+States not owning a sufficient number of vessels to export all the
+produce of the country, it was said that the increased tonnage on
+foreign bottoms operated as a tax on agriculture, and a premium to
+navigation. This discrimination, it was therefore contended, ought to
+be very small.
+
+In answer to these arguments, Mr. Madison said, "If it is expedient
+for America to have vessels employed in commerce at all, it will be
+proper that she have enough to answer all the purposes intended; to
+form a school for seamen; to lay the foundation of a navy: and to be
+able to support itself against the interference of foreigners. I do
+not think there is much weight in the observations that the duty we
+are about to lay in favour of American vessels is a burden on the
+community, and particularly oppressive to some parts. But if there
+were, it may be a burden of that kind which will ultimately save us
+from one that is greater.
+
+"I consider an acquisition of maritime strength essential to this
+country; should we ever be so unfortunate as to be engaged in war,
+what but this can defend our towns and cities upon the sea coast? Or
+what but this can enable us to repel an invading enemy? Those parts
+which are said to bear an undue proportion of the burden of the
+additional duty on foreign shipping, are those which will be most
+exposed to the operations of a predatory war, and will require the
+greatest exertions of the union in their defence. If therefore some
+little sacrifice be made by them to obtain this important object, they
+will be peculiarly rewarded for it in the hour of danger. Granting a
+preference to our own navigation will insensibly bring it forward to
+that perfection so essential to American safety; and though it may
+produce some little inequality at first, it will soon ascertain its
+level, and become uniform throughout the union."
+
+But no part of the system was discussed with more animation than that
+which proposed to make discriminations in favour of those nations with
+whom the United States had formed commercial treaties. In the debate
+on this subject, opinions and feelings with respect to foreign powers
+were disclosed, which, strengthening with circumstances, afterwards
+agitated the whole American continent.
+
+While the resolutions on which the bills were to be framed were under
+debate, Mr. Benson rose to inquire on what principle the proposed
+discriminations between foreign nations was founded? "It was certainly
+proper," he said, "to comply with existing treaties. But those
+treaties stipulated no such preference. Congress then was at liberty
+to consult the interests of the United States. If those interests
+would be promoted by the measure, he should be willing to adopt it,
+but he wished its policy to be shown."
+
+The resolutions, as reported, were supported by Mr. Madison, Mr.
+Baldwin, Mr. Fitzsimmons, Mr. Clymer, Mr. Page, and Mr. Jackson.
+
+They relied much upon the public sentiment which had, they said, been
+unequivocally expressed through the several state legislatures and
+otherwise, against placing foreign nations generally, on a footing
+with the allies of the United States. So strong was this sentiment,
+that to its operation the existing constitution was principally to be
+ascribed. They thought it important to prove to those nations who had
+declined forming commercial treaties with them, that the United States
+possessed and would exercise the power of retaliating any regulations
+unfavourable to their trade, and they insisted strongly on the
+advantages of America in a war of commercial regulation, should this
+measure produce one.
+
+The disposition France had lately shown to relax with regard to the
+United States, the rigid policy by which her counsels had generally
+been guided, ought to be cultivated. The evidence of this disposition
+was an edict by which American built ships purchased by French
+subjects became naturalized. There was reason to believe that the
+person charged with the affairs of the United States at that court,
+had made some favourable impressions, which the conduct of the
+American government ought not to efface.
+
+With great earnestness it was urged, that from artificial or
+adventitious causes, the commerce between the United States and Great
+Britain had exceeded its natural boundary. It was wise to give such
+political advantages to other nations as would enable them to acquire
+their due share of the direct trade. It was also wise to impart some
+benefits to nations that had formed commercial treaties with the
+United States, and thereby to impress on those powers which had
+hitherto neglected to form such treaties, the idea that some
+advantages were to be gained by a reciprocity of friendship.
+
+That France had claims on the gratitude of the American people which
+ought not to be overlooked, was an additional argument in favour of
+the principle for which they contended.
+
+The discrimination was opposed by Mr. Benson, Mr. Lawrence, Mr.
+Wadsworth, and Mr. Sherman.
+
+They did not admit that the public sentiment had been unequivocally
+expressed; nor did they admit that such benefits had flowed from
+commercial treaties as to justify a sacrifice of interest to obtain
+them. There was a commercial treaty with France; but neither that
+treaty, nor the favours shown to that nation, had produced any
+correspondent advantages. The license to sell ships could not be of
+this description, since it was well known that the merchants of the
+United States did not own vessels enough for the transportation of the
+produce of the country, and only two, as was believed, had been sold
+since the license had been granted. The trade with Great Britain,
+viewed in all its parts, was upon a footing as beneficial to the
+United States as that with France.
+
+That the latter power had claims upon the gratitude of America was
+admitted, but that these claims would justify premiums for the
+encouragement of French commerce and navigation, to be drawn from the
+pockets of the American people, was not conceded. The state of the
+revenue, it was said, would not admit of these experiments.
+
+The observation founded on the extensiveness of the trade between the
+United States and Great Britain was answered by saying, that this was
+not a subject proper for legislative interposition. It was one of
+which the merchants were the best judges. They would consult their
+interest as individuals; and this was a case in which the interest of
+the nation and of individuals was the same.
+
+At length, the bills passed the house of representatives, and were
+carried to the senate, where they were amended by expunging the
+discrimination made in favour of the tonnage and distilled spirits of
+those nations which had formed commercial treaties with the United
+States.
+
+These amendments were disagreed to; and each house insisting on its
+opinion, a conference took place, after which the point was
+reluctantly yielded by the house of representatives. The proceedings
+of the senate being at that time conducted with closed doors, the
+course of reasoning on which this important principle was rejected can
+not be stated.
+
+This debate on the impost and tonnage bills was succeeded by one on a
+subject which was believed to involve principles of still greater
+interest.
+
+[Sidenote: On the President's power of removal from office.]
+
+In organizing the departments of the executive, the question in what
+manner the high officers who filled them should be removeable, came on
+to be discussed. Believing that the decision of this question would
+materially influence the character of the new government, the members
+supported their respective opinions with a degree of earnestness
+proportioned to the importance they attributed to the measure. In a
+committee of the whole house on the bill "to establish an executive
+department to be denominated the[42] department of foreign affairs,"
+Mr. White moved to strike out the clause which declared the secretary
+to be removeable by the President. The power of removal, where no
+express provision existed, was, he said, in the nature of things,
+incidental to that of appointment. And as the senate was, by the
+constitution, associated with the President in making appointments,
+that body must, in the same degree, participate in the power of
+removing from office.
+
+     [Footnote 42: This has since been denominated the department
+     of state.]
+
+Mr. White was supported by Mr. Smith of South Carolina, Mr. Page, Mr.
+Stone, and Mr. Jackson.
+
+Those gentlemen contended that the clause was either unnecessary or
+improper. If the constitution gave the power to the President, a
+repetition of the grant in an act of congress was nugatory: if the
+constitution did not give it, the attempt to confer it by law was
+improper. If it belonged conjointly to the President and senate, the
+house of representatives should not attempt to abridge the
+constitutional prerogative of the other branch of the legislature.
+However this might be, they were clearly of opinion that it was not
+placed in the President alone. In the power over all the executive
+officers which the bill proposed to confer upon the President, the
+most alarming dangers to liberty were perceived. It was in the nature
+of monarchical prerogative, and would convert them into the mere tools
+and creatures of his will. A dependence so servile on one individual,
+would deter men of high and honourable minds from engaging in the
+public service; and if, contrary to expectation, such men should be
+brought into office, they would be reduced to the necessity of
+sacrificing every principle of independence to the will of the chief
+magistrate, or of exposing themselves to the disgrace of being removed
+from office, and that too at a time when it might be no longer in
+their power to engage in other pursuits.
+
+Gentlemen they feared were too much dazzled with the splendour of the
+virtues which adorned the actual President, to be able to look into
+futurity. But the framers of the constitution had not confined their
+views to the person who would most probably first fill the
+presidential chair. The house of representatives ought to follow their
+example, and to contemplate this power in the hands of an ambitious
+man, who might apply it to dangerous purposes; who might from caprice
+remove the most worthy men from office.
+
+[Illustration: View of the Old City or Federal Hall, New York, in 1789
+
+_On the balcony of this building, the site of which is now occupied by
+the United States Sub-Treasury, at the corner of Broad and Wall
+Streets, George Washington took the oath of office as First President
+of the United States, April 30, 1789. In the near distance, at the
+intersection of Wall and Broadway, may be seen the original Trinity
+Church structure which was completed in 1697. It was replaced by the
+present edifice in 1846. President Washington, who was an
+Episcopalian, did not attend Trinity, but maintained a pew in St.
+Paul's Chapel, Broadway and Vesey Street, which remains as it was when
+he worshipped there._]
+
+By the friends of the original bill, the amendment was opposed with
+arguments of great force drawn from the constitution and from general
+convenience. On several parts of the constitution, and especially on
+that which vests the executive power in the President, they relied
+confidently to support the position, that, in conformity with that
+instrument, the power in question could reside only with the chief
+magistrate: no power, it was said, could be more completely executive
+in its nature than that of removal from office.
+
+But if it was a case on which the constitution was silent, the
+clearest principles of political expediency required that neither
+branch of the legislature should participate in it.
+
+The danger that a President could ever be found who would remove good
+men from office, was treated as imaginary. It was not by the splendour
+attached to the character of the present chief magistrate alone that
+this opinion was to be defended. It was founded on the structure of
+the office. The man in whose favour a majority of the people of this
+continent would unite, had probability at least in favour of his
+principles; in addition to which, the public odium that would
+inevitably attach to such conduct, would be an effectual security
+against it.
+
+After an ardent discussion which consumed several days, the committee
+divided: and the amendment was negatived by a majority of thirty-four
+to twenty. The opinion thus expressed by the house of representatives
+did not explicitly convey their sense of the constitution. Indeed the
+express grant of the power to the President, rather implied a right in
+the legislature to give or withhold it at their discretion. To obviate
+any misunderstanding of the principle on which the question had been
+'decided, Mr. Benson moved in the house, when the report of the
+committee of the whole was taken up, to amend the second clause in the
+bill so as clearly to imply the power of removal to be solely in the
+President. He gave notice that if he should succeed in this, he would
+move to strike out the words which had been the subject of debate. If
+those words continued, he said the power of removal by the President
+might hereafter appear to be exercised by virtue of a legislative
+grant only, and consequently be subjected to legislative instability;
+when he was well satisfied in his own mind, that it was by fair
+construction, fixed in the constitution. The motion was seconded by
+Mr. Madison, and both amendments were adopted. As the bill passed into
+a law, it has ever been considered as a full expression of the sense
+of the legislature on this important part of the American
+constitution.
+
+[Sidenote: On the policy of the secretary of the treasury reporting
+plans for the management of the revenue.]
+
+The bill to establish the treasury department, contained a clause
+making it the duty of the secretary "to digest and report plans for
+the improvement and management of the revenue, and for the support of
+public credit."
+
+Mr. Page moved to strike out these words, observing, that to permit
+the secretary to go further than to prepare estimates would be a
+dangerous innovation on the constitutional privilege of that house. It
+would create an undue influence within those walls, because members
+might be led by the deference commonly paid to men of abilities, who
+gave an opinion in a case they have thoroughly considered, to support
+the plan of the minister even against their own judgment. Nor would
+the mischief stop there. A precedent would be established which might
+be extended until ministers of the government should be admitted on
+that floor, to explain and support the plans they had digested and
+reported, thereby laying a foundation for an aristocracy, or a
+detestable monarchy.
+
+Mr. Tucker seconded the motion of Mr. Page, and observed, that the
+authority contained in the bill to prepare and report plans would
+create an interference of the executive with the legislative powers,
+and would abridge the particular privilege of that house to originate
+all bills for raising a revenue. How could the business originate in
+that house, if it was reported to them by the minister of finance? All
+the information that could be required might be called for without
+adopting a clause that might undermine the authority of the house, and
+the security of the people. The constitution has pointed out the
+proper method of communication between the executive and legislative
+departments. It is made the duty of the President to give from time to
+time information to congress of the state of the union, and to
+recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge
+necessary and expedient. If revenue plans are to be prepared and
+reported to congress, he is the proper person to perform this service.
+He is responsible to the people for what he recommends, and will be
+more cautious than any other person to whom a less degree of
+responsibility was attached.
+
+He hoped the house was not already weary of executing and sustaining
+the powers vested in them by the constitution; and yet the adoption of
+this clause would argue that they thought themselves less adequate
+than an individual, to determine what burdens their constituents were
+able to bear. This was not answering the high expectation that had
+been formed of their exertions for the general good, or of their
+vigilance in guarding their own and the people's rights.
+
+The arguments of Mr. Page and Mr. Tucker were enforced and enlarged by
+Mr. Livermore and Mr. Gerry. The latter gentleman said, "that he had
+no objection to obtaining information, but he could not help observing
+the great degree of importance gentlemen were giving to this and the
+other executive officers. If the doctrine of having prime and great
+ministers of state was once well established, he did not doubt but he
+should soon see them distinguished by a green or red ribbon, insignia
+of court favour and patronage."
+
+It was contended that the plans of the secretary, being digested,
+would be received entire. Members would be informed that each part was
+necessary to the whole, and that nothing could be touched without
+injuring the system. Establish this doctrine, and congress would
+become a useless burden.
+
+The amendment was opposed by Mr. Benson, Mr. Goodhue, Mr. Ames, Mr.
+Sedgewick, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Madison, Mr. Stone, Mr.
+Sherman, and Mr. Baldwin. It was insisted that to prepare and report
+plans for the improvement of the revenue, and support of public
+credit, constituted the most important service which could be rendered
+by the officer who should be placed at the head of the department of
+finance. When the circumstances under which the members of that house
+were assembled, and the various objects for which they were convened
+were considered, it was no imputation upon them to suppose that they
+might receive useful information from a person whose peculiar duty it
+was to direct his attention to systems of finance, and who would be in
+some measure selected on account of his fitness for that object. It
+was denied that the privileges of the house would be infringed by the
+measure. The plans of the secretary could not be termed bills, nor
+would they even be reported in that form. They would only constitute
+information which would be valuable, and which could not be received
+in a more eligible mode. "Certainly," said Mr. Goodhue, "we carry our
+dignity to the extreme, when we refuse to receive information from any
+but ourselves."
+
+"If we consider the present situation of our finances," said Mr. Ames,
+"owing to a variety of causes, we shall no doubt perceive a great
+though unavoidable confusion throughout the whole scene. It presents
+to the imagination a deep, dark, and dreary chaos, impossible to be
+reduced to order, unless the mind of the architect be clear and
+capacious, and his power commensurate to the object. He must not be
+the flitting creature of the day; he must have time given him
+competent to the successful exercise of his authority. It is with the
+intention of letting a little sunshine into the business, that the
+present arrangement is proposed."
+
+It was not admitted that the plans of the secretary would possess an
+influence to which their intrinsic value would not give them a just
+claim. There would always be sufficient intelligence in that house to
+detect, and independence to expose any oppressive or injurious scheme
+which might be prepared for them. Nor would a plan openly and
+officially reported possess more influence on the mind of any member,
+than if given privately at the secretary's office.
+
+Mr. Madison said, the words of the bill were precisely those used by
+the former congress on two occasions. The same power had been annexed
+to the office of superintendent of the finances; and he had never
+heard that any inconvenience had been experienced from the regulation.
+Perhaps if the power had been more fully and more frequently
+exercised, it might have contributed more to the public good. "There
+is," continued this gentleman, "a small probability, though it is but
+small, that an officer may derive weight from this circumstance, and
+have some degree of influence upon the deliberations of the
+legislature. But compare the danger likely to result from this cause,
+with the danger and inconvenience of not having well formed and
+digested plans, and we shall find infinitely more to apprehend from
+the latter. Inconsistent, unproductive, and expensive schemes, will
+produce greater injury to our constituents, than is to be apprehended
+from any undue influence which the well digested plans of a well
+informed officer can have. From a bad administration of the
+government, more detriment will arise than from any other source. Want
+of information has occasioned much inconvenience, and many unnecessary
+burdens in some of the state governments. Let it be our care to avoid
+those rocks and shoals in our political voyage which have injured, and
+nearly proved fatal to many of our contemporary navigators."
+
+The amendment was rejected.
+
+[Sidenote: On the style by which the president should be addressed.]
+
+Among the interesting points which were settled in the first congress,
+was the question by what style the President and Vice President should
+be addressed. Mr. Benson, from the committee appointed to confer with
+a committee of the senate on this subject reported, "that it is not
+proper to annex any style or title to the respective styles or titles
+of office expressed in the constitution;" and this report was, without
+opposition, agreed to in the house of representatives. In the senate,
+the report was disapproved, and a resolution passed requesting the
+house of representatives to appoint another committee, again to confer
+with one from the senate, on the same subject. This message being
+taken up in the house of representatives, a resolution was moved by
+Mr. Parker, seconded by Mr. Page, declaring that it would be improper
+to accede to the request of the senate. Several members were in favour
+of this motion; but others who were opposed to receding from the
+ground already taken, seemed inclined to appoint a committee as a
+measure properly respectful to the other branch of the legislature.
+
+After a warm debate, the resolution proposed by Mr. Parker was set
+aside by the previous question, and a committee of conference was
+appointed. They could not agree upon a report, in consequence of which
+the subject was permitted to rest; and the senate, conforming to the
+precedent given by the house of representatives, addressed the
+President in their answer to his speech by the terms used in the
+constitution.
+
+While the representatives were preparing bills for organizing the
+great executive departments, the senate was occupied with digesting
+the system of a national judiciary. This complex and extensive subject
+was taken up in the commencement of the session, and was completed
+towards its close.
+
+[Sidenote: Amendment to the constitution proposed by congress and
+ratified by the states.]
+
+In the course of this session Mr. Madison brought forward a
+proposition for recommending to the consideration and adoption of the
+states, several new articles to be added to the constitution.
+
+Many of those objections to it which had been urged with all the
+vehemence of conviction, and which, in the opinion of some of its
+advocates, were entitled to serious consideration, were believed by
+the most intelligent to derive their sole support from erroneous
+construction of the instrument. Others were upon points on which the
+objectors might be gratified without injury to the system. To
+conciliate the affections of their brethren to the government, was an
+object greatly desired by its friends. Disposed to respect, what they
+deemed, the errors of their opponents, where that respect could be
+manifested without a sacrifice of essential principles, they were
+anxious to annex to the constitution those explanations and barriers
+against the possible encroachments of rulers on the liberties of the
+people, which had been loudly demanded, however unfounded, in their
+judgments, might be the fears by which those demands were suggested.
+These dispositions were perhaps, in some measure, stimulated to
+exertion by motives of the soundest policy. The formidable minorities
+in several of the conventions, which in the legislatures of some
+powerful states had become majorities, and the refusal of two states
+to complete the union, were admonitions not to be disregarded, of the
+necessity of removing jealousies, however misplaced, which operated on
+so large a portion of society. Among the most zealous friends of the
+constitution therefore, were found some of the first and warmest
+advocates for amendments.
+
+To meet the various ideas expressed by the several conventions; to
+select from the mass of alterations which they had proposed those
+which might be adopted without stripping the government of its
+necessary powers; to condense them into a form and compass which would
+be acceptable to persons disposed to indulge the caprice, and to adopt
+the language of their particular states; were labours not easily to be
+accomplished. But the greatest difficulty to be surmounted was, the
+disposition to make those alterations which would enfeeble, and
+materially injure, the future operations of the government. At length,
+ten articles in addition to and amendment of the constitution, were
+assented to by two-thirds of both houses of congress, and proposed to
+the legislatures of the several states. Although the necessity of
+these amendments had been urged by the enemies of the constitution,
+and denied by its friends, they encountered scarcely any other
+opposition in the state legislatures, than was given by the leaders of
+the anti-federal party. Admitting the articles to be good and
+necessary, it was contended that they were not sufficient for the
+security of liberty; and the apprehension was avowed that their
+adoption would quiet the fears of the people, and check the pursuit of
+those radical alterations which would afford a safe and adequate
+protection to their rights. They were at length ratified by the
+legislatures of three-fourths of the states, and probably contributed,
+in some degree, to diminish the jealousies which had been imbibed
+against the constitution.
+
+[Sidenote: Appointment of the officers of the cabinet, council and of
+the judges.]
+
+The government being completely organized, and a system of revenue
+established, the important duty of filling the offices which had been
+created, remained to be performed. In the execution of this delicate
+trust, the purest virtue and the most impartial judgment were
+exercised in selecting the best talents, and the greatest weight of
+character, which the United States could furnish. The unmingled
+patriotism of the motives by which the President was actuated, would
+receive its clearest demonstration from a view of all his private
+letters on this subject: and the success of his endeavours is attested
+by the abilities and reputation which he drew into the public service.
+
+At the head of the department of foreign affairs, since denominated
+the department of state, he placed Mr. Jefferson.
+
+This gentleman had been bred to the bar, and at an early period of
+life, had acquired considerable reputation for extensive attainments
+in the science of politics. He had been a distinguished member of the
+second congress, and had been offered a diplomatic appointment, which
+he had declined. Withdrawing from the administration of continental
+affairs, he had been elected governor of Virginia, which office he
+filled for two years. He afterwards again represented his native state
+in the councils of the union, and in the year 1784, was appointed to
+succeed Dr. Franklin at the court of Versailles. In that station, he
+had acquitted himself much to the public satisfaction. His Notes on
+Virginia, which were read with applause, were believed to evince the
+soundness of his political opinions; and the Declaration of
+Independence was universally ascribed to his pen. He had long been
+placed by America amongst the most eminent of her citizens, and had
+long been classed by the President with those who were most capable of
+serving the nation. Having lately obtained permission to return for a
+short time to the United States, he was, while on his passage,
+nominated to this important office; and, on his arrival in Virginia,
+found a letter from the President, giving him the option of becoming
+the secretary of foreign affairs, or of retaining his station at the
+court of Versailles. He appears rather to have inclined to continue in
+his foreign appointment; and, in changing his situation, to have
+consulted the wishes of the first magistrate more than the preference
+of his own mind.
+
+The task of restoring public credit, of drawing order and arrangement
+from the chaotic confusion in which the finances of America were
+involved, and of devising means which should render the revenue
+productive, and commensurate with the demand, in a manner least
+burdensome to the people, was justly classed among the most arduous of
+the duties which devolved on the new government. In discharging it,
+much aid was expected from the head of the treasury. This important,
+and, at that time, intricate department, was assigned to Colonel
+Hamilton.
+
+This gentleman was a native of the island of St. Croix, and, at a very
+early period of life, had been placed by his friends, in New York.
+Possessing an ardent temper, he caught fire from the concussions of
+the moment, and, with all the enthusiasm of youth, engaged first his
+pen, and afterwards his sword, in the stern contest between the
+American colonies and their parent state. Among the first troops
+raised by New York was a corps of artillery, in which he was appointed
+a captain. Soon after the war was transferred to the Hudson, his
+superior endowments recommended him to the attention of the
+Commander-in-chief, into whose family, before completing his
+twenty-first year, he was invited to enter. Equally brave and
+intelligent, he continued, in this situation, to display a degree of
+firmness and capacity which commanded the confidence and esteem of his
+general, and of the principal officers in the army.
+
+After the capitulation at Yorktown, the war languished throughout the
+American continent, and the probability that its termination was
+approaching daily increased.
+
+The critical circumstances of the existing government rendered the
+events of the civil, more interesting than those of the military
+department; and Colonel Hamilton accepted a seat in the congress of
+the United States. In all the important acts of the day, he performed
+a conspicuous part; and was greatly distinguished among those
+distinguished men whom the crisis had attracted to the councils of
+their country. He had afterwards been active in promoting those
+measures which led to the convention at Philadelphia, of which he was
+a member, and had greatly contributed to the adoption of the
+constitution by the state of New York. In the pre-eminent part he had
+performed, both in the military and civil transactions of his country,
+he had acquired a great degree of well merited fame; and the frankness
+of his manners, the openness of his temper, the warmth of his
+feelings, and the sincerity of his heart, had secured him many
+valuable friends.
+
+To talents equally splendid and useful, he united a patient industry,
+not always the companion of genius, which fitted him, in a peculiar
+manner, for subduing the difficulties to be encountered by the man who
+should be placed at the head of the American finances.
+
+The department of war was already filled by General Knox, and he was
+again nominated to it.
+
+Throughout the contest of the revolution, this officer had continued
+at the head of the American artillery, and from being the colonel of a
+regiment, had been promoted to the rank of a major general. In this
+important station, he had preserved a high military character; and, on
+the resignation of General Lincoln, had been appointed secretary of
+war. To his past services, and to unquestionable integrity, he was
+admitted to unite a sound understanding; and the public judgment, as
+well as that of the chief magistrate, pronounced him in all respects
+competent to the station he filled.
+
+The office of attorney general was filled by Mr. Edmund Randolph. To a
+distinguished reputation in the line of his profession, this gentleman
+added a considerable degree of political eminence. After having been
+for several years the attorney general of Virginia, he had been
+elected its governor. While in this office, he was chosen a member of
+the convention which framed the constitution, and was also elected to
+that which was called by the state for its adoption or rejection.
+After having served at the head of the executive the term permitted by
+the constitution of the state, he entered into its legislature, where
+he preserved a great share of influence.
+
+Such was the first cabinet council of the President. In its
+composition, public opinion as well as intrinsic worth had been
+consulted, and a high degree of character had been combined with real
+talent.
+
+In the selection of persons for high judicial offices, the President
+was guided by the same principles. At the head of this department he
+placed Mr. John Jay.
+
+From the commencement of the revolution, this gentleman had filled a
+large space in the public mind. Remaining, without intermission, in
+the service of his country, he had passed through a succession of high
+offices, and, in all of them, had merited the approbation of his
+fellow citizens. To his pen, while in congress, America was indebted
+for some of those masterly addresses which reflected most honour upon
+the government; and to his firmness and penetration, was to be
+ascribed, in no inconsiderable degree, the happy issue of those
+intricate negotiations, which were conducted, towards the close of the
+war, at Madrid, and at Paris. On returning to the United States, he
+had been appointed secretary of foreign affairs, in which station he
+had conducted himself with his accustomed ability. A sound judgment
+improved by extensive reading and great knowledge of public affairs,
+unyielding firmness, and inflexible integrity, were qualities of which
+Mr. Jay had given frequent and signal proofs. Although for some years
+withdrawn from that profession to which he was bred, the acquisitions
+of his early life had not been lost; and the subjects on which his
+mind had been exercised, were not entirely foreign from those which
+would, in the first instance, employ the courts in which he was to
+preside.
+
+John Rutledge of South Carolina, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, William
+Cushing of Massachusetts, Robert Harrison of Maryland, and John Blair
+of Virginia were nominated as associate justices. Some of these
+gentlemen had filled the highest law offices in their respective
+states; and all of them had received distinguished marks of the public
+confidence.
+
+In the systems which had been adopted by the several states, offices
+corresponding to those created by the revenue laws of congress, had
+been already established. Uninfluenced by considerations of personal
+regard, the President could not be induced to change men whom he found
+in place, if worthy of being employed; and where the man who had
+filled such office in the former state of things was unexceptionable
+in his conduct and character, he was uniformly re-appointed. In
+deciding between competitors for vacant offices, the law he prescribed
+for his government was to regard the fitness of candidates for the
+duties they would be required to discharge; and, where an equality in
+this respect existed, former merits and sufferings in the public
+service, gave claims to preference which could not be overlooked.
+
+In the legislative, as well as in the executive and judicial
+departments, great respectability of character was also associated
+with an eminent degree of talents. The constitutional prohibition to
+appoint any member of the legislature to an office created during the
+time for which he had been elected, did not exclude men of the most
+distinguished abilities from the first congress. Impelled by an
+anxious solicitude respecting the first measures of the government,
+its zealous friends had pressed into its service: and, in both
+branches of the legislature, men were found who possessed the fairest
+claims to the public confidence.
+
+From the duties attached to his office, the Vice President of the
+United States, and President of the senate, though not a member of the
+legislature, was classed, in the public mind, with that department not
+less than with the executive. Elected by the whole people of America
+in common with the President, he could not fail to be taken from the
+most distinguished citizens, and to add to the dignity of the body
+over which he presided.
+
+Mr. John Adams was one of the earliest and most ardent patriots of the
+revolution. Bred to the bar, he had necessarily studied the
+constitution of his country, and was among the most determined
+asserters of its rights. Active in guiding that high spirit which
+animated all New England, he became a member of the congress of 1774,
+and was among the first who dared to avow sentiments in favour of
+independence. In that body he soon attained considerable eminence;
+and, at an early stage of the war, was chosen one of the commissioners
+to whom the interests of the United States in Europe were confided. In
+his diplomatic character, he had contributed greatly to those measures
+which drew Holland into the war; had negotiated the treaty between the
+United States and the Dutch republic: and had, at critical points of
+time, obtained loans of money which were of great advantage to his
+country. In the negotiations which terminated the war, he had also
+rendered important services; and, after the ratification of the
+definitive articles of peace, had been deputed to Great Britain for
+the purpose of effecting a commercial treaty with that nation. The
+political situation of America having rendered this object
+unattainable, he solicited leave to return, and arrived in the United
+States soon after the adoption of the constitution.
+
+As a statesman, this gentleman had, at all times, ranked high in the
+estimation of his countrymen. He had improved a sound understanding by
+extensive political and historical reading; and perhaps no American
+had reflected more profoundly on the subject of government. The
+exalted opinion he entertained of his own country was flattering to
+his fellow citizens; and the purity of his mind, the unblemished
+integrity of a life spent in the public service, had gained him their
+confidence.
