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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18638-0.txt b/18638-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2d2a2f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/18638-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8695 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ideal Commonwealths, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ideal Commonwealths + +Author: Various + +Editor: Henry Morley + +Release Date: June 20, 2006 [EBook #18638] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Graeme Mackreth and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS + + +PLUTARCH'S LYCURGUS + +MORE'S UTOPIA + +BACON'S NEW ATLANTIS + +CAMPANELLA'S CITY OF THE SUN + +AND A FRAGMENT OF + +HALL'S MUNDUS ALTER ET IDEM + + +_WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY HENRY MORLEY_ + +LL.D., PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON + +FIFTH EDITION + +LONDON +GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, LIMITED +BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL +GLASGOW, MANCHESTER, AND NEW YORK + +1890 + +MORLEY'S UNIVERSAL LIBRARY. + + +1. _Sheridan's Plays._ + +2. _Plays from Molière._ By English Dramatists. + +3. _Marlowe's Faustus_ and _Goethe's Faust._ + +4. _Chronicle of the Cid._ + +5. _Rabelais' Gargantua_ and the _Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel._ + +6. _Machiavelli's Prince._ + +7. _Bacon's Essays._ + +8. _Defoe's Journal of the Plague Year._ + +9. _Locke on Civil Government_ and _Filmer's "Patriarcha"._ + +10. _Butler's Analogy of Religion._ + +11. _Dryden's Virgil._ + +12. _Scott's Demonology and Witchcraft._ + +13. _Herrick's Hesperides._ + +14. _Coleridge's Table-Talk._ + +15. _Boccaccio's Decameron._ + +16. _Sterne's Tristram Shandy._ + +17. _Chapman's Homer's Iliad._ + +18. _Mediæval Tales._ + +19. _Voltaire's Candide_, and _Johnson's Rasselas._ + +20. _Jonson's Plays and Poems._ + +21. _Hobbes's Leviathan._ + +22. _Samuel Butler's Hudibras._ + +23. _Ideal Commonwealths._ + +24. _Cavendish's Life of Wolsey._ + +25 & 26. _Don Quixote._ + +27. _Burlesque Plays and Poems._ + +28. _Dante's Divine Comedy._ LONGFELLOW'S Translation. + +29. _Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield, Plays, and Poems._ + +30. _Fables and Proverbs from the Sanskrit. (Hitopadesa.)_ + +31. _Lamb's Essays of Elia._ + +32. _The History of Thomas Ellwood._ + +33. _Emerson's Essays, &c._ + +34. _Southey's Life of Nelson._ + +35. _De Quincey's Confession of an Opium-Eater, &c._ + +36. _Stories of Ireland._ By Miss EDGEWORTH. + +37. _Frere's Aristophanes: Acharnians, Knights, Birds._ + +38. _Burke's Speeches and Letters._ + +39. _Thomas à Kempis._ + +40. _Popular Songs of Ireland._ + +41. _Potter's Æschylus._ + +42. _Goethe's Faust: Part II._ ANSTER'S Translation. + +43. _Famous Pamphlets._ + +44. _Francklin's Sophocles._ + +45. _M.G. Lewis's Tales of Terror and Wonder._ + +46. _Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation._ + +47. _Drayton's Barons' Wars, Nymphidia, &c._ + +48. _Cobbett's Advice to Young Men._ + +49. _The Banquet of Dante._ + +50. _Walker's Original._ + +51. _Schiller's Poems and Ballads._ + +52. _Peele's Plays and Poems._ + +53. _Harrington's Oceana._ + +54. _Euripides: Alcestis and other Plays._ + +55. _Praed's Essays._ + +56. _Traditional Tales._ ALLAN CUNNINGHAM. + +57. _Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity. Books I.-IV._ + +58. _Euripides: The Bacchanals and other Plays._ + +59. _Izaak Walton's Lives._ + +60. _Aristotle's Politics._ + +61. _Euripides: Hecuba and other Plays._ + +62. _Rabelais--Sequel to Pantagruel._ + +63. _A Miscellany._ + +"Marvels of clear type and general neatness."--_Daily Telegraph._ + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Plato in his "Republic" argues that it is the aim of Individual Man as +of the State to be wise, brave and temperate. In a State, he says, there +are three orders, the Guardians, the Auxiliaries, the Producers. Wisdom +should be the special virtue of the Guardians; Courage of the +Auxiliaries; and Temperance of all. These three virtues belong +respectively to the Individual Man, Wisdom to his Rational part; Courage +to his Spirited; and Temperance to his Appetitive: while in the State as +in the Man it is Injustice that disturbs their harmony. + +Because the character of Man appears in the State unchanged, but in a +larger form, Plato represented Socrates as studying the ideal man +himself through an Ideal Commonwealth. + +In another of his dialogues, "Critias," of which we have only the +beginning, Socrates wishes that he could see how such a commonwealth +would work, if it were set moving. Critias undertakes to tell him. For +he has received tradition of events that happened more than nine +thousand years ago, when the Athenians themselves were such ideal +citizens. Critias has received this tradition, he says, from a +ninety-year-old grandfather, whose father, Dropides, was the friend of +Solon. Solon, lawgiver and poet, had heard it from the priests of the +goddess Neïth or Athene at Sais, and had begun to shape it into a heroic +poem. + +This was the tradition:--Nine thousand years before the time of Solon, +the goddess Athene, who was worshipped also in Sais, had given to her +Athenians a healthy climate, a fertile soil, and temperate people strong +in wisdom and courage. Their Republic was like that which Socrates +imagined, and it had to bear the shock of a great invasion by the people +of the vast island Atlantis. This island, larger than all Libya and Asia +put together, was once in the sea westward beyond the Atlantic +waves,--thus America was dreamed of long before it was discovered. +Atlantis had ten kings, descended from ten sons of Poseidon (Neptune), +who was the god magnificently worshipped by its people. Vast power and +dominion, that extended through all Libya as far as Egypt, and over a +part of Europe, caused the Atlantid kings to grow ambitious and unjust. +Then they entered the Mediterranean and fell upon Athens with enormous +force. But in the little band of citizens, temperate, brave, and wise, +there were forces of Reason able to resist and overcome brute strength. +Now, however, gone are the Atlantids, gone are the old virtues of +Athens. Earthquakes and deluges laid waste the world. The whole great +island of Atlantis, with its people and its wealth, sank to the bottom +of the ocean. The ideal warriors of Athens, in one day and night, were +swallowed by an earthquake, and were to be seen no more. + +Plato, a philosopher with the soul of a poet, died in the year 347 +before Christ. Plutarch was writing at the close of the first century +after Christ, and in his parallel Lives of Greeks and Romans, the most +famous of his many writings, he took occasion to paint an Ideal +Commonwealth as the conception of Lycurgus, the half mythical or all +mythical Solon of Sparta. To Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus, as well as to +Plato, Thomas More and others have been indebted for some part of the +shaping of their philosophic dreams. + +The discovery of the New World at the end of the fifteenth century +followed hard upon the diffusion of the new invention of printing, and +came at a time when the fall of Constantinople by scattering Greek +scholars, who became teachers in Italy, France and elsewhere, spread the +study of Greek, and caused Plato to live again. Little had been heard of +him through the Arabs, who cared little for his poetic method. But with +the revival of learning he had become a force in Europe, a strong aid to +the Reformers. + +Sir Thomas More's Utopia was written in the years 1515-16, when its +author's age was about thirty-seven. He was a young man of twenty when +Columbus first touched the continent named after the Florentine Amerigo +Vespucci, who made his voyages to it in the years 1499-1503. More wrote +his Utopia when imaginations of men were stirred by the sudden +enlargement of their conceptions of the world, and Amerigo Vespucci's +account of his voyages, first printed in 1507, was fresh in every +scholar's mind. He imagined a traveller, Raphael Hythloday--whose name +is from Greek words that mean "Knowing in Trifles"--who had sailed with +Vespucci on his three last voyages, but had not returned from the last +voyage until, after separation from his comrades, he had wandered into +some farther discovery of his own. Thus he had found, somewhere in those +parts, the island of Utopia. Its name is from Greek words meaning +Nowhere. More had gone on an embassy to Brussels with Cuthbert Tunstal +when he wrote his philosophical satire upon European, and more +particularly English, statecraft, in the form of an Ideal Commonwealth +described by Hythloday as he had found it in Utopia. It was printed at +Louvain in the latter part of the year 1516, under the editorship of +Erasmus, and that enlightened young secretary to the municipality of +Antwerp, Peter Giles, or Ægidius, who is introduced into the story. +"Utopia" was not printed in England in the reign of Henry VIII., and +could not be, for its satire was too direct to be misunderstood, even +when it mocked English policy with ironical praise for doing exactly +what it failed to do. More was a wit and a philosopher, but at the same +time so practical and earnest that Erasmus tells of a burgomaster at +Antwerp who fastened upon the parable of Utopia with such goodwill that +he learnt it by heart. And in 1517 Erasmus advised a correspondent to +send for Utopia, if he had not yet read it, and if he wished to see the +true source of all political evils. + +Francis Bacon's "New Atlantis," first written in Latin, was published in +1629, three years after its author's death. Bacon placed his Ideal +Commonwealth in those seas where a great Austral continent was even then +supposed to be, but had not been discovered. As the old Atlantis implied +a foreboding of the American continent, so the New Atlantis implied +foreboding of the Australian. Bacon in his philosophy sought through +experimental science the dominion of men over things, "for Nature is +only governed by obeying her." In his Ideal World of the New Atlantis, +Science is made the civilizer who binds man to man, and is his leader to +the love of God. + +Thomas Campanella was Bacon's contemporary, a man only seven years +younger; and an Italian who suffered for his ardour in the cause of +science. He was born in Calabria in 1568, and died in 1639. He entered +the Dominican order when a boy, but had a free and eager appetite for +knowledge. He urged, like Bacon, that Nature should be studied through +her own works, not through books; he attacked, like Bacon, the dead +faith in Aristotle, that instead of following his energetic spirit of +research, lapsed into blind idolatry. Campanella strenuously urged that +men should reform all sciences by following Nature and the books of God. +He had been stirring in this way for ten years, when there arose in +Calabria a conspiracy against the Spanish rule. Campanella, who was an +Italian patriot was seized and sent to Naples. The Spanish inquisition +joined in attack on him. He was accused of books he had not written and +of opinions he did not hold; he was seven times put to the question and +suffered, with firmness of mind, the most cruel tortures. The Pope +interceded in vain for him with the King of Spain. He suffered +imprisonment for twenty-seven years, during which time he wrote much, +and one piece of his prison work was his ideal of "The City of the Sun." + +Released at last from his prison, Campanella went to Rome, where he was +defended by Pope Urban VIII. against continued violence of attack. But +he was compelled at last to leave Rome, and made his escape as a servant +in the livery of the French ambassador. In Paris, Richelieu became +Campanella's friend; the King of France gave him a pension of three +thousand livres; the Sorbonne vouched for the orthodoxy of his writings. +He died in Paris, at the age of seventy-one, in the Convent of the +Dominicans. + +Of Campanella's "Civitas Solis," which has not hitherto been translated +into English, the translation here given, with one or two omissions of +detail which can well be spared, has been made for me by my old pupil +and friend, Mr. Thomas W. Halliday. + +In the works (published in 1776) of the witty Dr. William King, who +played much with the subject of cookery, is a fragment found among his +remaining papers, and given by his editors as an original piece in the +manner of Rabelais. It seems never to have been observed that this is +only a translation of that part of Joseph Hall's "Mundus Alter es Idem," +which deals with the kitchen side of life. The fragment will be found at +the end of this volume, preceded by a short description of the other +parts of Hall's World which is other than ours, and yet the same. + +H.M. + +_March 1885._ + + + + +PLUTARCH'S + +LIFE OF LYCURGUS. + + + + +LIFE OF LYCURGUS. + + +Of Lycurgus the lawgiver we have nothing to relate that is certain and +uncontroverted. For there are different accounts of his birth, his +travels, his death, and especially of the laws and form of government +which he established. But least of all are the times agreed upon in +which this great man lived. For some say he flourished at the same time +with Iphitus, and joined with him in settling the cessation of arms +during the Olympic games. Among these is Aristotle the philosopher, who +alleges for proof an Olympic quoit, on which was preserved the +inscription of Lycurgus's name. But others who, with Eratosthenes and +Apollodorus, compute the time by the succession of the Spartan kings, +place him much earlier than the first Olympiad. Timæus, however, +supposes that, as there were two Lycurguses in Sparta at different +times, the actions of both are ascribed to one, on account of his +particular renown; and that the more ancient of them lived not long +after Homer: nay, some say he had seen him. Xenophon too confirms the +opinion of his antiquity, when he makes him contemporary with the +Heraclidæ. It is true, the latest of the Lacedæmonian kings were of the +lineage of the Heraclidæ; but Xenophon there seems to speak of the first +and more immediate descendants of Hercules. As the history of those +times is thus involved, in relating the circumstances of Lycurgus's +life, we shall endeavour to select such as are least controverted, and +follow authors of the greatest credit. + +Simonides the poet, tells us, that Prytanis, not Eunomus, was father to +Lycurgus. But most writers give us the genealogy of Lycurgus and Eunomus +in a different manner; for, according to them, Sous was the son of +Patrocles, and grandson of Aristodemus, Eurytion the son of Sous, +Prytanis of Eurytion, and Eunomus of Prytanis; to this Eunomus was born +Polydectes, by a former wife, and by a second, named Dianassa, Lycurgus. +Eutychidas, however, says Lycurgus was the sixth from Patrocles, and the +eleventh from Hercules. The most distinguished of his ancestors was +Sous, under whom the Lacedæmonians made the Helotes their slaves, and +gained an extensive tract of land from the Arcadians. Of this Sous it is +related, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in a difficult post +where there was no water, he agreed to give up all his conquests, +provided that himself and all his army should drink of the neighbouring +spring. When these conditions were sworn to, he assembled his forces, +and offered his kingdom to the man that would forbear drinking; not one +of them, however, would deny himself, but they all drank. Then Sous went +down to the spring himself, and having only sprinkled his face in sight +of the enemy, he marched off, and still held the country, because all +had not drank. Yet, though he was highly honoured for this, the family +had not their name from him, but from his son, were called Eurytionidæ; +and this, because Eurytion seems to be the first who relaxed the +strictness of kingly government, inclining to the interest of the +people, and ingratiating himself with them. Upon this relaxation their +encroachments increased, and the succeeding kings, either becoming +odious, treating them with greater rigour, or else giving way through +weakness or in hopes of favour, for a long time anarchy and confusion +prevailed in Sparta; by which one of its kings, the father of Lycurgus, +lost his life. For while he was endeavouring to part some persons who +were concerned in a fray, he received a wound by a kitchen knife, of +which he died, leaving the kingdom to his eldest son Polydectes. + +But he too dying soon after, the general voice gave it for Lycurgus to +ascend the throne; and he actually did so, till it appeared that his +brother's widow was pregnant. As soon as he perceived this, he declared +that the kingdom belonged to her issue, provided it were male, and he +kept the administration in his hands only as his guardian. This he did +with the title of Prodicos, which the Lacedæmonians give to the +guardians of infant kings. Soon after, the queen made him a private +overture, that she would destroy her child, upon condition that he would +marry her when king of Sparta. Though he detested her wickedness, he +said nothing against the proposal, but pretending to approve it, charged +her not to take any drugs to procure an abortion, lest she should +endanger her own health or life; for he would take care that the child, +as soon as born, should be destroyed. Thus he artfully drew on the woman +to her full time, and, when he heard she was in labour, he sent persons +to attend and watch her delivery, with orders, if it were a girl, to +give it to the women, but if a boy, to bring it to him, in whatever +business he might be engaged. It happened that he was at supper with the +magistrates when she was delivered of a boy, and his servants, who were +present, carried the child to him. When he received it, he is reported +to have said to the company, "Spartans, see here your new-born king." He +then laid him down upon the chair of state, and named him Charilaus, +because of the joy and admiration of his magnanimity and justice +testified by all present. Thus the reign of Lycurgus lasted only eight +months. But the citizens had a great veneration for him on other +accounts, and there were more that paid him their attentions, and were +ready to execute his commands, out of regard to his virtues, than those +that obeyed him as a guardian to the king, and director of the +administration. There were not, however, wanting those that envied him, +and opposed his advancement, as too high for so young a man; +particularly the relations and friends of the queen-mother, who seemed +to have been treated with contempt. Her brother Leonidas, one day boldly +attacked him with virulent language, and scrupled not to tell him that +he was well assured he would soon be king; thus preparing suspicions, +and matter of accusation against Lycurgus, in case any accident should +befall the king. Insinuations of the same kind were likewise spread by +the queen-mother. Moved with this ill-treatment, and fearing some dark +design, he determined to get clear of all suspicion, by travelling into +other countries, till his nephew should be grown up, and have a son to +succeed him in the kingdom. + +He set sail, therefore, and landed in Crete. There having observed the +forms of government, and conversed with the most illustrious personages, +he was struck with admiration of some of their laws, and resolved at his +return to make use of them in Sparta. Some others he rejected. Among the +friends he gained in Crete was Thales, with whom he had interest enough +to persuade him to go and settle at Sparta. Thales was famed for his +wisdom and political abilities: he was withal a lyric poet, who under +colour of exercising his art, performed as great things as the most +excellent lawgivers. For his odes were so many persuasives to obedience +and unanimity, as by means of melody and numbers they had great grace +and power, they softened insensibly the manners of the audience, drew +them off from the animosities which then prevailed, and united them in +zeal for excellence and virtue. So that, in some measure, he prepared +the way for Lycurgus towards the instruction of the Spartans. From Crete +Lycurgus passed to Asia, desirous, as is said, to compare the Ionian +expense and luxury with the Cretan frugality and hard diet, so as to +judge what effect each had on their several manners and governments; +just as physicians compare bodies that are weak and sickly with the +healthy and robust. There also, probably, he met with Homer's poems, +which were preserved by the posterity of Cleophylus. Observing that many +moral sentences and much political knowledge were intermixed with his +stories, which had an irresistible charm, he collected them into one +body, and transcribed them with pleasure, in order to take them home +with him. For his glorious poetry was not yet fully known in Greece; +only some particular pieces were in a few hands, as they happened to be +dispersed. Lycurgus was the first that made them generally known. The +Egyptians likewise suppose that he visited them; and as of all their +institutions he was most pleased with their distinguishing the military +men from the rest of the people, he took the same method at Sparta, and, +by separating from these the mechanics and artificers, he rendered the +constitution more noble and more of a piece. This assertion of the +Egyptians is confirmed by some of the Greek writers. But we know of no +one, except Aristocrates, son of Hipparchus, and a Spartan, who has +affirmed that he went to Libya and Spain, and in his Indian excursions +conversed with the Gymnosophists. + +The Lacedæmonians found the want of Lycurgus when absent, and sent many +embassies to entreat him to return. For they perceived that their kings +had barely the title and outward appendages of royalty, but in nothing +else differed from the multitude; whereas Lycurgus had abilities from +nature to guide the measures of government, and powers of persuasion, +that drew the hearts of men to him. The kings, however, where consulted +about his return, and they hoped that in his presence they should +experience less insolence amongst the people. Returning then to a city +thus disposed, he immediately applied himself to alter the whole frame +of the constitution; sensible that a partial change, and the introducing +of some new laws, would be of no sort of advantage; but, as in the case +of a body diseased and full of bad humours, whose temperament is to be +corrected and new formed by medicines, it was necessary to begin a new +regimen. With these sentiments he went to Delphi, and when he had +offered and consulted the god, he returned with that celebrated oracle, +in which the priestess called him "Beloved of the gods, and rather a god +than a man." As to his request that he might enact good laws, she told +him, Apollo had heard his request, and promised that the constitution he +should establish would be the most excellent in the world. Thus +encouraged, he applied to the nobility, and desired them to put their +hands to the work; addressing himself privately at first to his friends, +and afterwards by degrees, trying the disposition of others, and +preparing them to concur in the business. When matters were ripe, he +ordered thirty of the principal citizens to appear armed in the +market-place by break of day, to strike terror into such as might desire +to oppose him. Hermippus has given us the names of twenty of the most +eminent of them; but he that had the greatest share in the whole +enterprise, and gave Lycurgus the best assistance in the establishing of +his laws, was called Arithmiades. Upon the first alarm, king Charilaus, +apprehending it to be a design against his person, took refuge in the +Chalcioicos. But he was soon satisfied, and accepted of their oath. Nay, +so far from being obstinate, he joined in the undertaking. Indeed, he +was so remarkable for the gentleness of his disposition, that Archelaus, +his partner in the throne, is reported to have said to some that were +praising the young king, "Yes, Charilaus is a good man to be sure, who +cannot find in his heart to punish the bad." Among the many new +institutions of Lycurgus, the first and most important was that of a +senate; which sharing, as Plato says, in the power of the kings, too +imperious and unrestrained before, and having equal authority with them, +was the means of keeping them within the bounds of moderation, and +highly contributed to the preservation of the state. For before it had +been veering and unsettled, sometimes inclining to arbitrary power, and +sometimes towards a pure democracy; but this establishment of a senate, +an intermediate body, like ballast, kept it in a just equilibrium, and +put it in a safe posture: the twenty-eight senators adhering to the +kings, whenever they saw the people too encroaching, and, on the other +hand, supporting the people, when the kings attempted to make themselves +absolute. This, according to Aristotle, was the number of senators fixed +upon, because two of the thirty associates of Lycurgus deserted the +business through fear. But Sphærus tells us there were only twenty-eight +at first entrusted with the design. Something, perhaps, there is in its +being a perfect number, formed of seven multiplied by four, and withal +the first number, after six, that is equal to all its parts. But I +rather think, just so many senators were created, that, together with +the two kings, the whole body might consist of thirty members. + +He had this institution so much at heart, that he obtained from Delphi +an oracle in its behalf, called _rhetra_, or the decree. This was +couched in very ancient and uncommon terms, which interpreted, ran thus: +"When you have built a temple to the Syllanian Jupiter, and the +Syllanian Minerva, divided the people into tribes and classes, and +established a senate of thirty persons, including the two kings, you +shall occasionally summon the people to an assembly between Babyce and +Cnacion, and they shall have the determining voice." Babyce and Cnacion +are now called Oenus. But Aristotle thinks, by Cnacion is meant the +river, and by Babyce the bridge. Between these they held their +assemblies, having neither halls, nor any kind of building for that +purpose. These things he thought of no advantage to their councils, but +rather a disservice; as they distracted the attention, and turned it +upon trifles, on observing the statues and pictures, the splendid roofs, +and every other theatrical ornament. The people thus assembled had no +right to propose any subject of debate, and were only authorized to +ratify or reject what might be proposed to them by the senate and the +kings. But because, in process of time, the people, by additions or +retrenchments, changed the terms, and perverted the sense of the +decrees, the kings Polydorus and Theopompus inserted in the _rhetra_ +this clause: "If the people attempt to corrupt any law, the senate and +chiefs shall retire:" that is, they shall dissolve the assembly, and +annul the alterations. And they found means to persuade the Spartans +that this too was ordered by Apollo; as we learn from these verses of +Tyrtæus: + + Ye sons of Sparta, who at PhÅ“bus' shrine + Your humble vows prefer, attentive hear + The god's decision. O'er your beauteous lands + Two guardian kings, a senate, and the voice + Of the concurring people, lasting laws + Shall with joint power establish. + +Though the government was thus tempered by Lycurgus, yet soon after it +degenerated into an oligarchy, whose power was exercised with such +wantonness and violence, that it wanted indeed a bridle, as Plato +expresses it. This curb they found in the authority of the Ephori, about +a hundred and thirty years after Lycurgus. Elatus was the first invested +with this dignity, in the reign of Theopompus; who, when his wife +upbraided him, that he would leave the regal power to his children less +than he received it, replied, "Nay but greater, because more lasting." +And, in fact, the prerogative, so stripped of all extravagant +pretensions, no longer occasioned either envy or danger to its +possessors. By these means they escaped the miseries which befell the +Messenian and Argive kings, who would not in the least relax the +severity of their power in favour of the people. Indeed, from nothing +more does the wisdom and foresight of Lycurgus appear, than from the +disorderly governments, and the bad understanding that subsisted between +the kings and people of Messena and Argos, neighbouring states, and +related in blood to Sparta. For, as at first they were in all respects +equal to her, and possessed of a better country, and yet preserved no +lasting happiness, but, through the insolence of the kings and +disobedience of the people, were harassed with perpetual troubles, they +made it very evident that it was really a felicity more than human, a +blessing from heaven to the Spartans, to have a legislator who knew so +well how to frame and temper their government. But this was an event of +a later date. + +A second and bolder political enterprise of Lycurgus was a new division +of the lands. For he found a prodigious inequality, the city overcharged +with many indigent persons, who had no land, and the wealth centred in +the hands of a few. Determined, therefore, to root out the evils of +insolence, envy, avarice, and luxury, and those distempers of a state +still more inveterate and fatal, I mean poverty and riches, he persuaded +them to cancel all former divisions of land, and to make new ones, in +such a manner that they might be perfectly equal in their possessions +and way of living. Hence, if they were ambitious of distinction they +might seek it in virtue, as no other difference was left between them +but that which arises from the dishonour of base actions and the praise +of good ones. His proposal was put in practice. He made nine thousand +lots for the territory of Sparta, which he distributed among so many +citizens, and thirty thousand for the inhabitants of the rest of +Laconia. But some say he made only six thousand shares for the city, and +that Polydorus added three thousand afterwards; others, that Polydorus +doubled the number appointed by Lycurgus, which were only four thousand +five hundred. Each lot was capable of producing (one year with another) +seventy bushels of grain for each man, and twelve for each woman, +besides a quantity of wine and oil in proportion. Such a provision they +thought sufficient for health and a good habit of body, and they wanted +nothing more. A story goes of our legislator, that some time after +returning from a journey through the fields just reaped, and seeing the +shocks standing parallel and equal, he smiled, and said to some that +were by, "How like is Laconia to an estate newly divided among many +brothers!" + +After this, he attempted to divide also the movables, in order to take +away all appearance of