+
+A government, supported in all its departments by so much character
+and talent, at the head of which was placed a man whose capacity was
+undoubted, whose life had been one great and continued lesson of
+disinterested patriotism, and for whom almost every bosom glowed with
+an attachment bordering on enthusiasm, could not fail to make a rapid
+progress in conciliating the affection of the people. That all
+hostility to the constitution should subside, that public measures
+should receive universal approbation; that no particular disgusts and
+individual irritations should be excited; were expectations which
+could not reasonably be indulged. Exaggerated accounts were indeed
+occasionally circulated of the pomp and splendour which were affected
+by certain high officers, of the monarchical tendencies of particular
+institutions, and of the dispositions which prevailed to increase the
+powers of the executive. That the doors of the senate were closed, and
+that a disposition had been manifested by that body to distinguish the
+President of the United States by a title,[43] gave considerable
+umbrage, and were represented as evincing inclinations in that branch
+of the legislature, unfriendly to republicanism. The exorbitance of
+salaries was also a subject of some declamation, and the equality of
+commercial privileges with which foreign bottoms entered American
+ports, was not free from objection. But the apprehensions of danger to
+liberty from the new system, which had been impressed on the minds of
+well meaning men, were visibly wearing off; the popularity of the
+administration was communicating itself to the government; and the
+materials with which the discontented were furnished, could not yet be
+efficaciously employed.
+
+     [Footnote 43: The following extract from a letter written
+     July 1789, to Doctor Stuart, who had communicated to him
+     this among other private insinuations, shows the ideas
+     entertained by the President on this subject. "It is to be
+     lamented that a question has been stirred which has given
+     rise to so much animadversion, and which I confess has given
+     me much uneasiness, lest it should be supposed by some
+     unacquainted with facts that the object in view was not
+     displeasing to me. The truth is, the question was moved
+     before I arrived, without any privity or knowledge of it on
+     my part, and urged after I was apprised of it contrary to my
+     opinion;--for I foresaw and predicted the reception it has
+     met with, and the use that would be made of it by the
+     enemies of the government. Happily the matter is now done
+     with, I hope never to be revived."]
+
+Towards the close of the session, a report on a petition which had
+been presented at an early period by the creditors of the public
+residing in the state of Pennsylvania, was taken up in the house of
+representatives. Though many considerations rendered a postponement of
+this interesting subject necessary, two resolutions were passed; the
+one, "declaring that the house considered an adequate provision for
+the support of the public credit, as a matter of high importance to
+the national honour and prosperity;" and the other directing, "the
+secretary of the treasury to prepare a plan for that purpose, and to
+report the same to the house at its next meeting."
+
+[Sidenote: Adjournment of the first session of congress.]
+
+On the 29th of September, congress adjourned to the first Monday in
+the succeeding January.
+
+Throughout the whole of this laborious and important session, perfect
+harmony subsisted between the executive and the legislature; and no
+circumstance occurred which threatened to impair it. The modes of
+communication between the departments of government were adjusted in a
+satisfactory manner, and arrangements were made on some of those
+delicate points in which the senate participate of executive power.
+
+[Sidenote: The president visits the New England states.]
+
+Anxious to visit New England, to observe in person the condition of
+the country and the dispositions of the people towards the government
+and its measures, the President was disposed to avail himself of the
+short respite from official cares afforded by the recess of congress,
+to make a tour through the eastern states. His resolution being taken,
+and the executive business which required his immediate personal
+attendance being despatched,[44] he commenced his tour on the 15th of
+October; and, passing through Connecticut and Massachusetts, as far as
+Portsmouth in New Hampshire, returned by a different route to New
+York, where he arrived on the 13th of November.
+
+     [Footnote 44: Just before his departure from New York the
+     President received from the Count de Moustiers, the minister
+     of France, official notice that he was permitted by his
+     court to return to Europe. By the orders of his sovereign he
+     added, "that His Majesty was pleased at the alteration which
+     had taken place in the government, and congratulated America
+     on the choice they had made of a President." As from
+     himself, he observed that the government of this country had
+     been hitherto of so fluctuating a nature, that no dependence
+     could be placed on its proceedings; in consequence of which
+     foreign nations had been cautious of entering into treaties,
+     or engagements of any kind with the United States: but that
+     in the present government there was a head to look up to,
+     and power being placed in the hands of its officers,
+     stability in its measures might be expected. The disposition
+     of his Christian Majesty to cultivate the good will of the
+     new government was also manifested by his conduct in the
+     choice of a minister to replace the Count de Moustiers.
+     Colonel Ternan was named as a person who would be
+     particularly acceptable to America, and his appointment was
+     preceded by the compliment of ascertaining the sense of the
+     President respecting him.]
+
+With this visit, the President had much reason to be satisfied. To
+contemplate the theatre on which many interesting military scenes had
+been exhibited, and to review the ground on which his first campaign
+as Commander-in-chief of the American army had been made, were sources
+of rational delight. To observe the progress of society, the
+improvements in agriculture, commerce, and manufactures; and the
+temper, circumstances, and dispositions of the people, could not fail
+to be grateful to an intelligent mind, and an employment in all
+respects, worthy of the chief magistrate of the nation. The
+reappearance of their general, in the high station he now filled,
+brought back to recollection the perilous transactions of the war; and
+the reception universally given to him, attested the unabated love
+which was felt for his person and character, and indicated
+unequivocally the growing popularity, at least in that part of the
+union, of the government he administered.
+
+[Sidenote: His reception.]
+
+The sincerity and warmth with which he reciprocated the affection
+expressed for his person in the addresses presented to him, was well
+calculated to preserve the sentiments which were generally diffused.
+"I rejoice with you my fellow citizens," said he in answer to an
+address from the inhabitants of Boston, "in every circumstance that
+declares your prosperity;--and I do so most cordially because you have
+well deserved to be happy.
+
+"Your love of liberty--your respect for the laws--your habits of
+industry--and your practice of the moral and religious obligations,
+are the strongest claims to national and individual happiness. And
+they will, I trust, be firmly and lastingly established."
+
+But the interchange of sentiments with the companions of his military
+toils and glory, will excite most interest, because on both sides, the
+expressions were dictated by the purest and most delicious feelings of
+the human heart. From the Cincinnati of Massachusetts he received the
+following address:
+
+"Amidst the various gratulations which your arrival in this metropolis
+has occasioned, permit us, the members of the society of the
+Cincinnati in this commonwealth, most respectfully to assure you of
+the ardour of esteem and affection you have so indelibly fixed in our
+hearts, as our glorious leader in war, and illustrious example in
+peace.
+
+"After the solemn and endearing farewell on the banks of the Hudson,
+which our anxiety presaged as final, most peculiarly pleasing is the
+present unexpected meeting. On this occasion we can not avoid the
+recollection of the various scenes of toil and danger through which
+you conducted us; and while we contemplate various trying periods of
+the war, and the triumphs of peace, we rejoice to behold you, induced
+by the unanimous voice of your country, entering upon other trials,
+and other services alike important, and, in some points of view,
+equally hazardous. For the completion of the great purposes which a
+grateful country has assigned you, long, very long, may your
+invaluable life be preserved. And as the admiring world, while
+considering you as a soldier, have long wanted a comparison, may your
+virtue and talents as a statesman leave them without a parallel.
+
+"It is not in words to express an attachment founded like ours. We can
+only say that when soldiers, our greatest pride was a promptitude of
+obedience to your orders; as citizens, our supreme ambition is to
+maintain the character of firm supporters of that noble fabric of
+federal government over which you preside.
+
+"As members of the society of the Cincinnati, it will be our endeavour
+to cherish those sacred principles of charity and fraternal attachment
+which our institution inculcates. And while our conduct is thus
+regulated, we can never want the patronage of the first of patriots
+and the best of men."
+
+To this address the following answer was returned:
+
+"In reciprocating with gratitude and sincerity the multiplied and
+affecting gratulations of my fellow citizens of this commonwealth,
+they will all of them with justice allow me to say, that none can be
+dearer to me than the affectionate assurances which you have
+expressed. Dear, indeed, is the occasion which restores an intercourse
+with my faithful associates in prosperous and adverse fortune; and
+enhanced are the triumphs of peace, participated with those whose
+virtue and valour so largely contributed to procure them. To that
+virtue and valour your country has confessed her obligations. Be mine
+the grateful task to add the testimony of a connexion which it was my
+pride to own in the field, and is now my happiness to acknowledge in
+the enjoyments of peace and freedom.
+
+"Regulating your conduct by those principles which have heretofore
+governed your actions as men, soldiers, and citizens, you will repeat
+the obligations conferred on your country, and you will transmit to
+posterity an example that must command their admiration and grateful
+praise. Long may you continue to enjoy the endearments of fraternal
+attachments, and the heartfelt happiness of reflecting that you have
+faithfully done your duty.
+
+"While I am permitted to possess the consciousness of this worth,
+which has long bound me to you by every tie of affection and esteem, I
+will continue to be your sincere and faithful friend."
+
+Soon after his return to New York, the President was informed of the
+ill success which had attended his first attempt to negotiate a peace
+with the Creek Indians. General Lincoln, Mr. Griffin, and Colonel
+Humphries, had been deputed on this mission, and had met M'Gillivray
+with several other chiefs, and about two thousand men, at Rock
+landing, on the Oconee, on the frontiers of Georgia. The treaty
+commenced with favourable appearances, but was soon abruptly broken
+off by M'Gillivray. Some difficulties arose on the subject of a
+boundary, but the principal obstacles to a peace were supposed to grow
+out of his personal interests, and his connexions with Spain.
+
+[Sidenote: North Carolina accedes to the union.]
+
+This intelligence was more than counterbalanced by the accession of
+North Carolina to the union. In the month of November, a second
+convention had met under the authority of the legislature of that
+state, and the constitution was adopted by a great majority.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+     Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... Report of the
+     secretary of the treasury on public credit.... Debate
+     thereon.... Bill for fixing the permanent seat of
+     government.... Adjournment of congress.... Treaty with the
+     Creek Indians.... Relations of the United States with Great
+     Britain and Spain.... The President visits Mount Vernon....
+     Session of congress.... The President's speech.... Debates
+     on the excise.... On a national bank.... The opinions of the
+     cabinet on the law.... Progress of parties.... War with the
+     Indians.... Defeat of Harmar.... Adjournment of congress.
+
+
+{1790}
+
+On the eighth of January, 1790, the President met both houses of
+congress in the senate chamber.
+
+[Sidenote: Meeting of the second session of the first congress.]
+
+In his speech, which was delivered from the chair of the vice
+president, after congratulating congress on the accession of the
+important state of North Carolina to the union, and on the prosperous
+aspect of American affairs, he proceeded to recommend certain great
+objects of legislation to their more especial consideration.
+
+"Among the many interesting objects," continued the speech, "which
+will engage your attention, that of providing for the common defence
+will merit your particular regard. To be prepared for war is one of
+the most effectual means of preserving peace.
+
+"A free people ought not only to be armed but disciplined; to which
+end, a uniform and well digested plan is requisite; and their safety
+and interest require that they should promote such manufactories as
+tend to render them independent on others for essential, particularly
+for military supplies."
+
+As connected with this subject, a proper establishment for the troops
+which they might deem indispensable, was suggested for their mature
+deliberation; and the indications of a hostile temper given by several
+tribes of Indians, were considered as admonishing them of the
+necessity of being prepared to afford protection to the frontiers, and
+to punish aggression.
+
+The interests of the United States were declared to require that the
+means of keeping up their intercourse with foreign nations should be
+provided; and the expediency of establishing a uniform rule of
+naturalization was suggested.
+
+After expressing his confidence in their attention to many
+improvements essential to the prosperity of the interior, the
+President added, "nor am I less persuaded that you will agree with me
+in opinion that there is nothing which can better deserve your
+patronage than the promotion of science and literature. Knowledge is
+in every country the surest basis of public happiness. In one, in
+which the measures of government receive their impression so
+immediately from the sense of the community as in ours, it is
+proportionably essential. To the security of a free constitution it
+contributes in various ways: by convincing those who are intrusted
+with the public administration, that every valuable end of government
+is best answered by the enlightened confidence of the people; and by
+teaching the people themselves to know and to value their own rights;
+to discern and provide against invasions of them; to distinguish
+between oppression and the necessary exercise of lawful authority;
+between burdens proceeding from a disregard to their convenience, and
+those resulting from the inevitable exigencies of society; to
+discriminate the spirit of liberty from that of licentiousness,
+cherishing the first, avoiding the last, and uniting a speedy but
+temperate vigilance against encroachments, with an inviolable respect
+to the laws.
+
+"Whether this desirable object will be best promoted by affording aids
+to seminaries of learning already established, by the institution of a
+national university, or by any other expedients, will be well worthy
+of a place in the deliberations of the legislature."
+
+Addressing himself then particularly to the representatives he said:
+"I saw with peculiar pleasure at the close of the last session, the
+resolution entered into by you, expressive of your opinion, that an
+adequate provision for the support of the public credit is a matter of
+high importance to the national honour and prosperity. In this
+sentiment I entirely concur; and to a perfect confidence in your best
+endeavours to devise such a provision as will be truly consistent with
+the end, I add an equal reliance on the cheerful co-operation of the
+other branch of the legislature. It would be superfluous to specify
+inducements to a measure in which the character and permanent
+interests of the United States are so obviously and so deeply
+concerned; and which has received so explicit a sanction from your
+declaration."
+
+Addressing himself again to both houses, he observed, that the
+estimates and papers respecting the objects particularly recommended
+to their attention would be laid before them; and concluded with
+saying, "the welfare of our country is the great object to which our
+cares and efforts ought to be directed: and I shall derive great
+satisfaction from a co-operation with you in the pleasing though
+arduous task of insuring to our fellow citizens the blessings which
+they have a right to expect from a free, efficient, and equal
+government."
+
+The answers of both houses were indicative of the harmony which
+subsisted between the executive and legislative departments.
+
+Congress had been so occupied during its first session with those
+bills which were necessary to bring the new system into full
+operation, and to create an immediate revenue, that some measures
+which possessed great and pressing claims to immediate attention had
+been unavoidably deferred. That neglect under which the creditors of
+the public had been permitted to languish could not fail to cast an
+imputation on the American republics, which had been sincerely
+lamented by the wisest among those who administered the former
+government. The power to comply substantially with the engagements of
+the United States being at length conferred on those who were bound by
+them, it was confidently expected by the friends of the constitution
+that their country would retrieve its reputation, and that its fame
+would no longer be tarnished with the blots which stain a faithless
+people.
+
+[Sidenote: Report of the secretary of the treasury of a plan for the
+support of public credit.]
+
+On the 9th of January, a letter from the secretary of the treasury to
+the speaker of the house of representatives was read, stating that in
+obedience to the resolution of the 21st of September, he had prepared
+a plan for the support of public credit, which he was ready to report
+when the house should be pleased to receive it; and, after a short
+debate in which the personal attendance of the secretary for the
+purpose of making explanations was urged by some, and opposed by
+others, it was resolved that the report should be received in writing
+on the succeeding Thursday.
+
+Availing himself of the latitude afforded by the terms of the
+resolution under which he acted, the secretary had introduced into his
+report an able and comprehensive argument elucidating and supporting
+the principles it contained. After displaying, with strength and
+perspicuity, the justice and the policy of an adequate provision for
+the public debt, he proceeded to discuss the principles on which it
+should be made.
+
+"It was agreed," he said, "by all, that the foreign debt should be
+provided for according to the precise terms of the contract. It was to
+be regretted that, with respect to the domestic debt, the same
+unanimity of sentiment did not prevail."
+
+The first point on which the public appeared to be divided, involved
+the question, "whether a discrimination ought not to be made between
+original holders of the public securities, and present possessors by
+purchase." After reviewing the arguments generally urged in its
+support, the secretary declared himself against this discrimination.
+He deemed it "equally unjust and impolitic; highly injurious even to
+the original holders of public securities, and ruinous to public
+credit." To the arguments with which he enforced these opinions, he
+added the authority of the government of the union. From the circular
+address of congress to the states, of the 26th of April, 1783,
+accompanying their revenue system of the 18th of the same month,
+passages were selected indicating unequivocally, that in the view of
+that body the original creditors, and those who had become so by
+assignment, had equal claims upon the nation.
+
+After reasoning at great length against a discrimination between the
+different creditors of the union, the secretary proceeded to examine
+whether a difference ought to be permitted to remain between them and
+the creditors of individual states.
+
+Both descriptions of debt were contracted for the same objects, and
+were in the main the same. Indeed, a great part of the particular
+debts of the states had arisen from assumptions by them on account of
+the union; and it was most equitable that there should be the same
+measure of retribution for all. There were many reasons, some of which
+were stated, for believing this would not be the case, unless the
+state debts should be assumed by the nation.
+
+In addition to the injustice of favouring one class of creditors more
+than another which was equally meritorious, many arguments were urged
+in support of the policy of distributing to all with an equal hand
+from the same source.
+
+After an elaborate discussion of these and some other points connected
+with the subject, the secretary proposed that a loan should be opened
+to the full amount of the debt, as well of the particular states, as
+of the union.
+
+The terms to be offered were,--
+
+First. That for every one hundred dollars subscribed payable in the
+debt, as well interest as principal, the subscriber should be entitled
+to have two-thirds funded on a yearly interest of six per cent, (the
+capital redeemable at the pleasure of government by the payment of the
+principal) and to receive the other third in lands of the western
+territory at their then actual value. Or,
+
+Secondly. To have the whole sum funded at a yearly interest of four
+per cent., irredeemable by any payment exceeding five dollars per
+annum both on account of principal and interest, and to receive as a
+compensation for the reduction of interest, fifteen dollars and eighty
+cents, payable in lands as in the preceding case. Or,
+
+Thirdly. To have sixty-six and two-thirds of a dollar funded at a
+yearly interest of six per cent., irredeemable also by any payment
+exceeding four dollars and two-thirds of a dollar per annum on account
+both of principal and interest, and to have at the end of ten years
+twenty-six dollars and eighty-eight cents funded at the like interest
+and rate of redemption.
+
+In addition to these propositions the creditors were to have an option
+of vesting their money in annuities on different plans; and it was
+also recommended to open a loan at five per cent, for ten millions of
+dollars, payable one half in specie, and the other half in the debt,
+irredeemable by any payment exceeding six dollars per annum both of
+principal and interest.
+
+By way of experiment, a tontine on principles stated in the report was
+also suggested.
+
+The secretary was restrained from proposing to fund the whole debt
+immediately at the current rate of interest, by the opinion, "that
+although such a provision might not exceed the abilities of the
+country, it would require the extension of taxation to a degree, and
+to objects which the true interest of the creditors themselves would
+forbid. It was therefore to be hoped and expected, that they would
+cheerfully concur in such modifications of their claims, on fair and
+equitable principles, as would facilitate to the government an
+arrangement substantial, durable, and satisfactory to the community.
+Exigencies might ere long arise which would call for resources greatly
+beyond what was now deemed sufficient for the current service; and
+should the faculties of the country be exhausted, or even strained to
+provide for the public debt, there could be less reliance on the
+sacredness of the provision.
+
+"But while he yielded to the force of these considerations, he did not
+lose sight of those fundamental principles of good faith which dictate
+that every practicable exertion ought to be made, scrupulously to
+fulfil the engagements of government; that no change in the rights of
+its creditors ought to be attempted without their voluntary consent;
+and that this consent ought to be voluntary in fact, as well as in
+name. Consequently, that every proposal of a change ought to be in the
+shape of an appeal to their reason and to their interest, not to their
+necessities. To this end it was requisite that a fair equivalent
+should be offered, for what might be asked to be given up, and
+unquestionable security for the remainder." This fair equivalent for
+the proposed reduction of interest was, he thought, offered in the
+relinquishment of the power to redeem the whole debt at pleasure.
+
+That a free judgment might be exercised by the holders of public
+securities in accepting or rejecting the terms offered by the
+government, provision was made in the report for paying to
+non-subscribing creditors, a dividend of the surplus which should
+remain in the treasury after paying the interest of the proposed
+loans: but as the funds immediately to be provided, were calculated to
+produce only four per cent, on the entire debt, the dividend, for the
+present, was not to exceed that rate of interest.
+
+To enable the treasury to support this increased demand upon it, an
+augmentation of the duties on imported wines, spirits, tea, and
+coffee, was proposed, and a duty on home made spirits was also
+recommended.
+
+This celebrated report, which has been alike the fruitful theme of
+extravagant praise and bitter censure, merits the more attention,
+because the first regular and systematic opposition to the principles
+on which the affairs of the union were administered, originated in the
+measures which were founded on it.
+
+On the 28th of January, this subject was taken up; and, after some
+animadversions on the speculations in the public debt to which the
+report, it was said, had already given birth, the business was
+postponed until the eighth of February, when it was again brought
+forward.
+
+[Sidenote: Debate thereon.]
+
+Several resolutions affirmative of the principles contained in the
+report, were moved by Mr. Fitzsimmons. To the first, which respected a
+provision for the foreign debt, the house agreed without a dissenting
+voice. The second, in favour of appropriating permanent funds for
+payment of the interest on the domestic debt, and for the gradual
+redemption of the principal, gave rise to a very animated debate.
+
+Mr. Jackson declared his hostility to funding systems generally. To
+prove their pernicious influence, he appealed to the histories of
+Florence, Genoa, and Great Britain; and, contending that the subject
+ought to be deferred until North Carolina should be represented,
+moved, that the committee should rise. This question being decided in
+the negative, Mr. Scott declared the opinion that the United States
+were not bound to pay the domestic creditors the sums specified in the
+certificates of debts in their possession. He supported this opinion
+by urging, not that the public had received less value than was
+expressed on the face of the paper which had been issued, but that
+those to whom it had been delivered, by parting with it at two
+shillings and sixpence in the pound, had themselves fixed the value of
+their claims, and had manifested their willingness to add to their
+other sacrifices this deduction from their demand upon the nation. He
+therefore moved to amend the resolution before the committee so as to
+require a resettlement of the debt.
+
+The amendment was opposed by Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Ames, Mr.
+Sherman, Mr. Hartley, and Mr. Goodhue. They stated at large the terms
+on which the debt had been contracted, and urged the confidence which
+the creditors had a right to place in the government for its discharge
+according to settlements already made, and acknowledgments already
+given. The idea that the legislative body could diminish an
+ascertained debt was reprobated with great force, as being at the same
+time unjust, impolitic, and subversive of every principle on which
+public contracts are founded. The evidences of debt possessed by the
+creditors of the United States were considered as public bonds, for
+the redemption of which the property and the labour of the people were
+pledged.
+
+After the debate had been protracted to some length, the question was
+taken on Mr. Scott's amendment, and it passed in the negative.
+
+Mr. Madison then rose, and, in an eloquent speech, replete with
+argument, proposed an amendment to the resolution, the effect of which
+was to discriminate between the public creditors, so as to pay the
+present holder of assignable paper the highest price it had borne in
+the market, and give the residue to the person with whom the debt was
+originally contracted. Where the original creditor had never parted
+with his claim, he was to receive the whole sum acknowledged to be due
+on the face of the certificate.
+
+This motion was supported by Mr. Jackson, Mr. White, Mr. Moore, Mr.
+Page, Mr. Stone, Mr. Scott, and Mr. Seney.
+
+It was opposed with great earnestness and strength of argument, by Mr.
+Sedgewick, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Smith, of South Carolina, Mr. Ames, Mr.
+Gerry, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Wadsworth, Mr. Goodhue, Mr. Hartley, Mr.
+Bland, Mr. Benson, Mr. Burke, and Mr. Livermore.
+
+The argument was ably supported on both sides, was long, animated, and
+interesting. At length the question was put, and the amendment was
+rejected by a great majority.
+
+This discussion deeply engaged the public attention. The proposition
+was new and interesting. That the debt ought to be diminished for the
+public advantage, was an opinion which had frequently been advanced,
+and was maintained by many. But a reduction from the claims of its
+present holders for the benefit of those who had sold their rights,
+was a measure which saved nothing to the public purse, and was
+therefore recommended only by considerations, the operation of which
+can never be very extensive. Against it were arranged all who had made
+purchases, and a great majority of those who conceived that sound
+policy and honest dealing require a literal observance of public
+contracts.
+
+Although the decision of congress against a discrimination in favour
+of the original creditor produced no considerable sensation, the
+determination on that part of the secretary's report which was the
+succeeding subject of deliberation, affecting political interests and
+powers which are never to be approached without danger, seemed to
+unchain all those fierce passions which a high respect for the
+government and for those who administered it, had in a great measure
+restrained.
+
+The manner in which the several states entered into and conducted the
+war of the revolution, will be recollected. Acting in some respects
+separately, and in others conjointly, for the attainment of a common
+object, their resources were exerted, sometimes under the authority of
+congress, sometimes under the authority of the local government, to
+repel the enemy wherever he appeared. The debt incurred in support of
+the war was therefore, in the first instance, contracted partly by the
+continent, and partly by the states. When the system of requisitions
+was adopted, the transactions of the union were carried on, almost
+entirely, through the agency of the states; and when the measure of
+compensating the army for the depreciation of their pay became
+necessary, this burden, under the recommendation of congress, was
+assumed by the respective states. Some had funded this debt, and paid
+the interest upon it. Others had made no provision for the interest;
+but all, by taxes, paper money, or purchase, had, in some measure,
+reduced the principal. In their exertions some degree of inequality
+had obtained; and they looked anxiously to a settlement of accounts,
+for the ascertainment of claims which each supposed itself to have
+upon the union. Measures to effect this object had been taken by the
+former government; but they were slow in their progress, and intrinsic
+difficulties were found in the thing itself, not easily to be
+overcome.
+
+The secretary of the treasury proposed to assume these debts, and to
+fund them in common with that which continued to be the proper debt of
+the union.
+
+The resolution which comprehended this principle of the report, was
+vigorously opposed.
+
+It was contended that the general government would acquire an undue
+influence, and that the state governments would be annihilated by the
+measure. Not only would all the influence of the public creditors be
+thrown into the scale of the former, but it would absorb all the
+powers of taxation, and leave to the latter only the shadow of a
+government. This would probably terminate in rendering the state
+governments useless, and would destroy the system so recently
+established. The union, it was said, had been compared to a rope of
+sand; but gentlemen were cautioned not to push things to the opposite
+extreme. The attempt to strengthen it might be unsuccessful, and the
+cord might be strained until it should break.
+
+The constitutional authority of the federal government to assume the
+debts of the states was questioned. Its powers, it was said, were
+specified, and this was not among them.
+
+The policy of the measure, as it affected merely the government of the
+union, was controverted, and its justice was arraigned.
+
+On the ground of policy it was objected, that the assumption would
+impose on the United States a burden, the weight of which was
+unascertained, and which would require an extension of taxation beyond
+the limits which prudence would prescribe. An attempt to raise the
+impost would be dangerous; and the excise added to it would not
+produce funds adequate to the object. A tax on real estate must be
+resorted to, objections to which had been made in every part of the
+union. It would be more adviseable to leave this source of revenue
+untouched in the hands of the state governments, who could apply to it
+with more facility, with a better understanding of the subject, and
+with less dissatisfaction to individuals, than could possibly be done
+by the government of the United States.
+
+There existed no necessity for taking up this burden. The state
+creditors had not required it. There was no petition from them upon
+the subject. There was not only no application from the states, but
+there was reason to believe that they were seriously opposed to the
+measure. Many of them would certainly view it with a jealous,--a
+jaundiced eye. The convention of North Carolina, which adopted the
+constitution, had proposed, as an amendment to it, to deprive congress
+of the power of interfering between the respective states and their
+creditors: and there could be no obligation to assume more than the
+balances which on a final settlement would be found due to creditor
+states.
+
+That the debt by being thus accumulated would be perpetuated was also
+an evil of real magnitude. Many of the states had already made
+considerable progress in extinguishing their debts, and the process
+might certainly be carried on more rapidly by them than by the union.
+A public debt seemed to be considered by some as a public blessing;
+but to this doctrine they were not converts. If, as they believed, a
+public debt was a public evil, it would be enormously increased by
+adding those of the states to that of the union.
+
+The measure was unwise too as it would affect public credit. Such an
+augmentation of the debt must inevitably depreciate its value; since
+it was the character of paper, whatever denomination it might assume,
+to diminish in value in proportion to the quantity in circulation.
+
+It would also increase an evil which was already sensibly felt. The
+state debts when assumed by the continent, would, as that of the union
+had already done, accumulate in large cities; and the dissatisfaction
+excited by the payment of taxes, would be increased by perceiving that
+the money raised from the people flowed into the hands of a few
+individuals. Still greater mischief was to be apprehended. A great
+part of this additional debt would go into the hands of foreigners;
+and the United States would be heavily burdened to pay an interest
+which could not be expected to remain in the country.
+
+The measure was unjust, because it was burdening those states which
+had taxed themselves highly to discharge the claims of their
+creditors, with the debts of those which had not made the same
+exertions. It would delay the settlement of accounts between the
+individual states and the United States; and the supporters of the
+measure were openly charged with intending to defeat that settlement.
+
+It was also said that, in its execution, the scheme would be found
+extremely embarrassing, perhaps impracticable. The case of a partial
+accession to the measure by the creditors, a case which would probably
+occur, presented a difficulty for which no provision was made, and of
+which no solution had been given. Should the creditors in some states
+come into the system, and those in others refuse to change their
+security, the government would be involved in perplexities from which
+no means of extricating itself had been shown. Nor would it be
+practicable to discriminate between the debts contracted for general
+and for local objects.
+
+In the course of the debate, severe allusions were made to the conduct
+of particular states; and the opinions advanced in favour of the
+measure, were ascribed to local interests.