inequality; but he soon perceived that they could +not bear to have their goods directly taken from them, and therefore +took another method, counterworking their avarice by a stratagem. First +he stopped the currency of the gold and silver coin, and ordered that +they should make use of iron money only, then to a great quantity and +weight of this he assigned but a small value; so that to lay up ten +_minæ_, a whole room was required, and to remove it, nothing less than a +yoke of oxen. When this became current, many kinds of injustice ceased +in Lacedæmon. Who would steal or take a bribe, who would defraud or rob, +when he could not conceal the booty; when he could neither be dignified +by the possession of it, nor if cut in pieces be served by its use? For +we are told that when hot, they quenched it in vinegar, to make it +brittle and unmalleable, and consequently unfit for any other service. +In the next place, he excluded unprofitable and superfluous arts: +indeed, if he had not done this, most of them would have fallen of +themselves, when the new money took place, as the manufactures could not +be disposed of. Their iron coin would not pass in the rest of Greece, +but was ridiculed and despised; so that the Spartans had no means of +purchasing any foreign or curious wares; nor did any merchant-ship +unlade in their harbours. There were not even to be found in all their +country either sophists, wandering fortune-tellers, keepers of infamous +houses, or dealers in gold and silver trinkets, because there was no +money. Thus luxury, losing by degrees the means that cherished and +supported it, died away of itself: even they who had great possessions, +had no advantage from them, since they could not be displayed in public, +but must lie useless, in unregarded repositories. Hence it was, that +excellent workmanship was shown in their useful and necessary furniture, +as beds, chairs, and tables; and the Lacedæmonian cup called _cothon_, +as Critias informs us, was highly valued, particularly in campaigns: for +the water, which must then of necessity be drank, though it would often +otherwise offend the sight, had its muddiness concealed by the colour of +the cup, and the thick part stopping at the shelving brim, it came +clearer to the lips. Of these improvements the lawgiver was the cause; +for the workmen having no more employment in matters of mere curiosity, +showed the excellence of their art in necessary things. + +Desirous to complete the conquest of luxury, and exterminate the love of +riches, he introduced a third institution, which was wisely enough and +ingeniously contrived. This was the use of public tables, where all were +to eat in common of the same meat, and such kinds of it as were +appointed by law. At the same time they were forbidden to eat at home, +upon expensive couches and tables, to call in the assistance of butchers +and cooks, or to fatten like voracious animals in private. For so not +only their manners would be corrupted, but their bodies disordered; +abandoned to all manner of sensuality and dissoluteness, they would +require long sleep, warm baths, and the same indulgence as in perpetual +sickness. To effect this was certainly very great; but it was greater +still, to secure riches from rapine and from envy, as Theophrastus +expresses it, or rather by their eating in common, and by the frugality +of their table, to take from riches their very being. For what use or +enjoyment of them, what peculiar display of magnificence could there be, +where the poor man went to the same refreshment with the rich? Hence the +observation, that it was only at Sparta where Plutus (according to the +proverb) was kept blind, and like an image, destitute of life or motion. +It must further be observed, that they had not the privilege to eat at +home, and so to come without appetite to the public repast: they made a +point of it to observe any one that did not eat and drink with them, and +to reproach him as an intemperate and effeminate person that was sick of +the common diet. + +The rich, therefore (we are told), were more offended with this +regulation than with any other, and, rising in a body, they loudly +expressed their indignation: nay, they proceeded so far as to assault +Lycurgus with stones, so that he was forced to fly from the assembly and +take refuge in a temple. Unhappily, however, before he reached it, a +young man named Alcander, hasty in his resentments, though not otherwise +ill-tempered, came up with him, and, upon his turning round, struck out +one of his eyes with a stick. Lycurgus then stopped short, and, without +giving way to passion, showed the people his eye beat out, and his face +streaming with blood. They were so struck with shame and sorrow at the +sight, that they surrendered Alcander to him, and conducted him home +with the utmost expressions of regret. Lycurgus thanked them for their +care of his person, and dismissed them all except Alcander. He took him +into his house, but showed no ill treatment either by word or action; +only ordering him to wait upon him, instead of his usual servants and +attendants. The youth, who was of an ingenuous disposition, without +murmuring, did as he was commanded. Living in this manner with Lycurgus, +and having an opportunity to observe the mildness and goodness of his +heart, his strict temperance and indefatigable industry, he told his +friends that Lycurgus was not that proud and severe man he might have +been taken for, but, above all others, gentle and engaging in his +behaviour. This, then, was the chastisement, and this punishment he +suffered, of a wild and headstrong young man to become a very modest and +prudent citizen. In memory of his misfortune, Lycurgus built a temple to +Minerva Optiletis, so called by him from a term which the Dorians use +for the eye. Yet Dioscorides, who wrote a treatise concerning the +Lacedæmonian government, and others, relate that his eye was hurt, but +not put out, and that he built the temple in gratitude to the goddess +for his cure. However, the Spartans never carried staves to their +assemblies afterwards. + +The public repasts were called by the Cretans Andria; but the +Lacedæmonians styled them Phiditia, either from their tendency to +friendship and mutual benevolence, _phiditia_ being used instead of +_philitia_; or else from their teaching frugality and parsimony, which +the word _pheido_ signifies. But it is not all impossible that the first +letter might by some means or other be added, and so _phiditia_ take +place of _editia_, which barely signifies eating. There were fifteen +persons to a table, or a few more or less. Each of them was obliged to +bring in monthly a bushel of meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of +cheese, two pounds and a half of figs, and a little money to buy flesh +and fish. If any of them happened to offer a sacrifice of first fruits, +or to kill venison, he sent a part of it to the public table: for after +a sacrifice or hunting, he was at liberty to sup at home: but the rest +were to appear at the usual place. For a long time this eating in common +was observed with great exactness: so that when king Agis returned from +a successful expedition against the Athenians, and from a desire to sup +with his wife, requested to have his portion at home, the Polemarchs +refused to send it: nay, when, through resentment, he neglected, the day +following, to offer the sacrifice usual on occasion of victory, they set +a fine upon him. Children also were introduced at these public tables, +as so many schools of sobriety. There they heard discourses concerning +government, and were instructed in the most liberal breeding. There they +were allowed to jest without scurrility, and were not to take it ill +when the raillery was returned. For it was reckoned worthy of a +Lacedæmonian to bear a jest: but if any one's patience failed, he had +only to desire them to be quiet, and they left off immediately. When +they first entered, the oldest man present pointed to the door, and +said, "Not a word spoken in this company goes out there." The admitting +of any man to a particular table was under the following regulation. +Each member of that small society took a little ball of soft bread in +his hand. This he was to drop, without saying a word, into a vessel +called _caddos_, which the waiter carried upon his head. In case he +approved of the candidate, he did it without altering the figure, if +not, he first pressed it flat in his hand; for a flatted ball was +considered as a negative. And if but one such was found, the person was +not admitted, as they thought it proper that the whole company should be +satisfied with each other. He who thus rejected, was said to have no +luck in the _caddos_. The dish that was in the highest esteem amongst +them was the black broth. The old men were so fond of it that they +ranged themselves on one side and eat it, leaving the meat to the young +people. It is related of a king of Pontus, that he purchased a +Lacedæmonian cook, for the sake of this broth. But when he came to taste +it he strongly expressed his dislike; and the cook made answer, "Sir, to +make this broth relish, it is necessary first to bathe in the Eurotas." +After they had drank moderately, they went home without lights. Indeed, +they were forbidden to walk with a light either on this or any other +occasion, that they might accustom themselves to march in the darkest +night boldly and resolutely. Such was the order of their public +repasts. + +Lycurgus left none of his laws in writing; it was ordered in one of the +_Rhetræ_ that none should be written. For what he thought most conducive +to the virtue and happiness of a city, was principles interwoven with +the manners and breeding of the people. These would remain immovable, as +founded in inclination, and be the strongest and most lasting tie; and +the habits which education produced in the youth, would answer in each +the purpose of a lawgiver. As for smaller matters, contracts about +property, and whatever occasionally varied, it was better not to reduce +these to a written form and unalterable method, but to suffer them to +change with the times, and to admit of additions or retrenchments at the +pleasure of persons so well educated. For he resolved the whole business +of legislation into the bringing up of youth. And this, as we have +observed, was the reason why one of his ordinances forbad them to have +any written laws. + +Another ordinance levelled against magnificence and expense, directed +that the ceilings of houses should be wrought with no tool but the axe +and the doors with nothing but the saw. For, as Epaminondas is reported +to have said afterwards, of his table, "Treason lurks not under such a +dinner," so Lycurgus perceived before him, that such a house admits of +no luxury and needless splendour. Indeed, no man could be so absurd as +to bring into a dwelling so homely and simple, bedsteads with silver +feet, purple coverlets, golden cups, and a train of expense that follows +these: but all would necessarily have the bed suitable to the room, the +coverlet of the bed and the rest of their utensils and furniture to +that. From this plain sort of dwellings, proceeded the question of +Leotychidas the elder to his host, when he supped at Corinth, and saw +the ceiling of the room very splendid and curiously wrought, "Whether +trees grew square in his country." + +A third ordinance of Lycurgus was, that they should not often make war +against the same enemy, lest, by being frequently put upon defending +themselves, they too should become able warriors in their turn. And this +they most blamed king Agesilaus for afterwards, that by frequent and +continued incursions into Boeotia, he taught the Thebans to make head +against the Lacedæmonians. This made Antalcidas say, when he saw him +wounded, "The Thebans pay you well for making them good soldiers who +neither were willing nor able to fight you before." These ordinances he +called _Rhetræ_, as if they had been oracles and decrees of the Deity +himself. + +As for the education of youth, which he looked upon as the greatest and +most glorious work of a lawgiver, he began with it at the very source, +taking into consideration their conception and birth, by regulating the +marriages. For he did not (as Aristotle says) desist from his attempt to +bring the women under sober rules. They had, indeed, assumed great +liberty and power on account of the frequent expeditions of their +husbands, during which they were left sole mistresses at home, and so +gained an undue deference and improper titles; but notwithstanding this +he took all possible care of them. He ordered the virgins to exercise +themselves in running, wrestling, and throwing quoits and darts; that +their bodies being strong and vigorous, the children afterwards produced +from them might be the same; and that, thus fortified by exercise, they +might the better support the pangs of child-birth, and be delivered with +safety. In order to take away the excessive tenderness and delicacy of +the sex, the consequence of a recluse life, he accustomed the virgins +occasionally to be seen naked as well as the young men, and to dance and +sing in their presence on certain festivals. There they sometimes +indulged in a little raillery upon those that had misbehaved themselves, +and sometimes they sung encomiums on such as deserved them, thus +exciting in the young men a useful emulation and love of glory. For he +who was praised for his bravery and celebrated among the virgins, went +away perfectly happy: while their satirical glances thrown out in sport, +were no less cutting than serious admonitions; especially as the kings +and senate went with the other citizens to see all that passed. As for +the virgins appearing naked, there was nothing disgraceful in it, +because everything was conducted with modesty, and without one indecent +word or action. Nay, it caused a simplicity of manners and an emulation +for the best habit of body; their ideas too were naturally enlarged, +while they were not excluded from their share of bravery and honour. +Hence they were furnished with sentiments and language, such as Gorgo +the wife of Leonidas is said to have made use of. When a woman of +another country said to her, "You of Lacedæmon are the only women in the +world that rule the men;" she answered, "We are the only women that +bring forth men." + +These public dances and other exercises of the young maidens naked, in +sight of the young men, were, moreover, incentives to marriage: and, to +use Plato's expression, drew them almost as necessarily by the +attractions of love, as a geometrical conclusion follows from the +premises. To encourage it still more, some marks of infamy were set upon +those that continued bachelors. For they were not permitted to see these +exercises of the naked virgins; and the magistrates commanded them to +march naked round the market-place in the winter, and to sing a song +composed against themselves, which expressed how justly they were +punished for their disobedience to the laws. They were also deprived of +that honour and respect which the younger people paid to the old; so +that nobody found fault with what was said to Dercyllidas, though an +eminent commander. It seems, when he came one day into company, a young +man, instead of rising up and giving place, told him, "You have no child +to give place to me, when I am old." + +In their marriages, the bridegroom carried off the bride by violence; +and she was never chosen in a tender age, but when she had arrived at +full maturity. Then the woman that had the direction of the wedding, cut +the bride's hair close to the skin, dressed her in man's clothes, laid +her upon a mattrass, and left her in the dark. The bridegroom, neither +oppressed with wine nor enervated with luxury, but perfectly sober, as +having always supped at the common table, went in privately, untied her +girdle, and carried her to another bed. Having stayed there a short +time, he modestly retired to his usual apartment, to sleep with the +other young men; and observed the same conduct afterwards, spending the +day with his companions, and reposing himself with them in the night, +nor even visiting his bride but with great caution and apprehensions of +being discovered by the rest of the family; the bride at the same time +exerted all her art to contrive convenient opportunities for their +private meetings. And this they did not for a short time only, but some +of them even had children before they had an interview with their wives +in the daytime. This kind of commerce not only exercised their +temperance and chastity, but kept their bodies fruitful, and the first +ardour of their love fresh and unabated; for as they were not satiated +like those that are always with their wives, there still was place for +unextinguished desire. When he had thus established a proper regard to +modesty and decorum with respect to marriage, he was equally studious to +drive from that state the vain and womanish passion of jealousy; by +making it quite as reputable to have children in common with persons of +merit, as to avoid all offensive freedom in their own behaviour to their +wives. He laughed at those who revenge with wars and bloodshed the +communication of a married woman's favours; and allowed, that if a man +in years should have a young wife, he might introduce to her some +handsome and honest young man, whom he most approved of, and when she +had a child of this generous race, bring it up as his own. On the other +hand, he allowed, that if a man of character should entertain a passion +for a married woman on account of her modesty and the beauty of her +children, he might treat with her husband for admission to her company, +that so planting in a beauty-bearing soil, he might produce excellent +children, the congenial offspring of excellent parents. For, in the +first place, Lycurgus considered children, not so much the property of +their parents as of the state; and therefore he would not have them +begot by ordinary persons, but by the best men in it. In the next place, +he observed the vanity and absurdity of other nations, where people +study to have their horses and dogs of the finest breed they can procure +either by interest or money; and yet keep their wives shut up, that they +may have children by none but themselves, though they may happen to be +doting, decrepit, or infirm. As if children, when sprung from a bad +stock, and consequently good for nothing, were no detriment to those +whom they belong to, and who have the trouble of bringing them up, nor +any advantage, when well descended and of a generous disposition. These +regulations tending to secure a healthy offspring, and consequently +beneficial to the state, were so far from encouraging that +licentiousness of the women which prevailed afterwards, that adultery +was not known amongst them. A saying, upon this subject of Geradas, an +ancient Spartan, is thus related. A stranger had asked him, "What +punishment their law appointed for adulterers?" He answered, "My friend, +there are no adulterers in our country." The other replied, "But what if +there should be one?" "Why then," says Geradas, "he must forfeit a bull +so large that he might drink of the Eurotas from the top of Mount +Taygetus." When the stranger expressed his surprise at this, and said, +"How can such a bull be found?" Geradas answered with a smile, "How can +an adulterer be found in Sparta?" This is the account we have of their +marriages. + +It was not left to the father to rear what children he pleased, but he +was obliged to carry the child to a place called Lesche, to be examined +by the most ancient men of the tribe, who were assembled there. If it +was strong and well-proportioned, they gave orders for its education, +and assigned it one of the nine thousand shares of land; but if it was +weakly and deformed, they ordered it to be thrown into the place called +Apothetæ, which is a deep cavern near the mountain Taygetus; concluding +that its life could be no advantage either to itself or to the public, +since nature had not given it at first any strength or goodness of +constitution. For the same reason the women did not wash their new-born +infants with water, but with wine, thus making some trial of their habit +of body; imagining that sickly and epileptic children sink and die under +the experiment, while healthy became more vigorous and hardy. Great care +and art was also exerted by the nurses; for, as they never swathed the +infants, their limbs had a freer turn, and their countenances a more +liberal air; besides, they used them to any sort of meat, to have no +terrors in the dark, nor to be afraid of being alone, and to leave all +ill humour and unmanly crying. Hence people of other countries purchased +Lacedæmonian nurses for their children; and Alcibiades the Athenian is +said to have been nursed by Amicla, a Spartan. But if he was fortunate +in a nurse, he was not so in a preceptor: for Zopyrus, appointed to that +office by Pericles, was, as Plato tells us, no better qualified than a +common slave. The Spartan children were not in that manner, under tutors +purchased or hired with money, nor were the parents at liberty to +educate them as they pleased: but as soon as they were seven years old, +Lycurgus ordered them to be enrolled in companies, where they were all +kept under the same order and discipline, and had their exercises and +recreations in common. He who showed the most conduct and courage +amongst them, was made captain of the company. The rest kept their eyes +upon him, obeyed his orders, and bore with patience the punishment he +inflicted: so that their whole education was an exercise of obedience. +The old men were present at their diversions, and often suggested some +occasion of dispute or quarrel, that they might observe with exactness +the spirit of each, and their firmness in battle. + +As for learning, they had just what was absolutely necessary. All the +rest of their education was calculated to make them subject to command, +to endure labour, to fight and conquer. They added, therefore, to their +discipline, as they advance in age; cutting their hair very close, +making them go barefoot, and play, for the most part, quite naked. At +twelve years of age, their under garment was taken away, and but one +upper one a year allowed them. Hence they were necessarily dirty in +their persons, and not indulged the great favour of baths, and oils, +except on some particular days of the year. They slept in companies, on +beds made of the tops of reeds, which they gathered with their own +hands, without knives, and brought from the banks of the Eurotas. In +winter they were permitted to add a little thistle-down, as that seemed +to have some warmth in it. + +At this age, the most distinguished amongst them became the favourite +companions of the elder; and the old men attended more constantly their +places of exercise, observing their trials of strength and wit, not +slightly and in a cursory manner, but as their fathers, guardians, and +governors: so that there was neither time nor place where persons were +wanting to instruct and chastise them. One of the best and ablest men of +the city was, moreover, appointed inspector of the youth: and he gave +the command of each company to the discreetest and most spirited of +those called Irens. An Iren was one that had been two years out of the +class of boys: a Melliren one of the oldest lads. This Iren, then, a +youth twenty years old, gives orders to those under his command in their +little battles, and has them to serve him at his house. He sends the +oldest of them to fetch wood, and the younger to gather pot-herbs: these +they steal where they can find them, either slily getting into gardens, +or else craftily and warily creeping to the common tables. But if any +one be caught, he is severely flogged for negligence or want of +dexterity. They steal, too, whatever victuals they possibly can, +ingeniously contriving to do it when persons are asleep, or keep but +indifferent watch. If they are discovered, they are punished not only +with whipping, but with hunger. Indeed, their supper is but slender at +all times, that, to fence against want, they may be forced to exercise +their courage and address. This is the first intention of their spare +diet: a subordinate one is, to make them grow tall. For when the animal +spirits are not too much oppressed by a great quantity of food, which +stretches itself out in breadth and thickness, they mount upwards by +their natural lightness, and the body easily and freely shoots up in +height. This also contributes to make them handsome; for thin and +slender habits yield more freely to nature, which then gives a fine +proportion to the limbs; whilst the heavy and gross resist her by their +weight. So women that take physic during their pregnancy, have slighter +children indeed, but of a finer and more delicate turn, because the +suppleness of the matter more readily obeys the plastic power. However, +these are speculations which we shall leave to others. + +The boys steal with so much caution, that one of them having conveyed a +young fox under his garment, suffered the creature to tear out his +bowels with his teeth and claws, choosing rather to die than to be +detected. Nor does this appear incredible, if we consider what their +young men can endure to this day; for we have seen many of them expire +under the lash at the altar of Diana Orthia. + +The Iren, reposing himself after supper, used to order one of the boys +to sing a song; to another he put some question which required a +judicious answer: for example, "Who was the best man in the city?" or +"What he thought of such an action?" This accustomed them from their +childhood to judge of the virtues, to enter into the affairs of their +countrymen. For if one of them was asked, "Who is a good citizen, or who +an infamous one," and hesitated in his answer, he was considered a boy +of slow parts, and of a soul that would not aspire to honour. The answer +was likewise to have a reason assigned for it, and proof conceived in +few words. He whose account of the matter was wrong, by way of +punishment had his thumb bit by the Iren. The old men and magistrates +often attended these little trials, to see whether the Iren exercised +his authority in a rational and proper manner. He was permitted, indeed, +to inflict the penalties; but when the boys were gone, he was to be +chastised himself, if he had punished them either with too much severity +or remissness. + +The adopters of favourites also shared both in the honour and disgrace +of their boys: and one of them is said to have been mulcted by the +magistrates, because the boy whom he had taken into his affections let +some ungenerous word or cry escape him as he was fighting. This love was +so honourable and in so much esteem, that the virgins too had their +lovers amongst the most virtuous matrons. A competition of affection +caused no misunderstanding, but rather a mutual friendship between those +that had fixed their regards upon the same youth, and an united +endeavour to make him as accomplished as possible. + +The boys were also taught to use sharp repartee, seasoned with humour, +and whatever they said was to be concise and pithy. For Lycurgus, as we +have observed, fixed but a small value on a considerable quantity of his +iron money; but, on the contrary, the worth of speech was to consist in +its being comprised in a few plain words, pregnant with a great deal of +sense: and he contrived that by long silence they might learn to be +sententious and acute in their replies. As debauchery often causes +weakness and sterility in the body, so the intemperance of the tongue +makes conversation empty and insipid. King Agis, therefore, when a +certain Athenian laughed at the Lacedæmonian short swords, and said, +"The jugglers would swallow them with ease upon the stage," answered in +his laconic way, "And yet we can reach our enemies' hearts with them." +Indeed, to me there seems to be something in this concise manner of +speaking which immediately reaches the object aimed at, and forcibly +strikes the mind of the hearer. Lycurgus himself was short and +sententious in his discourse, if we may judge by some of his answers +which are recorded; that, for instance, concerning the constitution. +When one advised him to establish a popular government in Lacedæmon, +"Go," said he, "and first make a trial of it in thy own family." That +again, concerning sacrifices to the Deity, when he was asked why he +appointed them so trifling and of so little value, "That we might never +be in want," said he, "of something to offer him." Once more, when they +inquired of him, what sort of martial exercises he allowed of, he +answered, "All, except those in which you stretch out your hands." +Several such like replies of his are said to be taken from the letters +which he wrote to his countrymen: as to their question, "How shall we +best guard against the invasion of an enemy?"--"By continuing poor, and +not desiring in your possessions to be one above another." And to the +question, whether they should enclose Sparta with walls, "That city is +well fortified, which has a wall of men instead of brick." Whether these +and some other letters ascribed to him are genuine or not, is no easy +matter to determine. However, that they hated long speeches, the +following apophthegms are a farther proof. King Leonidas said to one +who discoursed at an improper time about affairs of some concern, "My +friend, you should not talk so much to the purpose, of what it is not to +the purpose to talk of." Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, being asked +why his uncle had made so few laws, answered, "To men of few words, few +laws are sufficient." Some people finding fault with Hecatæus the +sophist, because, when admitted to one of the public repasts, he said +nothing all the time, Archidamidas replied, "He that knows how to speak, +knows also when to speak." + +The manner of their repartees, which, as I said, were seasoned with +humour, may be gathered from these instances. When a troublesome fellow +was pestering Demaratus with impertinent questions, and this in +particular several times repeated, "Who is the best man in Sparta?" He +answered, "He that is least like you." To some who were commending the +Eleans for managing the Olympic games with so much justice and +propriety, Agis said, "What great matter is it, if the Eleans do justice +once in five years?" When a stranger was professing his regard for +Theopompus, and saying that his own countrymen called him Philolacon (a +lover of the Lacedæmonians), the king answered him, "My good friend, it +were much better, if they called you Philopolites" (a lover of your own +countrymen). Plistonax, the son of Pausanias, replied to an orator of +Athens, who said the Lacedæmonians had no learning. "True, for we are +the only people of Greece that have learned no ill of you." To one who +asked what number of men there was in Sparta, Archidamidas said, "Enough +to keep bad men at a distance." + +Even when they indulged a vein of pleasantry, one might perceive that +they would not use one unnecessary word, nor let an expression escape +them that had not some sense worth attending to. For one being asked to +go and hear a person who imitated the nightingale to perfection, +answered, "I have heard the nightingale herself." Another said, upon +reading this epitaph, + + Victims of Mars, at Selinus they fell, + Who quench'd the rage of tyranny-- + +"And they deserved to fall, for, instead of _quenching_ it, they should +have let it _burn out_." A young man answered one that promised him some +game-cocks that would stand their death, "Give me those that will be the +death of others." Another seeing some people carried into the country in +litters, said, "May I never sit in any place where I cannot rise before +the aged!" This was the manner of their apophthegms: so that it has been +justly enough observed that the term _lakonizein_ (to act the +Lacedæmonian) is to be referred rather to the exercises of the mind, +than those of the body. + +Nor were poetry and music less cultivated among them, than a concise +dignity of expression. Their songs had a spirit, which could rouse the +soul, and impel it in an enthusiastic manner to action. The language was +plain and manly, the subject serious and moral. For they consisted +chiefly of the praises of heroes that had died for Sparta, or else of +expressions of detestation for such wretches as had declined the +glorious opportunity, and rather chose to drag on life in misery and +contempt. Nor did they forget to express an ambition for glory suitable +to their respective ages. Of this it may not be amiss to give an +instance. There were three choirs on their festivals, corresponding with +the three ages of man. The old men began, + + Once in battle bold we shone; + +the young men answered, + + Try us: our vigour is not gone; + +and the boys concluded, + + The palm remains for us alone. + +Indeed, if we consider with some attention such of the Lacedæmonian +poems as are still extant, and get into those airs which were played +upon the flute when they marched to battle, we must agree that Terpander +and Pindar have very fitly joined valour and music together. The former +thus speaks of Lacedæmon, + + There gleams the youth's bright falchion: there the muse + Lifts her sweet voice: there awful Justice opes + Her wide pavilion. + +And Pindar sings, + + There in grave council sits the sage; + There burns the youth's resistless rage + To hurl the quiv'ring lance; + The Muse with glory crowns their arms, + And Melody exerts her charms, + And Pleasure leads the dance. + +Thus we are informed, not only of their warlike turn, but their skill in +music. For as the Spartan poet says, + + To swell the bold notes of the lyre, + Becomes the warrior's lofty fire. + +And the king always offered sacrifice to the muses before a battle, +putting his troops in mind, I suppose, of their early education and of +the judgment that would be passed upon them; as well as that those +divinities might teach them to despite danger, while they performed some +exploit fit for them to celebrate. + +On these occasions they relaxed the severity of their discipline, +permitting their men to be curious in dressing their hair, and elegant +in their arms and apparel, while they expressed their alacrity, like +horses full of fire and neighing for the race. They let their hair, +therefore, grow from their youth, but took more particular care, when +they expected an action, to have it well combed and shining; remembering +a saying of Lycurgus, that "a large head of hair made the handsome more +graceful, and the ugly more terrible." The exercises, too, of the young +men, during the campaigns, were more moderate, their diet not so hard, +and their whole treatment more indulgent: so that they were the only +people in the world with whom military discipline wore, in time of war, +a gentler face than usual. When the army was drawn up, and the enemy +near, the king sacrificed a goat, and commanded them all to set garlands +upon their heads, and the musicians to play Castro's march, while +himself began the pæan, which was the signal to advance. It was at once +a solemn and dreadful sight to see them measuring their steps to the +sound of music, and without the least disorder in their ranks or tumult +of spirits, moving forward cheerfully and composedly, with harmony, to +battle. Neither fear nor rashness was likely to approve men so disposed, +possessed as they were of a firm presence of mind, with courage and +confidence of success, as under the conduct of heaven. When the king +advanced against the enemy, he had always with him some one that had +been crowned in the public games of Greece. And they tell us, that a +Lacedæmonian, when large sums were offered him on condition that he +would not enter the Olympic lists, refused them, having with much +difficulty thrown his antagonist, one put this question to him, +"Spartan, what will you get by this victory?" He answered with a smile, +"I shall have the honour to fight foremost in the ranks before my +prince." When they had routed the enemy, they continued the pursuit till +they were assured of the victory: after that they immediately desisted; +deeming it neither generous nor worthy of a Grecian to destroy those who +made no farther resistance. This was not only a proof of magnanimity, +but of great service to their cause. For when their adversaries found +that they killed such as stood it out, but spared the fugitives, they +concluded it was better to fly than to meet their fate upon the spot. + +Hippias the sophist tells us, that Lycurgus himself was a man of great +personal valour, and an experienced commander. Philostephanus also +ascribes to him the first division of cavalry into troops of fifty, who +were drawn up in a square body. But Demetrius the Phalerean says, that +he never had any military employment, and that there was the profoundest +peace imaginable when he established the constitution of Sparta. His +providing for a cessation of arms during the Olympic games is likewise a +mark of the humane and peaceable man. Some, however, acquaint us, and +among the rest Hermippus, that Lucurgus at first had no communication +with Iphitus; but coming that way, and happening to be a spectator, he +heard behind him a human voice (as he thought) which expressed some +wonder and displeasure that he did not put his countrymen upon resorting +to so great an assembly. He turned round immediately, to discover whence +the voice came, and as there was no man to be seen, concluded it was +from heaven. He joined Iphitus, therefore; and ordering, along with him, +the ceremonies of the festival, rendered it more magnificent and +lasting. + +The discipline of the Lacedæmonians continued after they were arrived at +years of maturity. For no man was at liberty to live as he pleased; the +city being like one great camp, where all had their stated allowance, +and knew their public charge, each man concluding that he was born, not +for himself, but for his country. Hence, if they had no particular +orders, they employed themselves in inspecting the boys, and teaching +them something useful, or in learning of those that were older than +themselves. One of the greatest privileges that Lycurgus procured his +countrymen, was the enjoyment of leisure, the consequence of his +forbidding them to exercise any mechanic trade. It was not worth their +while to take great pains to raise a fortune, since riches there were of +no account: and the Helotes, who tilled the ground, were answerable for +the produce above-mentioned. To this purpose we have a story of a +Lacedæmonian, who, happening to be at Athens while the court sat, was +informed of a man who was fined for idleness; and when the poor fellow +was returning home in great dejection, attended by his condoling +friends, he desired the company to show him the person that was +condemned for keeping up his dignity. So much beneath them they reckoned +all attention to mechanics arts, and all desire of riches! + +Lawsuits were banished from Lacedæmon with money. The Spartans knew +neither riches nor poverty, but possessed an equal competency, and had a +cheap and easy way of supplying their few wants. Hence, when they were +not engaged in war, their time was taken up with dancing, feasting, +hunting, or meeting to exercise, or converse. They went not to market +under thirty years of age, all their necessary concerns being managed by +their relations and adopters. Nor was it reckoned a credit to the old to +be seen sauntering in the market-place; it was deemed more suitable for +them to pass great part of the day in the schools of exercise, or places +of conversation. Their discourse seldom turned upon money, or business, +or trade, but upon the praise of the excellent, or the contempt of the +worthless; and the last was expressed with that pleasantry and humour, +which conveyed instruction and correction without seeming to intend it. +Nor was Lycurgus himself immoderately severe in his manner; but, as +Sosibius tells us, he dedicated a little statue to the god of laughter +in each hall. He considered facetiousness as a seasoning of their hard +exercise and diet, and therefore ordered it to take place on all proper +occasions, in their common entertainments and parties of pleasure. + +Upon the whole, he taught his citizens to think nothing more +disagreeable than to live by (or for) themselves. Like bees, they acted +with one impulse for the public good, and always assembled about their +prince. They were possessed with a thirst of honour, an enthusiasm +bordering upon insanity, and had not a wish but for their country. These +sentiments are confirmed by some of their aphorisms. When Pædaretus lost +his election for one of the "three hundred," he went away "rejoicing +that there were three hundred better men than himself found in the +city." Pisistratidas going with some others, ambassador to the king of +Persia's lieutenants, was asked whether they came with a public +commission, or on their own account, to which he answered, "If +successful, for the public; if unsuccessful, for ourselves." Agrileonis, +the mother of Brasidas, asking some Amphipolitans that waited upon her +at her house, whether Brasidas died honourably and as became a Spartan? +they greatly extolled his merit, and said there was not such a man left +in Sparta; whereupon she replied, "Say not so, my friends; for Brasidas +was indeed a man of honour, but Lacedæmon can boast of many better men +than he." + +The senate, as I said before, consisted at first of those that were +assistants to Lycurgus in his great enterprise. Afterwards, to fill up +any vacancy that might happen, he ordered the most worthy men to be +selected, of those that were full threescore years old. This was the +most respectable dispute in the world, and the contest was truly +glorious; for it was not who should be swiftest among the swift, or +strongest of the strong, but who was the wisest and best among the good +and wise. He who had the preference was to bear this mark of superior +excellence through life, this great authority, which put into his hands +the lives and honour of the citizens, and every other important affair. +The manner of the election was this: when the people were assembled, +some persons appointed for the purpose were shut up in a room near the +place; where they could neither see nor be seen, and only hear the +shouts of the constituents: for by them they decided this and most +other affairs. Each candidate walked silently through the assembly, one +after another according to lot. Those that were shut up had writing +tables, in which they set down in different columns the number and +loudness of the shouts, without knowing who they were for; only they +marked them as first, second, third, and so on, according to the number +of the competitors. He that had the most and loudest acclamations, was +declared duly elected. Then he was crowned with a garland, and went +round to give thanks to the gods: a number of young men followed, +striving which should extol him most, and the women celebrated his +virtues in their songs, and blessed his worthy life and conduct. Each of +his relations offered him a repast, and their address on the occasion +was, "Sparta honours you with this collation." When he had finished the +procession, he went to the common table, and lived as before. Only two +portions were set before him, one of which he carried away: and as all +the women related to him attended at the gates of the public hall, he +called her for whom he had the greatest esteem, and presented her with +the portion, saying at the same time, "That which I received as a mark +of honour, I give to you." Then she was conducted home with great +applause by the rest of the women. + +Lycurgus likewise made good regulations with respect to burials. In the +first place, to take away all superstition, he ordered the dead to be +buried in the city, and even permitted their monuments to be erected +near the temples; accustoming the youth to such sights from their +infancy, that they might have no uneasiness from them, nor any horror +for death, as if people were polluted with the touch of a dead body, or +with treading upon a grave. In the next place, he suffered nothing to be +buried with the corpse, except the red cloth and the olive leaves in +which it was wrapped. Nor would he suffer the relations to inscribe any +names upon the tombs, except of those men that fell in battle, or those +women who died in some sacred office. He fixed eleven days for the time +of mourning: on the twelfth they were to put an end to it, after +offering sacrifice to Ceres. No part of life was left vacant and +unimproved, but even with their necessary actions he interwove the +praise of virtue and the contempt of vice: and he so filled the city +with living examples, that it was next to impossible, for persons who +had these from their infancy before their eyes, not to be drawn and +formed to honour. + +For the same reason he would not permit all that desired to go abroad +and see other countries, lest they should contract foreign manners, gain +traces of a life of little discipline, and of a different form of +government. He forbid strangers too to resort to Sparta, who could not +assign a good reason for their coming; not, as Thucydides says, out of +fear they should imitate the constitution of that city, and make +improvements in virtue, but lest they should teach his own people some +evil. For along with foreigners come new subjects of discourse; new +discourse produces new opinions; and from these there necessarily spring +new passions and desires, which, like discords in music, would disturb +the established government. He, therefore, thought it more expedient for +the city to keep out of it corrupt customs and manners, than even to +prevent the introduction of a pestilence. + +Thus far, then, we can perceive no vestiges of a disregard to right and +wrong, which is the fault some people find with the laws of Lycurgus, +allowing them well enough calculated to produce valour, but not to +promote justice. Perhaps it was the Cryptia, as they called it, or +ambuscade, if that was really one of this lawgiver's institutions, as +Aristotle says it was, which gave Plato so bad an impression both of +Lycurgus and his laws. The governors of the youth ordered the shrewdest +of them from time to time to disperse themselves in the country, +provided only with daggers and some necessary provisions. In the daytime +they hid themselves, and rested in the most private places they could +find, but at night they sallied out into the roads, and killed all the +Helotes they could meet with. Nay, sometimes by day, they fell upon them +in the fields, and murdered the ablest and strongest of them. Thucydides +relates in his history of the Peloponnesian war, that the Spartans +selected such of them as were distinguished for their courage, to the +number of two thousand or more, declared them free, crowned them with +garlands, and conducted them to the temples of the gods; but soon after +they all disappeared; and no one could, either then or since, give +account in what manner they were destroyed. Aristotle particularly says, +that the Ephori, as soon as they were invested in their office, declared +war against the Helotes, that they might be massacred under pretence of +law. In other respects they treated them with great inhumanity: +sometimes they made them drink till they were intoxicated, and in that +condition led them into the public halls, to show the young men what +drunkenness was. They ordered them too to sing mean songs, and to dance +ridiculous dances, but not to meddle with any that were genteel and +graceful. Thus they tell us, that when the Thebans afterwards invaded +Laconia, and took a great number of the Helotes prisoners, they ordered +them to sing the odes of Terpander, Aleman, or Spendon the Lacedæmonian, +but they excused themselves, alleging that it was forbidden by their +masters. Those who say that a freeman in Sparta was most a freeman, and +a slave most a slave, seem well to have considered the difference of +states. But in my opinion, it was in after-times that these cruelties +took place among the Lacedæmonians, chiefly after the great earthquake, +when, as history informs us, the Helotes, joining the Messenians, +attacked them, did infinite damage to the country, and brought the city +to the greatest extremity. I can never ascribe to Lycurgus so +abominable an act as that of the ambuscade. I would judge in this case +by the mildness and justice which appeared in the rest of his conduct, +to which also the gods gave their sanction. + +When his principal institutions had taken root in the manners of the +people, and the government was come to such maturity as to be able to +support and preserve itself, then, as Plato says of the Deity, that he +rejoiced when he had created the world, and given it its first motion; +so Lycurgus was charmed with the beauty and greatness of his political +establishment, when he saw it exemplified in fact, and move on in due +order. He was next desirous to make it immortal, so far as human wisdom +could effect it, and to deliver it down unchanged to the latest times. +For this purpose he assembled all the people, and told them the +provisions he had already made for the state were indeed sufficient for +virtue and happiness, but the greatest and most important matter was +still behind, which he could not disclose to them till he had consulted +the oracle; that they must therefore inviolably observe his laws, +without altering anything in them, till he returned from Delphi; and +then he would acquaint them with the pleasure of Apollo. When they had +all promised to do so, and desired him to set forward, he took an oath +of the kings and senators, and afterwards of all the citizens, that they +would abide by the present establishment till Lycurgus came back. He +then took his journey to Delphi. + +When he arrived there, he offered sacrifice to the gods, and consulted +the oracle, whether his laws were sufficient to promote virtue, and +secure the happiness of the state. Apollo answered, that the laws were +excellent, and that the city which kept to the constitution he had +established, would be the most glorious in the world. This oracle +Lycurgus took down in writing, and sent it to Sparta. He then offered +another sacrifice, and embraced his friends and his son, determined +never to release his citizens from their oath, but voluntarily there to +put a period to his life; while he was yet of an age when life was not a +burden, when death was not desirable, and while he was not unhappy in +any one circumstance. He, therefore, destroyed himself by abstaining +from food, persuaded that the very death of lawgivers should have its +use, and their exit, so far from being insignificant, have its share of +virtue, and be considered as a great action. To him, indeed, whose +performances were so illustrious, the conclusion of life was the crown +of happiness, and his death was left guardian of those invaluable +blessings he had procured his countrymen through life, as they had taken +an oath not to depart from his establishment till his return. Nor was he +deceived in his expectations. Sparta continued superior to the rest of +Greece, both in its government at home and reputation abroad, so long as +it retained the institution of Lycurgus: and this it did during the +space of five hundred years, and the reign of fourteen successive kings, +down to Agis the son of Archidamus. As for the appointment of the +Ephori, it was so far from weakening the constitution, that it gave it +additional vigour, and though it seemed to be established in favour of +the people, it strengthened the aristocracy. + +But in the reign of Agis money found its way into Sparta, and with money +came its inseparable attendant--avarice. This was by means of Lysander; +who, though himself incapable of being corrupted by money, filled his +country with the love of it, and with luxury too. He brought both gold +and silver from the wars, and thereby broke through the laws of +Lycurgus. While these were in force, Sparta was not so much under the +political regulations of a commonwealth, as the strict rules of a +philosophic life; and as the poets feign of Hercules, that only with a +club and lion's skin he travelled over the world, clearing it of lawless +ruffians and cruel tyrants; so the Lacedæmonians with a piece of +parchment and coarse coat kept Greece in a voluntary obedience, +destroyed usurpation and tyranny in the states, put an end to wars, and +laid seditions asleep, very often without either shield or lance, and +only by sending one ambassador; to whose directions all parties +concerned immediately submitted. Thus bees, when their prince appears, +compose their quarrels and unite in one swarm. So much did justice and +good government prevail in that state, that I am surprised at those who +say the Lacedæmonians knew indeed how to obey, but not how to govern: +and on this occasion quote the saying of king Theopompus, who, when one +told him that Sparta was preserved by the good administration of its +kings, replied, "Nay, rather by the obedience of their subjects." It is +certain that people will not continue pliant to those who know not how +to command; but it is the part of a good governor to teach obedience. He +who knows how to lead well, is sure to be well followed: and as it is by +the art of horsemanship that a horse is made gentle and tractable, so it +is by the abilities of him that fills the throne that the people become +ductile and submissive. Such was the conduct of the Lacedæmonians, that +people did not only endure, but even desired to be their subjects. They +asked not of them either ships, money or troops, but only a Spartan +general. When they had received him, they treated him with the greatest +honour and respect; so Gylippus was revered by the Sicilians, Brasidas +by the Chalcidians, Lysander, Callicratidas, and Agesilaus by all the +people of Asia. These, and such as these, wherever they came, were +called moderators and reformers, both of the magistrates and people, and +Sparta itself was considered as a school of discipline, where the beauty +of life and political order were taught in the utmost perfection. Hence +Stratonicus seems facetiously enough to have said, that he would order +"the Athenians to have the conduct of mysteries and processions; the +Eleans to preside in games, as their particular province; and the +Lacedæmonians to be beaten, if the other did amiss." This was spoken in +jest: but Antisthenes, one of the scholars of Socrates, said (more +seriously) of the Thebans, when he saw them pluming themselves upon +their success at Leuctra, "They were just like so many school-boys +rejoicing that they had beaten their master." + +It was not, however, the principal design of Lycurgus that his city +should govern many others, but he considered its happiness like that of +a private man, as flowing from virtue and self-consistency: he therefore +so ordered and disposed it, that by the freedom and sobriety of its +inhabitants, and their having a sufficiency within themselves, its +continuance might be the more secure. Plato, Diogenes, Zeno, and other +writers upon government, have taken Lycurgus for their model: and these +have attained great praise, though they left only an idea of something +excellent. Yet he who, not in idea and in words, but in fact produced a +most inimitable form of government, and by showing a whole city of +philosophers, confounded those who imagine that the so much talked of +strictness of a philosophic life is impracticable; he, I say, stands in +the rank of glory far beyond the founders of all the other Grecian +states. Therefore Aristotle is of opinion, that the honours paid him in +Lacedæmon were far beneath his merit. Yet those honours were very great; +for he has a temple there, and they offer him a yearly sacrifice, as a +god. It is also said, that when his remains were brought home, his tomb +was struck with lightning: a seal of divinity which no other man, +however eminent, has had, except Euripides, who died and was buried at +Arethusa in Macedonia. This was matter of great satisfaction and triumph +to the friends of Euripides, that the same thing should befall him after +death, which had formerly happened to the most venerable of men, and the +most favoured of heaven. Some say, Lycurgus died at Cirrha; but +Apollothemis will have it, that he was brought to Elis and died there; +and Timæus and Aristoxenus write, that he ended his days in Crete; nay, +Aristoxenus adds, that the Cretans show his tomb at Pergamia, near the +high road. We are told, he left an only son named Antiorus: and as he +died without issue, the family was extinct. His friends and relations +observed his anniversary, which subsisted for many ages, and the days on +which they met for that purpose they called Lycurgidæ. Aristocrates, the +son of Hipparchus, relates, that the friends of Lycurgus, with whom he +sojourned, and at last died in Crete, burned his body, and, at his +request, threw his ashes into the sea. Thus he guarded against the +possibility of his remains being brought back to Sparta by the +Lacedæmonians, lest they should then think themselves released from +their oath, on the pretence that he was returned, and make innovations +in the government. This is what we had to say of Lycurgus. + + + + +SIR THOMAS MORE'S + +UTOPIA. + + + + +UTOPIA. + + + + +BOOK I. + + +Henry the Eighth, the unconquered King of England, a prince adorned with +all the virtues that become a great monarch, having some differences of +no small consequence with Charles the most serene prince of Castile, +sent me into Flanders, as his ambassador, for treating and composing +matters between them. I was colleague and companion to that incomparable +man Cuthbert Tonstal, whom the king with such universal applause lately +made Master of the Rolls; but of whom I will say nothing; not because I +fear that the testimony of a friend will be suspected, but rather +because his learning and virtues are too great for me to do them +justice, and so well known, that they need not my commendations unless I +would, according to the proverb, "Show the sun with a lanthorn." Those +that were appointed by the prince to treat with us met us at Bruges, +according to agreement; they were all worthy men. The Margrave of Bruges +was their head, and the chief man among them; but he that was esteemed +the wisest, and that spoke for the rest, was George Temse, the Provost +of Casselsee; both art and nature had concurred to make him eloquent: he +was very learned in the law; and as he had a great capacity, so by a +long practice in affairs he was very dextrous at unravelling them. +After we had several times met without coming to an agreement, they went +to Brussels for some days to know the prince's pleasure. And since our +business would admit it, I went to Antwerp. While I was there, among +many that visited me, there was one that was more acceptable to me than +any other, Peter Giles, born at Antwerp, who is a man of great honour, +and of a good rank in his town, though less than he deserves; for I do +not know if there be anywhere to be found a more learned and a better +bred young man: for as he is both a very worthy and a very knowing +person, so he is so civil to all men, so particularly kind to his +friends, and so full of candour and affection, that there is not perhaps +above one or two anywhere to be found that is in all respects so perfect +a friend. He is extraordinarily modest, there is no artifice in him; and +yet no man has more of a prudent simplicity: his conversation was so +pleasant and so innocently cheerful, that his company in a great measure +lessened any longings to go back to my country, and to my wife and +children, which an absence of four months had quickened very much. One +day as I was returning home from Mass at St. Mary's, which is the chief +church, and the most frequented of any in Antwerp, I saw him by accident +talking with a stranger, who seemed past the flower of his age; his face +was tanned, he had a long beard, and his cloak was hanging carelessly +about him, so that by his looks and habit I concluded he was a seaman. +As soon as Peter saw me, he came and saluted me; and as I was returning +his civility, he took me aside, and pointing to him with whom he had +been discoursing, he said, "Do you see that man? I was just thinking to +bring him to you." I answered, "He should have been very welcome on your +account." "And on his own too," replied he, "if you knew the man, for +there is none alive that can give so copious an account of unknown +nations and countries as he can do; which I know you very much desire." +Then said I, "I did not guess amiss, for at first sight I took him for +a seaman." "But you are much mistaken," said he, "for he has not sailed +as a seaman, but as a traveller, or rather a philosopher. This Raphael, +who from his family carries the name of Hythloday, is not ignorant of +the Latin tongue, but is eminently learned in the Greek, having applied +himself more particularly to that than to the former, because he had +given himself much to philosophy, in which he knew that the Romans have +left us nothing that is valuable, except what is to be found in Seneca +and Cicero. He is a Portuguese by birth, and was so desirous of seeing +the world, that he divided his estate among his brothers, run the same +hazard as Americus Vesputius, and bore a share in three of his four +voyages, that are now published; only he did not return with him in his +last, but obtained leave of him almost by force, that he might be one of +those twenty-four who were left at the farthest place at which they +touched, in their last voyage to New Castile. The leaving him thus did +not a little gratify