+
+In support of the assumption, the debts of the states were traced to
+their origin. America, it was said, had engaged in a war, the object
+of which was equally interesting to every part of the union. It was
+not the war of a particular state, but of the United States. It was
+not the liberty and independence of a part, but of the whole, for
+which they had contended, and which they had acquired. The cause was a
+common cause. As brethren, the American people had consented to hazard
+property and life in its defence. All the sums expended in the
+attainment of this great object, whatever might be the authority under
+which they were raised or appropriated, conduced to the same end.
+Troops were raised, and military stores purchased, before congress
+assumed the command of the army, or the control of the war. The
+ammunition which repulsed the enemy at Bunker's Hill, was purchased by
+Massachusetts; and formed a part of the debt of that state.
+
+Nothing could be more erroneous than the principle which had been
+assumed in argument, that the holders of securities issued by
+individual states were to be considered merely as state creditors;--as
+if the debt had been contracted on account of the particular state. It
+was contracted on account of the union, in that common cause in which
+all were equally interested.
+
+From the complex nature of the political system which had been adopted
+in America, the war was, in a great measure, carried on through the
+agency of the state governments; and the debts were, in truth, the
+debts of the union, for which the states had made themselves
+responsible. Except the civil list, the whole state expenditure was in
+the prosecution of the war; and the state taxes had undeniably
+exceeded the provision for their civil list. The foundation for the
+several classes of the debt was reviewed in detail; and it was
+affirmed to be proved from the review, and from the books in the
+public offices, that, in its origin, a great part of it, even in form,
+and the whole, in fact, was equitably due from the continent. The
+states individually possessing all the resources of the nation, became
+responsible to certain descriptions of the public creditors. But they
+were the agents of the continent in contracting the debt; and its
+distribution among them for payment, arose from the division of
+political power which existed under the old confederation. A new
+arrangement of the system had taken place, and a power over the
+resources of the nation was conferred on the general government. With
+the funds, the debt also ought to be assumed. This investigation of
+its origin demonstrated that the assumption was not the creation of a
+new debt, but the reacknowledgment of liability for an old one, the
+payment of which had devolved on those members of the system, who, at
+the time, were alone capable of paying it. And thence was inferred,
+not only the justice of the measure, but a complete refutation of the
+arguments drawn from the constitution. If, in point of fact, the debt
+was in its origin continental, and had been transferred to the states
+for greater facility of payment, there could be no constitutional
+objection to restoring its original and real character.
+
+The great powers of war, of taxation, and of borrowing money, which
+were vested in congress to pay the debts, and provide for the common
+defence and general welfare of the United States, comprised that in
+question. There could be no more doubt of their right to charge
+themselves with the payment of a debt contracted in the past war, than
+to borrow money for the prosecution of a future war. The impolicy of
+leaving the public creditors to receive payment from different sources
+was also strongly pressed; and the jealousy which would exist between
+the creditors of the union and of the states, was considered as a
+powerful argument in favour of giving them one common interest. This
+jealousy, it was feared, might be carried so far, as even to create an
+opposition to the laws of the union.
+
+If the states should provide for their creditors, the same sum of
+money must be collected from the people, as would be required if the
+debt should be assumed; and it would probably be collected in a manner
+more burdensome, than if one uniform system should be established. If
+all should not make such provision, it would be unjust to leave the
+soldier of one state unpaid, while the services of the man who fought
+by his side were amply compensated; and, after having assumed the
+funds, it would dishonour the general government to permit a creditor
+for services rendered, or property advanced for the continent, to
+remain unsatisfied, because his claim had been transferred to the
+state, at a time when the state alone possessed the means of payment.
+By the injured and neglected creditor, such an arrangement might
+justly be considered as a disreputable artifice.
+
+Instead of delaying, it was believed to be a measure which would
+facilitate the settlement of accounts between the states. Its
+advocates declared that they did not entertain, and never had
+entertained any wish to procrastinate a settlement. On the contrary,
+it was greatly desired by them. They had themselves brought forward
+propositions for that purpose; and they invited their adversaries to
+assist in improving the plan which had been introduced.
+
+The settlement between the states, it was said, either would or would
+not be made. Should it ever take place, it would remedy any
+inequalities which might grow out of the assumption. Should it never
+take place, the justice of the measure became the more apparent. That
+the burdens in support of a common war, which from various causes had
+devolved unequally on the states, ought to be apportioned among them,
+was a truth too clear to be controverted; and this, if the settlement
+should never be accomplished, could be effected only by the measure
+now proposed. Indeed, in any event, it would be the only certain, as
+well as only eligible plan. For how were the debtor states to be
+compelled to pay the balances which should be found against them?
+
+If the measure was recommended by considerations which rendered its
+ultimate adoption inevitable, the present was clearly preferable to
+any future time. It was desirable immediately to quiet the minds of
+the public creditors by assuring them that justice would be done; to
+simplify the forms of public debt; and to put an end to that
+speculation which had been so much reprobated, and which could be
+terminated only by giving the debt a real and permanent value.
+
+That the assumption would impair the just influence of the states was
+controverted with great strength of argument. The diffusive
+representation in the state legislatures, the intimate connexion
+between the representative and his constituents, the influence of the
+state legislatures over the members of one branch of the national
+legislature, the nature of the powers exercised by the state
+governments which perpetually presented them to the people in a point
+of view calculated to lay hold of the public affections, were
+guarantees that the states would retain their due weight in the
+political system, and that a debt was not necessary to the solidity or
+duration of their power.
+
+But the argument it was said proved too much. If a debt was now
+essential to the preservation of state authority, it would always be
+so. It must therefore never be extinguished, but must be perpetuated,
+in order to secure the existence of the state governments. If, for
+this purpose, it was indispensable that the expenses of the
+revolutionary war should be borne by the states, it would not be less
+indispensable that the expenses of future wars should be borne in the
+same manner. Either the argument was unfounded, or the constitution
+was wrong; and the powers of the sword and the purse ought not to have
+been conferred on the government of the union. Whatever speculative
+opinions might be entertained on this point, they were to administer
+the government according to the principles of the constitution as it
+was framed. But, it was added, if so much power follows the assumption
+as the objection implies, is it not time to ask--is it safe to forbear
+assuming? if the power is so dangerous, it will be so when exercised
+by the states. If assuming tends to consolidation, is the reverse,
+tending to disunion, a less weighty objection? if it is answered that
+the non-assumption will not necessarily tend to disunion; neither, it
+may be replied, does the assumption necessarily tend to consolidation.
+
+It was not admitted that the assumption would tend to perpetuate the
+debt. It could not be presumed that the general government would be
+less willing than the local governments to discharge it; nor could it
+be presumed that the means were less attainable by the former than the
+latter.
+
+It was not contended that a public debt was a public blessing. Whether
+a debt was to be preferred to no debt was not the question. The debt
+was already contracted: and the question, so far as policy might be
+consulted, was, whether it was more for the public advantage to give
+it such a form as would render it applicable to the purposes of a
+circulating medium, or to leave it a mere subject of speculation,
+incapable of being employed to any useful purpose. The debt was
+admitted to be an evil; but it was an evil from which, if wisely
+modified, some benefit might be extracted; and which, in its present
+state, could have only a mischievous operation.
+
+If the debt should be placed on adequate funds, its operation on
+public credit could not be pernicious: in its present precarious
+condition, there was much more to be apprehended in that respect.
+
+To the objection that it would accumulate in large cities, it was
+answered it would be a monied capital, and would be held by those who
+chose to place money at interest; but by funding the debt, the present
+possessors would be enabled to part with it at its nominal value,
+instead of selling it at its present current rate. If it should centre
+in the hands of foreigners, the sooner it was appreciated to its
+proper standard, the greater quantity of specie would its transfer
+bring into the United States.
+
+To the injustice of charging those states which had made great
+exertions for the payment of their debts with the burden properly
+belonging to those which had not made such exertions, it was answered,
+that every state must be considered as having exerted itself to the
+utmost of its resources; and that if it could not, or would not make
+provision for creditors to whom the union was equitably bound, the
+argument in favour of an assumption was the stronger.
+
+The arguments drawn from local interests were repelled, and retorted,
+and a great degree of irritation was excited on both sides.
+
+After a very animated discussion of several days, the question was
+taken, and the resolution was carried by a small majority. Soon after
+this decision, while the subject was pending before the house, the
+delegates from North Carolina took their seats, and changed the
+strength of parties. By a majority of two voices, the resolution was
+recommitted; and, after a long and ardent debate, was negatived by the
+same majority.
+
+This proposition continued to be supported with a degree of
+earnestness which its opponents termed pertinacious, but not a single
+opinion was changed. It was brought forward in the new and less
+exceptionable form of assuming specific sums from each state. Under
+this modification of the principle, the extraordinary contributions of
+particular states during the war, and their exertions since the peace,
+might be regarded; and the objections to the measure, drawn from the
+uncertainty of the sum to be assumed, would be removed. But these
+alterations produced no change of sentiment; and the bill was sent up
+to the senate with a provision for those creditors only whose
+certificates of debt purported to be payable by the union.
+
+In this state of things, the measure is understood to have derived aid
+from another, which was of a nature strongly to interest particular
+parts of the union.
+
+From the month of June, 1783, when congress was driven from
+Philadelphia by the mutiny of a part of the Pennsylvania line, the
+necessity of selecting some place for a permanent residence, in which
+the government of the union might exercise sufficient authority to
+protect itself from violence and insult, had been generally
+acknowledged. Scarcely any subject had occupied more time, or had more
+agitated the members of the former congress than this.
+
+[Sidenote: Bill for fixing the permanent seat of government.]
+
+In December, 1784, an ordinance was passed for appointing
+commissioners to purchase land on the Delaware, in the neighbourhood
+of its falls, and to erect thereon the necessary public buildings for
+the reception of congress, and the officers of government; but the
+southern interest had been sufficiently strong to arrest the execution
+of this ordinance by preventing an appropriation of funds, which
+required the assent of nine states. Under the existing government,
+this subject had received the early attention of congress; and many
+different situations from the Delaware to the Potomac inclusive, had
+been earnestly supported; but a majority of both houses had not
+concurred in favour of any one place. With as little success, attempts
+had been made to change the temporary residence of congress. Although
+New York was obviously too far to the east, so many conflicting
+interests were brought into operation whenever the subject was
+touched, that no motion designating a more central place, could
+succeed. At length, a compact respecting the temporary and permanent
+seat of government was entered into between the friends of
+Philadelphia, and the Potomac, stipulating that congress should
+adjourn to and hold its sessions in Philadelphia, for ten years,
+during which time, buildings for the accommodation of the government
+should be erected at some place on the Potomac, to which the
+government should remove at the expiration of the term. This compact
+having united the representatives of Pennsylvania and Delaware with
+the friends of the Potomac, in favour both of the temporary and
+permanent residence which had been agreed on between them, a majority
+was produced in favour of the two situations, and a bill which was
+brought into the senate in conformity with this previous arrangement,
+passed both houses by small majorities. This act was immediately
+followed by an amendment to the bill then pending before the senate
+for funding the debt of the union. The amendment was similar in
+principle to that which had been unsuccessfully proposed in the house
+of representatives. By its provisions, twenty-one millions five
+hundred thousand dollars of the state debts were assumed in specified
+proportions; and it was particularly enacted that no certificate
+should be received from a state creditor which could be "ascertained
+to have been issued for any purpose other than compensations and
+expenditures for services or supplies towards the prosecution of the
+late war, and the defence of the United States, or of some part
+thereof, during the same."
+
+When the question was taken in the house of representatives on this
+amendment, two members representing districts on the Potomac, who, in
+all the previous stages of the business, had voted against the
+assumption, declared themselves in its favour; and thus the majority
+was changed.[45]
+
+     [Footnote 45: It has ever been understood that these members
+     were, on principle, in favour of the assumption as modified
+     in the amendment made by the senate; but they withheld their
+     assent from it when originally proposed in the house of
+     representatives, in the opinion that the increase of the
+     national debt, added to the necessity of giving to the
+     departments of the national government a more central
+     residence. It is understood that a greater number would have
+     changed had it been necessary.]
+
+Thus was a measure carried, which was supported and opposed with a
+degree of zeal and earnestness not often manifested; and which
+furnished presages, not to be mistaken, that the spirit with which the
+opposite opinions had been maintained, would not yield, contentedly,
+to the decision of a bare majority. This measure has constituted one
+of the great grounds of accusation against the first administration of
+the general government; and it is fair to acknowledge, that though, in
+its progress, it derived no aid from the President, whose opinion
+remained in his own bosom, it received the full approbation of his
+judgment.
+
+A bill, at length, passed both houses, funding the debt upon
+principles which lessened considerably the weight of the public
+burdens, and was entirely satisfactory to the public creditors. The
+proceeds of the sales of the lands lying in the western territory,
+and, by a subsequent act of the same session, the surplus product of
+the revenue after satisfying the appropriations which were charged
+upon it, with the addition of two millions, which the President was
+authorized to borrow at five per centum, constituted a sinking fund to
+be applied to the reduction of the debt.
+
+The effect of this measure was great and rapid. The public paper
+suddenly rose, and was for a short time above par. The immense wealth
+which individuals acquired by this unexpected appreciation, could not
+be viewed with indifference. Those who participated in its advantages,
+regarded the author of a system to which they were so greatly
+indebted, with an enthusiasm of attachment to which scarcely any
+limits were assigned. To many others, this adventitious collection of
+wealth in particular hands, was a subject rather of chagrin than of
+pleasure; and the reputation which the success of his plans gave to
+the secretary of the treasury, was not contemplated with unconcern. As
+if the debt had been created by the existing government, not by a war
+which gave liberty and independence to the United States, its being
+funded was ascribed by many, not to a sense of justice, and to a
+liberal and enlightened policy, but to the desire of bestowing on the
+government an artificial strength, by the creation of a monied
+interest which would be subservient to its will.
+
+The effects produced by giving the debt a permanent value, justified
+the predictions of those whose anticipations had been most favourable.
+The sudden increase of monied capital derived from it, invigorated
+commerce, and gave a new stimulus to agriculture.
+
+About this time, there was a great and visible improvement in the
+circumstances of the people. Although the funding system was certainly
+not inoperative in producing this improvement, it can not be justly
+ascribed to any single cause. Progressive industry had gradually
+repaired the losses sustained by the war; and the influence of the
+constitution on habits of thinking and acting, though silent, was
+considerable. In depriving the states of the power to impair the
+obligation of contracts, or to make any thing but gold and silver a
+tender in payment of debts, the conviction was impressed on that
+portion of society which had looked to the government for relief from
+embarrassment, that personal exertions alone could free them from
+difficulties; and an increased degree of industry and economy was the
+natural consequence of this opinion.
+
+[Sidenote: Adjournment of congress.]
+
+On the 12th of August, after an arduous session, congress adjourned,
+to meet in Philadelphia the first Monday in the following December.
+
+While the discussions in the national legislature related to subjects,
+and were conducted in a temper, well calculated to rouse the active
+spirit of party, the external relations of the United States wore an
+aspect not perfectly serene. To the hostile temper manifested by the
+Indians on the western and southern frontiers, an increased degree of
+importance was given by the apprehension that their discontents were
+fomented by the intrigues of Britain and of Spain. From Canada, the
+Indians of the north-west were understood to be furnished with the
+means of prosecuting a war which they were stimulated to continue;
+and, to the influence of the governor of the Floridas had been partly
+attributed the failure of the negotiation with the Creeks. That this
+influence would still be exerted to prevent a friendly intercourse
+with that nation was firmly believed; and it was feared that Spain
+might take a part in the open hostilities threatened by the irritable
+dispositions of individuals in both countries. From the intimate
+connexion subsisting between the members of the house of Bourbon, this
+event was peculiarly deprecated; and the means of avoiding it were
+sought with solicitude. These considerations determined the President
+to make another effort at negotiation; but, to preserve the respect of
+these savages for the United States, it was at the same time resolved
+that the agent to be employed should visit the country on other
+pretexts, and should carry a letter of introduction to M'Gillivray,
+blending with other subjects a strong representation of the miseries
+which a war with the United States would bring upon his people; and an
+earnest exhortation to repair with the chiefs of his nation to the
+seat of the federal government, in order to effect a solid and
+satisfactory peace. Colonel Willett was selected for this service; and
+he acquitted himself so well of the duty assigned to him, as to induce
+the chiefs of the nation, with M'Gillivray at their head, to repair to
+New York, where negotiations were opened which terminated in a treaty
+of peace,[46] signed on the 7th day of August.[47]
+
+     [Footnote 46: On the first information at St. Augustine that
+     M'Gillivray was about to repair to New York, the
+     intelligence was communicated to the governor at the
+     Havanna, and the secretary of East Florida came to New York,
+     with a large sum of money to purchase flour, as it was said;
+     but to embarrass the negotiations with the Creeks was
+     believed to be his real design. He was closely watched, and
+     measures were taken to render any attempts he might make
+     abortive.]
+
+     [Footnote 47: See note, No. IV. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty with the Creek Indians.]
+
+The pacific overtures made to the Indians of the Wabash and the Miamis
+not having been equally successful, the western frontiers were still
+exposed to their destructive incursions. A long course of experience
+had convinced the President that, on the failure of negotiation, sound
+policy and true economy, not less than humanity, required the
+immediate employment of a force which should carry death and
+destruction into the heart of the hostile settlements. Either not
+feeling the same impressions, or disposed to indulge the wishes of the
+western people, who declared openly their preference for desultory
+military expeditions, congress did not adopt measures corresponding
+with the wishes of the executive, and the military establishment[48]
+was not equal to the exigency. The distresses of the frontier
+establishment, therefore, still continued; and the hostility they had
+originally manifested to the constitution, sustained no diminution.
+
+     [Footnote 48: On giving his assent to the bill "regulating
+     the military establishment of the United States," the
+     President subjoined to the entry in his diary the remark,
+     that although he gave it his sanction, "he did not conceive
+     that the military establishment was adequate to the
+     exigencies of the government, and to the protection it was
+     intended to afford." It consisted of one regiment of
+     infantry, and one battalion of artillery, amounting in the
+     total, exclusive of commissioned officers, to twelve hundred
+     and sixteen men.]
+
+[Sidenote: United States in relations with Great Britain and Spain.]
+
+No progress had been made in adjusting the points of controversy with
+Spain and Britain. With the former power, the question of boundary
+remained unsettled; and the cabinet of Madrid discovered no
+disposition to relax the rigour of its pretensions respecting the
+navigation of the Mississippi. Its general conduct furnished no
+foundation for a hope that its dispositions towards the United States
+were friendly, or that it could view their growing power without
+jealousy.
+
+The non-execution of the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th articles of the treaty
+of peace, still furnished the United States and Great Britain with
+matter for reciprocal crimination, which there was the more difficulty
+in removing, because no diplomatic intercourse was maintained between
+them. The cabinet of St. James having never appointed a minister to
+the United States, and Mr. Adams having returned from London without
+effecting the object of his mission, the American government felt some
+difficulty in repeating advances which had been treated with neglect.
+Yet there was much reason to desire full explanations with the English
+government, and to understand perfectly its views and intentions. The
+subjects for discussion were delicate in their nature, and could not
+be permitted to remain in their present state, without hazarding the
+most serious consequences. The detention of a part of the territory of
+the United States, was a circumstance of much importance to the
+honour, as well as to the interests of the nation, and the commercial
+intercourse between the two countries was so extensive, as to require
+amicable and permanent regulations. The early attention of the
+President had been directed to these subjects; and, in October, 1789,
+he had resolved on taking informal measures to sound the British
+cabinet, and to ascertain its views respecting them. This negotiation
+was entrusted to Mr. Gouverneur Morris, who had been carried by
+private business to Europe; and he conducted it with ability and
+address, but was unable to bring it to a happy conclusion. The result
+of his conferences with the Duke of Leeds, and with Mr. Pitt, was a
+conviction that the British government, considering the posts they
+occupied on the southern side of the great lakes as essential to their
+monopoly of the fur trade, would surrender them reluctantly, and was
+not desirous of entering into a commercial treaty. Those ministers
+expressed a wish to be on the best terms with America; but repeated
+the complaints which had been previously made by Lord Carmarthen, of
+the non-execution of the treaty of peace on the part of the United
+States. To the observations made by Mr. Morris, that the constitution
+lately adopted, and the courts established under it, amounted to a
+full compliance with that treaty on the part of the American
+government, it was answered, that losses had already been sustained in
+consequence of the obstructions given by the states to the fair
+operation of that instrument, which rendered a faithful observance of
+it, at present, impossible; and, in a note, the Duke of Leeds avowed
+the intention, if the delay on the part of the American government to
+fulfil its engagements made in the treaty should have rendered their
+final completion impracticable, to retard the fulfilment of those
+which depended entirely on Great Britain, until redress should be
+granted to the subjects of his majesty on the specific points of the
+treaty itself, or a fair and just compensation obtained for the
+non-performance of those stipulations which the United States had
+failed to observe. Though urged by Mr. Morris to state explicitly in
+what respects, and to what degree, he considered the final completion
+of those engagements to which the United States were bound, as having
+been rendered impracticable, no such statement was given; and the
+British government seemed inclined to avoid, for the present, those
+full and satisfactory explanations, which were sought on the part of
+the United States.
+
+After detailing the motives which in his opinion influenced the
+English cabinet in wishing to suspend for a time all discussions with
+America, Mr. Morris observed, "perhaps there never was a moment in
+which this country felt herself greater; and consequently, it is the
+most unfavourable moment to obtain advantageous terms from her in any
+bargain."
+
+Whilst these negotiations were pending, intelligence was received at
+London of the attack made on the British settlement at Nootka Sound;
+and preparations were instantly made to resent the insult alleged to
+have been offered to the nation. The high ground taken on this
+occasion by the government, and the vigour with which it armed in
+support of its pretensions, furnished strong reasons for the opinion
+that a war with Spain, and probably with France, would soon be
+commenced.
+
+In America, this was considered as a favourable juncture for urging
+the claims of the United States to the free navigation of the
+Mississippi. Mr. Carmichael, their charge d'affaires at the court of
+Madrid, was instructed not only to press this point with earnestness,
+but to use his utmost endeavours to secure the unmolested use of that
+river in future, by obtaining a cession of the island of New Orleans,
+and of the Floridas. A full equivalent for this cession would be
+found, it was said, in the sincere friendship of the United States,
+and in the security it would give to the territories of Spain, west of
+the Mississippi.
+
+Mr. Carmichael was also instructed to point the attention of the
+Spanish government to the peculiar situation of the United States. To
+one half of their territory, the use of the Mississippi was
+indispensable. No efforts could prevent their acquiring it. That they
+would acquire it, either by acting separately, or in conjunction with
+Great Britain, was one of those inevitable events against which human
+wisdom could make no provision. To the serious consideration of the
+Spanish government, therefore, were submitted the consequences which
+must result to their whole empire in America, either from hostilities
+with the United States, or from a seizure of Louisiana by Great
+Britain.
+
+The opinion, that in the event of war between Great Britain and Spain,
+Louisiana would be invaded from Canada, was not a mere suggestion for
+the purpose of aiding the negotiations at Madrid. It was seriously
+adopted by the American government; and the attention of the executive
+was turned to the measures which it would be proper to take, should
+application be made for permission to march a body of troops, through
+the unsettled territories of the United States, into the dominions of
+Spain; or should the attempt be made to march them, without
+permission.
+
+Among the circumstances which contributed to the opinion that, in the
+event of war, the arms of Great Britain would be directed against the
+settlements of Spain in America, was the continuance of Lord
+Dorchester in the government of Canada. This nobleman had intimated a
+wish to visit New York on his return to England; but the prospect of a
+rupture with Spain had determined him to remain in Canada. Under the
+pretext of making his acknowledgments for the readiness with which his
+desire to pass through New York had been acceded to, his lordship
+despatched Major Beck with, a member of his family, to sound the
+American government, and if possible, to ascertain its dispositions
+towards the two nations. Alluding to the negotiations which had been
+commenced in London, this gentleman endeavoured to assign a
+satisfactory cause for the delays which had intervened. It was not
+improbable, he said, that these delays, and some other circumstances,
+might have impressed Mr. Morris with an idea of backwardness on the
+part of the British ministry. His lordship, however, had directed him
+to say, that an inference of this sort would not, in his opinion, be
+well founded, as he had reason to believe that the British cabinet was
+inclined not only towards a friendly intercourse, but towards an
+alliance with the United States.
+
+Major Beckwith represented the particular ground of quarrel as one
+which ought to interest all commercial nations in favour of the views
+of Great Britain; and, from that circumstance, he presumed that,
+should a war ensue, the United States would find their interest in
+taking part with Britain, rather than with Spain.
+
+After expressing the concern with which Lord Dorchester had heard of
+the depredations of the savages on the western frontier of the United
+States, he declared that his lordship, so far from countenancing these
+depredations, had taken every proper opportunity to impress upon the
+Indians a pacific disposition; and that, on his first hearing of the
+outrages lately committed, he had sent a messenger to endeavour to
+prevent them. Major Beckwith further intimated, that the perpetrators
+of the late murders were banditti, composed chiefly of Creeks and
+Cherokees, in the Spanish interest, over whom the governor of Canada
+possessed no influence.
+
+These communications were laid before the President, and appeared to
+him to afford an explanation of the delays experienced by Mr. Morris.
+He was persuaded that a disposition existed in the cabinet of London
+to retain things in their actual situation, until the intentions of
+the American government should be ascertained with respect to the war
+supposed to be approaching. If the United States would enter into an
+alliance with Great Britain, and would make a common cause with her
+against Spain, the way would be smoothed to the attainment of all
+their objects: but if America should be disinclined to such a
+connexion, and especially, if she should manifest any partiality
+towards Spain, no progress would be made in the attempt to adjust the
+point of difference between the two nations. Taking this view of the
+subject, he directed that the further communications of Mr. Beckwith
+should be heard civilly, and that their want of official authenticity
+should be hinted delicately, without using any expressions which
+might, in the most remote degree, impair the freedom of the United
+States, to pursue, without reproach, in the expected war, such a line
+of conduct as their interests or honour might dictate.
+
+In the opinion that it would not only be useless but dishonourable
+further to press a commercial treaty, or the exchange of ministers,
+and that the subject of the western posts ought not again to be moved
+on the part of the United States, until they should be in a condition
+to speak a decisive language, the powers given to Mr. Morris were
+withdrawn. Should the interest of Britain produce a disposition
+favourable to an amicable arrangement of differences, and to a liberal
+commercial intercourse secured by compact, it was believed that she
+would make the requisite advances; until then, or until some other
+change of circumstances should require a change of conduct, things
+were to remain in their actual situation.
+
+About the time of adopting this resolution, the dispute between
+Britain and Spain was adjusted. Finding France unwilling to engage in
+his quarrel, his Catholic Majesty, too weak to encounter alone the
+force of the British empire, yielded every point in controversy; and
+thus were terminated for the present, both the fear of inconveniences,
+and the hope of advantages which might result to America from
+hostilities between the two powers, whose dominions were in her
+neighbourhood, and with each of whom she was already engaged in
+controversies not easily to be accommodated.
+
+[Sidenote: The president visits Mount Vernon.]
+
+Incessant application to public business, and the consequent change of
+active for sedentary habits, had greatly impaired the constitution of
+the President; and, during the last session of congress, he had, for
+the second time since entering on the duties of his present station,
+been attacked by a severe disease which reduced him to the brink of
+the grave. Exercise and a temporary relief from the cares of office
+being essential to the restoration of his health, he determined, for
+the short interval afforded by the recess of the legislature, to
+retire to the tranquil shades of Mount Vernon. After returning from a
+visit to Rhode Island,[49] which state not having then adopted the
+American constitution, had not been included in his late tour through
+New England, he took leave of New York; and hastened to that peaceful
+retreat, and those rural employments, his taste for which neither
+military glory, nor political power, could ever diminish.
+
+     [Footnote 49: Rhode Island had adopted the constitution in
+     the preceding May, and had thus completed the union.]
+
+After a short indulgence in these favourite scenes, it became
+necessary to repair to Philadelphia, in order to meet the national
+legislature.
+
+[Sidenote: The president's speech.]
+
+In the speech delivered to congress at the commencement of their third
+session, the President expressed much satisfaction at the favourable
+prospect of public affairs; and particularly noticed the progress of
+public credit, and the productiveness of the revenue.
+
+Adverting to foreign nations,[50] he said, "the disturbed situation of
+Europe, and particularly the critical posture of the great maritime
+powers, whilst it ought to make us more thankful for the general peace
+and security enjoyed by the United States, reminds us at the same time
+of the circumspection with which it becomes us to preserve these
+blessings. It requires also, that we should not overlook the tendency
+of a war, and even of preparations for war among the nations most
+concerned in active commerce with this country, to abridge the means,
+and thereby at least to enhance the price, of transporting its
+valuable productions to their proper market." To the serious
+reflection of congress was recommended the prevention of
+embarrassments from these contingencies, by such encouragement to
+American navigation as would render the commerce and agriculture of
+the United States less dependent on foreign bottoms.
+
+     [Footnote 50: In a more confidential message to the senate,
+     all the objects of the negotiation in which Mr. Morris had
+     been employed were detailed, and the letters of that
+     gentleman, with the full opinion of the President were
+     communicated.]
+
+After expressing to the house of representatives his confidence
+arising from the sufficiency of the revenues already established, for
+the objects to which they were appropriated, he added, "allow me
+moreover to hope that it will be a favourite policy with you not
+merely to secure a payment of the interest of the debt funded, but as
+far, and as fast as the growing resources of the country will permit,
+to exonerate it of the principal itself." Many subjects relative to
+the interior government were succinctly and briefly mentioned; and the
+speech concluded with the following impressive and admonitory
+sentiment. "In pursuing the various and weighty business of the
+present session, I indulge the fullest persuasion that your
+consultations will be marked with wisdom, and animated by the love of
+country. In whatever belongs to my duty, you shall have all the
+co-operation which an undiminished zeal for its welfare can inspire.