one that was more fond of travelling than of +returning home, to be buried in his own country; for he used often to +say, that the way to heaven was the same from all places; and he that +had no grave, had the heaven still over him. Yet this disposition of +mind had cost him dear, if God had not been very gracious to him; for +after he, with five Castilians, had travelled over many countries, at +last, by strange good fortune, he got to Ceylon, and from thence to +Calicut, where he very happily found some Portuguese ships; and, beyond +all men's expectations, returned to his native country." When Peter had +said this to me, I thanked him for his kindness, in intending to give me +the acquaintance of a man whose conversation he knew would be so +acceptable; and upon that Raphael and I embraced each other. After those +civilities were past which are usual with strangers upon their first +meeting, we all went to my house, and entering into the garden, sat down +on a green bank, and entertained one another in discourse. He told us, +that when Vesputius had sailed away, he and his companions that stayed +behind in New Castile, by degrees insinuated themselves into the +affections of the people of the country, meeting often with them, and +treating them gently: and at last they not only lived among them without +danger, but conversed familiarly with them; and got so far into the +heart of a prince, whose name and country I have forgot, that he both +furnished them plentifully with all things necessary, and also with the +conveniences of travelling; both boats when they went by water, and +waggons when they travelled over land: he sent with them a very faithful +guide, who was to introduce and recommend them to such other princes as +they had a mind to see: and after many days' journey, they came to +towns, and cities, and to commonwealths, that were both happily governed +and well peopled. Under the equator, and as far on both sides of it as +the sun moves, there lay vast deserts that were parched with the +perpetual heat of the sun; the soil was withered, all things looked +dismally, and all places were either quite uninhabited, or abounded with +wild beasts and serpents, and some few men, that were neither less wild +nor less cruel than the beasts themselves. But as they went farther, a +new scene opened, all things grew milder, the air less burning, the soil +more verdant, and even the beasts were less wild: and at last there were +nations, towns, and cities, that had not only mutual commerce among +themselves, and with their neighbours, but traded both by sea and land, +to very remote countries. There they found the conveniences of seeing +many countries on all hands, for no ship went any voyage into which he +and his companions were not very welcome. The first vessels that they +saw were flat-bottomed, their sails were made of reeds and wicker woven +close together, only some were of leather; but afterwards they found +ships made with round keels, and canvas sails, and in all respects like +our ships; and the seamen understood both astronomy and navigation. He +got wonderfully into their favour, by showing them the use of the +needle, of which till then they were utterly ignorant. They sailed +before with great caution, and only in summer-time, but now they count +all seasons alike, trusting wholly to the loadstone, in which they are +perhaps more secure than safe; so that there is reason to fear that this +discovery, which was thought would prove so much to their advantage, may +by their imprudence become an occasion of much mischief to them. But it +were too long to dwell on all that he told us he had observed in every +place; it would be too great a digression from our present purpose: +whatever is necessary to be told, concerning those wise and prudent +institutions which he observed among civilized nations, may perhaps be +related by us on a more proper occasion. We asked him many questions +concerning all these things, to which he answered very willingly; only +we made no inquiries after monsters, than which nothing is more common; +for everywhere one may hear of ravenous dogs and wolves, and cruel +men-eaters; but it is not so easy to find states that are well and +wisely governed. + +As he told us of many things that were amiss in those new-discovered +countries, so he reckoned up not a few things from which patterns might +be taken for correcting the errors of these nations among whom we live; +of which an account may be given, as I have already promised, at some +other time; for at present I intend only to relate those particulars +that he told us of the manners and laws of the Utopians: but I will +begin with the occasion that led us to speak of that commonwealth. After +Raphael had discoursed with great judgment on the many errors that were +both among us and these nations; had treated of the wise institutions +both here and there, and had spoken as distinctly of the customs and +government of every nation through which he had passed, as if he had +spent his whole life in it; Peter being struck with admiration, said, "I +wonder, Raphael, how it comes that you enter into no king's service, for +I am sure there are none to whom you would not be very acceptable: for +your learning and knowledge, both of men and things, is such, that you +would not only entertain them very pleasantly, but be of great use to +them, by the examples you could set before them, and the advices you +could give them; and by this means you would both serve your own +interest, and be of great use to all your friends."--"As for my +friends," answered he, "I need not be much concerned, having already +done for them all that was incumbent on me; for when I was not only in +good health, but fresh and young, I distributed that among my kindred +and friends which other people do not part with till they are old and +sick; when they then unwillingly give that which they can enjoy no +longer themselves. I think my friends ought to rest contented with this, +and not to expect that for their sakes I should enslave myself to any +king whatsoever."--"Soft and fair," said Peter, "I do not mean that you +should be a slave to any king, but only that you should assist them, and +be useful to them."--"The change of the word," said he, "does not alter +the matter."--"But term it as you will," replied Peter, "I do not see +any other way in which you can be so useful, both in private to your +friends, and to the public, and by which you can make your own condition +happier."--"Happier!" answered Raphael, "is that to be compassed in a +way so abhorrent to my genius? Now I live as I will, to which I believe +few courtiers can pretend. And there are so many that court the favour +of great men, that there will be no great loss if they are not troubled +either with me or with others of my temper." Upon this, said I, "I +perceive, Raphael, that you neither desire wealth nor greatness; and +indeed I value and admire such a man much more than I do any of the +great men in the world. Yet I think you would do what would well become +so generous and philosophical a soul as yours is, if you would apply +your time and thoughts to public affairs, even though you may happen to +find it a little uneasy to yourself: and this you can never do with so +much advantage, as by being taken into the counsel of some great prince, +and putting him on noble and worthy actions, which I know you would do +if you were in such a post; for the springs both of good and evil flow +from the prince, over a whole nation, as from a lasting fountain. So +much learning as you have, even without practice in affairs, or so great +a practice as you have had, without any other learning, would render you +a very fit counsellor to any king whatsoever."--"You are doubly +mistaken," said he, "Mr. More, both in your opinion of me, and in the +judgment you make of things: for as I have not that capacity that you +fancy I have; so, if I had it, the public would not be one jot the +better, when I had sacrificed my quiet to it. For most princes apply +themselves more to affairs of war than to the useful arts of peace; and +in these I neither have any knowledge, nor do I much desire it: they are +generally more set on acquiring new kingdoms, right or wrong, than on +governing well those they possess. And among the ministers of princes, +there are none that are not so wise as to need no assistance, or at +least that do not think themselves so wise, that they imagine they need +none; and if they court any, it is only those for whom the prince has +much personal favour, whom by their fawnings and flatteries they +endeavour to fix to their own interests: and indeed Nature has so made +us, that we all love to be flattered, and to please ourselves with our +own notions. The old crow loves his young, and the ape her cubs. Now if +in such a Court, made up of persons who envy all others, and only admire +themselves, a person should but propose anything that he had either read +in history, or observed in his travels, the rest would think that the +reputation of their wisdom would sink, and that their interest would be +much depressed, if they could not run it down: and if all other things +failed, then they would fly to this, that such or such things pleased +our ancestors, and it were well for us if we could but match them. They +would set up their rest on such an answer, as a sufficient confutation +of all that could be said; as if it were a great misfortune, that any +should be found wiser than his ancestors; but though they willingly let +go all the good things that were among those of former ages, yet if +better things are proposed they cover themselves obstinately with this +excuse of reverence to past times. I have met with these proud, morose, +and absurd judgments of things in many places, particularly once in +England."--"Was you ever there?" said I.--"Yes, I was," answered he, +"and stayed some months there, not long after the rebellion in the west +was suppressed with a great slaughter of the poor people that were +engaged in it. + +"I was then much obliged to that reverend prelate, John Morton, +Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal, and Chancellor of England: a man," +said he, "Peter (for Mr. More knows well what he was), that was not less +venerable for his wisdom and virtues, than for the high character he +bore. He was of a middle stature, not broken with age; his looks begot +reverence rather than fear; his conversation was easy, but serious and +grave; he sometimes took pleasure to try the force of those that came as +suitors to him upon business, by speaking sharply, though decently to +them, and by that he discovered their spirit and presence of mind, with +which he was much delighted, when it did not grow up to impudence, as +bearing a great resemblance to his own temper; and he looked on such +persons as the fittest men for affairs. He spoke both gracefully and +weightily; he was eminently skilled in the law, had a vast +understanding, and a prodigious memory; and those excellent talents with +which Nature had furnished him, were improved by study and experience. +When I was in England the king depended much on his counsels, and the +government seemed to be chiefly supported by him; for from his youth he +had been all along practised in affairs; and having passed through many +traverses of fortune, he had with great cost acquired a vast stock of +wisdom, which is not soon lost when it is purchased so dear. One day +when I was dining with him there happened to be at table one of the +English lawyers, who took occasion to run out in a high commendation of +the severe execution of justice upon thieves, who, as he said, were then +hanged so fast, that there were sometimes twenty on one gibbet; and upon +that he said he could not wonder enough how it came to pass, that since +so few escaped, there were yet so many thieves left who were still +robbing in all places. Upon this, I who took the boldness to speak +freely before the Cardinal, said, there was no reason to wonder at the +matter, since this way of punishing thieves was neither just in itself +nor good for the public; for as the severity was too great, so the +remedy was not effectual; simple theft not being so great a crime that +it ought to cost a man his life, no punishment how severe soever being +able to restrain those from robbing who can find out no other way of +livelihood. 'In this,' said I, 'not only you in England, but a great +part of the world imitate some ill masters that are readier to chastise +their scholars than to teach them. There are dreadful punishments +enacted against thieves, but it were much better to make such good +provisions by which every man might be put in a method how to live, and +so be preserved from the fatal necessity of stealing and of dying for +it.'--'There has been care enough taken for that,' said he, 'there are +many handicrafts, and there is husbandry, by which they may make a shift +to live unless they have a greater mind to follow ill courses.'--'That +will not serve your turn,' said I, 'for many lose their limbs in civil +or foreign wars, as lately in the Cornish rebellion, and some time ago +in your wars with France, who being thus mutilated in the service of +their king and country, can no more follow their old trades, and are +too old to learn new ones: but since wars are only accidental things, +and have intervals, let us consider those things that fall out every +day. There is a great number of noblemen among you, that are themselves +as idle as drones, that subsist on other men's labour, on the labour of +their tenants, whom, to raise their revenues, they pare to the quick. +This indeed is the only instance of their frugality, for in all other +things they are prodigal, even to the beggaring of themselves: but +besides this, they carry about with them a great number of idle fellows, +who never learned any art by which they may gain their living; and +these, as soon as either their lord dies, or they themselves fall sick, +are turned out of doors; for your lords are readier to feed idle people, +than to take care of the sick; and often the heir is not able to keep +together so great a family as his predecessor did. Now when the stomachs +of those that are thus turned out of doors, grow keen, they rob no less +keenly; and what else can they do? for when, by wandering about, they +have worn out both their health and their clothes, and are tattered, and +look ghastly, men of quality will not entertain them, and poor men dare +not do it; knowing that one who has been bred up in idleness and +pleasure, and who was used to walk about with his sword and buckler, +despising all the neighbourhood with an insolent scorn, as far below +him, is not fit for the spade and mattock: nor will he serve a poor man +for so small a hire, and in so low a diet as he can afford to give him.' +To this he answered, 'This sort of men ought to be particularly +cherished, for in them consists the force of the armies for which we +have occasion; since their birth inspires them with a nobler sense of +honour, than is to be found among tradesmen or ploughmen.'--'You may as +well say,' replied I, 'that you must cherish thieves on the account of +wars, for you will never want the one, as long as you have the other; +and as robbers prove sometimes gallant soldiers, so soldiers often prove +brave robbers; so near an alliance there is between those two sorts of +life. But this bad custom, so common among you, of keeping many +servants, is not peculiar to this nation. In France there is yet a more +pestiferous sort of people, for the whole country is full of soldiers, +still kept up in time of peace; if such a state of a nation can be +called a peace: and these are kept in pay upon the same account that you +plead for those idle retainers about noblemen; this being a maxim of +those pretended statesmen that it is necessary for the public safety, to +have a good body of veteran soldiers ever in readiness. They think raw +men are not to be depended on, and they sometimes seek occasions for +making war, that they may train up their soldiers in the art of cutting +throats; or as Sallust observed, for keeping their hands in use, that +they may not grow dull by too long an intermission. But France has +learned to its cost, how dangerous it is to feed such beasts. The fate +of the Romans, Carthaginians, and Syrians, and many other nations and +cities, which were both overturned and quite ruined by those standing +armies, should make others wiser: and the folly of this maxim of the +French, appears plainly even from this, that their trained soldiers +often find your raw men prove too hard for them; of which I will not say +much, lest you may think I flatter the English. Every day's experience +shows, that the mechanics in the towns, or the clowns in the country, +are not afraid of fighting with those idle gentlemen, if they are not +disabled by some misfortune in their body, or dispirited by extreme +want, so that you need not fear that those well-shaped and strong men +(for it is only such that noblemen love to keep about them, till they +spoil them) who now grow feeble with ease, and are softened with their +effeminate manner of life, would be less fit for action if they were +well bred and well employed. And it seems very unreasonable, that for +the prospect of a war, which you need never have but when you please, +you should maintain so many idle men, as will always disturb you in +time of peace, which is ever to be more considered than war. But I do +not think that this necessity of stealing arises only from hence; there +is another cause of it more peculiar to England.'--'What is that?' said +the Cardinal.--'The increase of pasture,' said I, 'by which your sheep, +which are naturally mild, and easily kept in order, may be said now to +devour men, and unpeople, not only villages, but towns; for wherever it +is found that the sheep of any soil yield a softer and richer wool than +ordinary, there the nobility and gentry, and even those holy men the +abbots, not contented with the old rents which their farms yielded, nor +thinking it enough that they, living at their ease, do no good to the +public, resolve to do it hurt instead of good. They stop the course of +agriculture, destroying houses and towns, reserving only the churches, +and enclose grounds that they may lodge their sheep in them. As if +forests and parks had swallowed up too little of the land, those worthy +countrymen turn the best inhabited places in solitudes; for when an +insatiable wretch, who is a plague to his country, resolves to inclose +many thousand acres of ground, the owners, as well as tenants, are +turned out of their possessions, by tricks, or by main force, or being +wearied out with ill usage, they are forced to sell them. By which means +those miserable people, both men and women, married and unmarried, old +and young, with their poor but numerous families (since country business +requires many hands), are all forced to change their seats, not knowing +whither to go; and they must sell almost for nothing their household +stuff, which could not bring them much money, even though they might +stay for a buyer. When that little money is at an end, for it will be +soon spent; what is left for them to do, but either to steal and so to +be hanged (God knows how justly), or to go about and beg? And if they do +this, they are put in prison as idle vagabonds; while they would +willingly work, but can find none that will hire them; for there is no +more occasion for country labour, to which they have been bred, when +there is no arable ground left. One shepherd can look after a flock, +which will stock an extent of ground that would require many hands, if +it were to be ploughed and reaped. This likewise in many places raises +the price of corn. The price of wool is also so risen, that the poor +people who were wont to make cloth are no more able to buy it; and this +likewise makes many of them idle. For since the increase of pasture, God +has punished the avarice of the owners, by a rot among the sheep, which +has destroyed vast numbers of them; to us it might have seemed more just +had it fell on the owners themselves. But suppose the sheep should +increase ever so much, their price is not like to fall; since though +they cannot be called a monopoly, because they are not engrossed by one +person, yet they are in so few hands, and these are so rich, that as +they are not pressed to sell them sooner than they have a mind to it, so +they never do it till they have raised the price as high as possible. +And on the same account it is, that the other kinds of cattle are so +dear, because many villages being pulled down, and all country labour +being much neglected, there are none who make it their business to breed +them. The rich do not breed cattle as they do sheep, but buy them lean, +and at low prices; and after they have fattened them on their grounds, +sell them again at high rates. And I do not think that all the +inconveniences this will produce are yet observed; for as they sell the +cattle dear, so if they are consumed faster than the breeding countries +from which they are brought can afford them, then the stock must +decrease, and this must needs end in great scarcity; and by these means +this your island, which seemed as to this particular the happiest in the +world, will suffer much by the cursed avarice of a few persons; besides +this, the rising of corn makes all people lessen their families as much +as they can; and what can those who are dismissed by them do, but +either beg or rob? And to this last, a man of a great mind is much +sooner drawn than to the former. Luxury likewise breaks in apace upon +you, to set forward your poverty and misery; there is an excessive +vanity in apparel, and great cost in diet; and that not only in +noblemen's families, but even among tradesmen, among the farmers +themselves, and among all ranks of persons. You have also many infamous +houses, and besides those that are known, the taverns and alehouses are +no better; add to these, dice, cards, tables, foot-ball, tennis, and +quoits, in which money runs fast away; and those that are initiated into +them, must in the conclusion betake themselves to robbing for a supply. +Banish these plagues, and give orders that those who have dispeopled so +much soil, may either rebuild the villages they have pulled down, or let +out their grounds to such as will do it: restrain those engrossings of +the rich, that are as bad almost as monopolies; leave fewer occasions to +idleness; let agriculture be set up again, and the manufacture of the +wool be regulated, that so there may be work found for those companies +of idle people whom want forces to be thieves, or who now being idle +vagabonds, or useless servants, will certainly grow thieves at last. If +you do not find a remedy to these evils, it is a vain thing to boast of +your severity in punishing theft, which though it may have the +appearance of justice, yet in itself is neither just nor convenient. For +if you suffer your people to be ill educated, and their manners to be +corrupted from their infancy, and then punish them for those crimes to +which their first education disposed them, what else is to be concluded +from this, but that you first make thieves and then punish them?' + +"While I was talking thus, the counsellor who was present had prepared +an answer, and had resolved to resume all I had said, according to the +formality of a debate, in which things are generally repeated more +faithfully than they are answered; as if the chief trial to be made +were of men's memories. 'You have talked prettily for a stranger,' said +he, 'having heard of many things among us which you have not been able +to consider well; but I will make the whole matter plain to you, and +will first repeat in order all that you have said, then I will show how +much your ignorance of our affairs has misled you, and will in the last +place answer all your arguments. And that I may begin where I promised, +there were four things----' 'Hold your peace,' said the Cardinal, 'this +will take up too much time; therefore we will at present ease you of the +trouble of answering, and reserve it to our next meeting, which shall be +to-morrow, if Raphael's affairs and yours can admit of it. But, +Raphael,' said he to me, 'I would gladly know upon what reason it is +that you think theft ought not to be punished by death? Would you give +way to it? Or do you propose any other punishment that will be more +useful to the public? For since death does not restrain theft, if men +thought their lives would be safe, what fear or force could restrain ill +men? On the contrary, they would look on the mitigation of the +punishment as an invitation to commit more crimes.' I answered, 'It +seems to me a very unjust thing to take away a man's life for a little +money; for nothing in the world can be of equal value with a man's life: +and if it is said, that it is not for the money that one suffers, but +for his breaking the law, I must say, extreme justice is an extreme +injury; for we ought not to approve of these terrible laws that make the +smallest offences capital, nor of that opinion of the Stoics, that makes +all crimes equal, as if there were no difference to be made between the +killing a man and the taking his purse, between which, if we examine +things impartially, there is no likeness nor proportion. God has +commanded us not to kill, and shall we kill so easily for a little +money? But if one shall say, that by that law we are only forbid to kill +any, except when the laws of the land allow of it; upon the same +grounds, laws may be made in some cases to allow of adultery and +perjury: for God having taken from us the right of disposing, either of +our own or of other people's lives, if it is pretended that the mutual +consent of man in making laws can authorize man-slaughter in cases in +which God has given us no example, that it frees people from the +obligation of the divine law, and so makes murder a lawful action; what +is this, but to give a preference to human laws before the divine? And +if this is once admitted, by the same rule men may in all other things +put what restrictions they please upon the laws of God. If by the +Mosaical law, though it was rough and severe, as being a yoke laid on an +obstinate and servile nation, men were only fined, and not put to death +for theft, we cannot imagine that in this new law of mercy, in which God +treats us with the tenderness of a father, He has given us a greater +license to cruelty than He did to the Jews. Upon these reasons it is, +that I think putting thieves to death is not lawful; and it is plain and +obvious that it is absurd, and of ill consequence to the commonwealth, +that a thief and a murderer should be equally punished; for if a robber +sees that his danger is the same, if he is convicted of theft as if he +were guilty of murder, this will naturally incite him to kill the person +whom otherwise he would only have robbed, since if the punishment is the +same, there is more security, and less danger of discovery, when he that +can best make it is put out of the way; so that terrifying thieves too +much, provokes them to cruelty. + +"'But as to the question, what more convenient way of punishment can be +found? I think it is much more easier to find out that, than to invent +anything that is worse; why should we doubt but the way that was so long +in use among the old Romans, who understood so well the arts of +government, was very proper for their punishment? They condemned such as +they found guilty of great crimes, to work their whole lives in +quarries, or to dig in mines with chains about them. But the method that +I liked best, was that which I observed in my travels in Persia, among +the Polylerits, who are a considerable and well-governed people. They +pay a yearly tribute to the King of Persia; but in all other respects +they are a free nation, and governed by their own laws. They lie far +from the sea, and are environed with hills; and being contented with the +productions of their own country, which is very fruitful, they have +little commerce with any other nation; and as they, according to the +genius of their country, have no inclination to enlarge their borders; +so their mountains, and the pension they pay to the Persian, secure them +from all invasions. Thus they have no wars among them: they live rather +conveniently than with splendour, and may be rather called a happy +nation, than either eminent or famous; for I do not think that they are +known so much as by name to any but their next neighbours. Those that +are found guilty of theft among them, are bound to make restitution to +the owner, and not as it is in other places, to the prince, for they +reckon that the prince has no more right to the stolen goods than the +thief; but if that which was stolen is no more in being, then the goods +of the thieves are estimated, and restitution being made out of them, +the remainder is given to their wives and children: and they themselves +are condemned to serve in the public works, but are neither imprisoned, +nor chained, unless there happened to be some extraordinary +circumstances in their crimes. They go about loose and free, working for +the public. If they are idle or backward to work, they are whipped; but +if they work hard, they are well used and treated without any mark of +reproach, only the lists of them are called always at night, and then +they are shut up. They suffer no other uneasiness, but this of constant +labour; for as they work for the public, so they are well entertained +out of the public stock, which is done differently in different places. +In some places, whatever is bestowed on them, is raised by a charitable +contribution; and though this way may seem uncertain, yet so merciful +are the inclinations of that people, that they are plentifully supplied +by it; but in other places, public revenues are set aside for them; or +there is a constant tax of a poll-money raised for their maintenance. In +some places they are set to no public work, but every private man that +has occasion to hire workmen, goes to the market-places and hires them +of the public, a little lower than he would do a freeman: if they go +lazily about their task, he may quicken them with the whip. By this +means there is always some piece of work or other to be done by them; +and beside their livelihood, they earn somewhat still to the public. +They all wear a peculiar habit, of one certain colour, and their hair is +cropped a little above their ears, and a piece of one of their ears is +cut off. Their friends are allowed to give them either meat, drink, or +clothes, so they are of their proper colour; but it is death, both to +the giver and taker, if they give them money; nor is it less penal for +any freeman to take money from them, upon any account whatsoever: and it +is also death for any of these slaves (so they are called) to handle +arms. Those of every division of the country are distinguished by a +peculiar mark; which it is capital for them to lay aside, to go out of +their bounds, or to talk with a slave of another jurisdiction; and the +very attempt of an escape is no less penal than an escape itself; it is +death for any other slave to be accessory to it; and if a freeman +engages in it he is condemned to slavery. Those that discover it are +rewarded; if freemen, in money; and if slaves, with liberty, together +with a pardon for being accessory to it; that so they might find their +account, rather in repenting of their engaging in such a design, than in +persisting in it. + +"These are their laws and rules in relation to robbery; and it is +obvious that they are as advantageous as they are mild and gentle; +since vice is not only destroyed, and men preserved, but they treated in +such a manner as to make them see the necessity of being honest, and of +employing the rest of their lives in repairing the injuries they have +formerly done to society. Nor is there any hazard of their falling back +to their old customs: and so little do travellers apprehend mischief +from them, that they generally make use of them for guides, from one +jurisdiction to another; for there is nothing left them by which they +can rob, or be the better for it, since as they are disarmed, so the +very having of money is a sufficient conviction: and as they are +certainly punished if discovered, so they cannot hope to escape; for +their habit being in all the parts of it different from what is commonly +worn, they cannot fly away, unless they would go naked, and even then +their cropped ear would betray them. The only danger to be feared from +them, is their conspiring against the government: but those of one +division and neighbourhood can do nothing to any purpose, unless a +general conspiracy were laid amongst all the slaves of the several +jurisdictions, which cannot be done, since they cannot meet or talk +together; nor will any venture on a design where the concealment would +be so dangerous, and the discovery so profitable. None are quite +hopeless of recovering their freedom, since by their obedience and +patience, and by giving good grounds to believe that they will change +their manner of life for the future, they may expect at last to obtain +their liberty: and some are every year restored to it, upon the good +character that is given of them.