+It will be happy for us both, and our best reward, if by a successful
+administration of our respective trusts, we can make the established
+government more and more instrumental in promoting the good of our
+fellow citizens, and more and more the object of their attachment and
+confidence."
+
+The addresses of the two houses, in answer to the speech, proved that
+the harmony between the executive and legislative departments, with
+which the government had gone into operation, had sustained no
+essential interruption. But in the short debate which took place on
+the occasion, in the house of representatives, a direct disapprobation
+of one of the measures of the executive government was, for the first
+time, openly expressed.
+
+In the treaty lately concluded with the Creeks, an extensive territory
+claimed by Georgia, under treaties, the validity of which was
+contested by the Indian chiefs, had been entirely, or in great part,
+relinquished. This relinquishment excited serious discontents in that
+state; and was censured by General Jackson with considerable warmth,
+as an unjustifiable abandonment of the rights and interests of
+Georgia. No specific motion, however, was made, and the subject was
+permitted to pass away for the present.
+
+Scarcely were the debates on the address concluded, when several
+interesting reports were received from the secretary of the treasury,
+suggesting such further measures as were deemed necessary for the
+establishment of public credit.
+
+It will be recollected that in his original report on this subject,
+the secretary had recommended the assumption of the state debts; and
+had proposed to enable the treasury to meet the increased demand upon
+it, which this measure would occasion, by an augmentation of the
+duties on imported wines, spirits, tea, and coffee, and by imposing
+duties on spirits distilled within the country. The assumption not
+having been adopted until late in the session, the discussion on the
+revenue which would be required for this portion of the public debt
+did not commence, until the house had become impatient for an
+adjournment. As much contrariety of opinion was disclosed, and the
+subject did not press,[51] it was deferred to the ensuing session; and
+an order was made, requiring the secretary of the treasury to prepare
+and report such further provision as might, in his opinion, be
+necessary for establishing the public credit. In obedience to this
+order, several reports had been prepared, the first of which repeated
+the recommendation of an additional impost on foreign distilled
+spirits, and of a duty on spirits distilled within the United States.
+The estimated revenue from these sources was eight hundred and
+seventy-seven thousand five hundred dollars, affording a small excess
+over the sum which would be required to pay the interest on the
+assumed debt. The policy of the measure was discussed in a well
+digested and able argument, detailing many motives, in addition to
+those assigned in his original report, for preferring the system now
+recommended, to accumulated burdens on commerce, or to a direct tax on
+lands.
+
+     [Footnote 51: The interest on the assumed debt was to
+     commence with the year 1792.]
+
+A new tax is the certain rallying point for all those who are
+unfriendly to the administration, or to the minister by whom it is
+proposed. But that recommended by the secretary, contained intrinsic
+causes of objection which would necessarily add to the number of its
+enemies. All that powerful party in the United States, which attached
+itself to the local, rather than to the general government, would
+inevitably contemplate any system of internal revenue with jealous
+disapprobation. They considered the imposition of a tax by congress on
+any domestic manufacture, as the intrusion of a foreign power into
+their particular concerns, which excited serious apprehensions for
+state importance, and for liberty. In the real or supposed interests
+of many individuals was also found a distinct motive for hostility to
+the measure. A large portion of the American population, especially
+that which had spread itself over the extensive regions of the west,
+consuming imported articles to a very inconsiderable amount, was not
+much affected by the impost on foreign merchandize. But the duty on
+spirits distilled within the United States reached them, and
+consequently rendered them hostile to the tax.
+
+{1791}
+
+[Sidenote: Debate on the excise law.]
+
+A bill, which was introduced in pursuance of the report, was opposed
+with great vehemence by a majority of the southern and western
+members. By some of them it was insisted that no sufficient testimony
+had yet been exhibited, that the taxes already imposed would not be
+equal to the exigencies of the public. But, admitting the propriety of
+additional burdens on the people, it was contended that other sources
+of revenue, less exceptionable and less odious than this, might be
+explored. The duty was branded with the hateful epithet of an excise,
+a species of taxation, it was said, so peculiarly oppressive as to be
+abhorred even in England; and which was totally incompatible with the
+spirit of liberty. The facility with which it might be extended to
+other objects, was urged against its admission into the American
+system; and declarations made against it by the congress of 1775, were
+quoted in confirmation of the justice with which inherent vices were
+ascribed to this mode of collecting taxes. So great was the hostility
+manifested against it in some of the states, that the revenue officers
+might be endangered from the fury of the people; and, in all, it would
+increase a ferment which had been already extensively manifested.
+Resolutions of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, reprobating the
+assumption, were referred to as unequivocal evidences of growing
+dissatisfaction; and the last mentioned state had even expressed its
+decided hostility to any law of excise. The legislature of North
+Carolina had rejected with scorn, a proposal for taking an oath to
+support the constitution of the United States; had refused to admit
+persons sentenced to imprisonment under the laws of the United States
+into their jails; and another circumstance was alluded to, but not
+explained, which was said to exhibit a temper still more hostile to
+the general government than either of those which had been stated.
+
+When required to produce a system in lieu of that which they so much
+execrated, the opponents of the bill alternately mentioned an
+increased duty on imported articles generally, a particular duty on
+molasses, a direct tax, a tax on salaries, pensions, and lawyers; a
+duty on newspapers, and a stamp act.
+
+The friends of the bill contended, that the reasons for believing the
+existing revenue would be insufficient to meet the engagements of the
+United States, were as satisfactory as the nature of the case would
+admit, or as ought to be required. The estimates were founded on the
+best data which were attainable, and the funds already provided, had
+been calculated by the proper officer to pay the interest on that part
+of the debt only for which they were pledged. Those estimates were
+referred to as documents, from which it would be unsafe to depart.
+They were also in possession of official statements, showing the
+productiveness of the taxes from the time the revenue bill had been in
+operation; and arguments were drawn from these, demonstrating the
+danger to which the infant credit of the United States would be
+exposed, by relying on the existing funds for the interest on the
+assumed debt. It was not probable that the proposed duties would yield
+a sum much exceeding that which would be necessary; but should they
+fortunately do so, the surplus revenue might be advantageously
+employed in extinguishing a part of the principal. They were not, they
+said, of opinion, that a public debt was a public blessing, or that it
+ought to be perpetuated.
+
+An augmentation of the revenue being indispensable to the solidity of
+the public credit, a more eligible system than that proposed in the
+bill, could not, it was believed, be devised. Still further to burden
+commerce, would be a hazardous experiment which might afford no real
+supplies to the treasury. Until some lights should be derived from
+experience, it behoved the legislature to be cautious not to lay such
+impositions upon trade as might probably introduce a spirit of
+smuggling, which, with a nominal increase, would occasion a real
+diminution of revenue. In the opinion of the best judges, the impost
+on the mass of foreign merchandise could not safely be carried further
+for the present. The extent of the mercantile capital of the United
+States would not justify the attempt. Forcible arguments were also
+drawn from the policy and the justice of multiplying the subjects of
+taxation, and diversifying them by a union of internal with external
+objects.
+
+Neither would a direct tax be adviseable. The experience of the world
+had proved, that a tax on consumption was less oppressive, and more
+productive, than a tax on either property or income. Without
+discussing the principles on which the fact was founded, the fact
+itself was incontestable, that, by insensible means, much larger sums
+might be drawn from any class of men, than could be extracted from
+them by open and direct taxes. To the latter system there were still
+other objections. The difficulty of carrying it into operation, no
+census having yet been taken, would not be inconsiderable; and the
+expense of collection through a country thinly settled, would be
+enormous. Add to this, that public opinion was believed to be more
+decidedly and unequivocally opposed to it, than to a duty on ardent
+spirits. North Carolina had expressed her hostility to the one as well
+as to the other, and several other states were known to disapprove of
+direct taxes. From the real objections which existed against them, and
+for other reasons suggested in the report of the secretary, they
+ought, it was said, to remain untouched, as a resource when some great
+emergency should require an exertion of all the faculties of the
+United States.
+
+Against the substitution of a duty on internal negotiations, it was
+said, that revenue to any considerable extent could be collected from
+them only by means of a stamp act, which was not less obnoxious to
+popular resentment than an excise, would be less certainly productive
+than the proposed duties, and was, in every respect, less eligible.
+
+The honour, the justice, and the faith of the United States were
+pledged, it was said, to that class of creditors for whose claims the
+bill under consideration was intended to provide. No means of making
+the provision had been suggested, which, on examination, would be
+found equally eligible with a duty on ardent spirits. Much of the
+public prejudice which appeared in certain parts of the United States
+against the measure, was to be ascribed to their hostility to the term
+"excise," a term which had been inaccurately applied to the duty in
+question. When the law should be carried into operation, it would be
+found not to possess those odious qualities which had excited
+resentment against a system of excise. In those states where the
+collection of a duty on spirits distilled within the country had
+become familiar to the people, the same prejudices did not exist. On
+the good sense and virtue of the nation they could confidently rely
+for acquiescence in a measure which the public exigencies rendered
+necessary, which tended to equalize the public burdens, and which in
+its execution would not be oppressive.
+
+A motion made by Mr. Jackson, to strike out that section which imposed
+a duty on domestic distilled spirits, was negatived by thirty-six to
+sixteen; and the bill was carried by thirty-five to twenty-one.
+
+Some days after the passage of this bill, another question was brought
+forward, which was understood to involve principles of deep interest
+to the government.
+
+[Sidenote: On a national bank.]
+
+The secretary of the treasury had been the uniform advocate of a
+national bank. Believing that such an institution would be "of primary
+importance to the prosperous administration of the finances; and of
+the greatest utility in the operations connected with the support of
+public credit," he had earnestly recommended its adoption in the first
+general system which he presented to the view of congress; and, at the
+present session, had repeated that recommendation in a special report,
+containing a copious and perspicuous argument on the policy of the
+measure. A bill conforming to the plan he suggested was sent down from
+the senate, and was permitted to proceed, unmolested, in the house of
+representatives, to the third reading. On the final question, a great,
+and, it would seem, an unexpected opposition was made to its passage.
+Mr. Madison, Mr. Giles, Mr. Jackson, and Mr. Stone spoke against it.
+The general utility of banking systems was not admitted, and the
+particular bill before the house was censured on its merits; but the
+great strength of the argument was directed against the constitutional
+authority of congress to pass an act for incorporating a national
+bank.
+
+The government of the United States, it was said, was limited; and the
+powers which it might legitimately exercise were enumerated in the
+constitution itself. In this enumeration, the power now contended for
+was not to be found. Not being expressly given, it must be implied
+from those which were given, or it could not be vested in the
+government. The clauses under which it could be claimed were then
+reviewed and critically examined; and it was contended that, on fair
+construction, no one of these could be understood to imply so
+important a power as that of creating a corporation.
+
+The clause which enables congress to pass all laws necessary and
+proper to execute the specified powers, must, according to the natural
+and obvious force of the terms and the context, be limited to means
+_necessary_ to the _end_ and _incident_ to the _nature_ of the
+specified powers. The clause, it was said, was in fact merely
+declaratory of what would have resulted by unavoidable implication, as
+the appropriate, and as it were technical means of executing those
+powers. Some gentlemen observed, that "the true exposition of a
+necessary mean to produce a given end was that mean without which the
+end could not be produced."
+
+The bill was supported by Mr. Ames, Mr. Sedgwick, Mr. Smith, of South
+Carolina, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Boudinot, Mr. Gerry, and Mr. Vining.
+
+The utility of banking institutions was said to be demonstrated by
+their effects. In all commercial countries they had been resorted to
+as an instrument of great efficacy in mercantile transactions; and
+even in the United States, their public and private advantages had
+been felt and acknowledged.
+
+Respecting the policy of the measure, no well founded doubt could be
+entertained; but the objections to the constitutional authority of
+congress deserved to be seriously considered.
+
+That the government was limited by the terms of its creation was not
+controverted; and that it could exercise only those powers which were
+conferred on it by the constitution, was admitted. If, on examination,
+that instrument should be found to forbid the passage of the bill, it
+must be rejected, though it would be with deep regret that its friends
+would suffer such an opportunity of serving their country to escape
+for the want of a constitutional power to improve it.
+
+In asserting the authority of the legislature to pass the bill,
+gentlemen contended, that incidental as well as express powers must
+necessarily belong to every government: and that, when a power is
+delegated to effect particular objects, all the known and usual means
+of effecting them, must pass as incidental to it. To remove all doubt
+on this subject, the constitution of the United States had recognized
+the principle, by enabling congress to make all laws which may be
+necessary and proper for carrying into execution the powers vested in
+the government. They maintained the sound construction of this grant
+to be a recognition of an authority in the national legislature, to
+employ all the known and usual means for executing the powers vested
+in the government. They then took a comprehensive view of those
+powers, and contended that a bank was a known and usual instrument by
+which several of them were exercised.
+
+After a debate of great length, which was supported on both sides with
+ability, and with that ardour which was naturally excited by the
+importance attached by each party to the principle in contest, the
+question was put, and the bill was carried in the affirmative by a
+majority of nineteen voices.
+
+[Sidenote: The opinions of the cabinet on the constitutionality of
+this last law.]
+
+The point which had been agitated with so much zeal in the house of
+representatives, was examined with equal deliberation by the
+executive. The cabinet was divided upon it. The secretary of state,
+and the attorney general, conceived that congress had clearly
+transcended their constitutional powers; while the secretary of the
+treasury, with equal clearness, maintained the opposite opinion. The
+advice of each minister, with his reasoning in support of it, was
+required in writing, and their arguments were considered by the
+President with all that attention which the magnitude of the question,
+and the interest taken in it by the opposing parties, so eminently
+required. This deliberate investigation of the subject terminated in a
+conviction, that the constitution of the United States authorized the
+measure;[52] and the sanction of the executive was given to the act.
+
+     [Footnote 52: See note, No. V. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Progress of parties.]
+
+The judgment is so much influenced by the wishes, the affections, and
+the general theories of those by whom any political proposition is
+decided, that a contrariety of opinion on this great constitutional
+question ought to excite no surprise. It must be recollected that the
+conflict between the powers of the general and state governments was
+coeval with those governments. Even during the war, the preponderance
+of the states was obvious; and, in a very few years after peace, the
+struggle ended in the utter abasement of the general government. Many
+causes concurred to produce a constitution which was deemed more
+competent to the preservation of the union, but its adoption was
+opposed by great numbers; and in some of the large states especially,
+its enemies soon felt and manifested their superiority. The old line
+of division was still as strongly marked as ever. Many retained the
+opinion that liberty could be endangered only by encroachments upon
+the states; and that it was the great duty of patriotism to restrain
+the powers of the general government within the narrowest possible
+limits.
+
+In the other party, which was also respectable for its numbers, many
+were found who had watched the progress of American affairs, and who
+sincerely believed that the real danger which threatened the republic
+was to be looked for in the undue ascendency of the states. To them it
+appeared, that the substantial powers, and the extensive means of
+influence, which were retained by the local sovereignties, furnished
+them with weapons for aggression which were not easily to be resisted,
+and that it behoved all those who were anxious for the happiness of
+their country, to guard the equilibrium established in the
+constitution, by preserving unimpaired, all the legitimate powers of
+the union. These were more confirmed in their sentiments, by observing
+the temper already discovered in the legislatures of several states,
+respecting the proceedings of congress.
+
+To this great and radical division of opinion, which would necessarily
+affect every question on the authority of the national legislature,
+other motives were added, which were believed to possess considerable
+influence on all measures connected with the finances.
+
+As an inevitable effect of the state of society, the public debt had
+greatly accumulated in the middle and northern states, whose
+inhabitants had derived, from its rapid appreciation, a proportional
+augmentation of their wealth. This circumstance could not fail to
+contribute to the complacency with which the plans of the secretary
+were viewed by those who had felt their benefit, nor to the irritation
+with which they were contemplated by others who had parted with their
+claims on the nation. It is not impossible, that personal
+considerations also mingled themselves with those which were merely
+political.
+
+With so many causes to bias the judgment, it would not have been
+wonderful if arguments less plausible than those advanced by either
+party had been deemed conclusive on its adversary; nor was it a matter
+of surprise that each should have denied to those which were urged in
+opposition, the weight to which they were certainly entitled. The
+liberal mind which can review them without prejudice, will charge
+neither the supporters nor the opponents of the bill with insincerity,
+nor with being knowingly actuated by motives which might not have been
+avowed.
+
+This measure made a deep impression on many members of the
+legislature; and contributed, not inconsiderably, to the complete
+organization of those distinct and visible parties, which, in their
+long and dubious conflict for power, have since shaken the United
+States to their centre.
+
+Among the last acts of the present congress, was an act to augment the
+military establishment of the United States.
+
+[Sidenote: War with the Indians.]
+
+The earnest endeavours of the President to give security to the
+north-western frontiers, by pacific arrangements, having been entirely
+unavailing, it became his duty to employ such other means as were
+placed in his hands, for the protection of the country. Confirmed by
+all his experience in the opinion that vigorous offensive operations
+alone could bring an Indian war to a happy conclusion, he had planned
+an expedition against the hostile tribes north-west of the Ohio, as
+soon as the impracticability of effecting a treaty with them had been
+ascertained.
+
+General Harmar, a veteran of the revolution, who had received his
+appointment under the former government, was placed at the head of the
+federal troops. On the 30th of September, he marched from fort
+Washington with three hundred and twenty regulars. The whole army when
+joined by the militia of Pennsylvania and Kentucky amounted to
+fourteen hundred and fifty-three men. About the middle of October,
+Colonel Harden, who commanded the Kentucky militia, and who had been
+also a continental officer of considerable merit, was detached at the
+head of six hundred men, chiefly militia, to reconnoitre the ground,
+and to ascertain the intentions of the enemy. On his approach, the
+Indians set fire to their principal village, and fled with
+precipitation to the woods. As the object of the expedition would be
+only half accomplished, unless the savages could be brought to action
+and defeated, Colonel Harden was again detached at the head of two
+hundred and ten men, thirty of whom were regulars. About ten miles
+west of Chilicothe, where the main body of the army lay, he was
+attacked by a party of Indians. The Pennsylvanians, who composed his
+left column, had previously fallen in the rear; and the Kentuckians,
+disregarding the exertions of their colonel, and of a few other
+officers, fled on the first appearance of an enemy. The small corps of
+regulars commanded by Lieutenant Armstrong made a brave resistance.
+After twenty-three of them had fallen in the field, the surviving
+seven made their escape and rejoined the army.
+
+[Sidenote: Defeat of Harmar.]
+
+Notwithstanding this check, the remaining towns on the Scioto were
+reduced to ashes, and the provisions laid up for the winter were
+entirely destroyed. This service being accomplished, the army
+commenced its march towards fort Washington. Being desirous of wiping
+off the disgrace which his arms had sustained, General Harmar halted
+about eight miles from Chilicothe, and once more detached Colonel
+Harden with orders to find the enemy and bring on an engagement. His
+command consisted of three hundred and sixty men, of whom sixty were
+regulars commanded by Major Wyllys. Early the next morning, this
+detachment reached the confluence of the St. Joseph and St. Mary,
+where it was divided into three columns. The left division, commanded
+by Colonel Harden in person, crossed the St. Joseph, and proceeded up
+its western bank. The centre, consisting of the federal troops, was
+led by Major Wyllys up the eastern side of that river; and the right,
+under the command of Major M'Millan, marched along a range of heights
+which commanded the right flank of the centre division. The columns
+had proceeded but a short distance, when each was met by a
+considerable body of Indians, and a severe engagement ensued. The
+militia retrieved their reputation, and several of their bravest
+officers fell. The heights on the right having been, from some cause
+not mentioned, unoccupied by the American troops, the savages seized
+them early in the action, and attacked the right flank of the centre
+with great fury. Although Major Wyllys was among the first who fell,
+the battle was maintained by the regulars with spirit, and
+considerable execution was done on both sides. At length, the scanty
+remnant of this small band, quite overpowered by numbers, was driven
+off the ground, leaving fifty of their comrades, exclusive of Major
+Wyllys and Lieutenant Farthingham, dead upon the field. The loss
+sustained by the militia was also considerable. It amounted to upwards
+of one hundred men, among whom were nine officers. After an engagement
+of extreme severity, the detachment joined the main army, which
+continued its march to fort Washington.
+
+General Harmar, with what propriety it is not easy to discern, claimed
+the victory. He conceived, not entirely without reason, that the loss
+of a considerable number of men, would be fatal to the Indians,
+although a still greater loss should be sustained by the Americans,
+because the savages did not possess a population from which they could
+replace the warriors who had fallen. The event, however, did not
+justify this opinion.
+
+The information respecting this expedition was quickly followed by
+intelligence stating the deplorable condition of the frontiers. An
+address from the representatives of all the counties of Kentucky, and
+those of Virginia bordering on the Ohio, was presented to the
+President, praying that the defence of the country might be committed
+to militia unmixed with regulars, and that they might immediately be
+drawn out to oppose "the exulting foe." To this address, the President
+gave a conciliatory answer, but he understood too well the nature of
+the service, to yield to the request it contained. Such were his
+communications to the legislature, that a regiment was added to the
+permanent military establishment, and he was authorized to raise a
+body of two thousand men, for six months, and to appoint a major
+general, and a brigadier general, to continue in command so long as he
+should think their services necessary.
+
+[Sidenote: Adjournment of congress.]
+
+With the 3d of March, 1791, terminated the first congress elected
+under the constitution of the United States. The party denominated
+federal having prevailed at the elections, a majority of the members
+were steadfast friends of the constitution, and were sincerely
+desirous of supporting a system they had themselves introduced, and on
+the preservation of which, in full health and vigour, they firmly
+believed the happiness of their fellow citizens, and the
+respectability of the nation, greatly to depend. To organize a
+government, to retrieve the national character, to establish a system
+of revenue, and to create public credit, were among the arduous duties
+which were imposed upon them by the political situation of their
+country. With persevering labour, guided by no inconsiderable portion
+of virtue and intelligence, these objects were, in a great degree,
+accomplished. Out of the measures proposed for their attainment,
+questions alike intricate and interesting unavoidably arose. It is not
+in the nature of man to discuss such questions without strongly
+agitating the passions, and exciting irritations which do not readily
+subside. Had it even been the happy and singular lot of America to see
+its national legislature assemble uninfluenced by those prejudices
+which grew out of the previous divisions of the country, the many
+delicate points which they were under the necessity of deciding, could
+not have failed to disturb this enviable state of harmony, and to
+mingle some share of party spirit with their deliberations. But when
+the actual state of the public mind was contemplated, and due weight
+was given to the important consideration that, at no very distant day,
+a successor to the present chief magistrate must be elected, it was
+still less to be hoped that the first congress could pass away,
+without producing strong and permanent dispositions in parties, to
+impute to each other designs unfriendly to the public happiness. As
+yet, however, these imputations did not extend to the President. His
+character was held sacred, and the purity of his motives was admitted
+by all. Some divisions were understood to have found their way into
+the cabinet. It was insinuated that between the secretaries of state
+and of the treasury, very serious differences had arisen; but these
+high personages were believed, to be equally attached to the
+President, who was not suspected of undue partiality to either. If his
+assent to the bill for incorporating the national bank produced
+discontent, the opponents of that measure seemed disposed to ascribe
+his conduct, in that instance, to his judgment, rather than to any
+prepossession in favour of the party by whom it was carried. The
+opposition, therefore, in congress, to the measures of the government,
+seemed to be levelled at the secretary of the treasury, and at the
+northern members by whom those measures were generally supported, not
+at the President by whom they were approved. By taking this direction,
+it made its way into the public mind, without being encountered by
+that devoted affection which a great majority of the people felt for
+the chief magistrate of the union. In the mean time, the national
+prosperity was in a state of rapid progress; and the government was
+gaining, though slowly, in the public opinion. But in several of the
+state assemblies, especially in the southern division of the
+continent, serious evidences of dissatisfaction were exhibited, which
+demonstrated the jealousy with which the local sovereignties
+contemplated the powers exercised by the federal legislature.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+     General St. Clair appointed Commander-in-chief.... The
+     President makes a tour through the southern states....
+     Meeting of congress.... President's speech.... Debate on the
+     bill for apportioning representatives.... Militia law....
+     Defeat of St. Clair.... Opposition to the increase of the
+     army.... Report of the Secretary of the Treasury for raising
+     additional supplies.... Congress adjourns.... Strictures on
+     the conduct of administration, with a view of parties....
+     Disagreement between the Secretaries of State and
+     Treasury.... Letters from General Washington.... Opposition
+     to the excise law.... President's proclamation....
+     Insurrection and massacre in the island of St. Domingo....
+     General Wayne appointed to the command of the army....
+     Meeting of Congress.... President's speech.... Resolutions
+     implicating the Secretary of the Treasury rejected....
+     Congress adjourns.... Progress of the French revolution, and
+     its effects on parties in the United States.
+
+
+{1791}
+
+More ample means for the protection of the frontiers having been
+placed in the hands of the executive, the immediate attention of the
+President was directed to this interesting object.
+
+[Sidenote: General St. Clair appointed commander-in-chief of the
+army.]
+
+Major General Arthur St. Clair, governor of the territory north-west
+of the Ohio, was appointed Commander-in-chief of the forces to be
+employed in the meditated expedition. This gentleman had served
+through the war of the revolution with reputation, though it had never
+been his fortune to distinguish himself. The evacuation of Ticonderoga
+had indeed, at one time, subjected him to much public censure; but it
+was found, upon inquiry, to be unmerited. Other motives, in addition
+to the persuasion of his fitness for the service, conduced to his
+appointment. With the sword, the olive branch was still to be
+tendered; and it was thought adviseable to place them in the same
+hands. The governor, having been made officially the negotiator with
+the tribes inhabiting the territories over which he presided, being a
+military man, acquainted with the country into which the war was to be
+carried, possessing considerable influence with the inhabitants of the
+frontiers, and being so placed as to superintend the preparations for
+the expedition advantageously, seemed to have claims to the station
+which were not to be overlooked. It was also a consideration of some
+importance, that the high rank he had held in the American army, would
+obviate those difficulties in filling the inferior grades with men of
+experience, which might certainly be expected, should a person who had
+acted in a less elevated station, be selected for the chief command.
+
+[Illustration: Tomb of Mary, Mother of Washington
+
+_This is the original monument as it appeared before the present
+granite obelisk was erected over the grave of George Washington's
+mother in Fredericksburg, Virginia. It was in Fredericksburg that she
+made her home during her declining years, and it was on the Kenmore
+estate of her daughter, Elizabeth, and son-in-law, Fielding Lewis,
+that she was buried, September, 1789, having survived her husband,
+Augustine Washington, forty-six years._]
+
+[Sidenote: The president makes a tour through the southern states.]
+
+After making the necessary arrangements for recruiting the army, the
+President prepared to make his long contemplated tour through the
+southern states.[53] In passing through them, he was received
+universally with the same marks of affectionate attachment, which he
+had experienced in the northern and central parts of the union. To the
+sensibilities which these demonstrations of the regard and esteem of
+good men could not fail to inspire, was added the high gratification
+produced by observing the rapid improvements of the country, and the
+advances made by the government, in acquiring the confidence of the
+people. The numerous letters written by him after his return to
+Philadelphia, attest the agreeable impressions made by these causes.
+"In my late tour through the southern states," said he, in a letter of
+the 28th of July, to Mr. Gouverneur Morris, "I experienced great
+satisfaction in seeing the good effects of the general government in
+that part of the union. The people at large have felt the security
+which it gives, and the equal justice which it administers to them.
+The farmer, the merchant, and the mechanic, have seen their several
+interests attended to, and from thence they unite in placing a
+confidence in their representatives, as well as in those in whose
+hands the execution of the laws is placed. Industry has there taken
+place of idleness, and economy of dissipation. Two or three years of
+good crops, and a ready market for the produce of their lands, have
+put every one in good humour; and, in some instances, they even impute
+to the government what is due only to the goodness of Providence.
+
+     [Footnote 53: He stopped several days on the Potomac, where
+     he executed finally the powers vested in him by the
+     legislature for fixing on a place which should become the
+     residence of congress, and the metropolis of the United
+     States.]
+
+"The establishment of public credit is an immense point gained in our
+national concerns. This, I believe, exceeds the expectation of the
+most sanguine among us; and a late instance, unparalleled in this
+country, has been given of the confidence reposed in our measures, by
+the rapidity with which the subscriptions to the bank of the United
+States were filled. In two hours after the books were opened by the
+commissioners, the whole number of shares was taken up, and four
+thousand more applied for than were allowed by the institution. This
+circumstance was not only pleasing as it related to the confidence in
+government, but also as it exhibited an unexpected proof of the
+resources of our citizens."
+
+This visit had undoubtedly some tendency to produce the good
+disposition which the President observed with so much pleasure. The
+affections are perhaps more intimately connected with the judgment
+than we are disposed to admit; and the appearance of the chief
+magistrate of the union, who was the object of general love and
+reverence, could not be without its influence in conciliating the
+minds of many to the government he administered, and to its measures.
+But this progress towards conciliation was, perhaps, less considerable
+than was indicated by appearances. The hostility to the government,
+which was coeval with its existence, though diminished, was far from
+being subdued; and under this smooth exterior was concealed a mass of
+discontent, which, though it did not obtrude itself on the view of the
+man who united almost all hearts, was active in its exertions to
+effect its objects.
+
+The difficulties which must impede the recruiting service in a country
+where coercion is not employed, and where the common wages of labour
+greatly exceed the pay of a soldier, protracted the completion of the
+regiments to a late season of the year; but the summer was not
+permitted to waste in total inaction.
+
+The act passed at the last session for the defence of the frontiers,
+in addition to its other provisions, had given to the President an
+unlimited power to call mounted militia into the field. Under this
+authority, two expeditions had been conducted against the villages on
+the Wabash, in which a few of the Indian warriors were killed, some of
+their old men, women, and children, were made prisoners, and several
+of their towns and fields of corn were destroyed. The first was led by
+General Scott, in May, and the second by General Wilkinson, in
+September. These desultory incursions had not much influence on the
+war.
+
+It was believed in the United States, that the hostility of the
+Indians was kept up by the traders living in their villages. These
+persons had, generally, resided in the United States; and, having been
+compelled to leave the country in consequence of the part they had
+taken during the war of the revolution, felt the resentments which
+banishment and confiscation seldom fail to inspire. Their enmities
+were ascribed by many, perhaps unjustly, to the temper of the
+government in Canada; but some countenance seemed to be given to this
+opinion by intelligence that, about the commencement of the preceding
+campaign, large supplies of ammunition had been delivered from the
+British posts on the lakes, to the Indians at war with the United
+States. While the President was on his southern tour, he addressed a
+letter to the secretary of state, to be communicated to Colonel
+Beckwith, who still remained in Philadelphia as the informal
+representative of his nation, in which he expressed his surprise and
+disappointment at this interference, by the servants or subjects of a
+foreign state, in a war prosecuted by the United States for the sole
+purpose of procuring peace and safety for the inhabitants of their
+frontiers.
+
+On receiving this communication, Colonel Beckwith expressed his
+disbelief that the supplies mentioned had been delivered; but on being
+assured of the fact, he avowed the opinion that the transaction was
+without the knowledge of Lord Dorchester, to whom he said he should
+communicate, without delay, the ideas of the American government on
+the subject.
+
+[Sidenote: Meeting of congress.]
+
+[Sidenote: President's speech.]
+
+On the 24th of October the second congress assembled in Philadelphia.
+In his speech at the opening of the session, the President expressed
+his great satisfaction at the prosperous situation of the country, and
+particularly mentioned the rapidity with which the shares in the bank
+of the United States were subscribed, as "among the striking and
+pleasing evidences which presented themselves, not only of confidence
+in the government, but of resources in the community."
+
+Adverting to the measures which had been taken in execution of the
+laws and resolutions of the last session, "the most important of
+which," he observed, "respected the defence and security of the
+western frontiers," he had, he said, "negotiated provisional treaties,
+and used other proper means to attach the wavering, and to confirm in
+their friendship the well disposed tribes of Indians. The means which
+he had adopted for a pacification with those of a hostile description
+having proved unsuccessful, offensive operations had been directed,
+some of which had proved completely successful, and others were still
+pending. Overtures of peace were still continued to the deluded
+tribes; and it was sincerely to be desired that all need of coercion
+might cease, and that an intimate intercourse might succeed,
+calculated to advance the happiness of the Indians, and to attach them
+firmly to the United States."
+
+In marking the line of conduct which ought to be maintained for the
+promotion of this object, he strongly recommended "justice to the
+savages, and such rational experiments for imparting to them the
+blessings of civilization, as might from time to time suit their
+condition;" and then concluded this subject with saying--"A system
+corresponding with the mild principles of religion and philanthropy
+towards an unenlightened race of men whose happiness materially
+depends on the conduct of the United States, would be as honourable to
+the national character, as conformable to the dictates of sound
+policy."
+
+After stating that measures had been taken for carrying into execution
+the act laying duties on distilled spirits, he added--"The impressions
+with which this law has been received by the community have been, upon
+the whole, such as were to have been expected among enlightened and
+well disposed citizens, from the propriety and necessity of the
+measure. The novelty, however, of the tax, in a considerable part of
+the United States, and a misconception of some of its provisions, have
+given occasion, in particular places, to some degree of discontent.
+But it is satisfactory to know that this disposition yields to proper
+explanations, and more just apprehensions of the true nature of the
+law. And I entertain a full confidence that it will, in all, give way
+to motives which arise out of a just sense of duty, and a virtuous
+regard to the public welfare.
+
+"If there are any circumstances in the law, which, consistently with
+its main design may be so varied as to remove any well intentioned
+objections that may happen to exist, it will comport with a wise
+moderation to make the proper variations. It is desirable on all
+occasions, to unite with a steady and firm adherence to constitutional
+and necessary acts of government, the fullest evidence of a
+disposition, as far as may be practicable, to consult the wishes of
+every part of the community, and to lay the foundations of the public
+administration in the affections of the people."
+
+The answers of the two houses noticed, briefly and generally, the
+various topics of the speech; and, though perhaps less warm than those
+of the preceding congress, manifested great respect for the executive
+magistrate, and an undiminished confidence in his patriotic exertions
+to promote the public interests.
+
+[Sidenote: Debate on the bill "for apportioning representatives among
+the people of the states according to the first enumeration."]
+
+Among the first subjects of importance which engaged the attention of
+the legislature, was a bill "for apportioning representatives among
+the people of the several states according to the first enumeration."
+The constitution, in its original form, had affixed no other limits to
+the power of congress over the numbers of which the house of
+representatives might consist, than that there should not be more than
+one member for every thirty thousand persons; but that each state
+should be entitled to at least one. Independent of the general
+considerations in favour of a more or less numerous representation in
+the popular branch of the legislature, there was one of a local
+nature, whose operation, though secret, was extensive, which gave to
+this question a peculiar interest. To whatever number of persons a
+representative might be allotted, there would still remain a fraction,
+which would be greater or less in each state, according to the ratio
+which congress should adopt between representation and population. The
+relative power of states, in one branch of the legislature, would
+consequently be affected by this ratio; and to questions of that
+description, few members can permit themselves to be inattentive.
+
+This bill, as originally introduced into the house of representatives,
+gave to each state one member for every thirty thousand persons. On a
+motion to strike out the number thirty thousand, the debate turned
+chiefly on the policy and advantage of a more or less numerous house
+of representatives; but with the general arguments suggested by the
+subject, strong and pointed allusions to the measures of the preceding
+congress were interspersed, which indicated much more serious
+hostility to the administration than had hitherto been expressed.
+Speaking of the corruption which he supposed to exist in the British
+house of commons, Mr. Giles said that causes essentially different
+from their numbers, had produced this effect. "Among these, were the
+frequent mortgages of the funds, and the immense appropriations at the
+disposal of the executive."
+
+"An inequality of circumstances," he observed, "produces revolutions
+in governments, from democracy, to aristocracy, and monarchy. Great
+wealth produces a desire of distinctions, rank, and titles. The
+revolutions of property, in this country, have created a prodigious
+inequality of circumstances. Government has contributed to this
+inequality. The bank of the United States is a most important machine
+in promoting the objects of this monied interest. This bank will be
+the most powerful engine to corrupt this house. Some of the members
+are directors of this institution; and it will only be by increasing
+the representation, that an adequate barrier can be opposed to this
+monied interest." He next adverted to certain ideas, which, he said,
+had been disseminated through the United States. "The legislature," he
+took occasion to observe, "ought to express some disapprobation of
+these opinions. The strong executive of this government," he added,
+"ought to be balanced by a full representation in this house."
+
+Similar sentiments were advanced by Mr. Findley.
+
+After a long and animated discussion, the amendment was lost, and the
+bill passed in its original form.
+
+In the senate, it was amended by changing the ratio, so as to give one
+representative for every thirty-three thousand persons in each state;
+but this amendment was disagreed to by the house of representatives;
+and each house adhering to its opinion, the bill fell; but was again
+introduced into the house of representatives, under a different title,
+and in a new form, though without any change in its substantial
+provisions. After a debate in which the injustice of the fractions
+produced by the ratio it adopted was strongly pressed, it passed that
+house. In the senate, it was again amended, not by reducing, but by
+enlarging the number of representatives.
+
+The constitution of the United States declares that "representatives
+and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which
+may be included within this union according to their respective
+numbers;" and that "the number of representatives shall not exceed one
+for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one
+representative." Construing the constitution to authorize a process by
+which the whole number of representatives should be ascertained on the
+whole population of the United States, and afterwards "apportioned
+among the several states according to their respective numbers," the
+senate applied the number thirty thousand as a _divisor_ to the total
+population, and taking the _quotient_, which was one hundred and
+twenty, as the number of representatives given by the ratio which had
+been adopted in the house where the bill had originated, they
+apportioned that number among the several states by that ratio, until
+as many representatives as it would give were allotted to each. The
+residuary members were then distributed among the states having the
+highest fractions. Without professing the principle on which this
+apportionment was made, the amendment of the senate merely allotted to
+the states respectively, the number of members which the process just
+mentioned would give. The result was a more equitable apportionment of
+representatives to population, and had the rule of construing that
+instrument been correct, the amendment removed objections which were
+certainly well founded. But the rule was novel, and overturned
+opinions which had been generally assumed, and were supposed to be
+settled. In one branch of the legislature it had already been
+rejected; and in the other, the majority in its favour was only one.
+
+In the house of representatives, the amendment was supported with
+considerable ingenuity.
+
+After an earnest debate, however, it was disagreed to, and a
+conference took place without producing an accommodation among the
+members composing the committee. But finally, the house of
+representatives receded from their disagreement; and, by a majority of
+two voices, the bill passed as amended in the senate.
+
+On the President, the solemn duty of deciding, whether an act of the
+legislature consisted with the constitution; for the bill, if
+constitutional, was unexceptionable.
+
+In his cabinet, also, a difference of opinion is understood to have
+existed; the secretary of state and the attorney general were of
+opinion that the act was at variance with the constitution; the
+secretary of war was rather undecided; and the secretary of the
+treasury, thinking that, from the vagueness of expression in the
+clause relating to the subject, neither construction could be
+absolutely rejected, was in favour of acceding to the interpretation
+given by the legislature.
+
+After weighing the arguments which were urged on each side of the
+question, the President was confirmed in the opinion that the
+population of each state, and not the total population of the United
+States, must give the numbers to which alone the process by which the
+number of representatives was to be ascertained could be applied.
+Having formed this opinion, to a correct and independent mind the
+course to be pursued was a plain one. Duty required the exercise of a
+power which a President of the United States will always find much
+difficulty in employing; and he returned the bill to the house in
+which it originated, accompanied with his objections[54] to it. In
+observance of the forms prescribed in the constitution, the question
+was then taken on its passage by ayes and noes, and it was rejected. A
+third bill was soon afterwards introduced, apportioning the
+representatives on the several states at a ratio of one for every
+thirty-three thousand persons in each state, which passed into a law.
+Thus was this interesting part of the American constitution finally
+settled.
+
+     [Footnote 54: The following is the message which he
+     delivered on this occasion.
+
+     _Gentlemen of the house of representatives--_
+
+     I have maturely considered the act passed by the two houses,
+     entitled "an act for the apportionment of representatives
+     among the several states according to the first
+     enumeration," and I return it to your house, wherein it
+     originated, with the following objections.
+
+     First. The constitution has prescribed that representatives
+     shall be apportioned among the several states according to
+     their respective numbers, and there is no proportion or
+     divisor which, applied to the respective numbers of the
+     states, will yield the number and allotment of
+     representatives proposed by the bill.
+
+     Secondly. The constitution has also provided, that the
+     number of representatives shall not exceed one for thirty
+     thousand, which restriction is by the context, and by fair
+     and obvious construction, to be applied to the separate and
+     respective numbers of the states, and the bill has allotted
+     to eight of the states more than one for thirty thousand.]
+
+[Sidenote: Militia law.]
+
+During this session of congress, an act passed for establishing a
+uniform militia.
+
+The President had manifested, from the commencement of his
+administration, a peculiar degree of solicitude on this subject, and
+had repeatedly urged it on congress.
+
+In his speech at the opening of the present session, he again called
+the attention of the legislature to it; and, at length, a law was
+enacted which, though less efficacious than the plan reported by the
+secretary of war, will probably, not soon, be carried into complete
+execution.
+
+[Sidenote: Defeat of St. Clair.]
+
+In December, intelligence was received by the President, and
+immediately communicated to congress, that the American army had been
+totally defeated on the fourth of the preceding month.
+
+Although the most prompt and judicious measures had been taken to
+raise the troops, and to march them to the frontiers, they could not
+be assembled in the neighbourhood of fort Washington until the month
+of September, nor was the establishment even then completed.
+
+The immediate objects of the expedition were, to destroy the Indian
+villages on the Miamis, to expel the savages from that country, and to
+connect it with the Ohio by a chain of posts which would prevent their
+return during the war.
+
+On the seventh of September, the regulars moved from their camp in the
+vicinity of fort Washington, and marching directly north, towards the
+object of their destination, established two intermediate posts[55] at
+the distance of rather more than forty miles from each other, as
+places of deposite, and of security either for convoys of provision
+which might follow the army, or for the army itself should any
+disaster befall it. The last of these works, fort Jefferson, was not
+completed until the 24th of October, before which time reinforcements
+were received of about three hundred and sixty militia. After placing
+garrisons in the forts, the effective number of the army, including
+militia, amounted to rather less than two thousand men. With this
+force, the general continued his march, which was rendered both slow
+and laborious by the necessity of opening a road. Small parties of
+Indians were frequently seen hovering about them, and some unimportant
+skirmishes took place. As the army approached the country in which
+they might expect to meet an enemy, about sixty of the militia
+deserted in a body. This diminution of force was not, in itself, an
+object of much concern. But there was reason to fear that the example,
+should those who set it be permitted to escape with impunity, would be
+extensively followed; and it was reported to be the intention of the
+deserters, to plunder convoys of provisions which were advancing at
+some distance in the rear. To prevent mischiefs of so serious a
+nature, the general detached Major Hamtranck with the first regiment
+in pursuit of the deserters, and directed him to secure the provisions
+under a strong guard.
+
+     [Footnote 55: Forts Hamilton and Jefferson.]
+
+The army, consisting of about fourteen hundred effective rank and
+file, continued its march; and, on the third of November, encamped
+about fifteen miles south of the Miamis villages. The right wing under
+the command of General Butler formed the first line, and lay with a
+creek, about twelve yards wide, immediately in its front. The left
+wing commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Darke, formed the second; and
+between the two lines, was an interval of about seventy yards.[56] The
+right flank was supposed to be secured by the creek, by a steep bank,
+and by a small body of troops; the left was covered by a party of
+cavalry, and by piquets. The militia crossed the creek, and advanced
+about a quarter of a mile in front, where they also encamped in two
+lines. On their approach, a few Indians who had shown themselves on
+the opposite side of the creek, fled with precipitation.
+
+     [Footnote 56: In his official letter, General St. Clair says
+     that the ground would not admit a larger interval.]
+
+At this place, the general intended to throw up a slight work for the
+security of the baggage; and, after being joined by Major Hamtranck,
+to march as unincumbered, and as expeditiously as possible, to the
+villages he purposed to destroy.
+
+In both these designs he was anticipated. About half an hour before
+sun rise the next morning, just after the troops had been dismissed
+from the parade, an unexpected attack was made upon the militia, who
+fled in the utmost confusion, and rushing into camp through the first
+line of continental troops, which had been formed the instant the
+first gun was discharged, threw them too into disorder. The exertions
+of the officers to restore order were not entirely successful. The
+Indians pressed close upon the heels of the flying militia, and
+engaged General Butler with great intrepidity. The action instantly
+became extremely warm; and the fire of the assailants, passing round
+both flanks of the first line, was, in a few minutes, poured with
+equal fury on the rear division. Its greatest weight was directed
+against the centre of each wing, where the artillery was posted; and
+the artillerists were mowed down in great numbers. Firing from the
+ground, and from the shelter which the woods afforded, the assailants
+were scarcely seen but when springing from one cover to another, in
+which manner they advanced close up to the American lines, and to the
+very mouths of the field pieces. They fought with the daring courage
+of men whose trade is war, and who are stimulated by all those
+passions which can impel the savage mind to vigorous exertions.
+
+Under circumstances thus arduous, raw troops may be expected to
+exhibit that inequality which is found in human nature. While some of
+the American soldiers performed their duty with the utmost resolution,
+others seemed dismayed and terrified. Of this conduct the officers
+were, as usual, the victims. With a fearlessness which the occasion
+required, they exposed themselves to the most imminent dangers; and,
+in their efforts to change the face of affairs, fell in great numbers.
+
+For several days, the Commander-in-chief had been afflicted with a
+severe disease, under which he still laboured, and which must have
+greatly affected him; but, though unable to display that activity
+which would have been useful in this severe conflict, neither the
+feebleness of his body, nor the peril of his situation, could prevent
+his delivering his orders with judgment and with self possession.[57]
+
+     [Footnote 57: The following extract from the official letter
+     of the Commander-in-chief is inserted, as showing both his
+     own situation and his opinion of the behaviour of his
+     troops. "I have nothing, sir, to lay to the charge of the
+     troops but their want of discipline, which, from the short
+     time they had been in service, it was impossible they should
+     have acquired; and which rendered it very difficult when
+     they were thrown into confusion, to reduce them again to
+     order; and is one reason why the loss has fallen so heavily
+     upon the officers who did every thing in their power to
+     effect it. Neither were my own exertions wanting; but worn
+     down with illness, and suffering under a painful disease,
+     unable either to mount, or dismount a horse without
+     assistance, they were not so great as they otherwise would,
+     or perhaps ought to have been."]
+
+It was soon perceived that the American fire could produce, on a
+concealed enemy, no considerable effect; and that the only hope of
+victory was placed in the bayonet. At the head of the second regiment,
+which formed the left of the left wing, Lieutenant Colonel Darke made
+an impetuous charge upon the enemy, forced them from their ground with
+some loss, and drove them about four hundred yards. He was followed by
+that whole wing; but the want of a sufficient number of riflemen to
+press this advantage, deprived him of the benefit which ought to have
+been derived from this effort; and, as soon as he gave over the
+pursuit, the Indians renewed their attack. In the mean time General
+Butler was mortally wounded, the left of the right wing was broken,
+the artillerists almost to a man killed, the guns seized, and the camp
+penetrated by the enemy. With his own regiment, and with the
+battalions commanded by Majors Butler[58] and Clarke, Darke was
+ordered again to charge with the bayonet. These orders were executed
+with intrepidity and momentary success. The Indians were driven out of
+the camp, and the artillery recovered. But while they were pressed in
+one point by the bravest of the American troops, their fire was kept
+up from every other with fatal effect. Several times particular corps
+charged them, always with partial success, but no universal effort
+could be made, and in every charge a great loss of officers was
+sustained, the consequences of which were severely felt. Instead of
+keeping their ranks, and executing the orders which were given, a
+great proportion of the soldiers flocked together in crowds, and were
+shot down without resistance. To save the remnant of his army was all
+that remained to be done; and, about half past nine in the morning,
+General St. Clair ordered Lieutenant Colonel Darke with the second
+regiment, to charge a body of Indians who had intercepted their
+retreat, and to gain the road. Major Clarke with his battalion was
+directed to cover the rear. These orders were executed, and a
+disorderly flight commenced. The pursuit was kept up about four miles,
+when, fortunately for the surviving Americans, that avidity for
+plunder which is a ruling passion among savages, called back the
+victorious Indians to the ramp, where the spoils of their vanquished
+foes were to be divided. The routed troops continued their flight to
+fort Jefferson, a distance of about thirty miles, throwing away their
+arms on the road. At this place they met Major Hamtranck with the
+first regiment; and a council of war was called to deliberate on the
+course to be pursued. As this regiment was far from restoring the
+strength of the morning, it was determined not to attempt to retrieve
+the fortune of the day: and, leaving the wounded at fort Jefferson,
+the army continued its retreat to fort Washington.
+
+     [Footnote 58: Although his leg had been broken by a ball,
+     Major Butler, mounted on horseback, led his battalion to the
+     charge.]
+
+In this disastrous battle, the loss on the part of the Americans was
+very great when compared with the numbers engaged. Thirty-eight
+commissioned officers were killed upon the field, and five hundred and
+ninety-three non-commissioned officers and privates were slain and
+missing. Twenty-one commissioned officers, several of whom afterwards
+died of their wounds, and two hundred and forty-two non-commissioned
+officers and privates were wounded. Among the dead was the brave and
+much lamented General Butler. This gallant officer had served through
+the war of the revolution; and had, on more than one occasion,
+distinguished himself in a remarkable manner. In the list of those who
+shared his fate, were the names of many other excellent officers who
+had participated in all the toils, the dangers, and the glory, of that
+long conflict which terminated in the independence of their country.
+At the head of the list of wounded were Lieutenant Colonels Gibson and
+Darke, Major Butler, and Adjutant General Sargent, all of whom were
+veteran officers of great merit, who displayed their accustomed
+bravery on this unfortunate day. General St. Clair, in his official
+letter, observed: "the loss the public has sustained by the fall of so
+many officers, particularly of General Butler and Major Ferguson, can
+not be too much regretted; but it is a circumstance that will
+alleviate the misfortune in some measure, that all of them fell most
+gallantly doing their duty."
+
+From the weight of the fire, and the circumstance of his being
+attacked nearly at the same time in front and rear, General St. Clair
+was of opinion that he was overpowered by numbers. The intelligence
+afterwards collected would make the Indian force to consist of from
+one thousand to fifteen hundred warriors. Of their loss, no estimate
+could be made; the probability is, that it bore no proportion to that
+sustained by the American army.
+
+Nothing could be more unexpected than this severe disaster. The public
+had confidently anticipated a successful campaign, and could not
+believe, that the general who had been unfortunate, had not been
+culpable.
+
+{1792}
+
+The Commander-in-chief requested with earnestness that a court martial
+should sit on his conduct; but this request could not be granted,
+because the army did not furnish a sufficient number of officers of a
+grade to form a court for his trial on military principles. Late in
+the session, a committee of the house of representatives was appointed
+to inquire into the cause of the failure of the expedition, whose
+report, in explicit terms, exculpated the Commander-in-chief. This
+inquiry, however, was instituted rather for the purpose of
+investigating the conduct of civil than of military officers; and was
+not conducted by military men. More satisfactory testimony in favour
+of St. Clair is furnished by the circumstance, that he still retained
+the undiminished esteem and good opinion of the President.
+
+The Indian war now assumed a still more serious aspect. There was
+reason to fear that the hostile tribes would derive a great accession
+of strength from the impression which their success would make upon
+their neighbours; and the reputation of the government was deeply
+concerned in retrieving the fortune of its arms, and affording
+protection to its citizens. The President, therefore, lost no time in
+causing the estimates for a competent force to be prepared and laid
+before congress. In conformity with a report made by the secretary of
+war, a bill was brought into the house of representatives, directing
+three additional regiments of infantry, and a squadron of cavalry to
+be raised, to serve for three years, if not sooner discharged. The
+whole military establishment, if completed, would amount to about five
+thousand men. The additional regiments, however, were to be disbanded
+as soon as peace should be concluded with the Indians; and the
+President was authorized to discharge, or to forbear to raise, any
+part of them, "in case events should, in his judgment, render his so
+doing consistent with the public safety."
+
+[Sidenote: Opposition to the increase of the army.]
+
+This bill met with great opposition. A motion was made to strike out
+the section which authorized an augmentation of force. By those who
+argued in favour of the motion, the justice of the war was arraigned,
+and the practicability of obtaining peace at a much less expense than
+would be incurred in its further prosecution, was urged with
+vehemence. An extension of the present frontier was said not to be
+desirable, and if the citizens of the United States were recalled
+within their proper boundaries, hostilities would cease. At any rate,
+it was an idle waste of blood and treasure, to carry the war beyond
+the line of forts already established. It was only exposing their arms
+to disgrace, betraying their own weakness, and lessening the public
+confidence in the government, to send forth armies to be butchered in
+the forests, while the British were suffered to keep possession of
+posts within the territory of the United States. To this cause was to
+be ascribed any disposition which might exist on the part of the
+Indians to continue hostilities, and to its removal the efforts of the
+government ought to be directed.
+
+But, admitting the war to have been just in its commencement, and its
+continuance to be required by the honour and interest of the nation,
+yet as an invasion of the Indian country ought not to be attempted,
+this augmentation of the military establishment could not be
+necessary. Regular troops could only be useful as garrisons for posts
+to which the militia might resort for protection or supplies.
+Experience had proved that the sudden desultory attacks of the
+frontier militia and rangers were productive of more valuable
+consequences, than the methodical operations of a regular force. But,
+should it even be conceded that invasion and conquest were to be
+contemplated, the existing establishment, if completed, would be
+sufficiently great; and it was still insisted that, even for the
+purposes of conquest, the frontier militia were superior to any
+regulars whatever.
+
+The expense of such an army as the bill contemplated was said to be an
+object worthy of serious attention; and members were requested to
+observe the progress of this business, and to say where it would stop.
+At first, only a single regiment had been raised, and the expense was
+about one hundred thousand dollars; a second was afterwards added,
+which swelled the expense to three hundred thousand; and now a
+standing force of five thousand one hundred and sixty-eight men is
+contemplated, at an annual expense of above a million and a quarter.
+They were preparing to squander away money by millions; and no one,
+except those who were in the secrets of the cabinet, knew why the war
+had been thus carried on for three years.
+
+Against the motion for striking out, it was urged that the justice of
+the war could not be questioned by any man who would allow that self
+preservation, and indispensable necessity, could furnish sufficient
+motives for taking up arms. It was proved by unquestionable documents,
+that from the year 1783 to 1790, there had been not less than fifteen
+hundred persons, either the inhabitants of Kentucky, or emigrants on
+their way to that country, who had been massacred by the savages, or
+dragged into captivity; and there was reason to believe that on the
+frontiers of Virginia, and of Pennsylvania, the murdered and the
+prisoners would furnish a list almost equally numerous.
+
+The conciliatory disposition of the government was stated, and its
+repeated efforts to obtain a peace were enumerated. It was
+particularly observed that in 1790, when a treaty was proposed at the
+Miamis villages, the Indians at first refused to treat;--they next
+required thirty days to deliberate;--this request was acceded to; and,
+in the interim, offensive operations were expressly prohibited by the
+President. Yet, notwithstanding this forbearance on the part of the
+whites, not less than one hundred and twenty persons were killed and
+captured by the savages, and several prisoners were roasted alive,
+during that short period; at the expiration of which, the Indians
+refused to give any answer to the proposition which had been made to
+them.
+
+But it was now too late to inquire into the justice of the principles
+on which the war was originally undertaken. The nation was involved in
+it, and could not recede without exposing many innocent persons to be
+butchered by the enemy. Should the government determine to discontinue
+the war, would the Indians also consent to a cessation of hostilities?
+The government could not, without impeachment, both of its justice and
+humanity, abandon the inhabitants of the frontiers to the rage of
+their savage enemies; and although the excise might be unpopular,
+although money might still be wanted, what was the excise, what was
+money, when put in competition with the lives of their friends and
+brethren? A sufficient force must be raised for their defence, and the
+only question was what that force should be.
+
+The calculations of the best informed men were in favour of employing
+an army not inferior to that proposed in the bill. When the known
+attachment of Indians to war and plunder was adverted to, and the
+excitements to that attachment which were furnished by the trophies
+acquired in the last two campaigns were considered, no man would
+venture to pronounce with confidence how extensive the combination
+against the United States might become, or what numbers they would
+have to encounter. It certainly behoved them to prepare in time for a
+much more vigorous effort than had hitherto been made. The objections
+drawn from the increased expense which such an effort would require,
+must entirely vanish before the eyes of any man, who looks forward to
+the consequences of another unsuccessful campaign. Such a disaster
+would eventually involve the nation in much greater expense than that
+which is now made the ground of opposition. Better therefore is it, to
+make at once a vigorous and effectual exertion to bring the contest to
+a close, than to continue gradually draining the treasury, by dragging
+on the war, and renewing hostility from year to year.
+
+The supporters of the bill also appealed to experience for the
+superiority of regular troops over militia, in accomplishing all the
+purposes, even of Indian war; and those arguments were urged in favour
+of this theory, which the subject readily suggests.
+
+The motion for striking out the section was lost; and the bill was
+carried for the augmentation of force required by the executive.
+
+The treasury was not in a condition to meet the demands upon it, which
+the increased expenses of the war would unavoidably occasion; and
+sources of additional revenue were to be explored. A select committee
+to whom this subject was referred, brought in a resolution directing
+the secretary of the treasury to report his opinion to the house on
+the best mode of raising those additional supplies which the public
+service might require for the current year.
+
+This proposition gave rise to a very animated debate.
+
+It will be recollected that when the act for establishing the treasury
+department was under consideration, the clause which rendered it the
+duty of the secretary to digest and report plans for the improvement
+and management of the revenue, and for the support of public credit,
+was earnestly opposed. A large majority, however, was in favour of the
+principle; and, after being so modified, as only to admit a report if
+required by the house, it was retained in the bill. In complying with
+the various resolutions of congress, calling for reports on subjects
+connected with his department, the secretary had submitted plans
+which, having been profoundly considered, were well digested, and
+accompanied by arguments, the force of which it was difficult to
+resist. His measures were generally supported by a majority of
+congress; and, while the high credit of the United States was believed
+to attest their wisdom, the masterly manner in which his reports were
+drawn contributed to raise still higher, that reputation for great
+talents which he had long possessed. To the further admission of these
+reports, it was determined, on this occasion, to make a vigorous
+resistance.
+
+But the opposition was not successful. On taking the question, the
+resolution was carried; thirty-one members voting in its favour, and
+twenty-seven against it.
+
+[Sidenote: Report of the secretary of the treasury for raising
+additional supplies.]