--When I had related all this, I added, +that I did not see why such a method might not be followed with more +advantage, than could ever be expected from that severe justice which +the counsellor magnified so much. To this he answered, that it could +never take place in England, without endangering the whole nation. As he +said this, he shook his head, made some grimaces, and held his peace, +while all the company seemed of his opinion, except the Cardinal, who +said that it was not easy to form a judgment of its success, since it +was a method that never yet had been tried. 'But if,' said he, 'when the +sentence of death was passed upon a thief, the prince would reprieve him +for a while, and make the experiment upon him, denying him the privilege +of a sanctuary; and then if it had a good effect upon him, it might take +place; and if it did not succeed, the worst would be, to execute the +sentence on the condemned persons at last. And I do not see,' added he, +'why it would be either unjust, inconvenient, or at all dangerous, to +admit of such a delay: in my opinion, the vagabonds ought to be treated +in the same manner; against whom, though we have made many laws, yet we +have not been able to gain our end.' When the Cardinal had done, they +all commended the motion, though they had despised it when it came from +me; but more particularly commended what related to the vagabonds, +because it was his own observation. + +"I do not know whether it be worth while to tell what followed, for it +was very ridiculous; but I shall venture at it, for as it is not foreign +to this matter, so some good use may be made of it. There was a jester +standing by, that counterfeited the fool so naturally, that he seemed to +be really one. The jests which he offered were so cold and dull, that we +laughed more at him than at them; yet sometimes he said, as it were by +chance, things that were not unpleasant; so as to justify the old +proverb, 'That he who throws the dice often, will sometimes have a lucky +hit.' When one of the company had said, that I had taken care of the +thieves, and the Cardinal had taken care of the vagabonds, so that there +remained nothing but that some public provision might be made for the +poor, whom sickness or old age had disabled from labour. 'Leave that to +me,' said the fool, 'and I shall take care of them; for there is no +sort of people whose sight I abhor more, having been so often vexed +with them, and with their sad complaints; but as dolefully soever as +they have told their tale, they could never prevail so far as to draw +one penny from me: for either I had no mind to give them anything, or +when I had a mind to do it, I had nothing to give them: and they now +know me so well, that they will not lose their labour, but let me pass +without giving me any trouble, because they hope for nothing, no more in +faith than if I were a priest: but I would have a law made, for sending +all these beggars to monasteries, the men to the Benedictines to be made +lay-brothers, and the women to be nuns.' The Cardinal smiled, and +approved of it in jest; but the rest liked it in earnest. There was a +divine present, who though he was a grave morose man, yet he was so +pleased with this reflection that was made on the priests and the monks, +that he began to play with the fool, and said to him, 'This will not +deliver you from all beggars, except you take care of us friars.'--'That +is done already,' answered the fool, 'for the Cardinal has provided for +you, by what he proposed for restraining vagabonds, and setting them to +work, for I know no vagabonds like you.' This was well entertained by +the whole company, who looking at the Cardinal, perceived that he was +not ill pleased at it; only the friar himself was vexed, as may be +easily imagined, and fell into such a passion, that he could not forbear +railing at the fool, and calling him knave, slanderer, back-biter, and +son of perdition, and then cited some dreadful threatenings out of the +Scriptures against him. Now the jester thought he was in his element, +and laid about him freely. 'Good friar,' said he, 'be not angry, for it +is written, "In patience possess your soul."'--The friar answered (for I +shall give you his own words), 'I am not angry, you hangman; at least I +do not sin in it, for the Psalmist says, "Be ye angry, and sin +not."'--Upon this the Cardinal admonished him gently, and wished him to +govern his passions. 'No, my lord,' said he, 'I speak not but from a +good zeal, which I ought to have; for holy men have had a good zeal, as +it is said, "The zeal of thy house hath eaten me up;" and we sing in our +church, that those who mocked Elisha as he went up to the house of God, +felt the effects of his zeal; which that mocker, that rogue, that +scoundrel, will perhaps feel.'--'You do this perhaps with a good +intention,' said the Cardinal; 'but in my opinion, it were wiser in you, +and perhaps better for you, not to engage in so ridiculous a contest +with a fool.'--'No, my lord,' answered he, 'that were not wisely done; +for Solomon, the wisest of men, said, "Answer a fool according to his +folly;" which I now do, and show him the ditch into which he will fall, +if he is not aware of it; for if the many mockers of Elisha, who was but +one bald man, felt the effect of his zeal, what will become of one +mocker of so many friars, among whom there are so many bald men? We have +likewise a Bull, by which all that jeer us are excommunicated.'--When +the Cardinal saw that there was no end of this matter, he made a sign to +the fool to withdraw, turned the discourse another way; and soon after +rose from the table, and dismissing us, went to hear causes. + +"Thus, Mr. More, I have run out into a tedious story, of the length of +which I had been ashamed, if, as you earnestly begged it of me, I had +not observed you to hearken to it, as if you had no mind to lose any +part of it. I might have contracted it, but I resolved to give it you at +large, that you might observe how those that despised what I had +proposed, no sooner perceived that the Cardinal did not dislike it, but +presently approved of it, fawned so on him, and flattered him to such a +degree, that they in good earnest applauded those things that he only +liked in jest. And from hence you may gather, how little courtiers would +value either me or my counsels." + +To this I answered, "You have done me a great kindness in this +relation; for as everything has been related by you, both wisely and +pleasantly, so you have made me imagine that I was in my own country, +and grown young again, by recalling that good Cardinal to my thoughts, +in whose family I was bred from my childhood: and though you are upon +other accounts very dear to me, yet you are the dearer, because you +honour his memory so much; but after all this I cannot change my +opinion; for I still think that if you could overcome that aversion +which you have to the Courts of Princes, you might, by the advice which +it is in your power to give, do a great deal of good to mankind; and +this is the chief design that every good man ought to propose to himself +in living: for your friend Plato thinks that nations will be happy, when +either philosophers become kings, or kings become philosophers; it is no +wonder if we are so far from that happiness, while philosophers will not +think it their duty to assist kings with their councils."--"They are not +so base-minded," said he, "but that they would willingly do it; many of +them have already done it by their books, if those that are in power +would but hearken to their good advice. But Plato judged right, that +except kings themselves became philosophers, they who from their +childhood are corrupted with false notions, would never fall in entirely +with the councils of philosophers, and this he himself found to be true +in the person of Dionysius. + +"Do not you think, that if I were about any king, proposing good laws to +him, and endeavouring to root out all the cursed seeds of evil that I +found in him, I should either be turned out of his Court, or at least be +laughed at for my pains? For instance, what could it signify if I were +about the King of France, and were called into his cabinet-council, +where several wise men, in his hearing, were proposing many expedients; +as by what arts and practices Milan may be kept; and Naples, that had so +oft slipped out of their hands, recovered; how the Venetians, and after +them the rest of Italy, may be subdued; and then how Flanders, Brabant, +and all Burgundy, and some other kingdoms which he has swallowed already +in his designs, may be added to his empire. One proposes a league with +the Venetians, to be kept as long as he finds his account in it, and +that he ought to communicate councils with them, and give them some +share of the spoil, till his success makes him need or fear them less, +and then it will be easily taken out of their hands. Another proposes +the hiring the Germans, and the securing the Switzers by pensions. +Another proposes the gaining the Emperor by money, which is omnipotent +with him. Another proposes a peace with the King of Arragon, and in +order to cement it, the yielding up the King of Navarre's pretensions. +Another thinks the Prince of Castile is to be wrought on, by the hope of +an alliance; and that some of his courtiers are to be gained to the +French faction by pensions. The hardest point of all is what to do with +England: a treaty of peace is to be set on foot, and if their alliance +is not to be depended on, yet it is to be made as firm as possible; and +they are to be called friends, but suspected as enemies: therefore the +Scots are to be kept in readiness, to be let loose upon England on every +occasion: and some banished nobleman is to be supported underhand (for +by the league it cannot be done avowedly) who has a pretension to the +crown, by which means that suspected prince may be kept in awe. Now when +things are in so great a fermentation, and so many gallant men are +joining councils, how to carry on the war, if so mean a man as I should +stand up, and wish them to change all their councils, to let Italy +alone, and stay at home, since the kingdom of France was indeed greater +than could be well governed by one man; that therefore he ought not to +think of adding others to it: and if after this, I should propose to +them the resolutions of the Achorians, a people that lie on the +south-east of Utopia, who long ago engaged in war, in order to add to +the dominions of their prince another kingdom, to which he had some +pretensions by an ancient alliance. This they conquered, but found that +the trouble of keeping it was equal to that by which it was gained; that +the conquered people were always either in rebellion or exposed to +foreign invasions, while they were obliged to be incessantly at war, +either for or against them, and consequently could never disband their +army; that in the meantime they were oppressed with taxes, their money +went out of the kingdom, their blood was spilt for the glory of their +king, without procuring the least advantage to the people, who received +not the smallest benefit from it even in time of peace; and that their +manners being corrupted by a long war, robbery and murders everywhere +abounded, and their laws fell into contempt; while their king, +distracted with the care of two kingdoms, was the less able to apply his +mind to the interests of either. When they saw this, and that there +would be no end to these evils, they by joint councils made an humble +address to their king, desiring him to choose which of the two kingdoms +he had the greatest mind to keep, since he could not hold both; for they +were too great a people to be governed by a divided king, since no man +would willingly have a groom that should be in common between him and +another. Upon which the good prince was forced to quit his new kingdom +to one of his friends (who was not long after dethroned), and to be +contented with his old one. To this I would add, that after all those +warlike attempts, the vast confusions, and the consumption both of +treasure and of people that must follow them; perhaps upon some +misfortune, they might be forced to throw up all at last; therefore it +seemed much more eligible that the king should improve his ancient +kingdom all he could, and make it flourish as much as possible; that he +should love his people, and be beloved of them; that he should live +among them, govern them gently, and let other kingdoms alone, since that +which had fallen to his share was big enough, if not too big for him. +Pray how do you think would such a speech as this be heard?"--"I +confess," said I, "I think not very well." + +"But what," said he, "if I should sort with another kind of ministers, +whose chief contrivances and consultations were, by what art the +prince's treasures might be increased. Where one proposes raising the +value of specie when the king's debts are large, and lowering it when +his revenues were to come in, that so he might both pay much with a +little, and in a little receive a great deal: another proposes a +pretence of a war, that money might be raised in order to carry it on, +and that a peace be concluded as soon as that was done; and this with +such appearances of religion as might work on the people, and make them +impute it to the piety of their prince, and to his tenderness for the +lives of his subjects. A third offers some old musty laws, that have +been antiquated by a long disuse; and which, as they had been forgotten +by all the subjects, so they had been also broken by them; and proposes +the levying the penalties of these laws, that as it would bring in a +vast treasure, so there might be a very good pretence for it, since it +would look like the executing a law, and the doing of justice. A fourth +proposes the prohibiting of many things under severe penalties, +especially such as were against the interest of the people, and then the +dispensing with these prohibitions upon great compositions, to those who +might find their advantage in breaking them. This would serve two ends, +both of them acceptable to many; for as those whose avarice led them to +transgress would be severely fined, so the selling licenses dear would +look as if a prince were tender of his people, and would not easily, or +at low rates, dispense with anything that might be against the public +good. Another proposes that the judges must be made sure, that they may +declare always in favour of the prerogative, that they must be often +sent for to Court, that the king may hear them argue those points in +which he is concerned; since how unjust soever any of his pretensions +may be, yet still some one or other of them, either out of contradiction +to others, or the pride of singularity, or to make their court, would +find out some pretence or other to give the king a fair colour to carry +the point: for if the judges but differ in opinion, the clearest thing +in the world is made by that means disputable, and truth being once +brought in question, the king may then take advantage to expound the law +for his own profit; while the judges that stand out will be brought +over, either out of fear or modesty; and they being thus gained, all of +them may be sent to the bench to give sentence boldly, as the king would +have it: for fair pretences will never be wanting when sentence is to be +given in the prince's favour. It will either be said that equity lies of +his side, or some words in the law will be found sounding that way, or +some forced sense will be put on them; and when all other things fail, +the king's undoubted prerogative will be pretended, as that which is +above all law; and to which a religious judge ought to have a special +regard. Thus all consent to that maxim of Crassus, that a prince cannot +have treasure enough, since he must maintain his armies out of it: that +a king, even though he would, can do nothing unjustly; that all property +is in him, not excepting the very persons of his subjects: and that no +man has any other property, but that which the king out of his goodness +thinks fit to leave him. And they think it is the prince's interest, +that there be as little of this left as may be, as if it were his +advantage that his people should have neither riches nor liberty; since +these things make them less easy and less willing to submit to a cruel +and unjust government; whereas necessity and poverty blunts them, makes +them patient, beats them down, and breaks that height of spirit, that +might otherwise dispose them to rebel. Now what if after all these +propositions were made, I should rise up and assert, that such councils +were both unbecoming a king, and mischievous to him: and that not only +his honour but his safety consisted more in his people's wealth, than in +his own; if I should show that they choose a king for their own sake, +and not for his; that by his care and endeavours they may be both easy +and safe; and that therefore a prince ought to take more care of his +people's happiness than of his own, as a shepherd is to take more care +of his flock than of himself. It is also certain, that they are much +mistaken that think the poverty of a nation is a means of the public +safety. Who quarrel more than beggars? Who does more earnestly long for +a change, than he that is uneasy in his present circumstances? And who +run to create confusions with so desperate a boldness, as those who have +nothing to lose, hope to gain by them? If a king should fall under such +contempt or envy, that he could not keep his subjects in their duty, but +by oppression and ill usage, and by rendering them poor and miserable, +it were certainly better for him to quit his kingdom, than to retain it +by such methods, as makes him while he keeps the name of authority, lose +the majesty due to it. Nor is it so becoming the dignity of a king to +reign over beggars, as over rich and happy subjects. And therefore +Fabricius, a man of a noble and exalted temper, said, he would rather +govern rich men, than be rich himself; since for one man to abound in +wealth and pleasure, when all about him are mourning and groaning, is to +be a gaoler and not a king. He is an unskilful physician, that cannot +cure one disease without casting his patient into another: so he that +can find no other way for correcting the errors of his people, but by +taking from them the conveniences of life, shows that he knows not what +it is to govern a free nation. He himself ought rather to shake off his +sloth, or to lay down his pride; for the contempt or hatred that his +people have for him, takes its rise from the vices in himself. Let him +live upon what belongs to him, without wronging others, and accommodate +his expense to his revenue. Let him punish crimes, and by his wise +conduct let him endeavour to prevent them, rather than be severe when he +has suffered them to be too common: let him not rashly revive laws that +are abrogated by disuse, especially if they have been long forgotten, +and never wanted; and let him never take any penalty for the breach of +them, to which a judge would not give way in a private man, but would +look on him as a crafty and unjust person for pretending to it. To these +things I would add, that law among the Macarians, a people that lie not +far from Utopia, by which their king, on the day on which he begins to +reign, is tied by an oath confirmed by solemn sacrifices, never to have +at once above a thousand pounds of gold in his treasures, or so much +silver as is equal to that in value. This law, they tell us, was made by +an excellent king, who had more regard to the riches of his country than +to his own wealth; and therefore provided against the heaping up of so +much treasure, as might impoverish the people. He thought that moderate +sum might be sufficient for any accident; if either the king had +occasion for it against rebels, or the kingdom against the invasion of +an enemy; but that it was not enough to encourage a prince to invade +other men's rights, a circumstance that was the chief cause of his +making that law. He also thought that it was a good provision for that +free circulation of money, so necessary for the course of commerce and +exchange: and when a king must distribute all those extraordinary +accessions that increase treasure beyond the due pitch, it makes him +less disposed to oppress his subjects. Such a king as this will be the +terror of ill men, and will be beloved by all the good. + +"If, I say, I should talk of these or such like things, to men that had +taken their bias another way, how deaf would they be to all I could +say?"--"No doubt, very deaf," answered I; and no wonder, for one is +never to offer at propositions or advice that we are certain will not be +entertained. Discourses so much out of the road could not avail +anything, nor have any effect on men whose minds were prepossessed with +different sentiments. This philosophical way of speculation is not +unpleasant among friends in a free conversation, but there is no room +for it in the Courts of Princes where great affairs are carried on by +authority."--"That is what I was saying," replied he, "that there is no +room for philosophy in the Courts of Princes."--"Yes, there is," said I, +"but not for this speculative philosophy that makes everything to be +alike fitting at all times: but there is another philosophy that is more +pliable, that knows its proper scene, accommodates itself to it, and +teaches a man with propriety and decency to act that part which has +fallen to his share. If when one of Plautus's comedies is upon the stage +and a company of servants are acting their parts, you should come out in +the garb of a philosopher, and repeat out of 'Octavia' a discourse of +Seneca's to Nero, would it not be better for you to say nothing than by +mixing things of such different natures to make an impertinent +tragi-comedy? For you spoil and corrupt the play that is in hand when +you mix with it things of an opposite nature, even though they are much +better. Therefore go through with the play that is acting the best you +can, and do not confound it because another that is pleasanter comes +into your thoughts. It is even so in a commonwealth, and in the councils +of princes; if ill opinions cannot be quite rooted out, and you cannot +cure some received vice according to your wishes, you must not therefore +abandon the commonwealth, for the same reasons you should not forsake +the ship in a storm because you cannot command the winds. You are not +obliged to assault people with discourses that are out of their road, +when you see that their received notions must prevent your making an +impression upon them. You ought rather to cast about and to manage +things with all the dexterity in your power, so that if you are not +able to make them go well they may be as little ill as possible; for +except all men were good everything cannot be right, and that is a +blessing that I do not at present hope to see. According to your +arguments," answered he, "all that I could be able to do would be to +preserve myself from being mad while I endeavoured to cure the madness +of others; for if I speak truth, I must repeat what I have said to you; +and as for lying, whether a philosopher can do it or not, I cannot tell, +I am sure I cannot do it. But though these discourses may be uneasy and +ungrateful to them, I do not see why they should seem foolish or +extravagant: indeed if I should either propose such things as Plato has +contrived in his commonwealth, or as the Utopians practise in theirs, +though they might seem better, as certainly they are, yet they are so +different from our establishment, which is founded on property, there +being no such thing among them, that I could not expect that it would +have any effect on them; but such discourses as mine, which only call +past evils to mind and give warning of what may follow, have nothing in +them that is so absurd that they may not be used at any time, for they +can only be unpleasant to those who are resolved to run headlong the +contrary way; and if we must let alone everything as absurd or +extravagant which by reason of the wicked lives of many may seem +uncouth, we must, even among Christians, give over pressing the greatest +part of those things that Christ hath taught us, though He has commanded +us not to conceal them, but to proclaim on the house-tops that which He +taught in secret. The greatest parts of His precepts are more opposite +to the lives of the men of this age than any part of my discourse has +been; but the preachers seemed to have learned that craft to which you +advise me, for they observing that the world would not willingly suit +their lives to the rules that Christ has given, have fitted His doctrine +as if it had been a leaden rule, to their lives, that so some way or +other they might agree with one another. But I see no other effect of +this compliance except it be that men become more secure in their +wickedness by it. And this is all the success that I can have in a +Court, for I must always differ from the rest, and then I shall signify +nothing; or if I agree with them, I shall then only help forward their +madness. I do not comprehend what you mean by your casting about, or by +the bending and handling things so dexterously, that if they go not well +they may go as little ill as may be; for in Courts they will not bear +with a man's holding his peace or conniving at what others do. A man +must barefacedly approve of the worst counsels, and consent to the +blackest designs: so that he would pass for a spy, or possibly for a +traitor, that did but coldly approve of such wicked practices: and +therefore when a man is engaged in such a society, he will be so far +from being able to mend matters by his casting about, as you call it, +that he will find no occasions of doing any good: the ill company will +sooner corrupt him, than be the better for him: or if notwithstanding +all their ill company, he still remains steady and innocent, yet their +follies and knavery will be imputed to him; and by mixing counsels with +them, he must bear his share of all the blame that belongs wholly to +others. + +"It was no ill simile by which Plato set forth the unreasonableness of a +philosopher's meddling with government. If a man, says he, was to see a +great company run out every day into the rain, and take delight in being +wet; if he knew that it would be to no purpose for him to go and +persuade them to return to their houses, in order to avoid the storm, +and that all that could be expected by his going to speak to them would +be that he himself should be as wet as they, it would be best for him to +keep within doors; and since he had not influence enough to correct +other people's folly, to take care to preserve himself. + +"Though to speak plainly my real sentiments, I must freely own, that as +long as there is any property, and while money is the standard of all +other things, I cannot think that a nation can be governed either justly +or happily: not justly, because the best things will fall to the share +of the worst men; nor happily, because all things will be divided among +a few (and even these are not in all respects happy), the rest being +left to be absolutely miserable. Therefore when I reflect on the wise +and good constitution of the Utopians, among whom all things are so well +governed, and with so few laws; where virtue hath its due reward, and +yet there is such an equality, that every man lives in plenty; when I +compare with them so many other nations that are still making new laws, +and yet can never bring their constitution to a right regulation, where +notwithstanding every one has his property; yet all the laws that they +can invent have not the power either to obtain or preserve it, or even +to enable men certainly to distinguish what is their own from what is +another's; of which the many lawsuits that every day break out, and are +eternally depending, give too plain a demonstration; when, I say, I +balance all these things in my thoughts, I grow more favourable to +Plato, and do not wonder that he resolved not to make any laws for such +as would not submit to a community of all things: for so wise a man +could not but foresee that the setting all upon a level was the only way +to make a nation happy, which cannot be obtained so long as there is +property: for when every man draws to himself all that he can compass, +by one title or another, it must needs follow, that how plentiful soever +a nation may be, yet a few dividing the wealth of it among themselves, +the rest must fall into indigence. So that there will be two sorts of +people among them, who deserve that their fortunes should be +interchanged; the former useless, but wicked and ravenous; and the +latter, who by their constant industry serve the public more than +themselves, sincere and modest men. From whence I am persuaded, that +till property is taken away there can be no equitable or just +distribution of things, nor can the world be happily governed: for as +long as that is maintained, the greatest and the far best part of +mankind will be still oppressed with a load of cares and anxieties. I +confess without taking it quite away, those pressures that lie on a +great part of mankind may be made lighter; but they can never be quite +removed. For if laws were made to determine at how great an extent in +soil, and at how much money every man must stop, to limit the prince +that he might not grow too great, and to restrain the people that they +might not become too insolent, and that none might factiously aspire to +public employments; which ought neither to be sold, nor made burthensome +by a great expense; since otherwise those that serve in them would be +tempted to reimburse themselves by cheats and violence, and it would +become necessary to find out rich men for undergoing those employments +which ought rather to be trusted to the wise. These laws, I say, might +have such effects, as good diet and care might have on a sick man, whose +recovery is desperate: they might allay and mitigate the disease, but it +could never be quite healed, nor the body politic be brought again to a +good habit, as long as property remains; and it will fall out as in a +complication of diseases, that by applying a remedy to one sore, you +will provoke another; and that which removes the one ill symptom +produces others, while the strengthening one part of the body weakens +the rest."