+
+The report[59] made by the secretary in pursuance of this resolution,
+recommended certain augmentations of the duties on imports; and was
+immediately referred to the consideration of a committee of the whole
+house. Resolutions were then passed which were to form the basis of a
+bill; and which adopted, not only the principles, but, with the
+exception of a few unimportant alterations, the minute details of the
+report.
+
+     [Footnote 59: See note, No. VI. at the end of the volume.]
+
+Before the question was taken on the bill, a motion was made to limit
+its duration, the vote upon which strongly marked the progress of
+opinion in the house respecting those systems of finance which were
+believed to have established the credit of the United States.
+
+The secretary of the treasury had deemed it indispensable to the
+creation of public credit, that the appropriations of funds for the
+payment of the interest, and the gradual redemption of the principal
+of the national debt, should be not only sufficient, but permanent
+also. A party was found in the first congress who opposed this
+principle; and were in favour of retaining a full power over the
+subject in each branch of the legislature, by making annual
+appropriations. The arguments which had failed in congress appear to
+have been more successfully employed with the people. Among the
+multiplied vices which were ascribed to the funding system, it was
+charged with introducing a permanent and extensive mortgage of funds,
+which was alleged to strengthen unduly the hands of the executive
+magistrate, and to be one of the many evidences which existed, of
+monarchical propensities in those who administered the government.
+
+The report lately made by the secretary of the treasury, and the bill
+founded on that report, contemplated a permanent increase of the
+duties on certain specified articles; and a permanent appropriation of
+the revenue arising from them, to the purposes of the national debt.
+Thirty-one members were in favour of the motion for limiting the
+duration of the bill, and only thirty against it. By the rules of the
+house, the speaker has a right first to vote as a member; and, if the
+numbers should then be equally divided, to decide as speaker. Being
+opposed to the limitation, the motion was lost by his voice.
+
+On the eighth of May, after an active and interesting session,
+congress adjourned to the first Monday in November.
+
+The asperity which, on more than one occasion, discovered itself in
+debate, was a certain index of the growing exasperation of parties;
+and the strength of the opposition on those questions which brought
+into review the points on which the administration was to be attacked,
+denoted the impression which the specific charges brought against
+those who conducted public affairs, had made on the minds of the
+people, in an extensive division of the continent. It may conduce to a
+more perfect understanding of subsequent transactions, to present, in
+this place, a sketch of those charges.
+
+[Sidenote: Strictures on the conduct of administration, with a view of
+parties.]
+
+It was alleged that the public debt was too great to be paid before
+other causes of adding to it would occur. This accumulation of debt
+had been artificially produced by the assumption of what was due from
+the states. Its immediate effect was to deprive the government of its
+power over those easy sources of revenue, which, applied to its
+ordinary necessities and exigencies, would have answered them
+habitually, and thereby have avoided those burdens on the people which
+occasioned such murmurs against taxes, and tax gatherers. As a
+consequence of it, although the calls for money had not been greater
+than must be expected for the same or equivalent exigencies, yet
+congress had been already obliged, not only to strain the impost until
+it produced clamour, and would produce evasion, and war on their own
+citizens to collect it, but even to resort to an _excise_ law, of
+odious character with the people, partial in its operation,
+unproductive unless enforced by arbitrary and vexatious means, and
+committing the authority of the government in parts where resistance
+was most probable, and coercion least practicable.
+
+That the United States, if left free to act at their discretion, might
+borrow at two-thirds of the interest contracted to be paid to the
+public creditors, and thus discharge themselves from the principal in
+two-thirds of the time: but from this they were precluded by the
+irredeemable quality of the debt; a quality given for the avowed
+purpose of inviting its transfer to foreign countries. This transfer
+of the principal when completed would occasion an exportation of three
+millions of dollars annually for the interest, a drain of coin without
+example, and of the consequences of which no calculation could be
+made.
+
+The banishment of coin would be completed by ten millions of paper
+money in the form of bank bills, which were then issuing into
+circulation. Nor would this be the only mischief resulting from the
+institution of the bank. The ten or twelve per cent, annual profit
+paid to the lenders of this paper medium would take out of the pockets
+of the people, who would have had, without interest, the coin it was
+banishing. That all the capital employed in paper speculation is
+barren and useless, producing like that on a gaming table no accession
+to itself, and is withdrawn from commerce and agriculture, where it
+would have produced addition to the common mass. The wealth therefore
+heaped upon individuals by the funding and banking systems, would be
+productive of general poverty and distress. That in addition to the
+encouragement these measures gave to vice and idleness, they had
+furnished effectual means of corrupting such a portion of the
+legislature as turned the balance between the honest voters. This
+corrupt squad, deciding the voice of the legislature, had manifested
+their dispositions to get rid of the limitations imposed by the
+constitution; limitations on the faith of which the states acceded to
+that instrument. They were proceeding rapidly in their plan of
+absorbing all power, invading the rights of the states, and converting
+the federal into a consolidated government.
+
+That the ultimate object of all this was to prepare the way for a
+change from the present republican form of government to that of a
+monarchy, of which the English constitution was to be the model. So
+many of the friends of monarchy were in the legislature, that aided by
+the corrupt squad of paper dealers who were at their devotion, they
+made a majority in both houses. The republican party, even when united
+with the anti-federalists, continued a minority.
+
+That of all the mischiefs resulting from the system of measures which
+was so much reprobated, none was so afflicting, so fatal to every
+honest hope, as the corruption of the legislature. As it was the
+earliest of these measures, it became the instrument for producing the
+rest, and would be the instrument for producing in future, a king,
+lords, and commons; or whatever else those who directed it might
+choose. Withdrawn such a distance from the eye of their constituents,
+they would form the most corrupt government on earth, if the means of
+their corruption were not prevented.
+
+These strictures on the conduct of administration were principally
+directed against measures which had originated with the secretary of
+the treasury, and had afterwards received the sanction of the
+legislature. In the southern division of the continent, that officer
+was unknown, except to a few military friends, and to those who had
+engaged in the legislative or executive departments of the former or
+present government. His systems of revenue having been generally
+opposed by the southern members, and the original opposition to the
+constitution having been particularly great in Virginia and North
+Carolina, the aspersions on his views, and on the views of the eastern
+members by whom his plans had been generally supported, were seldom
+controverted. The remote tendency of particular systems, and the
+motives for their adoption, are so often subjects of conjecture, that
+the judgment, when exercised upon them, is peculiarly exposed to the
+influence of the passions; and where measures are in themselves
+burdensome, and the necessity for their adoption has not been
+appreciated, suspicions of their unknown advocates, can seldom be
+unsuccessfully urged by persons, in whom the people have placed their
+confidence. It is not therefore cause of astonishment, that the dark
+motives ascribed to the authors of tax laws, should be extensively
+believed.
+
+Throughout the United States, the party opposed to the constitution
+had charged its supporters with a desire to establish a monarchy on
+the ruins of republican government; and the constitution itself was
+alleged to contain principles which would prove the truth of this
+charge. The leaders of that party had, therefore, been ready from the
+instant the government came into operation, to discover, in all its
+measures, those monarchical tendencies which they had perceived in the
+instrument they opposed.
+
+The salaries allowed to public officers, though so low[60] as not to
+afford a decent maintenance to those who resided at the seat of
+government, were declared to be so enormously high, as clearly to
+manifest a total disregard of that simplicity and economy which were
+the characteristics of republics.
+
+     [Footnote 60: The salary of the secretary of state, which
+     was the highest, was three thousand five hundred dollars.]
+
+The levees of the President, and the evening parties of Mrs.
+Washington, were said to be imitations of regal institutions, designed
+to accustom the American people to the pomp and manners of European
+courts. The Vice President too was said to keep up the state and
+dignity of a monarch, and to illustrate, by his conduct, the
+principles which were inculcated in his political works.
+
+The Indian war they alleged was misconducted, and unnecessarily
+prolonged for the purposes of expending the public money, and of
+affording a pretext for augmenting the military establishment, and
+increasing the revenue.
+
+All this prodigal waste of the money of the people was designed to
+keep up the national debt, and the influence it gave the government,
+which, united with standing armies, and immense revenues, would enable
+their rulers to rivet the chains which they were secretly forging.
+Every prediction which had been uttered respecting the anti-republican
+principles of the government, was said to be rapidly verifying, and
+that which was disbelieved as prophecy, was daily becoming history. If
+a remedy for these ills was not found in the increased representation
+of the people which would take place at the ensuing elections, they
+would become too monstrous to be borne; and when it was recollected
+that the division of opinion was marked by a geographical line, there
+was reason to fear that the union would be broken into one or more
+confederacies.
+
+These irritable symptoms had assumed appearances of increased
+malignity during the session of congress which had just terminated;
+and, to the President, who firmly believed that the union and the
+liberty of the states depended on the preservation of the government,
+they were the more unpleasant and the more alarming, because they were
+displayed in full force in his cabinet.
+
+[Sidenote: Disagreement between the secretaries of state and
+treasury.]
+
+Between the secretaries of the state and treasury departments, a
+disagreement existed, which seems to have originated in an early stage
+of the administration, and to have acquired a regular accession of
+strength from circumstances which were perpetually occurring, until it
+grew into open and irreconcileable hostility.
+
+Without tracing this disagreement to those motives, which, in elective
+governments especially, often produce enmities between distinguished
+personages, neither of whom acknowledges the superiority of the other,
+such radical differences of opinion, on points which would essentially
+influence the course of the government, were supposed to exist between
+the secretaries, as, in a great measure, to account for this
+unextinguishable enmity. These differences of opinion were, perhaps,
+to be ascribed, in some measure, to a difference in the original
+structure of their minds, and, in some measure, to the difference of
+the situations in which they had been placed.
+
+Until near the close of the war, Mr. Hamilton had served his country
+in the field; and, just before its termination, had passed from the
+camp into congress, where he remained for some time after peace had
+been established. In the former station, the danger to which the
+independence of his country was exposed from the imbecility of the
+government was perpetually before his eyes; and, in the latter, his
+attention was forcibly directed towards the loss of its reputation,
+and the sacrifice of its best interests, which were to be ascribed to
+the same cause. Mr. Hamilton, therefore, was the friend of a
+government which should possess, in itself, sufficient powers and
+resources to maintain the character, and defend the integrity of the
+nation. Having long felt and witnessed the mischiefs produced by the
+absolute sovereignty of the states, and by the control which they were
+enabled and disposed separately to exercise over every measure of
+general concern, he was particularly apprehensive of danger from that
+quarter; which he, probably, believed was to be the more dreaded,
+because the habits and feelings of the American people were calculated
+to inspire state, rather than national prepossessions. Under the
+influence of these impressions, he is understood to have avowed
+opinions in the convention favourable to a system in which the
+executive and senate, though elective, were to be rather more
+permanent, than they were rendered in that which was actually
+proposed. He afterwards supported the constitution, as framed, with
+great ability, and contributed essentially to its adoption. But he
+still retained, and openly avowed, the opinion, that the greatest
+hazards to which it was exposed arose from its weakness, and that
+American liberty and happiness had much more to fear from the
+encroachments of the great states, than from those of the general
+government.
+
+Mr. Jefferson had retired from congress before the depreciation of the
+currency had produced an entire dependence of the general on the local
+governments; after which he filled the highest offices in the state of
+which he was a citizen. About the close of the war he was re-elected
+to congress; but, being soon afterwards employed on a mission to the
+court of Versailles, where he remained, while the people of France
+were taking the first steps of that immense revolution which has
+astonished and agitated two quarters of the world. In common with all
+his countrymen, he felt a strong interest in favour of the reformers;
+and it is not unreasonable to suppose, that while residing at that
+court, and associating with those who meditated some of the great
+events which have since taken place, his mind might be warmed with the
+abuses of the monarchy which were perpetually in his view, and he
+might be led to the opinion that liberty could sustain no danger but
+from the executive power. Mr. Jefferson, therefore, seems to have
+entertained no apprehensions from the debility of the government; no
+jealousy of the state sovereignties; and no suspicion of their
+encroachments. His fears took a different direction, and all his
+precautions were used to check and limit the exercise of the powers
+vested in the government of the United States. Neither could he
+perceive danger to liberty except from that government, and especially
+from the executive department.
+
+He did not feel so sensibly, as those who had continued in the United
+States, the necessity of adopting the constitution; and had, at one
+time, avowed a wish that it might be rejected by such a number of
+states as would secure certain alterations which he thought essential.
+His principal objections seem to have been, the want of a bill of
+rights, and the re-eligibility of the President. From this opinion,
+however, in favour of a partial rejection, he is understood to have
+receded, after seeing the plan pursued by the convention of
+Massachusetts, and followed by other states; which was to adopt
+unconditionally, and to annex a recommendation of the amendments which
+were desired.[61]
+
+     [Footnote 61: See Mr. Jefferson's correspondence.]
+
+To these causes of division, another was superadded, the influence of
+which was soon felt in all the political transactions of the
+government.
+
+The war which was terminated in 1783, had left in the bosoms of the
+American people, a strong attachment to France, and enmity to Great
+Britain. These feelings, in a greater or less degree, were perhaps
+universal; and had been prevented from subsiding by circumstances to
+which allusions have already been made. They had evinced themselves,
+in the state legislatures, by commercial regulations; and were
+demonstrated by all those means by which the public sentiment is
+usually displayed. They found their way also into the national
+councils, where they manifested themselves in the motions respecting
+the favours which ought to be shown to nations having commercial
+treaties with the United States.
+
+Although affection for France, and jealousy of Britain, were
+sentiments common to the people of America, the same unanimity did not
+exist respecting the influence which ought to be allowed to those
+sentiments, over the political conduct of the nation. While many
+favoured such discriminations as might eventually turn the commerce of
+the United States into new channels, others maintained that, on this
+subject, equality ought to be observed; that trade ought to be guided
+by the judgment of individuals, and that no sufficient motives existed
+for that sacrifice of general and particular interests, which was
+involved in the discriminations proposed;--discriminations which, in
+their view, amounted to a tax on American agriculture, and a bounty on
+the navigation and manufactures of a favoured foreign nation.
+
+The former opinion was taken up with warmth by the secretary of state;
+and the latter was adopted with equal sincerity by the secretary of
+the treasury. This contrariety of sentiment respecting commercial
+regulations was only a part of a general system. It extended itself to
+all the relations which might subsist between America and those two
+great powers.
+
+In all popular governments, the press is the most ready channel by
+which the opinions and the passions of the few are communicated to the
+many; and of the press, the two great parties forming in the United
+States, sought to avail themselves. The Gazette of the United States
+supported the systems of the treasury department, while other papers
+enlisted themselves under the banners of the opposition. Conspicuous
+among these, was the National Gazette, a paper edited by a clerk in
+the department of state. The avowed purpose for which the secretary
+patronized this paper, was to present to the eye of the American
+people, European intelligence derived from the Leyden gazette, instead
+of English papers; but it soon became the vehicle of calumny against
+the funding and banking systems, against the duty on home-made
+spirits, which was denominated an excise, and against the men who had
+proposed and supported those measures. With perhaps equal asperity,
+the papers attached to the party which had defended these systems,
+assailed the motives of the leaders of the opposition.
+
+[Sidenote: Letters from Washington on this subject.]
+
+This schism in his cabinet was a subject of extreme mortification to
+the President. Entertaining a high respect for the talents, and a real
+esteem for the characters, of both gentlemen, he was unwilling to part
+with either; and exerted all the influence he possessed to effect a
+reconciliation between them. In a letter of the 23d of August,
+addressed to the secretary of state, after reviewing the critical
+situation of the United States with respect to its external relations,
+he thus expressed himself on this delicate subject. "How unfortunate
+and how much is it to be regretted then, that, while we are
+encompassed on all sides with avowed enemies, and insidious friends,
+internal dissensions should be harassing and tearing our vitals. The
+last, to me, is the most serious, the most alarming, and the most
+afflicting of the two; and, without more charity for the opinions of
+one another in governmental matters, or some more infallible criterion
+by which the truth of speculative opinions, before they have undergone
+the test of experience, are to be forejudged, than has yet fallen to
+the lot of fallibility, I believe it will be difficult, if not
+impracticable, to manage the reins of government, or to keep the parts
+of it together: for if, instead of laying our shoulders to the
+machine, after measures are decided on, one pulls this way, and
+another that, before the utility of the thing is fairly tried, it must
+inevitably be torn asunder; and, in my opinion, the fairest prospect
+of happiness and prosperity that ever was presented to man will be
+lost, perhaps, for ever.
+
+"My earnest wish and my fondest hope therefore is, that instead of
+wounding suspicions, and irritating charges, there may be liberal
+allowances, mutual forbearances, and temporizing yielding on all
+sides. Under the exercise of these, matters will go on smoothly; and
+if possible, more prosperously. Without them, every thing must rub;
+the wheels of government will clog; our enemies will triumph; and, by
+throwing their weight into the disaffected scale, may accomplish the
+ruin of the goodly fabric we have been erecting."
+
+"I do not mean to apply this advice, or these observations, to any
+particular person or character. I have given them in the same general
+terms to other officers[62] of the government, because the
+disagreements which have arisen from difference of opinions, and the
+attacks which have been made upon almost all the measures of
+government, and most of its executive officers, have for a long time
+past filled me with painful sensations, and can not fail, I think, of
+producing unhappy consequences, at home and abroad."
+
+     [Footnote 62: See note, No. VII. at the end of the volume.]
+
+In a subsequent letter to the same gentleman, in answer to one which
+enclosed some documents designed to prove that, though desirous of
+amending the constitution, he had favoured its adoption, the President
+said--"I did not require the evidence of the extracts which you
+enclosed me, to convince me of your attachment to the constitution of
+the United States, or of your disposition to promote the general
+welfare of this country; but I regret, deeply regret, the difference
+of opinion which has arisen, and divided you and another principal
+officer of the government--and wish devoutly there could be an
+accommodation of them by mutual yieldings.
+
+"A measure of this sort would produce harmony and consequent good in
+our public councils; and the contrary will inevitably produce
+confusion and serious mischiefs--and for what? because mankind can not
+think alike, but would adopt different means to attain the same end.
+For I will frankly and solemnly declare that I believe the views of
+both to be pure and well meant, and that experience only will decide
+with respect to the salubrity of the measures which are the subjects
+of this dispute.
+
+"Why then, when some of the best citizens of the United States--men of
+discernment--uniform and tried patriots--who have no sinister views to
+promote, but are chaste in their ways of thinking and acting, are to
+be found some on one side, and some on the other of the questions
+which have caused these agitations--why should either of you be so
+tenacious of your opinions as to make no allowance for those of the
+other?
+
+"I could, and indeed was about to add more on this interesting
+subject, but will forbear, at least for the present, after expressing
+a wish that the cup which has been presented to us may not be snatched
+from our lips by a discordance of action, when I am persuaded there is
+no discordance in your views. I have a great, a sincere esteem and
+regard for you both; and ardently wish that some line could be marked
+out by which both of you could walk."
+
+These earnest endeavours to sooth the angry passions, and to
+conciliate the jarring discords of the cabinet, were unsuccessful. The
+hostility which was so much and so sincerely lamented sustained no
+diminution, and its consequences became every day more diffusive.
+
+Among the immediate effects of these internal dissensions, was the
+encouragement they afforded to a daring and criminal resistance which
+was made to the execution of the laws imposing a duty on spirits
+distilled within the United States.
+
+To the inhabitants of that part of Pennsylvania which lies west of the
+Alleghany mountains, this duty was, from local considerations,
+peculiarly odious; nor was their hostility to the measure diminished
+by any affection for the source in which it originated. The
+constitution itself had encountered the most decided opposition from
+that part of the state; and that early enmity to the government which
+exerted every faculty to prevent its adoption, had sustained no
+abatement. Its measures generally, and the whole system of finance
+particularly, had been reprobated with peculiar bitterness by many of
+the most popular men of that district. With these dispositions, a tax
+law, the operation of which was extended to them, could not be
+favourably received, however generally it might be supported in other
+parts of the union. But when, to this pre-existing temper, were
+superadded the motives which arose from perceiving that the measure
+was censured on the floor of congress as unnecessary and tyrannical;
+that resistance to its execution was treated as probable; that a
+powerful and active party, pervading the union, arraigned with extreme
+acrimony the whole system of finance as being hostile to liberty; and,
+with all the passionate vehemence of conviction, charged its advocates
+with designing to subvert the republican institutions of America; we
+ought not to be surprised that the awful impressions, which usually
+restrain combinations to resist the laws, were lessened; and that the
+malcontents were emboldened to hope that those combinations might be
+successful.
+
+[Sidenote: Opposition to the excise law.]
+
+Some discontents had been manifested in several parts of the union on
+the first introduction of the act; but the prudence and firmness of
+the government and its officers had dissipated them; and the law had
+been carried into general operation. But in the western district of
+Pennsylvania, the resistance wore the appearance of system, and was
+regularly progressive. In its commencement, it manifested itself by
+the circulation of opinions calculated to increase the odium in which
+the duty was held, and by endeavours to defeat its collection by
+directing the public resentments against those who were inclined
+either to comply with the law, or to accept the offices through which
+it was to be executed. These indications of ill temper were succeeded
+by neighbourhood meetings, in which resolutions of extreme violence
+were adopted, and by acts of outrage against the persons of revenue
+officers. At length, in September, 1791, a meeting of delegates from
+the malcontent counties was held at Pittsburg, in which resolutions
+were adopted breathing the same spirit with those which had previously
+been agreed to in county assemblies. Unfortunately, the deputy
+marshal, who was entrusted with the process against those who had
+committed acts of violence on the persons of revenue officers, was so
+intimidated by the turbulent spirit which was generally displayed,
+that he returned without performing his duty; and thus added to the
+confidence felt by the disaffected in their strength. Appearances were
+such as to justify apprehensions, that the judiciary would be found
+unable to punish the violators of the laws; and the means of obtaining
+aid from the executive had not been furnished by the legislature. This
+state of things was the more embarrassing, because the prejudices
+which had been widely disseminated, and the misconceptions of the act
+which had been extensively diffused, authorized some fears respecting
+the support which the law, while yet in the infancy of its operation,
+would receive from the people. These considerations, added to that
+repugnance which was felt by the government to the employment of harsh
+means, induced a forbearance to notice further these riotous
+proceedings, until the measure, by being carried into full effect in
+other parts of the union, should be better understood; and until
+congress should assemble, and modify the system in such a manner as to
+remove any real objections to it, the existence of which might be
+suggested by experience. Accordingly, in the legislature which
+convened in October, 1791, this subject was taken up in pursuance of
+the recommendation of the President, and an amendatory act was passed
+in May, 1792, in which the whole system was revised, and great pains
+were taken to alter such parts of it as could be deemed exceptionable.
+
+This conciliatory measure did not produce the desired effect. No
+abatement took place in the violence and outrage with which the
+resistance to the law was conducted. To carry it into execution,
+officers of inspection were necessary in every county. The
+malcontents, for a considerable time, deterred every person from
+consenting to permit an office to be held at his house; and when at
+length this difficulty was supposed to be overcome, those who had been
+prevailed on to accede to the propositions of the supervisor in this
+respect, were compelled, by personal violence, and by threats of the
+destruction of property, and even of death, to retract the consent
+they had given.
+
+A meeting was again convened at Pittsburg, in which, among other very
+exceptionable resolutions, committees were established to correspond
+with any committees of a similar nature that might be appointed in
+other parts of the United States. By this meeting it was declared,
+that they would persist in every legal measure to obstruct the
+execution of the law, and would consider those who held offices for
+the collection of the duty as unworthy of their friendship; that they
+would have no intercourse or dealings with them; would withdraw from
+them every assistance, and withhold all the comforts of life which
+depend upon those duties which, as men and fellow citizens, they owed
+to each other; and would, upon all occasions, treat them with
+contempt. It was at the same time earnestly recommended to the people
+at large to adopt the same line of conduct.
+
+[Sidenote: President's proclamation.]
+
+No man could be more sensible than the President of the dangerous
+tendency of these measures, nor more indignant at the outrage thus
+offered to the government of the United States. But his prudence, and
+his high respect for the laws restrained him within the narrow limits
+which the legislature had prescribed. A proclamation[63] was issued
+exhorting and admonishing all persons to desist from any combinations
+or proceedings whatsoever, tending to obstruct the execution of the
+laws, and requiring the interference of the civil magistrate; and
+prosecutions against the offenders were directed to be instituted in
+every case in which they could be supported.
+
+     [Footnote 63: In his letter enclosing the proclamation to
+     the secretary of the treasury, the President observed, "I
+     have no doubt but that the proclamation will undergo many
+     strictures; and, as the effect proposed may not be answered
+     by it, it will be necessary to look forward in time to
+     ulterior arrangements. And here, not only the constitution
+     and laws must strictly govern, but the employment of the
+     regular troops avoided, if it be possible to effect order
+     without their aid; yet if no other means will effectually
+     answer, and the constitution and laws will authorize these,
+     they must be used as the dernier ressort."]
+
+This proclamation produced no salutary effect. Many of the civil
+magistrates were themselves concerned in stimulating the excesses they
+were required to suppress; and those who had not embarked in the
+criminal enterprise, found themselves totally unable to maintain the
+sovereignty of the laws.
+
+With a laudable solicitude to avoid extremities, the government still
+sought for means to recall these misguided people to a sense of duty,
+without the employment of a military force. To obtain this desirable
+object, the following system was digested and pursued:
+
+Prosecutions were instituted against delinquents in those cases in
+which it was believed that they could be maintained. The spirits
+distilled in the non-complying counties were intercepted on their way
+to market, and seized by the officers of the revenue; and the agents
+for the army were directed to purchase only those spirits on which the
+duty had been paid. By thus acting on the interests of the distillers,
+the hope was indulged that they might be induced to comply with the
+law. Could they have obeyed their wishes, these measures would have
+produced the desired effect; but they were no longer masters of their
+own conduct. Impelled by a furious multitude, they found it much more
+dangerous to obey the laws than to resist them. The efficacy of this
+system too was diminished by a circumstance, which induced the
+necessity of a second application to the legislature. The act had not
+been extended to the territory north-west of the Ohio, in which great
+part of the army lay; and the distillers eluded the vigilance of the
+government by introducing their spirits into that territory.
+
+While from causes which were incessant and active in their operation,
+some of which seem too strongly fixed in the human mind ever to be
+removed, a broad foundation was thus laid for those party struggles
+whose fury is generally proportioned to the magnitude of the objects
+to be attained, and to the means which may be employed in attaining
+them, the external affairs of the United States sustained no material
+change.
+
+Of the good understanding which was preserved with France, a fresh
+proof had been recently given by the employment of Mr. Ternan, a
+person peculiarly acceptable to the American government, to succeed
+the Count de Moustiers, as minister plenipotentiary of his Most
+Christian Majesty; and in turn, Mr. Gouverneur Morris, who was
+understood to have rendered himself agreeable to the French
+government, was appointed to represent the United States at the court
+of Versailles.
+
+In addition to these interchanges of civility, a melancholy occasion
+had presented itself for giving much more substantial evidence of the
+alacrity with which the American administration would embrace any
+proper opportunity of manifesting its disposition to promote the
+interests of France.
+
+[Sidenote: Insurrection and massacre in the island of St. Domingo.]
+
+Early and bitter fruits of that malignant philosophy, which,
+disregarding the actual state of the world, and estimating at nothing
+the miseries of a vast portion of the human race, can coolly and
+deliberately pursue, through oceans of blood, abstract systems for the
+attainment of some fancied untried good, were gathered in the French
+West Indies. Instead of proceeding in the correction of any abuses
+which might exist, by those slow and cautious steps which gradually
+introduce reform without ruin, which may prepare and fit society for
+that better state of things designed for it; and which, by not
+attempting impossibilities, may enlarge the circle of happiness, the
+revolutionists of France formed the mad and wicked project of
+spreading their doctrines of equality among persons, between whom
+distinctions and prejudices exist to be subdued only by the grave. The
+rage excited by the pursuit of this visionary and baneful theory,
+after many threatening symptoms, burst forth on the 23d day of August
+1791, with a fury alike destructive and general. In one night, a
+preconcerted insurrection of the blacks took place throughout the
+colony of St. Domingo; and the white inhabitants of the country, while
+sleeping in their beds, were involved in one indiscriminate massacre,
+from which neither age nor sex could afford an exemption. Only a few
+females, reserved for a fate more cruel than death, were intentionally
+spared; and not many were fortunate enough to escape into the
+fortified cities. The insurgents then assembled in vast numbers, and a
+bloody war commenced between them and the whites inhabiting the towns.
+The whole French part of the island was in imminent danger of being
+totally lost to the mother country. The minister of his Most Christian
+Majesty applied to the executive of the United States for a sum of
+money which would enable him to preserve this valuable colony, to be
+deducted out of the debt to his sovereign; and the request was granted
+in a manner evincing the interest taken by the administration in
+whatever might concern France.
+
+On the part of Spain, a desire had been expressed to adjust the
+subjects in controversy between the two nations by negotiations to be
+carried on at Madrid; and Mr. Carmichael, and Mr. Short, had been
+appointed commissioners, with powers equal to the object. In the mean
+time, the officers of that nation persisted in measures which were
+calculated to embroil the United States with the southern Indians. By
+their intrigues with the Creeks, the treaty formed in 1790 with
+M'Gillivray, was prevented from being ratified, and the boundary line
+then agreed upon was not permitted to be run. The indefinite claim of
+territory set up by Spain was alleged to constitute a sufficient
+objection to any new line of demarcation, until that claim should be
+settled; and her previous treaties and relations with the Creeks were
+declared to be infringed by their stipulation, acknowledging
+themselves to be under the protection of the United States.