--"On the contrary," answered I, "it seems to me that men +cannot live conveniently, where all things are common: how can there be +any plenty, where every man will excuse himself from labour? For as the +hope of gain doth not excite him, so the confidence that he has in other +men's industry may make him slothful: if people come to be pinched with +want, and yet cannot dispose of anything as their own; what can follow +upon this but perpetual sedition and bloodshed, especially when the +reverence and authority due to magistrates falls to the ground? For I +cannot imagine how that can be kept up among those that are in all +things equal to one another."--"I do not wonder," said he, "that it +appears so to you, since you have no notion, or at least no right one, +of such a constitution: but if you had been in Utopia with me, and had +seen their laws and rules, as I did, for the space of five years, in +which I lived among them; and during which time I was so delighted with +them, that indeed I should never have left them, if it had not been to +make the discovery of that new world to the Europeans; you would then +confess that you had never seen a people so well constituted as +they,"--"You will not easily persuade me," said Peter, "that any nation +in that new world is better governed than those among us. For as our +understandings are not worse than theirs, so our government, if I +mistake not, being more ancient, a long practice has helped us to find +out many conveniences of life: and some happy chances have discovered +other things to us, which no man's understanding could ever have +invented."--"As for the antiquity, either of their government, or of +ours," said he, "you cannot pass a true judgment of it, unless you had +read their histories; for if they are to be believed, they had towns +among them before these parts were so much as inhabited. And as for +those discoveries, that have been either hit on by chance, or made by +ingenious men, these might have happened there as well as here. I do not +deny but we are more ingenious than they are, but they exceed us much in +industry and application. They knew little concerning us before our +arrival among them; they call us all by a general name of the nations +that lie beyond the Equinoctial Line; for their Chronicle mentions a +shipwreck that was made on their coast 1,200 years ago; and that some +Romans and Egyptians that were in the ship, getting safe ashore, spent +the rest of their days amongst them; and such was their ingenuity, that +from this single opportunity they drew the advantage of learning from +those unlooked-for guests, and acquired all the useful arts that were +then among the Romans, and which were known to these shipwrecked men: +and by the hints that they gave them, they themselves found out even +some of those arts which they could not fully explain; so happily did +they improve that accident, of having some of our people cast upon their +shore. But if such an accident has at any time brought any from thence +into Europe, we have been so far from improving it, that we do not so +much as remember it; as in after-times perhaps it will be forgot by our +people that I was ever there. For though they from one such accident +made themselves masters of all the good inventions that were among us; +yet I believe it would be long before we should learn or put in practice +any of the good institutions that are among them. And this is the true +cause of their being better governed, and living happier than we, though +we come not short of them in point of understanding or outward +advantages."--Upon this I said to him, "I earnestly beg you would +describe that island very particularly to us. Be not too short, but set +out in order all things relating to their soil, their rivers, their +towns, their people, their manners, constitution, laws, and, in a word, +all that you imagine we desire to know. And you may well imagine that we +desire to know everything concerning them, of which we are hitherto +ignorant."--"I will do it very willingly," said he, "for I have digested +the whole matter carefully; but it will take up some time,"--"Let us go +then," said I, "first and dine, and then we shall have leisure enough." +He consented. We went in and dined, and after dinner came back, and sat +down in the same place. I ordered my servants to take care that none +might come and interrupt us. And both Peter and I desired Raphael to be +as good as his word. When he saw that we were very intent upon it, he +paused a little to recollect himself, and began in this manner. + + + + +BOOK II. + + +The island of Utopia is in the middle two hundred miles broad, and holds +almost at the same breadth over a great part of it; but it grows +narrower towards both ends. Its figure is not unlike a crescent: between +its horns, the sea comes in eleven miles broad, and spreads itself into +a great bay, which is environed with land to the compass of about five +hundred miles, and is well secured from winds. In this bay there is no +great current, the whole coast is, as it were, one continued harbour, +which gives all that live in the island great convenience for mutual +commerce; but the entry into the bay, occasioned by rocks on the one +hand, and shallows on the other, is very dangerous. In the middle of it +there is one single rock which appears above water, and may therefore be +easily avoided, and on the top of it there is a tower in which a +garrison is kept, the other rocks lie under water, and are very +dangerous. The channel is known only to the natives, so that if any +stranger should enter into the bay, without one of their pilots, he +would run great danger of shipwreck; for even they themselves could not +pass it safe, if some marks that are on the coast did not direct their +way; and if these should be but a little shifted, any fleet that might +come against them, how great soever it were, would be certainly lost. On +the other side of the island there are likewise many harbours; and the +coast is so fortified, both by nature and art, that a small number of +men can hinder the descent of a great army. But they report (and there +remains good marks of it to make it credible) that this was no island at +first, but a part of the continent. Utopus that conquered it (whose name +it still carries, for Abraxa was its first name) brought the rude and +uncivilized inhabitants into such a good government, and to that measure +of politeness, that they now far excel all the rest of mankind; having +soon subdued them, he designed to separate them from the continent, and +to bring the sea quite round them. To accomplish this, he ordered a deep +channel to be dug fifteen miles long; and that the natives might not +think he treated them like slaves, he not only forced the inhabitants, +but also his own soldiers, to labour in carrying it on. As he set a vast +number of men to work, he beyond all men's expectations brought it to a +speedy conclusion. And his neighbours who at first laughed at the folly +of the undertaking, no sooner saw it brought to perfection, than they +were struck with admiration and terror. + +There are fifty-four cities in the island, all large and well built: the +manners, customs, and laws of which are the same, and they are all +contrived as near in the same manner as the ground on which they stand +will allow. The nearest lie at least twenty-four miles distance from one +another, and the most remote are not so far distant, but that a man can +go on foot in one day from it, to that which lies next it. Every city +sends three of their wisest senators once a year to Amaurot, to consult +about their common concerns; for that is chief town of the island, being +situated near the centre of it, so that it is the most convenient place +for their assemblies. The jurisdiction of every city extends at least +twenty miles: and where the towns lie wider, they have much more ground: +no town desires to enlarge its bounds, for the people consider +themselves rather as tenants than landlords. They have built over all +the country, farmhouses for husbandmen, which are well contrived, and +are furnished with all things necessary for country labour. Inhabitants +are sent by turns from the cities to dwell in them; no country family +has fewer than forty men and women in it, besides two slaves. There is a +master and a mistress set over every family; and over thirty families +there is a magistrate. Every year twenty of this family come back to the +town, after they have stayed two years in the country; and in their +room there are other twenty sent from the town, that they may learn +country work from those that have been already one year in the country, +as they must teach those that come to them the next from the town. By +this means such as dwell in those country farms are never ignorant of +agriculture, and so commit no errors, which might otherwise be fatal, +and bring them under a scarcity of corn. But though there is every year +such a shifting of the husbandmen, to prevent any man being forced +against his will to follow that hard course of life too long; yet many +among them take such pleasure in it, that they desire leave to continue +in it many years. These husbandmen till the ground, breed cattle, hew +wood, and convey it to the towns, either by land or water, as is most +convenient. They breed an infinite multitude of chickens in a very +curious manner; for the hens do not sit and hatch them, but vast number +of eggs are laid in a gentle and equal heat, in order to be hatched, and +they are no sooner out of the shell, and able to stir about, but they +seem to consider those that feed them as their mothers, and follow them +as other chickens do the hen that hatched them. They breed very few +horses, but those they have are full of mettle, and are kept only for +exercising their youth in the art of sitting and riding them; for they +do not put them to any work, either of ploughing or carriage, in which +they employ oxen; for though their horses are stronger, yet they find +oxen can hold out longer; and as they are not subject to so many +diseases, so they are kept upon a less charge, and with less trouble; +and even when they are so worn out, that they are no more fit for +labour, they are good meat at last. They sow no corn, but that which is +to be their bread; for they drink either wine, cyder, or perry, and +often water, sometimes boiled with honey or liquorice, with which they +abound; and though they know exactly how much corn will serve every +town, and all that tract of country which belongs to it, yet they sow +much more, and breed more cattle than are necessary for their +consumption; and they give that overplus of which they make no use to +their neighbours. When they want anything in the country which it does +not produce, they fetch that from the town, without carrying anything in +exchange for it. And the magistrates of the town take care to see it +given them; for they meet generally in the town once a month, upon a +festival day. When the time of harvest comes, the magistrates in the +country send to those in the towns, and let them know how many hands +they will need for reaping the harvest; and the number they call for +being sent to them, they commonly despatch it all in one day. + + +OF THEIR TOWNS, PARTICULARLY OF AMAUROT. + +He that knows one of their towns, knows them all, they are so like one +another, except where the situation makes some difference. I shall +therefore describe one of them; and none is so proper as Amaurot; for as +none is more eminent, all the rest yielding in precedence to this, +because it is the seat of their supreme council; so there was none of +them better known to me, I having lived five years altogether in it. + +It lies upon the side of a hill, or rather a rising ground: its figure +is almost square, for from the one side of it, which shoots up almost to +the top of the hill, it runs down in a descent for two miles to the +river Anider; but it is a little broader the other way that runs along +by the bank of that river. The Anider rises about eighty miles above +Amaurot in a small spring at first; but other brooks falling into it, of +which two are more considerable than the rest. As it runs by Amaurot, it +is grown half a mile broad; but it still grows larger and larger, till +after sixty miles course below it, it is lost in the ocean, between the +town and the sea, and for some miles above the town, it ebbs and flows +every six hours, with a strong current. The tide comes up for about +thirty miles so full, that there is nothing but salt water in the river, +the fresh water being driven back with its force; and above that, for +some miles, the water is brackish; but a little higher, as it runs by +the town, it is quite fresh; and when the tide ebbs, it continues fresh +all along to the sea. There is a bridge cast over the river, not of +timber, but of fair stone, consisting of many stately arches; it lies at +that part of the town which is farthest from the sea, so that ships +without any hindrance lie all along the side of the town. There is +likewise another river that runs by it, which though it is not great, +yet it runs pleasantly, for it rises out of the same hill on which the +town stands, and so runs down through it, and falls into the Anider. The +inhabitants have fortified the fountain-head of this river, which +springs a little without the towns; that so if they should happen to be +besieged, the enemy might not be able to stop or divert the course of +the water, nor poison it; from thence it is carried in earthen pipes to +the lower streets; and for those places of the town to which the water +of that small river cannot be conveyed, they have great cisterns for +receiving the rain-water, which supplies the want of the other. The town +is compassed with a high and thick wall, in which there are many towers +and forts; there is also a broad and deep dry ditch, set thick with +thorns, cast round three sides of the town, and the river is instead of +a ditch on the fourth side. The streets are very convenient for all +carriage, and are well sheltered from the winds. Their buildings are +good, and are so uniform, that a whole side of a street looks like one +house. The streets are twenty feet broad; there lie gardens behind all +their houses; these are large but enclosed with buildings, that on all +hands face the streets; so that every house has both a door to the +street, and a back door to the garden. Their doors have all two leaves, +which, as they are easily opened, so they shut of their own accord; and +there being no property among them, every man may freely enter into any +house whatsoever. At every ten years end they shift their houses by +lots. They cultivate their gardens with great care, so that they have +both vines, fruits, herbs, and flowers in them; and all is so well +ordered, and so finely kept, that I never saw gardens anywhere that were +both so fruitful and so beautiful as theirs. And this humour of ordering +their gardens so well, is not only kept up by the pleasure they find in +it, but also by an emulation between the inhabitants of the several +streets, who vie with each other; and there is indeed nothing belonging +to the whole town that is both more useful and more pleasant. So that he +who founded the town, seems to have taken care of nothing more than of +their gardens; for they say, the whole scheme of the town was designed +at first by Utopus, but he left all that belonged to the ornament and +improvement of it, to be added by those that should come after him, that +being too much for one man to bring to perfection. Their records, that +contain the history of their town and state, are preserved with an exact +care, and run backwards 1,760 years. From these it appears that their +houses were at first low and mean, like cottages, made of any sort of +timber, and were built with mud walls and thatched with straw. But now +their houses are three stories high: the fronts of them are faced either +with stone, plastering, or brick; and between the facings of their walls +they throw in their rubbish. Their roofs are flat, and on them they lay +a sort of plaster, which costs very little, and yet is so tempered that +it is not apt to take fire, and yet resists the weather more than lead. +They have great quantities of glass among them, with which they glaze +their windows. They use also in their windows a thin linen cloth, that +is so oiled or gummed that it both keeps out the wind and gives free +admission to the light. + + +OF THEIR MAGISTRATES. + +Thirty families choose every year a magistrate, who was anciently called +the Syphogrant, but is now called the Philarch; and over every ten +Syphogrants, with the families subject to them, there is another +magistrate, who was anciently called the Tranibor, but of late the +Archphilarch. All the Syphogrants, who are in number 200, choose the +Prince out of a list of four, who are named by the people of the four +divisions of the city; but they take an oath before they proceed to an +election, that they will choose him whom they think most fit for the +office. They give their voices secretly, so that it is not known for +whom every one gives his suffrage. The Prince is for life, unless he is +removed upon suspicion of some design to enslave the people. The +Tranibors are new chosen every year, but yet they are for the most part +continued. All their other magistrates are only annual. The Tranibors +meet every third day, and oftener if necessary, and consult with the +Prince, either concerning the affairs of the state in general, or such +private differences as may arise sometimes among the people; though that +falls out but seldom. There are always two Syphogrants called into the +council-chamber, and these are changed every day. It is a fundamental +rule of their government, that no conclusion can be made in anything +that relates to the public, till it has been first debated three several +days in their council. It is death for any to meet and consult +concerning the state, unless it be either in their ordinary council, or +in the assembly of the whole body of the people. + +These things have been so provided among them, that the Prince and the +Tranibors may not conspire together to change the government, and +enslave the people; and therefore when anything of great importance is +set on foot, it is sent to the Syphogrants; who after they have +communicated it to the families that belong to their divisions, and have +considered it among themselves, make report to the senate; and upon +great occasions, the matter is referred to the council of the whole +island. One rule observed in their council, is, never to debate a thing +on the same day in which it is first proposed; for that is always +referred to the next meeting, that so men may not rashly, and in the +heat of discourse, engage themselves too soon, which might bias them so +much, that instead of consulting the good of the public, they might +rather study to support their first opinions, and by a perverse and +preposterous sort of shame, hazard their country rather than endanger +their own reputation, or venture the being suspected to have wanted +foresight in the expedients that they at first proposed. And therefore +to prevent this, they take care that they may rather be deliberate than +sudden in their motions. + + +OF THEIR TRADES, AND MANNER OF LIFE. + +Agriculture is that which is so universally understood among them, that +no person, either man or woman, is ignorant of it; they are instructed +in it from their childhood, partly by what they learn at school, and +partly by practice; they being led out often into the fields, about the +town, where they not only see others at work, but are likewise exercised +in it themselves. Besides agriculture, which is so common to them all, +every man has some peculiar trade to which he applies himself, such as +the manufacture of wool, or flax, masonry, smith's work, or carpenter's +work; for there is no sort of trade that is in great esteem among them. +Throughout the island they wear the same sort of clothes without any +other distinction, except what is necessary to distinguish the two +sexes, and the married and unmarried. The fashion never alters; and as +it is neither disagreeable nor uneasy, so it is suited to the climate, +and calculated both for their summers and winters. Every family makes +their own clothes; but all among them, women as well men, learn one or +other of the trades formerly mentioned. Women, for the most part, deal +in wool and flax, which suit best with their weakness, leaving the ruder +trades to the men. The same trade generally passes down from father to +son, inclinations often following descent; but if any man's genius lies +another way, he is by adoption translated into a family that deals in +the trade to which he is inclined: and when that is to be done, care is +taken not only by his father, but by the magistrate, that he may be put +to a discreet and good man. And if after a person has learned one trade, +he desires to acquire another, that is also allowed, and is managed in +the same manner as the former. When he has learned both, he follows that +which he likes best, unless the public has more occasion for the other. + +The chief, and almost the only business of the Syphogrants, is to take +care that no man may live idle, but that every one may follow his trade +diligently: yet they do not wear themselves out with perpetual toil, +from morning to night, as if they were beasts of burden, which as it is +indeed a heavy slavery, so it is everywhere the common course of life +amongst all mechanics except the Utopians; but they dividing the day and +night into twenty-four hours, appoint six of these for work; three of +which are before dinner; and three after. They then sup, and at eight +o'clock, counting from noon, go to bed and sleep eight hours. The rest +of their time besides that taken up in work, eating and sleeping, is +left to every man's discretion; yet they are not to abuse that interval +to luxury and idleness, but must employ it in some proper exercise +according to their various inclinations, which is for the most part +reading. It is ordinary to have public lectures every morning before +daybreak; at which none are obliged to appear but those who are marked +out for literature; yet a great many, both men and women of all ranks, +go to hear lectures of one sort or other, according to their +inclinations. But if others, that are not made for contemplation, choose +rather to employ themselves at that time in their trades, as many of +them do, they are not hindered, but are rather commended, as men that +take care to serve their country. After supper, they spend an hour in +some diversion, in summer in their gardens, and in winter in the halls +where they eat; where they entertain each other, either with music or +discourse. They do not so much as know dice, or any such foolish and +mischievous games: they have, however, two sorts of games not unlike our +chess; the one is between several numbers, in which one number, as it +were, consumes another: the other resembles a battle between the virtues +and the vices, in which the enmity in the vices among themselves, and +their agreement against virtue, is not unpleasantly represented; +together with the special oppositions between the particular virtues and +vices; as also the methods by which vice either openly assaults or +secretly undermines virtue; and virtue on the other hand resists it. But +the time appointed for labour is to be narrowly examined, otherwise you +may imagine, that since there are only six hours appointed for work, +they may fall under a scarcity of necessary provisions. But it is so far +from being true, that this time is not sufficient for supplying them +with plenty of all things, either necessary or convenient; that it is +rather too much; and this you will easily apprehend, if you consider how +great a part of all other nations is quite idle. First, women generally +do little, who are the half of mankind; and if some few women are +diligent, their husbands are idle: then consider the great company of +idle priests, and of those that are called religious men; add to these +all rich men, chiefly those that have estates in land, who are called +noblemen and gentlemen, together with their families, made up of idle +persons, that are kept more for show than use; add to these, all those +strong and lusty beggars, that go about pretending some disease, in +excuse for their begging; and upon the whole account you will find that +the number of those by whose labours mankind is supplied, is much less +than you perhaps imagined. Then consider how few of those that work are +employed in labours that are of real service; for we who measure all +things by money, give rise to many trades that are both vain and +superfluous, and serve only to support riot and luxury. For if those who +work were employed only in such things as the conveniences of life +require, there would be such an abundance of them, that the prices of +them would so sink, that tradesmen could not be maintained by their +gains; if all those who labour about useless things, were set to more +profitable employments, and if all they that languish out their lives in +sloth and idleness, every one of whom consumes as much as any two of the +men that are at work, were forced to labour, you may easily imagine that +a small proportion of time would serve for doing all that is either +necessary, profitable, or pleasant to mankind, especially while pleasure +is kept within its due bounds. This appears very plainly in Utopia, for +there, in a great city, and in all the territory that lies round it, you +can scarce find five hundred, either men or women, by their age and +strength, are capable of labour, that are not engaged in it; even the +Syphogrants, though excused by the law, yet do not excuse themselves, +but work, that by their examples they may excite the industry of the +rest of the people. The like exemption is allowed to those, who being +recommended to the people by the priests, are by the secret suffrages of +the Syphogrants privileged from labour, that they may apply themselves +wholly to study; and if any of these fall short of those hopes that they +seemed at first to give, they are obliged to return to work. And +sometimes a mechanic, that so employs his leisure hours, as to make a +considerable advancement in learning, is eased from being a tradesman, +and ranked among their learned men. Out of these they choose their +ambassadors, their priests, their Tranibors, and the Prince himself; +anciently called their Barzenes, but is called of late their Ademus. + +And thus from the great numbers among them that are neither suffered to +be idle, nor to be employed in any fruitless labour, you may easily make +the estimate how much may be done in those few hours in which they are +obliged to labour. But besides all that has been already said, it is to +be considered that the needful arts among them are managed with less +labour than anywhere else. The building or the repairing of houses among +us employ many hands, because often a thriftless heir suffers a house +that his father built to fall into decay, so that his successor must, at +a great cost, repair that which he might have kept up with a small +charge: it frequently happens, that the same house which one person +built at a vast expense, is neglected by another, who thinks he has a +more delicate sense of the beauties of architecture; and he suffering it +to fall to ruin, builds another at no less charge. But among the +Utopians, all things are so regulated that men very seldom build upon a +new piece of ground; and are not only very quick in repairing their +houses, but show their foresight in preventing their decay: so that +their buildings are preserved very long, with but little labour; and +thus the builders to whom that care belongs are often without +employment, except the hewing of timber, and the squaring of stones, +that the materials may be in readiness for raising a building very +suddenly, when there is any occasion for it. As to their clothes, +observe how little work is spent in them: while they are at labour, they +are clothed with leather and skins, cast carelessly about them, which +will last seven years; and when they appear in public they put on an +upper garment, which hides the other; and these are all of one colour, +and that is the natural colour of the wool. As they need less woollen +cloth than is used anywhere else, so that which they make use of is much +less costly. They use linen cloth more; but that is prepared with less +labour, and they value cloth only by the whiteness of the linen, or the +cleanness of the wool, without much regard to the fineness of the +thread: while in other places, four or five upper garments of woollen +cloth, of different colours, and as many vests of silk, will scarce +serve one man; and while those that are nicer think ten too few, every +man there is content with one, which very often serves him two years. +Nor is there anything that can tempt a man to desire more; for if he had +them, he would neither