+
+An official diplomatic intercourse had at length been opened with
+Great Britain also. Mr. Hammond, the minister plenipotentiary of that
+nation to the United States, arrived at Philadelphia in the autumn of
+1791; upon which, Mr. Thomas Pinckney, a gentleman of South Carolina,
+who was highly and justly respected, had been charged with the
+interests of his country at the court of London.[64] Soon after the
+arrival of Mr. Hammond, the non-execution of the treaty of peace
+became the subject of a correspondence between him and the secretary
+of state, in which the complaints of their respective nations were
+urged in terms manifesting clearly the sense entertained by each of
+the justice of those complaints, without furnishing solid ground for
+the hope that they would be immediately removed on either side.
+
+     [Footnote 64: In consequence of these nominations of foreign
+     ministers, a motion was made in the senate on a point which
+     is of some importance in settling the principles of the
+     American government. It was contended that the power of that
+     body over the appointment of a foreign minister gave the
+     right to inquire into the policy of making any appointment
+     whatever; and that in exercising this power, they were not
+     to confine themselves to a consideration of the fitness of
+     the person nominated, but were to judge of the propriety of
+     the mission; and were consequently to be informed of the
+     motives which had decided the President to adopt the
+     measure. This opinion was overruled by a small majority.]
+
+Mr. Hammond's powers on the subject of a commercial treaty were far
+from being satisfactory. To the inquiries of Mr. Jefferson on this
+point, he replied, that he was authorized to enter into a negotiation
+respecting the commercial intercourse between the two countries, and
+to discuss those principles which might serve as a basis for a treaty,
+but not to _conclude_ any definitive arrangements. In fact, there was
+much reason to believe that the obstacles to a commercial treaty
+between the two countries would not be soon or easily surmounted. In
+America, such an alteration in the law of nations as would permit the
+goods of an enemy to pass freely in the bottom of a neutral, was a
+favourite project; and a full participation of the colonial trade was
+also most earnestly desired. That the latter of these objects would
+not be readily conceded by Great Britain did not admit of a doubt; but
+many intelligent men, possessing great political influence, had
+embraced the opinion that she could be forced out of that colonial
+system which every European power having settlements in America had
+adopted, by regulations restricting her navigation and commerce with
+the United States. To those who entertained this opinion, no
+commercial treaty could be acceptable, which did not contain the
+concessions they required.
+
+In addition to a general knowledge of the sentiments of the British
+cabinet on these points, particular evidence had lately been received
+of its positive decision respecting them. A comprehensive report on
+American affairs had been made to the privy council by a committee of
+that body, which was laid before the king. A few copies of it had been
+printed for the members of the cabinet, which were soon called in by a
+sudden order of council; but one of these copies was obtained, and
+transmitted to the secretary of state of the United States. This
+report manifested a willingness to form a commercial treaty with the
+American government on principles of perfect equality, both with
+respect to navigation and commerce, so far as regarded the dominions
+of his Britannic Majesty in Europe; but it also discovered a
+determination, to adhere inflexibly to the existing regulations for
+the colonies; and to reject the principle that free bottoms make free
+goods.
+
+In this state paper the opinion was advanced, that several important
+articles of exportation from the United States, especially tobacco,
+had been peculiarly favoured in Great Britain; but that these friendly
+regulations were not reciprocated by America. The means of retaliating
+injuries which might be inflicted on British commerce were stated, but
+those means, it was said, ought not hastily to be adopted, the more
+especially, as the existing government of the United States had
+discovered dispositions more favourable to a liberal and fair
+intercourse between the two countries, than had been manifested by the
+respective states. For several reasons it was deemed adviseable not
+suddenly to disturb the existing state of things, but to regulate the
+trade of the two nations by a treaty, the stipulations of which should
+be equal, and mutually beneficial, provided such a treaty could be
+formed without a departure from those principles which were considered
+as fundamental.
+
+[Sidenote: General Wayne appointed to the command of the army.]
+
+No abatement of hostility having taken place among the north-western
+Indians, the preparations for terminating the war by the sword were
+earnestly pressed. Major General Wayne was appointed to succeed
+General St. Clair, who resigned the command of the army; and the
+utmost exertions were made to complete it to the establishment; but
+the laws furnished such small inducements to engage in the service,
+that the highest military grades, next to that of Commander-in-chief,
+were declined by many to whom they were offered; and the recruiting
+business advanced too slowly to authorize a hope that the decisive
+expedition which was meditated, could be prudently undertaken in the
+course of the present year. Meanwhile, the public clamour against the
+war continued to be loud and violent. It was vehemently asserted, that
+if the intentions of the government respecting the savages were just
+and humane, those intentions were unknown to them, and that their
+resentments were kept up by the aggressions of whites, and by the
+opinion that their expulsion from the country they occupied was the
+object of the hostilities carried on against them. However satisfied
+the President might be of the fallacy of these opinions, they were too
+extensively maintained not to be respected, as far as was compatible
+with a due regard to the real interests of the nation. While,
+therefore, the preparations for offensive operations were hastened by
+a vigorous exertion of the means at the disposal of the executive, it
+was thought adviseable to make another effort to terminate the war by
+a direct communication of the pacific views of the United States.--The
+failure of these attempts was still less to be lamented than the fate
+of those who were employed in them. Colonel Harden and Major Trueman,
+two brave officers and valuable men, were severally despatched with
+propositions of peace, and each was murdered by the savages.
+
+[Sidenote: Meeting of congress.]
+
+[Sidenote: President's speech.]
+
+On the 5th of November congress again convened. In the speech
+delivered at the commencement of the session, Indian affairs were
+treated at considerable length, and the continuance of the war was
+mentioned as a subject of much regret. "The reiterated endeavours," it
+was said, "which had been made to effect a pacification, had hitherto
+issued in new and outrageous proofs of persevering hostility on the
+part of the tribes with whom the United States were in contest.
+
+"A detail of the measures that had been pursued, and of their
+consequences, which would be laid before congress, while it would
+confirm the want of success thus far, would evince that means as
+proper and as efficacious as could have been devised, had been
+employed. The issue of some of them was still pending; but a
+favourable one, though not to be despaired of, was not promised by any
+thing that had yet happened."
+
+That a sanction, commonly respected even among savages, had been found
+insufficient to protect from massacre the emissaries of peace, was
+particularly noticed; and the families of those valuable citizens who
+had thus fallen victims to their zeal for the public service, were
+recommended to the attention of the legislature.
+
+That unprovoked aggression had been made by the southern Indians, and
+that there was just cause for apprehension that the war would extend
+to them also, was mentioned as a subject of additional concern.
+
+"Every practicable exertion had been made to be prepared for the
+alternative of prosecuting the war, in the event of a failure of
+pacific overtures. A large proportion of the troops authorized to be
+raised, had been recruited, though the numbers were yet incomplete;
+and pains had been taken to discipline them, and put them in a
+condition for the particular kind of service to be performed. But a
+delay of operations, besides being dictated by the measures that were
+pursuing towards a pacific termination of the war, had been in itself
+deemed preferable to immature efforts."
+
+The humane system which has since been successfully pursued, of
+gradually civilizing the savages by improving their condition, of
+diverting them in some degree from hunting to domestic and
+agricultural occupations by imparting to them some of the most simple
+and useful acquisitions of society, and of conciliating them to the
+United States by a beneficial and well regulated commerce, had ever
+been a favourite object with the President, and the detailed view
+which was now taken of Indian affairs, was concluded with a repetition
+of his recommendations of these measures.
+
+The subject next adverted to in the speech, was the impediments which
+in some places continued to embarrass the collection of the duties on
+spirits distilled within the United States. After observing that these
+impediments were lessening in local extent, but that symptoms of such
+increased opposition had lately manifested themselves in certain
+places as, in his judgment, to render his special interposition
+adviseable, the President added,--"Congress may be assured that
+nothing within constitutional and legal limits which may depend on me,
+shall be wanting to assert and maintain the just authority of the
+laws. In fulfilling this trust, I shall count entirely on the full
+co-operation of the other departments of government, and upon the
+zealous support of all good citizens."
+
+After noticing various objects which would require the attention of
+the legislature, the President addressed himself particularly to the
+house of representatives, and said, "I entertain a strong hope that
+the state of the national finances is now sufficiently matured to
+enable you to enter upon a systematic and effectual arrangement for
+the regular redemption and discharge of the public debt, according to
+the right which has been reserved to the government. No measure can be
+more desirable, whether viewed with an eye to its intrinsic
+importance, or to the general sentiments and wish of the nation."
+
+The addresses of the two houses in answer to the speech, were, as
+usual, respectful and affectionate. The several subjects recommended
+to the attention of congress were noticed either in general terms, or
+in a manner to indicate a coincidence of sentiment between the
+legislative and executive departments. The turbulent spirit which had
+manifested itself in certain parts of the union was mentioned by both
+houses with a just degree of censure, and the measures adopted by the
+President, as well as the resolution he expressed to compel obedience
+to the laws, were approved; and the house of representatives, in the
+most unqualified terms, declared opinions in favour of systematic and
+effectual arrangements for discharging the public debt. But the
+subsequent proceedings of the legislature did not fulfil the
+expectations excited by this auspicious commencement of the session.
+
+At an early day, in a committee of the whole house on the President's
+speech, Mr. Fitzsimmons moved "that measures for the reduction of so
+much of the public debt as the United States have a right to redeem,
+ought to be adopted: and that the secretary of the treasury be
+directed to report a plan for that purpose."
+
+This motion was objected to by Mr. Madison as being premature. The
+state of the finances, he thought, was not sufficiently understood to
+authorize the adoption of the measure it contemplated. The debate
+however soon took a different direction. That part of the resolution
+which proposed a reference to the secretary of the treasury was
+particularly opposed; and an ardent discussion ensued, in which,
+without much essential variation, the arguments which had before been
+urged on the same subject were again employed. After a vehement
+contest, the motion to amend the resolution by striking out the
+proposed reference was overruled, and it was carried in its original
+form.
+
+{1793}
+
+In obedience to this order, the secretary made a report, in which he
+proposed a plan for the annual redemption of that portion of the debt,
+the payment of which was warranted by the contract between the United
+States and their creditors. But the expenses of the Indian war
+rendering it, in his opinion, unsafe to rest absolutely on the
+existing revenue, he proposed to extend the internal taxes to pleasure
+horses, or pleasure carriages, as the legislature might deem most
+eligible. The consideration of this report was deferred on various
+pretexts; and a motion was made to reduce the military establishment.
+The debate on this subject was peculiarly earnest; and, in its
+progress, the mode of conducting the Indian war, the relative merits
+and expensiveness of militia and of regular troops, and the danger to
+liberty from standing armies, were elaborately discussed. It was not
+until the fourth of January that the motion was rejected. While that
+question remained undecided, the report of the secretary was
+unavoidably postponed, because, on its determination would depend, in
+the opinion of many, the necessity of additional taxes. It would seem
+not improbable that the opponents of the American system of finances,
+who constituted rather a minority of the present congress, but who
+indulged sanguine hopes of becoming the majority in the next, were
+desirous of referring every question relating to the treasury
+department to the succeeding legislature, in which there would be a
+more full representation of the people. Whatever might be the
+operating motives for delay, neither the extension of the law imposing
+a duty on spirits distilled within the United States to the territory
+north-west of the river Ohio, nor the plan for redeeming the public
+debt, which was earnestly pressed by the administration, could be
+carried through the present congress. Those who claimed the favour and
+confidence of the people as a just reward for their general attachment
+to liberty, and especially for their watchfulness to prevent every
+augmentation of debt, were found in opposition to a system for its
+diminution, which was urged by men who were incessantly charged with
+entertaining designs for its excessive accumulation, in order to
+render it the corrupt instrument of executive influence. It might be
+expected that the public attention would be attracted to such a
+circumstance. But when party passions are highly inflamed, reason
+itself submits to their control, and becomes the instrument of their
+will. The assertion that the existing revenues, if not prodigally or
+corruptly wasted, were sufficient for the objects contemplated by the
+President in his speech, would constitute an ample apology for the
+impediments thrown in the way of a system which could not be directly
+disapproved, and would justify a continuance of the charge that the
+supporters of the fiscal system were friends to the augmentation of
+the public debt.
+
+Soon after the motion for the reduction of the military establishment
+was disposed of, another subject was introduced, which effectually
+postponed, for the present session, every measure connected with the
+finances of the nation.
+
+An act of congress, which passed on the fourth of August, 1790,
+authorized the President to cause to be borrowed any sum not exceeding
+twelve millions of dollars, to be applied in payment of the foreign
+debt of the United States.
+
+A subsequent act, which passed on the 12th of the same month,
+authorized another loan not exceeding two millions, to be applied, in
+aid of the sinking fund, towards the extinguishment of the domestic
+debt.
+
+A power to make these loans was delegated by the President to the
+secretary of the treasury by a general commission referring to the
+acts. This commission was accompanied by written instructions,
+directing the payment of such parts of the foreign debt as should
+become due at the end of the year 1791; but leaving the secretary,
+with respect to the residue, to be regulated by the interests of the
+United States.
+
+Under this commission two loans were negotiated in 1790, and others at
+subsequent periods.
+
+As many considerations of convenience opposed such an arrangement as
+would appropriate all the monies arising from either of these loans to
+one object, to the total exclusion of the other; and no motive was
+perceived for thus unnecessarily fettering the operations of the
+treasury; each loan was negotiated under both laws; and consequently
+the monies produced by each were applicable to both objects, in such
+proportions as the President might direct. It has been already
+observed that his written instructions had ordered the payment of
+those instalments of the foreign debt which should become due before
+the first of January, 1792; but no further sums on that account were
+to be borrowed until supplemental orders to that effect should be
+given, unless a loan could be made on such terms as would render it
+advantageous to the United States to anticipate the payments to their
+foreign creditors. It being the opinion of both the President and
+secretary that the official powers of the latter authorized him to
+draw the monies borrowed for domestic purposes into the treasury,
+where they would form a part of the sinking fund, and be applicable to
+the objects of that fund in conformity with the laws of appropriation,
+no written instructions were given respecting that part of the
+subject; but in the progress of the business, every material step
+which was taken was communicated to the President, and his directions
+obtained upon it. While the chief magistrate remained at the seat of
+government, these communications were verbal; when absent, they were
+made by letter.
+
+At this period, the domestic debt bore a low price in the market, and
+foreign capital was pouring into the United States for its purchase.
+The immediate application of the sinking fund to this object would
+consequently acquire a large portion of the debt, and would also
+accelerate its appreciation. The best interests of the United States,
+and his own fame, thus impelling the secretary to give the operations
+of the sinking fund the utmost activity of which it was susceptible,
+he had, with the approbation of the President, directed a part of the
+first loan to be paid in discharge of the instalments of the foreign
+debt which were actually due, and had drawn a part of it into the
+public treasury in aid of the sinking fund.
+
+In May, 1791, instructions were given to the agent of the United
+States in Europe, to apply the proceeds of future loans, as they
+should accrue, in payments to France, except such sums as should be
+previously and specially reserved. In the execution of these
+instructions, some delay intervened, which was to be ascribed, among
+other causes, to representations made by the French minister of marine
+that a plan would be adopted, to which a decree of the national
+assembly was requisite, for converting a large sum into supplies for
+St. Domingo: and to a desire on the part of the agent to settle,
+previously to further payments, a definitive rule by which the monies
+paid should be liquidated, and credited to the United States. The
+disordered state of French affairs protracted both the one and the
+other of these causes of delay, to a later period than had been
+expected; and, in the mean time, the secretary continued to draw into
+the United States such portions of these loans, as were destined to be
+brought in aid of the sinking fund. Such was the state of this
+transaction, when the commencement of those calamities, which have
+finally overwhelmed St. Domingo, induced the American government, on
+the urgent application of the French minister, to furnish supplies to
+that ill fated colony, in payment of the debt to France. This being a
+mode of payment which, to a certain extent, was desired by the
+creditor, and was advantageous to the debtor, a consequent disposition
+prevailed to use it so far as might comport with the wish of the
+French government; and a part of the money designed for foreign
+purposes, was drawn into the United States. In the course of these
+operations, a portion of the instalments actually due to France, had
+been permitted to remain unsatisfied.
+
+A part of the money borrowed in Europe being thus applicable to the
+extinguishment of the domestic debt, and a part of the domestic
+revenue being applicable to the payment of interest due on the loans
+made in Europe, the secretary of the treasury had appropriated a part
+of the money arising from foreign loans to the payment of interest due
+abroad, which had been replaced by the application of money in the
+treasury arising from domestic resources, to the purchase of the
+domestic debt.
+
+The secretary had not deemed it necessary to communicate these
+operations in detail to the legislature: but some hints respecting
+them having been derived either from certain papers which accompanied
+a report made to the house of representatives early in the session, or
+from some other source, Mr. Giles, on the 23d of January, moved
+several resolutions, requiring information, among other things, on the
+various points growing out of these loans, and the application of the
+monies arising from them, and respecting the unapplied revenues of the
+United States, and the places in which the sums so unapplied were
+deposited. In the speech introducing these resolutions, observations
+were made which very intelligibly implied charges of a much more
+serious nature than inattention to the exact letter of an
+appropriation law. Estimates were made to support the position that a
+large balance of public money was unaccounted for.
+
+The resolutions were agreed to without debate; and, in a few days, the
+secretary transmitted a report containing the information that was
+required.
+
+This report comprehended a full exposition of the views and motives
+which had regulated the conduct of the department, and a very able
+justification of the measures which had been adopted; but omitted to
+state explicitly that part of the money borrowed in Europe had been
+drawn into the United States with the sanction of the President.--It
+is also chargeable with some expressions which can not be pronounced
+unexceptionable, but which may find their apology in the feelings of a
+mind conscious of its own uprightness, and wounded by the belief that
+the proceedings against him had originated in a spirit hostile to fair
+inquiry.
+
+These resolutions, the observations which accompanied them, and the
+first number of the report, were the signals for a combined attack on
+the secretary of the treasury, through the medium of the press. Many
+anonymous writers appeared, who assailed the head of that department
+with a degree of bitterness indicative of the spirit in which the
+inquiry was to be conducted.
+
+[Sidenote: Resolutions implicating the secretary of the treasury
+rejected.]
+
+On the 27th of February, not many days after the last number of the
+report was received, Mr. Giles moved sundry resolutions which were
+founded on the information before the house. The idea of a balance
+unaccounted for was necessarily relinquished; but the secretary of the
+treasury was charged with neglect of duty in failing to give congress
+official information of the monies drawn by him from Europe into the
+United States; with violating the law of the 4th of August, 1790, by
+applying a portion of the principal borrowed under it to the payment
+of interest, and by drawing a part of the same monies into the United
+States, without instructions from the President; with deviating from
+the instructions of the President in other respects; with negotiating
+a loan at the bank, contrary to the public interest, while public
+monies to a greater amount than were required, lay unemployed in the
+bank; and with an indecorum to the house, in undertaking to judge of
+its motives in calling for information which was demandable of him
+from the constitution of his office; and in failing to give all the
+necessary information within his knowledge relative to subjects on
+which certain specified references had been previously made to him.
+
+These resolutions were followed by one, directing that a copy of them
+should be transmitted to the President of the United States.
+
+The debate on this subject, which commenced on the 28th of February,
+was continued to the 1st of March, and was conducted with a spirit of
+acrimony towards the secretary, demonstrating the soreness of the
+wounds that had been given and received in the political and party
+wars which had been previously waged.[65] It terminated in a rejection
+of all the resolutions. The highest number voting in favour of any one
+of them was sixteen.
+
+     [Footnote 65: See note, No. VIII. at the end of the volume.]
+
+[Sidenote: Congress adjourns.]
+
+On the 3d of March, a constitutional period was put to the existence
+of the present congress. The members separated with obvious symptoms
+of extreme irritation. Various causes, the most prominent of which
+have already been noticed, had combined to organize two distinct
+parties in the United States, which were rapidly taking the form of a
+ministerial and an opposition party. By that in opposition, the
+President was not yet openly renounced. His personal influence was too
+great to be encountered by a direct avowal that he was at the head of
+their adversaries; and his public conduct did not admit of a suspicion
+that he could allow himself to rank as the chief of a party. Nor could
+public opinion be seduced to implicate him in the ambitious plans and
+dark schemes for the subversion of liberty, which were ascribed to a
+part of the administration, and to the leading members who had
+supported the measures of finance adopted by the legislature.
+
+Yet it was becoming apparent that things were taking a course which
+must inevitably involve him in the political conflicts which were
+about to take place. It was apparent that the charges against the
+secretary of the treasury would not be relinquished, and that they
+were of a nature to affect the chief magistrate materially, should his
+countenance not be withdrawn from that officer. It was equally
+apparent that the fervour of democracy, which was perpetually
+manifesting itself in the papers, in invectives against levees,
+against the trappings of royalty, and against the marks of peculiar
+respect[66] which were paid to the President, must soon include him
+more pointedly in its strictures.
+
+     [Footnote 66: On the 22d of February, the birthday of the
+     President, a motion was made to adjourn for half an hour. It
+     was perfectly understood that this motion was made to give
+     the members an opportunity of waiting on the chief
+     magistrate to make the compliments adapted to the occasion.
+
+     This was seriously opposed, and the ayes and noes called
+     upon the question. The adjournment was carried by forty-one
+     to eighteen. The day was celebrated by several companies,
+     and some toasts were published manifesting the deep sense
+     which was entertained of the exalted services of this
+     illustrious citizen. These circumstances gave great umbrage
+     to some of those who could perceive monarchical tendencies
+     in every act of respect, and the offenders were rebuked in
+     the National Gazette for setting up an idol who might become
+     dangerous to liberty, and for the injustice of neglecting
+     all his compatriots of the revolution, and ascribing to him
+     the praise which was due to others.]
+
+These divisions, which are inherent in the nature of popular
+governments, by which the chief magistrate, however unexceptionable
+his conduct, and however exalted his character, must, sooner or later,
+be more or less affected, were beginning to be essentially influenced
+by the great events of Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: Progress of the French revolution and its effects on
+parties in the United States.]
+
+That revolution which has been the admiration, the wonder, and the
+terror of the civilized world, had, from its commencement, been viewed
+in America with the deepest interest. In its first stage, but one
+sentiment respecting it prevailed; and that was a belief, accompanied
+with an ardent wish, that it would improve the condition of France,
+extend the blessings of liberty, and promote the happiness of the
+human race. When the labours of the convention had terminated in a
+written constitution, this unanimity of opinion was in some degree
+impaired. By a few who had thought deeply on the science of
+government, and who, if not more intelligent, certainly judged more
+dispassionately than their fellow citizens, that instrument was
+believed to contain the principles of self destruction. It was feared
+that a system so ill balanced could not be permanent. A deep
+impression was made on the same persons by the influence of the
+galleries over the legislature, and of mobs over the executive; by the
+tumultuous assemblages of the people, and their licentious excesses
+during the short and sickly existence of the regal authority. These
+did not appear to be the symptoms of a healthy constitution, or of
+genuine freedom. Persuaded that the present state of things could not
+last, they doubted, and they feared for the future.
+
+In total opposition to this sentiment was that of the public. There
+seems to be something infectious in the example of a powerful and
+enlightened nation verging towards democracy, which imposes on the
+human mind, and leads human reason in fetters. Novelties, introduced
+by such a nation, are stripped of the objections which had been
+preconceived against them; and long settled opinions yield to the
+overwhelming weight of such dazzling authority. It wears the semblance
+of being the sense of mankind, breaking loose from the shackles which
+had been imposed by artifice, and asserting the freedom, and the
+dignity, of his nature.
+
+The constitution of France, therefore, was generally received with
+unqualified plaudits. The establishment of a legislature consisting of
+a single body, was defended not only as being adapted to the
+particular situation of that country, but as being right in itself.
+Certain anonymous writers, who supported the theory of a balanced
+government, were branded as the advocates of royalty, and of
+aristocracy. To question the duration of the present order of things
+was thought to evidence an attachment to unlimited monarchy, or a
+blind prejudice in favour of British institutions; and the partiality
+of America in favour of a senate was visibly declining.
+
+In this stage of the revolution, however, the division of sentiment
+was not marked with sufficient distinctness, nor the passions of the
+people agitated with sufficient violence, for any powerful effect to
+be produced on the two parties in America. But when the monarchy was
+completely overthrown, and a republic decreed,[67] the people of the
+United States seemed electrified by the measure, and its influence was
+felt by the whole society. The war in which the several potentates of
+Europe were engaged against France, although in almost every instance
+declared by that power, was pronounced to be a war for the extirpation
+of human liberty, and for the banishment of free government from the
+face of the earth. The preservation of the constitution of the United
+States was supposed to depend on its issue; and the coalition against
+France was treated as a coalition against America also.
+
+     [Footnote 67: This event was announced to the President by
+     the minister plenipotentiary of France at Philadelphia, in
+     February, 1793. Through the secretary of state, an answer
+     was returned, of which the following is an extract, "the
+     President receives with great satisfaction this attention of
+     the executive council, and the desire they have manifested
+     of making known to us the resolution entered into by the
+     national convention even before a definitive regulation of
+     their new establishment could take place. Be assured, sir,
+     that the government and the citizens of the United States,
+     view with the most sincere pleasure, every advance of your
+     nation towards its happiness, an object essentially
+     connected with its liberty, and they consider the union of
+     principles and pursuits between our two countries as a link
+     which binds still closer their interests and affections.
+
+     "We earnestly wish, on our part, that these our mutual
+     dispositions may be improved to mutual good, by establishing
+     our commercial intercourse on principles as friendly to
+     natural right and freedom as are those of our governments."]
+
+A cordial wish for the success of the French arms, or rather that the
+war might terminate without any diminution of French power, and in
+such a manner as to leave the people of that country free to choose
+their own form of government, was, perhaps, universal; but, respecting
+the probable issue of their internal conflicts, perfect unanimity of
+opinion did not prevail. By some few individuals, the practicability
+of governing by a system formed on the republican model, an immense,
+populous, and military nation, whose institutions, habits, and morals,
+were adapted to monarchy, and which was surrounded by armed
+neighbours, was deemed a problem which time alone could solve. The
+circumstances under which the abolition of royalty was declared, the
+massacres which preceded it, the scenes of turbulence and violence
+which were acted in every part of the nation, appeared to them, to
+present an awful and doubtful state of things, respecting which no
+certain calculations could be made; and the idea that a republic was
+to be introduced and supported by force, was, to them, a paradox in
+politics. Under the influence of these appearances, the apprehension
+was entertained that, if the ancient monarchy should not be restored,
+a military despotism would be established. By the many, these
+unpopular doubts were deemed unpardonable heresies; and the few to
+whom they were imputed, were pronounced hostile to liberty. A
+suspicion that the unsettled state of things in France had contributed
+to suspend the payment of the debt to that nation, had added to the
+asperity with which the resolutions on that subject were supported;
+and the French revolution will be found to have had great influence on
+the strength of parties, and on the subsequent political transactions
+of the United States.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES.
+
+
+NOTE--No. I. _See Page 98._
+
+The following is an extract from the orders of the preceding day. "The
+Commander-in-chief orders the cessation of hostilities between the
+United States of America and the king of Great Britain to be publicly
+proclaimed to-morrow at twelve at the new building; and that the
+proclamation which will be communicated herewith, be read to-morrow
+evening at the head of every regiment, and corps of the army; after
+which the chaplains with the several brigades will render thanks to
+Almighty God for all his mercies, particularly for his overruling the
+wrath of man to his own glory, and causing the rage of war to cease
+among the nations.
+
+"Although the proclamation before alluded to, extends only to the
+prohibition of hostilities and not to the annunciation of a general
+peace, yet it must afford the most rational and sincere satisfaction
+to every benevolent mind, as it puts a period to a long and doubtful
+contest, stops the effusion of human blood, opens the prospect to a
+more splendid scene, and like another morning star, promises the
+approach of a brighter day than hath hitherto illuminated the western
+hemisphere. On such a happy day, which is the harbinger of peace, a
+day which completes the eighth year of the war, it would be
+ingratitude not to rejoice; it would be insensibility not to
+participate in the general felicity.
+
+"The Commander-in-chief, far from endeavouring to stifle the feelings
+of joy in his own bosom, offers his most cordial congratulations on
+the occasion to all the officers of every denomination, to all the
+troops of the United States in general, and in particular to those
+gallant and persevering men, who had resolved to defend the rights of
+their invaded country, so long as the war should continue. For these
+are the men who ought to be considered as the pride and boast of the
+American Army; and who, crowned with well-earned laurels, may soon
+withdraw from the field of glory, to the more tranquil walks of civil
+life.
+
+"While the general recollects the almost infinite variety of scenes
+through which we have passed with a mixture of pleasure, astonishment
+and gratitude; while he contemplates the prospect before us with
+rapture, he can not help wishing that all the brave men (of whatever
+condition they may be,) who have shared in the toils and dangers of
+effecting this glorious revolution, of rescuing millions from the hand
+of oppression, and of laying the foundation of a great empire, might
+be impressed with a proper idea of the dignified part they have been
+called to act (under the smiles of Providence) on the stage of human
+affairs. For happy, thrice happy shall they be pronounced hereafter,
+who have contributed any thing; who have performed the meanest office
+in erecting this stupendous _fabric of freedom_ and empire on the
+broad basis of independency; who have assisted in protecting the
+rights of human nature, and establishing an asylum for the poor and
+oppressed of all nations and religions. The glorious task for which we
+first flew to arms being thus accomplished, the liberties of our
+country being fully acknowledged and firmly secured by the smiles of
+heaven, on the purity of our cause, and on the honest exertions of a
+feeble people determined to be free, against a powerful nation
+disposed to oppress them, and the character of those who have
+persevered through every extremity of hardship, suffering, and danger,
+being immortalized by the illustrious appellation of the _patriot
+army_, nothing now remains but for the actors of this mighty scene to
+preserve a perfect unvarying consistency of character through the very
+last act; to close the drama with applause, and to retire from the
+military theatre with the same approbation of angels and men which has
+crowned all their former virtuous actions. For this purpose, no
+disorder or licentiousness must be tolerated: every considerate and
+well disposed soldier must remember, it will be absolutely necessary
+to wait with patience until peace shall be declared, or congress shall
+be enabled to take proper measures for the security of the public
+stores, &c. As soon as these arrangements shall be made, the general
+is confident there will be no delay in discharging with every mark of
+distinction and honour all the men enlisted for the war who will then
+have faithfully performed their engagements with the public. The
+general has already interested himself in their behalf, and he thinks
+he need not repeat the assurances of his disposition to be useful to
+them on the present and every other proper occasion. In the mean time,
+he is determined that no military neglects or excesses shall go
+unpunished while he retains the command of the army."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. II. _See Page 106._
+
+On his way, he stopped a few days at Philadelphia, for the purpose of
+settling his accounts with the comptroller. The following account of
+this part of his duty is extracted from Mr. Gordon; "while in the city
+he delivered in his accounts to the comptroller, down to December the
+13th, all in his own hand writing, and every entry made in the most
+particular manner, stating the occasion of each charge, so as to give
+the least trouble in examining and comparing them with the vouchers
+with which they were attended.
+
+"The heads as follows, copied from the folio manuscript paper book in
+the file of the treasury office, number 3700, being a black box of tin
+containing, under lock and key, both that and the vouchers."
+
+Total of expenditures from 1775 to 1783,
+exclusive of provisions from commissaries
+and contractors, and of liquors, &c. from
+them and others,                                        3,387 14 4
+
+Secret intelligence and service,                        1,982 10 0
+
+Spent in reconnoitring and travelling,                  1,874  8 0
+
+Miscellaneous charges,                                  2,952 10 1
+
+Expended besides, dollars according to the
+scale of depreciation,                                  6,114 14 0
+                                               -------------------
+                                                  _l._ 16,311 17 1
+                                               -------------------
+
+"Two hundred guineas advanced to General M'Dougal are not included in
+the _l._ 1982 10 0 not being yet settled, but included in some of the
+other charges, and so reckoned in the general sum.
+
+"Note; 104,364, of the dollars were received after March, 1780, and
+although credited at forty for one, many did not fetch at the rate of
+a hundred for one; while 27,775 of them are returned without deducting
+any thing from the above account (and, therefore, actually made a
+present of to the public)."
+
+General Washington's account from
+June, 1778 to the end of June, 1783,                   16,311 17 1
+
+Expenditure from July 1, 1783, to December 13,          1,717  5 4
+
+Added afterward from thence to December 28,               213  8 4
+
+Mrs. Washington's travelling expenses in
+coming to the general and returning,                    1,064  1 0
+                                                    --------------
+                                                  _l._ 19,306 11 9
+                                                    --------------
+
+Lawful money of Virginia, the same as
+Massachusetts, or sterling,                       _l._ 14,479 18 9 3-4
+
+The general entered in his book--"I find upon the final adjustment of
+these accounts, that I am a considerable loser, my disbursements
+falling a good deal short of my receipts, and the money I had upon
+hand of my own: for besides the sums I carried with me to Cambridge in
+1775, I received monies afterwards on private account in 1777, and
+since, which (except small sums, that I had occasion now and then to
+apply to private uses) were all expended in the public service:
+through hurry, I suppose, and the perplexity of business, (for I know
+not how else to account for the deficiency) I have omitted to charge
+the same, whilst every debit against me is here credited."
+
+July 1st, 1783.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. III. _See Page 179._
+
+The year 1784 had nearly passed away before the determination of the
+British cabinet not to evacuate the western posts was known to the
+government of the United States. In the spring of that year, General
+Knox, who commanded the troops still retained in the service of the
+United States, was directed to "open a correspondence with the
+Commander-in-chief of his Britannic majesty's forces in Canada, in
+order to ascertain the precise time when each of the posts within the
+territories of the United States then occupied by the British troops
+should be delivered up." The measures produced by this resolution
+exhibit a curious specimen of the political opinions on the subject of
+federal powers, which then prevailed in congress.
+
+It being at that time believed that the British garrisons would
+certainly be withdrawn, it became necessary to provide for occupying
+the posts when surrendered, with troops belonging to the United
+States. A number deemed sufficient for the purpose not having been
+retained in service, a motion was made for raising seven hundred men,
+by requisitions on the states for that and other objects specified in
+the resolution. The power of congress to make these requisitions was
+seriously contested, and it was gravely urged that such a power,
+connected with the rights to borrow money, and to emit bills of
+credit, would be dangerous to liberty, and alarming to the states. The
+motion for raising this small number of regulars did not prevail; and
+an order was made that except twenty-five privates to guard the stores
+at fort Pitt, and fifty-five to guard those at West Point and other
+magazines, with a proportionable number of officers, no one to exceed
+the rank of captain, the troops already in service should be
+discharged, unless congress, before its recess, should dispose of them
+in some other manner. For the purpose of garrisoning the posts, seven
+hundred militia were required from Connecticut, New York, New Jersey
+and Pennsylvania, who should serve twelve months. While the
+discussions on this subject were pending, instructions from the
+legislature of New York to their delegates were laid before congress,
+requesting that body in terms of great strength, in pursuance of the
+confederation, to declare the number of troops of which the garrisons
+of those posts which were within the limits of that state should
+consist. The resolutions asserted a constitutional right to demand
+from congress a declaration upon this point, and avowed a
+determination to raise the troops should such declaration be withheld.
+After the determination of the British government not to surrender the
+posts was known, the militia ordered to be raised to garrison them,
+who were not in actual service, were discharged.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. IV. _See Page 370._
+
+In the formation of this treaty, a question came on to be considered
+and decided which involved a principle that on an after occasion, and
+in a different case, excited a ferment never to be forgotten by those
+who took an active part in the politics of the day.
+
+The whole commerce of the Creek nation was in the hands of
+M'Gillivray, who received his supplies from a company of British
+merchants, free from duty, through the territories belonging to Spain.
+This circumstance constituted no inconsiderable impediment to the
+progress of the negotiation. M'Gillivray derived emoluments from the
+arrangement which he would not consent to relinquish; and was not
+without apprehensions, that Spain, disgusted by his new connexions
+with the United States, might throw embarrassments in the way of this
+profitable traffic. In addition to this consideration, it was, on the
+part of the United States, desirable to alter the channel through
+which the Indians should receive their supplies, and thereby to render
+them more dependent on the American government. But it would be
+necessary to exempt the goods designed for the Indian nation from the
+duties imposed by law on imported articles, and the propriety of such
+an exemption might well be questioned.
+
+With that cautious circumspection which marked his political course,
+the president took this point into early consideration, and required
+the opinion of his constitutional advisers respecting it. The
+secretary of state was of opinion that the stipulation for importing
+his goods through the United States, duty free, might safely be made.
+"A treaty made by the president with the concurrence of two-thirds of
+the senate, was," he said, "a law of the land," and a law of superior
+order, because it not only repeals past laws, but can not itself be
+repealed by future ones. The treaty then will legally control the duty
+act, and the act for licensing traders in this particular instance.
+From this opinion there is no reason to suppose that any member of the
+cabinet dissented. A secret article providing for the case was
+submitted to the senate, and it has never been understood that in
+advising and consenting to it, that body was divided.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. V. _See Page 394._
+
+This question was investigated with great labour, and being one
+involving principles of the utmost importance to the United States, on
+which the parties were divided, the subject was presented in all the
+views of which it was susceptible. A perusal of the arguments used on
+the occasion would certainly afford much gratification to the curious,
+and their insertion at full length would perhaps be excused by those
+who recollect the interest which at the time was taken in the measure
+to which they related, and the use which was made of it by the
+opponents of the then administration; but the limits prescribed for
+this work will not permit the introduction of such voluminous papers.
+It may, however, be expected that the outline of that train of
+reasoning with which each opinion was supported, and on which the
+judgment of the president was most probably formed, should be briefly
+stated.
+
+To prove that the measure was not sanctioned by the constitution, the
+general principle was asserted, that the foundation of that instrument
+was laid on this ground, "that all powers not delegated to the United
+States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are
+reserved to the states or to the people." To take a single step beyond
+the boundaries thus specially drawn around the powers of congress, is
+to take possession of a boundless field of power, no longer
+susceptible of definition.
+
+The power in question was said not to be among those which were
+specially enumerated, nor to be included within either of the general
+phrases which are to be found in the constitution.
+
+The article which contains this enumeration was reviewed; each
+specified power was analyzed; and the creation of a corporate body was
+declared to be distinct from either of them.
+
+The general phrases are,
+
+1st. To lay taxes to provide for the general welfare of the United
+States. The power here conveyed, it was observed, was "to lay taxes,"
+the purpose was "the general welfare." Congress could not lay taxes
+_ad libitum_, but could only lay them for the general welfare; nor did
+this clause authorize that body to provide for the general welfare
+otherwise than by laying taxes for that purpose.
+
+2dly. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for
+carrying into execution the enumerated powers.
+
+But they can all be carried into execution without a bank. A bank,
+therefore, is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this
+phrase.
+
+It had been much urged that a bank would give great facility or
+convenience in the collection of taxes. Suppose this were true; yet
+the constitution allows only the means which are necessary, not those
+which are convenient. If such a latitude of construction be allowed
+this phrase, as to give any non-enumerated power, it will go to every
+one; for there is no one which ingenuity may not torture into a
+_convenience, in some way or other, to some one_ of so long a list of
+enumerated powers. It would swallow up all the list of enumerated
+powers, and reduce the whole to one phrase. Therefore it was that the
+constitution restrained them to _necessary_ means, that is to say, to
+those means without which the grant of the power must be nugatory.
+
+The convenience was then examined. This had been stated in the report
+of the secretary of the treasury to congress, to consist in the
+augmentation of the circulation medium, and in preventing the
+transportation and retransportation of money between the states and
+the treasury.
+
+The first was considered as a demerit. The second, it was said, might
+be effected by other means. Bills of exchange and treasury drafts
+would supply the place of bank notes. Perhaps indeed bank bills would
+be a more convenient vehicle than treasury orders; but a little
+difference in the degree of convenience can not constitute the
+_necessity_ which the constitution makes the ground for assuming any
+non-enumerated power.
+
+Besides, the existing state banks would, without doubt, enter into
+arrangements for lending their agency. This expedient alone suffices
+to prevent the existence of that _necessity_ which may justify the
+assumption of a non-enumerated power as a means for carrying into
+effect an enumerated one.
+
+It may be said that a bank whose bills would have a currency all over
+the states, would be more convenient than one whose currency is
+limited to a single state. So it would be still more convenient that
+there should be a bank whose bills should have a currency all over the
+world; but it does not follow from this superior conveniency, that
+there exists any where a power to establish such a bank, or that the
+world may not go on very well without it.
+
+For a shade or two of convenience, more or less, it can not be
+imagined that the constitution intended to invest congress with a
+power so important as that of erecting a corporation.
+
+In supporting the constitutionality of the act, it was laid down as a
+general proposition, "that every power vested in a government is in
+its nature _sovereign_," and includes by _force_ of the _term_, a
+right to employ all the _means_ requisite and _fairly applicable to_
+the attainment of the _ends_ of such power; and which are not
+precluded by restrictions and exceptions specified in the
+constitution, are not immoral, are not contrary to the essential ends
+of political society.
+
+This principle, in its application to government in general, would be
+admitted as an axiom; and it would be incumbent on those who might
+refuse to acknowledge its influence in American affairs to _prove_ a
+distinction; and to show that a rule which, in the general system of
+things, is essential to the preservation of the social order, is
+inapplicable to the United States.
+
+The circumstance that the powers of sovereignty are divided between
+the national and state governments, does not afford the distinction
+required. It does not follow from this, that each of the portions of
+power delegated to the one or to the other, is not sovereign with
+regard to its _proper objects_. It will only follow from it, that each
+has sovereign power as to certain things, and not as to other things.
+If the government of the United States does not possess sovereign
+power as to its declared purposes and trusts, because its power does
+not extend to all cases, neither would the several states possess
+sovereign power in any case; for their powers do not extend to every
+case. According to the opinion intended to be combated, the United
+States would furnish the singular spectacle of _a political society_
+without _sovereignty_, or a people _governed_ without a _government_.
+
+If it could be necessary to bring proof of a proposition so clear as
+that which affirms that the powers of the federal government, _as to
+its objects_, were sovereign, there is a clause in the constitution
+which is decisive. It is that which declares the constitution of the
+United States, the laws made in pursuance of it, and the treaties made
+under its authority to be the supreme law of the land. The power which
+can create the supreme law in any case, is doubtless sovereign as to
+such case.
+
+This general and indisputable principle puts an end to the abstract
+question, whether the United States have power to erect a corporation:
+for it is unquestionably incident to sovereign power to erect
+corporations, and consequently to that of the United States, in
+relation to the objects intrusted to the management of the government.
+The difference is this: where the authority of the government is
+general, it can create corporations _in all cases_; where it is
+confined to certain branches of legislation, it can create
+corporations only _in those cases_.
+
+That the government of the United States can exercise only those
+powers which are delegated by the constitution, is a proposition not
+to be controverted; neither is it to be denied on the other hand, that
+there are implied as well as express powers, and that the former are
+as effectually delegated as the latter. For the sake of accuracy it
+may be observed, that there are also _resulting_ powers. It will not
+be doubted that if the United States should make a conquest of any of
+the territories of its neighbours, they would possess sovereign
+jurisdiction over the conquered territory. This would rather be a
+result of the whole mass of the powers of the government, and from the
+nature of political society, than a consequence of either of the
+powers specially enumerated. This is an extensive case in which the
+power of erecting corporations is either implied in, or would result
+from some or all of the powers vested in the national government.
+
+Since it must be conceded that implied powers are as completely
+delegated as those which are expressed, it follows that, as a power of
+erecting a corporation may as well be implied as any other thing, it
+may as well be employed as an _instrument_ or _mean_ of carrying into
+execution any of the specified powers as any other _instrument_ or
+_mean_ whatever. The question in this as in every other case must be,
+whether the mean to be employed has a natural relation to any of the
+acknowledged objects or lawful ends of the government. Thus a
+corporation may not be created by congress for superintending the
+police of the city of Philadelphia, because they are not authorized to
+regulate the police of that city; but one may be created in relation
+to the collection of the taxes, or to the trade with foreign
+countries, or between the states, or with the Indian tribes, because
+it is in the province of the federal government to regulate those
+objects; and because it is incident to a general sovereign or
+legislative power to regulate a thing, to employ all the means which
+relate to its regulation, to the best and greatest advantage.
+
+A strange fallacy seems to have crept into the manner of thinking and
+reasoning upon this subject. The imagination has presented an
+incorporation as some great, _independent, substantive_ thing--as a
+political end of peculiar magnitude and moment; whereas it is truly to
+be considered as a quality, capacity, or mean to an end. Thus a
+mercantile company is formed with a certain capital for the purpose of
+carrying on a particular branch of business. The business to be
+prosecuted is the _end_. The association in order to form the
+requisite capital is the primary _mean_. Let an incorporation be
+added, and you only add a new quality to that association which
+enables it to prosecute the business with more safety and convenience.
+The association when incorporated still remains the _mean_, and can
+not become the _end_.
+
+To this reasoning respecting the inherent right of government to
+employ all the means requisite to the execution of its specified
+powers, it is objected, that none but _necessary_ and _proper_ means
+can be employed; and none can be _necessary_, but those without which
+the grant of the power would be nugatory. So far has this restrictive
+interpretation been pressed as to make the case of _necessity_ which
+shall warrant the constitutional exercise of a power, to depend on
+casual and temporary circumstances; an idea, which alone confutes the
+construction. The expedience of exercising a particular power, at a
+particular time, must indeed depend on circumstances, but the
+constitutional right of exercising it must be uniform and invariable.
+All the arguments, therefore, drawn from the accidental existence of
+certain state banks which happen to exist to-day, and for aught that
+concerns the government of the United States may disappear to-morrow,
+must not only be rejected as fallacious, but must be viewed as
+demonstrative that there is a radical source of error in the
+reasoning.
+
+But it is essential to the being of the government that so erroneous a
+conception of the meaning of the word _necessary_ should be exploded.
+
+It is certain that neither the grammatical nor popular sense of the
+term requires that construction. According to both, _necessary_ often
+means no more than _needful, requisite, incidental, useful_, or
+_conducive to_. It is a common mode of expression to say that it is
+necessary for a government or a person to do this or that thing, where
+nothing more is intended or understood than that the interests of the
+government or person require, or will be promoted by doing this or
+that thing.
+
+This is the true sense in which the word is used in the constitution.
+The whole turn of the clause containing it indicates an intent to give
+by it a liberal latitude to the exercise of the specified powers. The
+expressions have peculiar comprehensiveness. They are "to make _all
+laws_ necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing
+powers, and _all other_ powers vested by the constitution in the
+government of the United States, or in any _department_ or _office_
+thereof." To give the word "necessary" the restrictive operation
+contended for, would not only depart from its obvious and popular
+sense, but would give it the same force as if the word _absolutely_ or
+_indispensably_ had been prefixed to it.
+
+Such a construction would beget endless uncertainty and embarrassment.
+The cases must be palpable and extreme in which it could be pronounced
+with certainty that a measure was absolutely necessary, or one without
+which a given power would be nugatory. There are few measures of any
+government which would stand so severe a test. To insist upon it would
+be to make the criterion of the exercise of an implied power _a case
+of extreme necessity_; which is rather a rule to justify the
+overleaping the bounds of constitutional authority than to govern the
+ordinary exercise of it.
+
+The degree in which a measure is necessary can never be a test of the
+legal right to adopt it. The relation between the _measure_ and the
+_end_; between the nature of the _mean_ employed towards the execution
+of a power, and the object of that power must be the criterion of
+constitutionality, not the more or less _necessity_ or _utility_.
+
+The means by which national exigencies are to be provided for,
+national inconveniences obviated, and national prosperity promoted,
+are of such infinite variety, extent, and complexity, that here must
+of necessity be great latitude of discretion in the selection and
+application of those means. Hence the necessity and propriety of
+exercising the authority intrusted to a government on principles of
+liberal construction.
+
+While on the one hand, the restrictive interpretation of the word
+_necessary_ is deemed inadmissible, it will not be contended on the
+other, that the clause in question gives any new and independent
+power. But it gives an explicit sanction to the doctrine of implied
+powers, and is equivalent to an admission of the proposition that the
+government, _as to its specified powers and objects_, has plenary and
+sovereign authority.
+
+It is true that the power to create corporations is not granted in
+terms. Neither is the power to pass any particular law, nor to employ
+any of the means by which the ends of the government are to be
+attained. It is not expressly given in cases in which its existence is
+not controverted. For by the grant of a power to exercise exclusive
+legislation in the territory which may be ceded by the states to the
+United States, it is admitted to pass; and in the power "to make all
+needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other
+property of the United States," it is acknowledged to be implied. In
+virtue of this clause, has been implied the right to create a
+government; that is, to create a body politic or corporation of the
+highest nature; one that, in its maturity, will be able itself to
+create other corporations. Thus has the constitution itself refuted
+the argument which contends that, had it been designed to grant so
+important a power as that of erecting corporations, it would have been
+mentioned. But this argument is founded on an exaggerated and
+erroneous conception of the nature of the power. It is not of so
+transcendent a kind as the reasoning supposes. Viewed in a just light,
+it is a _mean_ which ought to have been left to implication, rather
+than an _end_ which ought to have been expressly granted.
+
+The power of the government then to create corporations in certain
+cases being shown, it remained to inquire into the right to
+incorporate a banking company, in order to enable it the more
+effectually to accomplish _ends_ which were in themselves lawful.
+
+To establish such a right it would be necessary to show the relation
+of such an institution to one or more of the specified powers of
+government.
+
+It was then affirmed to have a relation more or less direct to the
+power of collecting taxes, to that of borrowing money, to that of
+regulating trade between the states, to those of raising, supporting,
+and maintaining fleets and armies; and in the last place to that which
+authorizes the making of all needful rules and regulations concerning
+the property of the United States, as the same had been practised upon
+by the government.
+
+The secretary of the treasury next proceeded, by a great variety of
+arguments and illustrations, to prove the position that the measure in
+question was a proper mean for the execution of the several powers
+which were enumerated, and also contended that the right to employ it
+resulted from the whole of them taken together. To detail those
+arguments would occupy too much space, and is the less necessary,
+because their correctness obviously depends on the correctness of the
+principles which have been already stated.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. VI. _See Page 434._
+
+The officer to whom the management of the finances was confided was so
+repeatedly charged with a desire to increase the public debt and to
+render it perpetual, and this charge had such important influence in
+the formation of parties, that an extract from this report can not be
+improperly introduced.
+
+After stating the sum to be raised, the secretary says, "three
+expedients occur to the option of the government for providing this:
+
+"One, to dispose of the interest to which the United States are
+entitled in the bank of the United States. This at the present market
+price of bank stock would yield a clear gain to the government much
+more than adequate to the sum required.
+
+"Another, to borrow the money upon an establishment of funds either
+merely commensurate with the interest to be paid, or affording a
+surplus which will discharge the principal by instalments within a
+short term.
+
+"The third is to raise the amount by taxes."
+
+After stating his objections to the first and second expedients, the
+report proceeds thus, "but the result of mature reflection is, in the
+mind of the secretary, a strong conviction that the last of the three
+expedients which have been mentioned, is to be preferred to either of
+the other two.
+
+"Nothing can more interest the national credit and prosperity than a
+constant and systematic attention to husband all the means previously
+possessed for extinguishing the present debt, and to avoid, as much as
+possible, the incurring of any new debt.
+
+"Necessity alone, therefore, can justify the application of any of the
+public property, other than the annual revenues, to the current
+service, or the temporary and casual exigencies; or the contracting of
+an additional debt by loans, to provide for those exigencies.
+
+"Great emergencies indeed might exist, in which loans would be
+indispensable. But the occasions which will justify them must be truly
+of that description.
+
+"The present is not of such a nature. The sum to be provided is not of
+magnitude enough to furnish the plea of necessity.
+
+"Taxes are never welcome to a community. They seldom fail to excite
+uneasy sensations more or less extensive. Hence a too strong
+propensity in the governments of nations, to anticipate and mortgage
+the resources of posterity, rather than to encounter the
+inconveniencies of a present increase of taxes.
+
+"But this policy, when not dictated by very peculiar circumstances, is
+of the worst kind. Its obvious tendency is, by enhancing the permanent
+burdens of the people, to produce lasting distress, and its natural
+issue is in national bankruptcy."
+
+It will be happy if the councils of this country, sanctioned by the
+voice of an enlightened community, shall be able to pursue a different
+course.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. VII. _See Page 450._
+
+     _About the same time a letter was addressed to the attorney
+     general on the same subject. The following extract is taken
+     from one of the twenty-sixth of August to the secretary of
+     the treasury._
+
+"Differences in political opinions are as unavoidable as, to a certain
+point, they may be necessary; but it is exceedingly to be regretted
+that subjects can not be discussed with temper, on the one hand, or
+decisions submitted to on the other, without improperly implicating
+the motives which led to them; and this regret borders on chagrin when
+we find that men of abilities, zealous patriots, having the same
+_general_ objects in view, and the same upright intentions to
+prosecute them, will not exercise more charity in deciding on the
+opinions and actions of each other. When matters get to such lengths,
+the natural inference is that both sides have strained the cords
+beyond their bearing, that a middle course would be found the best
+until experience shall have decided on the right way; or, which is not
+to be expected, because it is denied to mortals, until there shall be
+some infallible rule by which to forejudge events.
+
+"Having premised these things, I would fain hope that liberal
+allowances will be made for the political opinions of each other; and
+instead of those wounding suspicions, and irritating charges with
+which some of our gazettes are so strongly impregnated, and which can
+not fail, if persevered in, of pushing matters to extremity, and
+thereby tearing the machine asunder, that there might be mutual
+forbearance and temporising yieldings on _all sides_. Without these, I
+do not see how the reins of government are to be managed, or how the
+union of the states can be much longer preserved.
+
+"How unfortunate would it be if a fabric so goodly, erected under so
+many providential circumstances, after acquiring in its first stages,
+so much respectability, should, from diversity of sentiment, or
+internal obstructions to some of the acts of government (for I can not
+prevail on myself to believe that these measures are as yet the acts
+of a determined party) be brought to the verge of dissolution.
+Melancholy thought! But while it shows the consequences of diversified
+opinions, where pushed with too much tenacity, it exhibits evidence
+also of the necessity of accommodation, and of the propriety of
+adopting such healing measures as may restore harmony to the
+discordant members of the union, and the governing powers of it.
+
+"I do not mean to apply this advice to any measures which are passed,
+or to any particular character. I have given it, in the same _general_
+terms, to other officers of the government. My earnest wish is that
+balm may be poured into _all_ the wounds which have been given, to
+prevent them from gangrening, and to avoid those fatal consequences
+which the community may sustain if it is withheld. The friends of the
+union must wish this: those who are not, but who wish to see it
+rended, will be disappointed; and all things I hope will go well."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE--No. VIII. _See Page 479._
+
+The gazettes of the day contain ample proofs on this subject. All the
+bitterness of party spirit had poured itself out in the most severe
+invectives against the heads of the state and treasury departments.
+
+The secretary of the treasury was represented as the advocate of
+"aristocracy, monarchy, hereditary succession, a titled order of
+nobility, and all the other mock pageantry of kingly government." He
+was arraigned at the bar of the public for holding principles
+unfavourable to the sovereignty of the people, and with inculcating
+doctrines insinuating their inability to rule themselves. The theory
+of the British monarchy was said to have furnished his model for a
+perfect constitution; and all his systems of finance, which were
+represented as servile imitations of those previously adopted by
+England, were held up to public execration as being intended to
+promote the favourite project of assimilating the government of the
+United States to that of Great Britain. With this view, he had
+entailed upon the nation a heavy debt, and perpetual taxes; had
+created an artificial monied interest which had corrupted, and would
+continue to corrupt the legislature; and was endeavouring to prostrate
+the local authorities as a necessary step towards erecting that great
+consolidated monarchy which he contemplated.
+
+To support some of these charges, sentences and parts of sentences
+were selected from his reports, which expressed the valuable purposes
+to which a funded debt might be applied, and were alleged to affirm,
+as an abstract principle, "that a public debt was a public blessing."
+He was, it was added, the inveterate enemy of Mr. Jefferson, because,
+in the republican principles of that gentleman, he perceived an
+invincible obstacle to his views.
+
+If the counter charges exhibited against the secretary of state were
+less capable of alarming the fears of the public for liberty, and of
+directing the resentments of the people against that officer as the
+enemy of their rights, they were not less calculated to irritate his
+personal friends, and to wound his own feelings.
+
+The adversaries of this gentleman said, that he had been originally
+hostile to the constitution of the United States, and adverse to its
+adoption; and "that his avowed opinions tended to national disunion,
+national insignificance, public disorder, and discredit." Under the
+garb of democratic simplicity, and modest retiring philosophy, he
+covered an inordinate ambition which grasped unceasingly at power, and
+sought to gratify itself, by professions of excessive attachment to
+liberty, and by traducing and lessening in the public esteem, every
+man in whom he could discern a rival. To this aspiring temper they
+ascribed, not only "those pestilent whispers which, clandestinely
+circulating through the country, had, as far as was practicable,
+contaminated some of its fairest and worthiest characters," but also
+certain publications affecting the reputation of prominent individuals
+whom he might consider as competitors with himself for the highest
+office in the state. A letter written by Mr. Jefferson to a printer,
+transmitting for publication the first part of "the rights of man,"
+which letter was prefixed to the American edition of that pamphlet,
+contained allusions to certain "political heresies" of the day, which
+were understood to imply a serious censure on the opinions of the vice
+president: and the great object of the national gazette, a paper known
+to be edited by a clerk in the department of state, was "to calumniate
+and blacken public characters, and, particularly, to destroy the
+public confidence in the secretary of the treasury, who was to be
+hunted down for the unpardonable sin of having been the steady and
+invariable friend of broad principles of national government." It was
+also said that his connexions with this paper, and the patronage he
+afforded it, authorized the opinion that it might fairly be considered
+"the mirror of his views," and thence was adduced an accusation not
+less serious in its nature than that which has been already stated.
+
+The national gazette was replete with continual and malignant
+strictures on the leading measures of the administration, especially
+those which were connected with the finances. "If Mr. Jefferson's
+opposition to these measures had ceased when they had received the
+sanction of law, nothing more could have been said than that he had
+transgressed the rules of official decorum in entering the lists with
+the head of another department, and had been culpable in pursuing a
+line of conduct which was calculated to sow the seeds of discord in
+the executive branch of the government in the infancy of its
+existence. But when his opposition extended beyond that point, when it
+was apparent that he wished to _render odious_, and of course to
+_subvert_ (for in a popular government these are convertible terms)
+all those deliberate and solemn acts of the legislature which had
+become the pillars of the public credit, his conduct deserved to be
+regarded with a still severer eye." It was also said to be peculiarly
+unfit for a person remaining at the head of one of the great executive
+departments, openly to employ all his influence in exciting the public
+rage against the laws and the legislature of the union, and in giving
+circulation to calumnies against his colleagues in office, from the
+contamination of which the chief magistrate himself could not hope
+entirely to escape.
+
+
+END OF VOLUME IV.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of George Washington, Vol. 4
+(of 5), by John Marshall
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