be the warmer, nor would he make one jot the +better appearance for it. And thus, since they are all employed in some +useful labour, and since they content themselves with fewer things, it +falls out that there is a great abundance of all things among them: so +that it frequently happens, that for want of other work, vast numbers +are sent out to mend the highways. But when no public undertaking is to +be performed, the hours of working are lessened. The magistrates never +engage the people in unnecessary labour, since the chief end of the +constitution is to regulate labour by the necessities of the public, and +to allow all the people as much time as is necessary for the improvement +of their minds, in which they think the happiness of life consists. + + +OF THEIR TRAFFIC. + +But it is now time to explain to you the mutual intercourse of this +people, their commerce, and the rules by which all things are +distributed among them. + +As their cities are composed of families, so their families are made up +of those that are nearly related to one another. Their women, when they +grow up, are married out; but all the males, both children and +grandchildren, live still in the same house, in great obedience to their +common parent, unless age has weakened his understanding; and in that +case, he that is next to him in age comes in his room. But lest any city +should become either too great, or by any accident be dispeopled, +provision is made that none of their cities may contain above six +thousand families, besides those of the country round it. No family may +have less than ten, and more than sixteen persons in it; but there can +be no determined number for the children under age. This rule is easily +observed, by removing some of the children of a more fruitful couple to +any other family that does not abound so much in them. By the same rule, +they supply cities that do not increase so fast, from others that breed +faster; and if there is any increase over the whole island, then they +draw out a number of their citizens out of the several towns, and send +them over to the neighbouring continent; where, if they find that the +inhabitants have more soil than they can well cultivate, they fix a +colony, taking the inhabitants into their society, if they are willing +to live with them; and where they do that of their own accord, they +quickly enter into their method of life, and conform to their rules, and +this proves a happiness to both nations: for according to their +constitution, such care is taken of the soil, that it becomes fruitful +enough for both, though it might be otherwise too narrow and barren for +any one of them. But if the natives refuse to conform themselves to +their laws, they drive them out of those bounds which they mark out for +themselves, and use force if they resist. For they account it a very +just cause of war, for a nation to hinder others from possessing a part +of that soil, of which they make no use, but which is suffered to lie +idle and uncultivated; since every man has by the law of Nature a right +to such a waste portion of the earth as is necessary for his +subsistence. If an accident has so lessened the number of the +inhabitants of any of their towns, that it cannot be made up from the +other towns of the island, without diminishing them too much, which is +said to have fallen out but twice since they were first a people, when +great numbers were carried off by the plague; the loss is then supplied +by recalling as many as are wanted from their colonies; for they will +abandon these, rather than suffer the towns in the island to sink too +low. + +But to return to their manner of living in society, the oldest man of +every family, as has been already said, is its governor. Wives serve +their husbands, and children their parents, and always the younger +serves the elder. Every city is divided into four equal parts, and in +the middle of each there is a market-place: what is brought thither, and +manufactured by the several families, is carried from thence to houses +appointed for that purpose, in which all things of a sort are laid by +themselves; and thither every father goes and takes whatsoever he or his +family stand in need of, without either paying for it, or leaving +anything in exchange. There is no reason for giving a denial to any +person, since there is such plenty of everything among them; and there +is no danger of a man's asking for more than he needs; they have no +inducements to do this, since they are sure that they shall always be +supplied. It is the fear of want that makes any of the whole race of +animals either greedy or ravenous; but besides fear, there is in man a +pride that makes him fancy it a particular glory to excel others in pomp +and excess. But by the laws of the Utopians, there is no room for this. +Near these markets there are others for all sorts of provisions, where +there are not only herbs, fruits, and bread, but also fish, fowl, and +cattle. There are also, without their towns, places appointed near some +running water, for killing their beasts, and for washing away their +filth; which is done by their slaves: for they suffer none of their +citizens to kill their cattle, because they think that pity and +good-nature, which are among the best of those affections that are born +with us, are much impaired by the butchering of animals: nor do they +suffer anything that is foul or unclean to be brought within their +towns, lest the air should be infected by ill smells which might +prejudice their health. In every street there are great halls that lie +at an equal distance from each other, distinguished by particular names. +The Syphogrants dwell in those that are set over thirty families, +fifteen lying on one side of it, and as many on the other. In these +halls they all meet and have their repasts. The stewards of every one of +them come to the market-place at an appointed hour; and according to the +number of those that belong to the hall, they carry home provisions. But +they take more care of their sick than of any others: these are lodged +and provided for in public hospitals: they have belonging to every town +four hospitals, that are built without their walls, and are so large +that they may pass for little towns: by this means, if they had ever +such a number of sick persons, they could lodge them conveniently, and +at such a distance, that such of them as are sick of infectious diseases +may be kept so far from the rest that there can be no danger of +contagion. The hospitals are furnished and stored with all things that +are convenient for the ease and recovery of the sick; and those that are +put in them are looked after with such tender and watchful care, and are +so constantly attended by their skilful physicians, that as none is sent +to them against their will, so there is scarce one in a whole town that, +if he should fall ill, would not choose rather to go thither than lie +sick at home. + +After the steward of the hospitals has taken for the sick whatsoever the +physician prescribes, then the best things that are left in the market +are distributed equally among the halls, in proportion to their numbers, +only, in the first place, they serve the Prince, the chief priest, the +Tranibors, the ambassadors, and strangers, if there are any, which +indeed falls out but seldom, and for whom there are houses well +furnished, particularly appointed for their reception when they come +among them. At the hours of dinner and supper, the whole Syphogranty +being called together by sound of trumpet, they meet and eat together, +except only such as are in the hospitals, or lie sick at home. Yet after +the halls are served, no man is hindered to carry provisions home from +the market-place; for they know that none does that but for some good +reason; for though any that will may eat at home, yet none does it +willingly, since it is both ridiculous and foolish for any to give +themselves the trouble to make ready an ill dinner at home, when there +is a much more plentiful one made ready for him so near hand. All the +uneasy and sordid services about these halls are performed by their +slaves; but the dressing and cooking their meat, and the ordering their +tables, belong only to the women, all those of every family taking it by +turns. They sit at three or more tables, according to their number; the +men sit towards the wall, and the women sit on the other side, that if +any of them should be taken suddenly ill, which is no uncommon case +amongst women with child, she may, without disturbing the rest, rise and +go to the nurse's room, who are there with the sucking children; where +there is always clean water at hand, and cradles in which they may lay +the young children, if there is occasion for it, and a fire that they +may shift and dress them before it. Every child is nursed by its own +mother, if death or sickness does not intervene; and in that case the +Syphogrants' wives find out a nurse quickly, which is no hard matter; +for any one that can do it, offers herself cheerfully; for as they are +much inclined to that piece of mercy, so the child whom they nurse +considers the nurse as its mother. All the children under five years old +sit among the nurses, the rest of the younger sort of both sexes, till +they are fit for marriage, either serve those that sit at table; or if +they are not strong enough for that, stand by them in great silence, and +eat what is given them; nor have they any other formality of dining. In +the middle of the first table, which stands across the upper end of the +hall, sit the Syphogrant and his wife; for that is the chief and most +conspicuous place; next to him sit two of the most ancient, for there go +always four to a mess. If there is a temple within that Syphogranty, the +priest and his wife sit with the Syphogrant above all the rest: next +them there is a mixture of old and young, who are so placed, that as the +young are set near others, so they are mixed with the more ancient; +which they say was appointed on this account, that the gravity of the +old people, and the reverence that is due to them, might restrain the +younger from all indecent words and gestures. Dishes are not served up +to the whole table at first, but the best are first set before the old, +whose seats are distinguished from the young, and after them all the +rest are served alike. The old men distribute to the younger any curious +meats that happen to be set before them, if there is not such an +abundance of them that the whole company may be served alike. + +Thus old men are honoured with a particular respect; yet all the rest +fare as well as they. Both dinner and supper are begun with some lecture +of morality that is read to them; but it is so short, that it is not +tedious nor uneasy to them to hear it: from hence the old men take +occasion to entertain those about them, with some useful and pleasant +enlargements; but they do not engross the whole discourse so to +themselves, during their meals, that the younger may not put in for a +share: on the contrary, they engage them to talk, that so they may in +that free way of conversation find out the force of every one's spirit, +and observe his temper. They despatch their dinners quickly, but sit +long at supper; because they go to work after the one, and are to sleep +after the other, during which they think the stomach carries on the +concoction more vigorously. They never sup without music; and there is +always fruit served up after meat; while they are at table, some burn +perfumes, and sprinkle about fragrant ointments and sweet waters: in +short, they want nothing that may cheer up their spirits: they give +themselves a large allowance that way, and indulge themselves in all +such pleasures as are attended with no inconvenience. Thus do those that +are in the towns live together; but in the country, where they live at +great distance, every one eats at home, and no family wants any +necessary sort of provision, for it is from them that provisions are +sent unto those that live in the towns. + + +OF THE TRAVELLING OF THE UTOPIANS. + +If any man has a mind to visit his friends that live in some other town, +or desires to travel and see the rest of the country, he obtains leave +very easily from the Syphogrant and Tranibors, when there is no +particular occasion for him at home: such as travel, carry with them a +passport from the Prince, which both certifies the license that is +granted for travelling, and limits the time of their return. They are +furnished with a waggon and a slave, who drives the oxen, and looks +after them: but unless there are women in the company, the waggon is +sent back at the end of the journey as a needless encumbrance: while +they are on the road, they carry no provisions with them; yet they want +nothing, but are everywhere treated as if they were at home. If they +stay in any place longer than a night, every one follows his proper +occupation, and is very well used by those of his own trade: but if any +man goes out of the city to which he belongs, without leave, and is +found rambling without a passport, he is severely treated, he is +punished as a fugitive, and sent home disgracefully; and if he falls +again into the like fault, is condemned to slavery. If any man has a +mind to travel only over the precinct of his own city, he may freely do +it, with his father's permission and his wife's consent; but when he +comes into any of the country houses, if he expects to be entertained by +them, he must labour with them and conform to their rules: and if he +does this, he may freely go over the whole precinct; being thus as +useful to the city to which he belongs, as if he were still within it. +Thus you see that there are no idle persons among them, nor pretences of +excusing any from labour. There are no taverns, no alehouses nor stews +among them; nor any other occasions of corrupting each other, of getting +into corners, or forming themselves into parties: all men live in full +view, so that all are obliged, both to perform their ordinary task, and +to employ themselves well in their spare hours. And it is certain that a +people thus ordered must live in great abundance of all things; and +these being equally distributed among them, no man can want, or be +obliged to beg. + +In their great council at Amaurot, to which there are three sent from +every town once a year, they examine what towns abound in provisions, +and what are under any scarcity, that so the one may be furnished from +the other; and this is done freely, without any sort of exchange; for +according to their plenty or scarcity, they supply, or are supplied from +one another; so that indeed the whole island is, as it were, one family. +When they have thus taken care of their whole country, and laid up +stores for two years, which they do to prevent the ill consequences of +an unfavourable season, they order an exportation of the overplus, both +of corn, honey, wool, flax, wood, wax, tallow, leather, and cattle; +which they send out commonly in great quantities to other nations. They +order a seventh part of all these goods to be freely given to the poor +of the countries to which they send them, and sell the rest at moderate +rates. And by this exchange, they not only bring back those few things +that they need at home (for indeed they scarce need anything but iron), +but likewise a great deal of gold and silver; and by their driving this +trade so long, it is not to be imagined how vast a treasure they have +got among them: so that now they do not much care whether they sell off +their merchandise for money in hand, or upon trust. A great part of +their treasure is now in bonds; but in all their contracts no private +man stands bound, but the writing runs in the name of the town; and the +towns that owe them money, raise it from those private hands that owe it +to them, lay it up in their public chamber, or enjoy the profit of it +till the Utopians call for it; and they choose rather to let the +greatest part of it lie in their hands who make advantage by it, than to +call for it themselves: but if they see that any of their other +neighbours stand more in need of it, then they call it in and lend it to +them: whenever they are engaged in war, which is the only occasion in +which their treasure can be usefully employed, they make use of it +themselves. In great extremities or sudden accidents they employ it in +hiring foreign troops, whom they more willingly expose to danger than +their own people: they give them great pay, knowing well that this will +work even on their enemies, that it will engage them either to betray +their own side, or at least to desert it, and that it is the best means +of raising mutual jealousies among them: for this end they have an +incredible treasure; but they do not keep it as a treasure, but in such +a manner as I am almost afraid to tell, lest you think it so +extravagant, as to be hardly credible. This I have the more reason to +apprehend, because if I had not seen it myself, I could not have been +easily persuaded to have believed it upon any man's report. + +It is certain that all things appear incredible to us, in proportion as +they differ from own customs. But one who can judge aright, will not +wonder to find, that since their constitution differs so much from ours, +their value of gold and silver should be measured by a very different +standard; for since they have no use for money among themselves, but +keep it as a provision against events which seldom happen, and between +which there are generally long intervening intervals; they value it no +farther than it deserves, that is, in proportion to its use. So that it +is plain, they must prefer iron either to gold or silver: for men can no +more live without iron, than without fire or water; but Nature has +marked out no use for the other metals, so essential as not easily to be +dispensed with. The folly of men has enhanced the value of gold and +silver, because of their scarcity. Whereas, on the contrary, it is their +opinion that Nature, as an indulgent parent, has freely given us all the +best things in great abundance, such as water and earth, but has laid up +and hid from us the things that are vain and useless. + +If these metals were laid up in any tower in the kingdom, it would raise +a jealousy of the Prince and Senate, and give birth to that foolish +mistrust into which the people are apt to fall, a jealousy of their +intending to sacrifice the interest of the public to their own private +advantage. If they should work it into vessels, or any sort of plate, +they fear that the people might grow too fond of it, and so be unwilling +to let the plate be run down, if a war made it necessary to employ it in +paying their soldiers. To prevent all these inconveniences, they have +fallen upon an expedient, which as it agrees with their other policy, so +is it very different from ours, and will scarce gain belief among us, +who value gold so much, and lay it up so carefully. They eat and drink +out of vessels of earth, or glass, which make an agreeable appearance +though formed of brittle materials: while they make their chamber-pots +and close-stools of gold and silver; and that not only in their public +halls, but in their private houses: of the same metals they likewise +make chains and fetters for their slaves; to some of which, as a badge +of infamy, they hang an ear-ring of gold, and make others wear a chain +or a coronet of the same metal; and thus they take care, by all possible +means, to render gold and silver of no esteem. And from hence it is, +that while other nations part with their gold and silver, as unwillingly +as if one tore out their bowels, those of Utopia would look on their +giving in all they possess of those (metals, when there were any use for +them) but as the parting with a trifle, or as we would esteem the loss +of a penny. They find pearls on their coast; and diamonds and carbuncles +on their rocks; they do not look after them, but if they find them by +chance, they polish them, and with them they adorn their children, who +are delighted with them, and glory in them during their childhood; but +when they grow to years, and see that none but children use such +baubles, they of their own accord, without being bid by their parents, +lay them aside; and would be as much ashamed to use them afterwards, as +children among us, when they come to years, are of their puppets and +other toys. + +I never saw a clearer instance of the opposite impressions that +different customs make on people, than I observed in the ambassadors of +the Anemolians, who came to Amaurot when I was there. As they came to +treat of affairs of great consequence, the deputies from several towns +met together to wait for their coming. The ambassadors of the nations +that lie near Utopia, knowing their customs, and that fine clothes are +in no esteem among them, that silk is despised, and gold is a badge of +infamy, use to come very modestly clothed; but the Anemolians lying more +remote, and having had little commerce with them, understanding that +they were coarsely clothed, and all in the same manner, took it for +granted that they had none of those fine things among them of which they +made no use; and they being a vain-glorious rather than a wise people, +resolved to set themselves out with so much pomp, that they should look +like gods, and strike the eyes of the poor Utopians with their +splendour. Thus three ambassadors made their entry with an hundred +attendants, all clad in garments of different colours, and the greater +part in silk; the ambassadors themselves, who were of the nobility of +their country, were in cloth of gold, and adorned with massy chains, +ear-rings and rings of gold: their caps were covered with bracelets set +full of pearls and other gems: in a word, they were set out with all +those things that, among the Utopians, were either the badges of +slavery, the marks of infamy, or the playthings of children. It was not +unpleasant to see, on the one side, how they looked big, when they +compared their rich habits with the plain clothes of the Utopians, who +were come out in great numbers to see them make their entry: and, on the +other, to observe how much they were mistaken in the impression which +they hoped this pomp would have made on them. It appeared so ridiculous +a show to all that had never stirred out of their country, and had not +seen the customs of other nations, that though they paid some reverence +to those that were the most meanly clad, as if they had been the +ambassadors, yet when they saw the ambassadors themselves, so full of +gold and chains, they looked upon them as slaves, and forbore to treat +them with reverence. You might have seen the children, who were grown +big enough to despise their playthings, and who had thrown away their +jewels, call to their mothers, push them gently, and cry out, "See that +great fool that wears pearls and gems, as if he were yet a child." While +their mothers very innocently replied, "Hold your peace, this I believe +is one of the ambassador's fools." Others censured the fashion of their +chains, and observed that they were of no use; for they were too slight +to bind their slaves, who could easily break them; and besides hung so +loose about them, that they thought it easy to throw them away, and so +get from them. But after the ambassadors had stayed a day among them, +and saw so vast a quantity of gold in their houses, which was as much +despised by them as it was esteemed in other nations, and beheld more +gold and silver in the chains and fetters of one slave than all their +ornaments amounted to, their plumes fell, and they were ashamed of all +that glory for which they had formerly valued themselves, and +accordingly laid it aside; a resolution that they immediately took, when +on their engaging in some free discourse with the Utopians, they +discovered their sense of such things and their other customs. The +Utopians wonder how any man should be so much taken with the glaring +doubtful lustre of a jewel or a stone, that can look up to a star, or to +the sun himself; or how any should value himself because his cloth is +made of a finer thread: for how fine soever that thread may be, it was +once no better than the fleece of a sheep, and that sheep was a sheep +still for all its wearing it. They wonder much to hear that gold which +in itself is so useless a thing, should be everywhere so much esteemed, +that even men for whom it was made, and by whom it has its value, should +yet be thought of less value than this metal. That a man of lead, who +has no more sense than a log of wood, and is as bad as he is foolish, +should have many wise and good men to serve him, only because he has a +great heap of that metal; and that if it should happen that by some +accident or trick of law (which sometimes produces as great changes as +chance itself) all this wealth should pass from the master to the +meanest varlet of his whole family, he himself would very soon become +one of his servants, as if he were a thing that belonged to his wealth, +and so were bound to follow its fortune. But they much more admire and +detest the folly of those who when they see a rich man, though they +neither owe him anything, nor are in any sort dependent on his bounty, +yet merely because he is rich give him little less than divine honours; +even though they know him to be so covetous and base-minded, that +notwithstanding all his wealth, he will not part with one farthing of it +to them as long as he lives. + +These and such like notions has that people imbibed, partly from their +education, being bred in a country whose customs and laws are opposite +to all such foolish maxims, and partly from their learning and studies; +for though there are but few in any town that are so wholly excused from +labour as to give themselves entirely up to their studies, these being +only such persons as discover from their childhood an extraordinary +capacity and disposition for letters; yet their children, and a great +part of the nation, both men and women, are taught to spend those hours +in which they are not obliged to work in reading: and this they do +through the whole progress of life. They have all their learning in +their own tongue, which is both a copious and pleasant language, and in +which a man can fully express his mind. It runs over a great tract of +many countries, but it is not equally pure in all places. They had never +so much as heard of the names of any of those philosophers that are so +famous in these parts of the world, before we went among them; and yet +they had made the same discoveries as the Greeks, both in music, logic, +arithmetic, and geometry. But as they are almost in everything equal to +the ancient philosophers, so they far exceed our modern logicians; for +they have never yet fallen upon the barbarous niceties that our youth +are forced to learn in those trifling logical schools that are among us; +they are so far from minding chimeras, and fantastical images made in +the mind, that none of them could comprehend what we meant when we +talked to them of a man in the abstract, as common to all men in +particular (so that though we spoke of him as a thing that we could +point at with our fingers, yet none of them could perceive him), and yet +distinct from every one, as if he were some monstrous Colossus or +giant. Yet for all this ignorance of these empty notions, they knew +astronomy, and were perfectly acquainted with the motions of the +heavenly bodies, and have many instruments, well contrived and divided, +by which they very accurately compute the course and positions of the +sun, moon, and stars. But for the cheat, of divining by the stars by +their oppositions or conjunctions, it has not so much as entered into +their thoughts. They have a particular sagacity, founded upon much +observation, in judging of the weather, by which they know when they may +look for rain, wind, or other alterations in the air; but as to the +philosophy of these things, the causes of the saltness of the sea, of +its ebbing and flowing, and of the original and nature both of the +heavens and the earth; they dispute of them, partly as our ancient +philosophers have done, and partly upon some new hypothesis, in which, +as they differ from them, so they do not in all things agree among +themselves. + +As to moral philosophy, they have the same disputes among them as we +have here: they examine what are properly good both for the body and the +mind, and whether any outward thing can be called truly good, or if that +term belong only to the endowments of the soul. They inquire likewise +into the nature of virtue and pleasure; but their chief dispute is +concerning the happiness of a man, and wherein it consists? Whether in +some one thing, or in a great many? They seem, indeed, more inclinable +to that opinion that places, if not the whole, yet the chief part of a +man's happiness in pleasure; and, what may seem more strange, they make +use of arguments even from religion, notwithstanding its severity and +roughness, for the support of that opinion so indulgent to pleasure; for +they never dispute concerning happiness without fetching some arguments +from the principles of religion, as well as from natural reason, since +without the former they reckon that all our inquiries after happiness +must be but conjectural and defective. + +These are their religious principles, that the soul of man is immortal, +and that God of His goodness has designed that it should be happy; and +that He has therefore appointed rewards for good and virtuous actions, +and punishments for vice, to be distributed after this life. Though +these principles of religion are conveyed down among them by tradition, +they think that even reason itself determines a man to believe and +acknowledge them, and freely confess that if these were taken away no +man would be so insensible as not to seek after pleasure by all possible +means, lawful or unlawful; using only this caution, that a lesser +pleasure might not stand in the way of a greater, and that no pleasure +ought to be pursued that should draw a great deal of pain after it; for +they think it the maddest thing in the world to pursue virtue, that is a +sour and difficult thing; and not only to renounce the pleasures of +life, but willingly to undergo much pain and trouble, if a man has no +prospect of a reward. And what reward can there be for one that has +passed his whole life, not only without pleasure, but in pain, if there +is nothing to be expected after death? Yet they do not place happiness +in all sorts of pleasures, but only in those that in themselves are good +and honest. There is a party among them who place happiness in bare +virtue; others think that our natures are conducted by virtue to +happiness, as that which is the chief good of man. They define virtue +thus, that it is a living according to Nature, and think that we are +made by God for that end; they believe that a man then follows the +dictates of Nature when he pursues or avoids things according to the +direction of reason; they say that the first dictate of reason is the +kindling in us a love and reverence for the Divine Majesty, to whom we +owe both all that we have, and all that we can ever hope for. In the +next place, reason directs us to keep our minds as free from passion and +as cheerful as we can, and that we should consider ourselves as bound by +the ties of good-nature and humanity to use our utmost endeavours to +help forward the happiness of all other persons; for there never was any +man such a morose and severe pursuer of virtue, such an enemy to +pleasure, that though he set hard rules for men to undergo much pain, +many watchings, and other rigours, yet did not at the same time advise +them to do all they could, in order to relieve and ease the miserable, +and who did not represent gentleness and good-nature as amiable +dispositions. And from thence they infer that if a man ought to advance +the welfare and comfort of the rest of mankind, there being no virtue +more proper and peculiar to our nature, than to ease the miseries of +others, to free from trouble and anxiety, in furnishing them with the +comforts of life, in which pleasure consists, Nature much more +vigorously leads them to do all this for himself. A life of pleasure is +either a real evil, and in that case we ought not to assist others in +their pursuit of it, but on the contrary, to keep them from it all we +can, as from that which is most hurtful and deadly; or if it is a good +thing, so that we not only may, but ought to help others to it, why then +ought not a man to begin with himself? Since no man can be more bound to +look after the good of another than after his own; for Nature cannot +direct us to be good and kind to others, and yet at the same time to be +unmerciful and cruel to ourselves. Thus, as they define virtue to be +living according to Nature, so they imagine that Nature prompts all +people on to seek after pleasure, as the end of all they do. They also +observe that in order to our supporting the pleasures of life, Nature +inclines us to enter into society; for there is no man so much raised +above the rest of mankind as to be the only favourite of Nature, who, on +the contrary, seems to have placed on a level all those that belong to +the same species. Upon this they infer that no man ought to seek his own +conveniences so eagerly as to prejudice others; and therefore they think +that not only all agreements between private persons ought to be +observed; but likewise that all those laws ought to be kept, which +either a good prince has published in due form, or to which a people, +that is neither oppressed with tyranny nor circumvented by fraud, has +consented, for distributing those conveniences of life which afford us +all our pleasures. + +They think it is an evidence of true wisdom for a man to pursue his own +advantages, as far as the laws allow it. They account it piety to prefer +the public good to one's private concerns; but they think it unjust for +a man to seek for pleasure, by snatching another man's pleasures from +him. And on the contrary, they think it a sign of a gentle and good +soul, for a man to dispense with his own advantage for the good of +others; and that by this means a good man finds as much pleasure one +way, as he parts with another; for as he may expect the like from others +when he may come to need it, so if that should fail him, yet the sense +of a good action, and the reflections that he makes on the love and +gratitude of those whom he has so obliged, gives the mind more pleasure +than the body could have found in that from which it had restrained +itself. They are also persuaded that God will make up the loss of those +small pleasures, with a vast and endless joy, of which religion easily +convinces a good soul. + +Thus upon an inquiry into the whole matter, they reckon that all our +actions, and even all our virtues, terminate in pleasure, as in our +chief end and greatest happiness; and they call every motion or state, +either of body or mind, in which Nature teaches us to delight, a +pleasure. Thus they cautiously limit pleasure only to those appetites to +which Nature leads us; for they say that Nature leads us only to those +delights to which reason as well as sense carries us, and by which we +neither injure any other person, nor lose the possession of greater +pleasures, and of such as draw no troubles after them; but they look +upon those delights which men by a foolish, though common, mistake call +pleasure, as if they could change as easily the nature of things as the +use of words; as things that greatly obstruct their real happiness, +instead of advancing it, because they so entirely possess the minds of +those that are once captivated by them with a false notion of pleasure, +that there is no room left for pleasures of a truer or purer kind. + +There are many things that in themselves have nothing that is truly +delightful; on the contrary, they have a good deal of bitterness in +them; and yet from our perverse appetites after forbidden objects, are +not only ranked among the pleasures, but are made even the greatest +designs of life. Among those who pursue these sophisticated pleasures, +they reckon such as I mentioned before, who think themselves really the +better for having fine clothes; in which they think they are doubly +mistaken, both in the opinion that they have of their clothes, and in +that they have of themselves; for if you consider the use of clothes, +why should a fine thread be thought better than a coarse one? And yet +these men, as if they had some real advantages beyond others, and did +not owe them wholly to their mistakes, look big, seem to fancy +themselves to be more valuable, and imagine that a respect is due to +them for the sake of a rich garment, to which they would not have +pretended if they had been more meanly clothed; and even resent it as an +affront, if that respect is not paid them. It is also a great folly to +be taken with outward marks of respect, which signify nothing: for what +true or real pleasure can one man find in another's standing bare, or +making legs to him? Will the bending another man's knees give ease to +yours? And will the head's being bare cure the madness of yours? And yet +it is wonderful to see how this false notion of pleasure bewitches many +who delight themselves with the fancy of their nobility, and are pleased +with this conceit, that they are descended from ancestors, who have been +held for some successions rich, and who have had great possessions; for +this is all that makes nobility at present; yet they do not think +themselves a whit the less noble, though their immediate parents have +left none of this wealth to them, or though they themselves have +squandered it away. The Utopians have no better opinion of those who are +much taken with gems and precious stones, and who account it a degree of +happiness, next to a divine one, if they can purchase one that is very +extraordinary; especially if it be of that sort of stones that is then +in greatest request; for the same sort is not at all times universally +of the same value; nor will men buy it unless it be dismounted and taken +out of the gold; the jeweller is then made to give good security, and +required solemnly to swear that the stone is true, that by such an exact +caution a false one might not be bought instead of a true: though if you +were to examine it, your eye could find no difference between the +counterfeit and that which is true; so that they are all one to you as +much as if you were blind. Or can it be thought that they who heap up an +useless mass of wealth, not for any use that it is to bring them, but +merely to please themselves with the contemplation of it, enjoy any true +pleasure in it? The delight they find is only a false shadow of joy. +Those are no better whose error is somewhat different from the former, +and who hide it, out of their fear of losing it; for what other name can +fit the hiding it in the earth, or rather the restoring it to it again, +it being thus cut off from being useful, either to its owner or to the +rest of mankind? And yet the owner having hid it carefully, is glad, +because he thinks he is now sure of it. If it should be stole, the +owner, though he might live perhaps ten years after the theft, of which +he knew nothing, would find no difference between his having or losing +it; for both ways it was equally useless to him. + +Among those foolish pursuers of pleasure, they reckon all that delight +in hunting, in fowling, or gaming: of whose madness they have only +heard, for they have no such things among them. But they have asked us, +what sort of pleasure is it that men can find in throwing the dice? For +if there were any pleasure in it, they think the doing of it so often +should give one a surfeit of it: and what pleasure can one find in +hearing the barking and howling of dogs, which seem rather odious than +pleasant sounds? Nor can they comprehend the pleasure of seeing dogs run +after a hare, more than of seeing one dog run after another; for if the +seeing them run is that which gives the pleasure, you have the same +entertainment to the eye on both these occasions; since that is the same +in both cases: but if the pleasure lies in seeing the hare killed and +torn by the dogs, this ought rather to stir pity, that a weak, harmless +and fearful hare should be devoured by strong, fierce, and cruel dogs. +Therefore all this business of hunting is, among the Utopians, turned +over to their butchers; and those, as has been already said, are all +slaves; and they look on hunting as one of the basest parts of a +butcher's work: for they account it both more profitable and more decent +to kill those beasts that are more necessary and useful to mankind; +whereas the killing and tearing of so small and miserable an animal can +only attract the huntsman with a false show of pleasure, from which he +can reap but small advantage. They look on the desire of the bloodshed, +even of beasts, as a mark of a mind that is already corrupted with +cruelty, or that at least by the frequent returns of so brutal a +pleasure must degenerate into it. + +Thus, though the rabble of mankind look upon these, and on innumerable +other things of the same nature, as pleasures; the Utopians, on the +contrary, observing that there is nothing in them truly pleasant, +conclude that they are not to be reckoned among pleasures: for though +these things may create some tickling in the senses (which seems to be a +true notion of pleasure), yet they imagine that this does not arise +from the thing itself, but from a depraved custom, which may so vitiate +a man's taste, that bitter things may pass for sweet; as women with +child think pitch or tallow taste sweeter than honey; but as a man's +sense when corrupted, either by a disease or some ill habit, does not +change the nature of other things, so neither can it change the nature +of pleasure. + +They reckon up several sorts of pleasures, which they call true ones: +some belong to the body and others to the mind. The pleasures of the +mind lie in knowledge, and in that delight which the contemplation of +truth carries with it; to which they add the joyful reflections on a +well-spent life, and the assured hopes of a future happiness. They +divide the pleasures of the body into two sorts; the one is that which +gives our senses some real delight, and is performed, either by +recruiting nature, and supplying those parts which feed the internal +heat of life by eating and drinking; or when nature is eased of any +surcharge that oppresses it; when we are relieved from sudden pain, or +that which arises from satisfying the appetite which Nature has wisely +given to lead us to the propagation of the species. There is another +kind of pleasure that arises neither from our receiving what the body +requires, nor its being relieved when overcharged, and yet by a secret, +unseen virtue affects the senses, raises the passions, and strikes the +mind with generous impressions; this is the pleasure that arises from +music. Another kind of bodily pleasure is that which results from an +undisturbed and vigorous constitution of body, when life and active +spirits seem to actuate every part. This lively health, when entirely +free from all mixture of pain, of itself gives an inward pleasure, +independent of all external objects of delight; and though this pleasure +does not so powerfully affect us, nor act so strongly on the senses as +some of the others, yet it may be esteemed as the greatest of all +pleasures, and almost all the Utopians reckon it the foundation and +basis of all the other joys of life; since this alone makes the state +of life easy and desirable; and when this is wanting, a man is really +capable of no other pleasure. They look upon freedom from pain, if it +does not rise from perfect health, to be a state of stupidity rather +than of pleasure. This subject has been very narrowly canvassed among +them; and it has been debated whether a firm and entire health could be +called a pleasure or not? Some have thought that there was no pleasure +but what was excited by some sensible motion in the body. But this +opinion has been long ago excluded from among them, so that now they +almost universally agree that health is the greatest of all bodily +pleasures; and that as there is a pain in sickness, which is as opposite +in its nature to pleasure as sickness itself is to health; so they hold, +that health is accompanied with pleasure: and if any should say that +sickness is not really pain, but that it only carries pain along with +it, they look upon that as a fetch of subtilty, that does not much alter +the matter. It is all one, in their opinion, whether it be said that +health is in itself a pleasure, or that it begets a pleasure, as fire +gives heat; so it be granted, that all those whose health is entire have +a true pleasure in the enjoyment of it: and they reason thus--what is +the pleasure of eating, but that a man's health which had been weakened, +does, with the assistance of food, drive away hunger, and so recruiting +itself recovers its former vigour? And being thus refreshed, it finds a +pleasure in that conflict; and if the conflict is pleasure, the victory +must yet breed a greater pleasure, except we fancy that it becomes +stupid as soon as it has obtained that which it pursued, and so neither +knows nor rejoices in its own welfare. If it is said that health cannot +be felt, they absolutely deny it; for what man is in health that does +not perceive it when he is awake? Is there any man that is so dull and +stupid as not to acknowledge that he feels a delight in health? And what +is delight but another name for pleasure? + +But of all pleasures, they esteem those to be most valuable that lie in +the mind; the chief of which arises out of true virtue, and the witness +of a good conscience. They account health the chief pleasure that +belongs to the body; for they think that the pleasure of eating and +drinking, and all the other delights of sense, are only so far desirable +as they give or maintain health. But they are not pleasant in +themselves, otherwise than as they resist those impressions that our +natural infirmities are still making upon us: for as a wise man desires +rather to avoid diseases than to take physic; and to be freed from pain, +rather than to find ease by remedies; so it is more desirable not to +need this sort of pleasure, than to be obliged to indulge it. If any man +imagines that there is a real happiness in these enjoyments, he must +then confess that he would be the happiest of all men if he were to lead +his life in perpetual hunger, thirst, and itching, and by consequence in +perpetual eating, drinking, and scratching himself; which any one may +easily see would be not only a base, but a miserable state of a life. +These are indeed the lowest of pleasures, and the least pure; for we can +never relish them, but when they are mixed with the contrary pains. The +pain of hunger must give us the pleasure of eating; and here the pain +out-balances the pleasure; and as the pain is more vehement, so it lasts +much longer; for as it begins before the pleasure, so it does not cease +but with the pleasure that extinguishes it, and both expire together. +They think, therefore, none of those pleasures are to be valued any +further than as they are necessary; yet they rejoice in them, and with +due gratitude acknowledge the tenderness of the great Author of Nature, +who has planted in us appetites, by which those things that are +necessary for our preservation are likewise made pleasant to us. For how +miserable a thing would life be, if those daily diseases of hunger and +thirst were to be carried off by such bitter drugs as we must use for +those diseases that return seldomer upon us? And thus these pleasant as +well as proper gifts of Nature maintain the strength and the +sprightliness of our bodies. + +They also entertain themselves with the other delights let in at their +eyes, their ears, and their nostrils, as the pleasant relishes and +seasonings of life, which Nature seems to have marked out peculiarly for +man; since no other sort of animals contemplates the figure and beauty +of the universe; nor is delighted with smells, any farther than as they +distinguish meats by them; not do they apprehend the concords or +discords of sound; yet in all pleasures whatsoever they take care that a +lesser joy does not hinder a greater, and that pleasure may never breed +pain, which they think always follows dishonest pleasures. But they +think it madness for a man to wear out the beauty of his face, or the +force of his natural strength; to corrupt the sprightliness of his body +by sloth and laziness, or to waste it by fasting; that it is madness to +weaken the strength of his constitution, and reject the other delights +of life; unless by renouncing his own satisfaction, he can either serve +the public or promote the happiness of others, for which he expects a +greater recompense from God. So that they look on such a course of life +as the mark of a mind that is both cruel to itself, and ungrateful to +the Author of Nature, as if we would not be beholden to Him for His +favours, and therefore rejects all His blessings; as one who should +afflict himself for the empty shadow of virtue; or for no better end +than to render himself capable of bearing those misfortunes which +possibly will never happen. + +This is their notion of virtue and of pleasure; they think that no man's +reason can carry him to a truer idea of them, unless some discovery from +Heaven should inspire him with sublimer notions. I have not now the +leisure to examine whether they think right or wrong in this matter: nor +do I judge it necessary, for I have only undertaken to give you an +account of their constitution, but not to defend all their principles. I +am sure, that whatsoever may be said of their notions, there is not in +the whole world either a better people or a happier government: their +bodies are vigorous and lively; and though they are but of a middle +stature, and have neither the fruitfullest soil nor the purest air in +the world, yet they fortify themselves so well by their temperate course +of life, against the unhealthiness of their air, and by their industry +they so cultivate their soil, that there is nowhere to be seen a greater +increase both of corn and cattle, nor are there anywhere healthier men, +and freer from diseases: for one may there see reduced to practice, not +only all the art that the husbandman employs in manuring and improving +an ill soil, but whole woods plucked up by the roots, and in other +places new ones planted, where there were none before. Their principal +motive for this is the convenience of carriage, that their timber may be +either near their towns, or growing on the banks of the sea, or of some +rivers, so as to be floated to them; for it is a harder work to carry +wood at any distance over land, than corn. The people are industrious, +apt to learn, as well as cheerful and pleasant; and none can endure more +labour, when it is necessary; but except in that case they love their +ease. They are unwearied pursuers of knowledge; for when we had given +them some hints of the learning and discipline of the Greeks, concerning +whom we only instructed them (for we know that there was nothing among +the Romans, except their historians and their poets, that they would +value much), it was strange to see how eagerly they were set on learning +that language. We began to read a little of it to them, rather in +compliance with their importunity, than out of any hopes of their +reaping from it any great advantage. But after a very short trial, we +found they made such progress, that we saw our labour was like to be +more successful than we could have expected. They learned to write +their characters, and to pronounce their language so exactly, had so +quick an apprehension, they remembered it so faithfully, and became so +ready and correct in the use of it, that it would have looked like a +miracle if the greater part of those whom we taught had not been men +both of extraordinary capacity and of a fit age for instruction. They +were for the greatest part chosen from among their learned men, by their +chief council, though some studied it of their own accord. In three +years' time they became masters of the whole language, so that they read +the best of the Greek authors very exactly. I am indeed apt to think +that they learned that language the more easily, from its having some +relation to their own. I believe that they were a colony of the Greeks; +for though their language comes nearer the Persian, yet they retain many +names, both for their towns and magistrates, that are of Greek +derivation. I happened to carry a great many books with me, instead of +merchandise, when I sailed my fourth voyage; for I was so far from +thinking of soon coming back, that I rather thought never to have +returned at all, and I gave them all my books, among which were many of +Plato's and some of Aristotle's works. I had also Theophrastus on +Plants, which, to my great regret, was imperfect; for having laid it +carelessly by, while we were at sea, a monkey had seized upon it, and in +many places torn out the leaves. They have no books of grammar but +Lascares, for I did not carry Theodorus with me; nor have they any +dictionaries but Hesichius and Dioscorides. They esteem Plutarch highly, +and were much taken with Lucian's wit, and with his pleasant way of +writing. As for the poets, they have Aristophanes, Homer, Euripides, and +Sophocles of Aldus's edition; and for historians Thucydides, Herodotus +and Herodian. One of my companions, Thricius Apinatus, happened to carry +with him some of Hippocrates's works, and Galen's Microtechne, which +they hold in great estimation; for though there is no nation in the +world that needs physic so little as they do, yet there is not any that +honours it so much: they reckon the knowledge of it one of the +pleasantest and most profitable parts of philosophy, by which, as they +search into the secrets of Nature, so they not only find this study +highly agreeable, but think that such inquiries are very acceptable to +the Author of Nature; and imagine that as He, like the inventors of +curious engines amongst mankind, has exposed this great machine of the +universe to the view of the only creatures capable of contemplating it, +so an exact and curious observer, who admires His workmanship, is much +more acceptable to Him than one of the herd, who like a beast incapable +of reason, looks on this glorious scene with the eyes of a dull and +unconcerned spectator. + +The minds of the Utopians when fenced with a love for learning, are very +ingenious in discovering all such arts as are necessary to carry it to +perfection. Two things they owe to us, the manufacture of paper, and the +art of printing: yet they are not so entirely indebted to us for these +discoveries, but that a great part of the invention was their own. We +showed them some books printed by Aldus, we explained to them the way of +making paper, and the mystery of printing; but as we had never practised +these arts, we described them in a crude and superficial manner. They +seized the hints we gave them, and though at first they could not arrive +at perfection, yet by making many essays they at last found out and +corrected all their errors, and conquered every difficulty. Before this +they only wrote on parchment, on reeds, or on the barks of trees; but +now they have established the manufactures of paper, and set up +printing-presses, so that if they had but a good number of Greek authors +they would be quickly supplied with many copies of them: at present, +though they have no more than those I have mentioned, yet by several +impressions they have multiplied them into many thousands. If any man +was to go among them that had some extraordinary talent, or that by +much travelling had observed the customs of many nations (which made us +to be so well received), he would receive a hearty welcome; for they are +very desirous to know the state of the whole world. Very few go among +them on the account of traffic, for what can a man carry to them but +iron, or gold, or silver, which merchants desire rather to export than +import to a strange country: and as for their exportation, they think it +better to manage that themselves than to leave it to foreigners, for by +this means, as they understand the state of the neighbouring countries +better, so they keep up the art of navigation, which cannot be +maintained but by much practice. + + +OF THEIR SLAVES, AND OF THEIR MARRIAGES. + +They do not make slaves of prisoners of war, except those that are taken +in battle; nor of the sons of their slaves, nor of those of other +nations: the slaves among them are only such as are condemned to that +state of life for the commission of some crime, or, which is more +common, such as their merchants find condemned to die in those parts to +which they trade, whom they sometimes redeem at low rates; and in other +places have them for nothing. They are kept at perpetual labour, and are +always chained, but with this difference, that their own natives are +treated much worse than others; they are considered as more profligate +than the rest, and since they could not be restrained by the advantages +of so excellent an education, are judged worthy of harder usage. Another +sort of slaves are the poor of the neighbouring countries, who offer of +their own accord to come and serve them; they treat these better, and +use them in all other respects as well as their own countrymen, except +their imposing more labour upon them, which is no hard task to those +that have been accustomed to it; and if any of these have a mind to go +back to their own country, which indeed falls out but seldom, as they do +not force them to stay, so they do not send them away empty-handed. + +I have already told you with what care they look after their sick, so +that nothing is left undone that can contribute either to their ease or +health: and for those who are taken with fixed and incurable diseases, +they use all possible ways to cherish them, and to make their lives as +comfortable as possible. They visit them often, and take great pains to +make their time pass off easily: but when any is taken with a torturing +and lingering pain, so that there is no hope, either of recovery or +ease, the priests and magistrates come and exhort them, that since they +are now unable to go on with the business of life, are become a burden +to themselves and to all about them, and they have really outlived +themselves, they should no longer nourish such a rooted distemper, but +choose rather to die, since they cannot live but in much misery: being +assured, that if they thus deliver themselves from torture, or are +willing that others should do it, they shall be happy after death. Since +by their acting thus, they lose none of the pleasures, but only the +troubles of life; they think they behave not only reasonably, but in a +manner consistent with religion and piety; because they follow the +advice given them by their priests, who are the expounders of the will +of God. Such as are wrought on by these persuasions, either starve +themselves of their own accord, or take opium, and by that means die +without pain. But no man is forced on this way of ending his life; and +if they cannot be persuaded to it, this does not induce them to fail in +their attendance and care of them; but as they believe that a voluntary +death, when it is chosen upon such an authority, is very honourable, so +if any man takes away his own life, without the approbation of the +priests and the Senate, they give him none of the honours of a decent +funeral, but throw his body into a ditch. + +Their women are not married before eighteen, nor their men before +two-and-twenty, and if any of them run into forbidden embraces before +marriage they are severely punished, and the privilege of marriage is +denied them, unless they can obtain a special warrant from the Prince. +Such disorders cast a great reproach upon the master and mistress of the +family in which they happen, for it is supposed that they have failed in +their duty. The reason of punishing this so severely is, because they +think that if they were not strictly restrained from all vagrant +appetites, very few would engage in a state in which they venture the +quiet of their whole lives, by being confined to one person, and are +obliged to endure all the inconveniences with which it is accompanied. +In choosing their wives they use a method that would appear to us very +absurd and ridiculous, but it is constantly observed among them, and is +accounted perfectly consistent with wisdom. Before marriage some grave +matron presents the bride naked, whether she is a virgin or a widow, to +the bridegroom; and after that some grave man presents the bridegroom +naked to the bride. We indeed both laughed at this, and condemned it as +very indecent. But they, on the other hand, wondered at the folly of the +men of all other nations, who, if they are but to buy a horse of a small +value, are so cautious that they will see every part of him, and take +off both his saddle and all his other tackle, that there may be no +secret ulcer hid under any of them; and that yet in the choice of a +wife, on which depends the happiness or unhappiness of the rest of his +life, a man should venture upon trust, and only see about a +hand's-breadth of the face, all the rest of the body being covered, +under which there may lie hid what may be contagious, as well as +loathsome. All men are not so wise as to choose a woman only for her +good qualities; and even wise men consider the body as that which adds +not a little to the mind: and it is certain there may be some such +deformity covered with the clothes as may totally alienate a man from +his wife when it is too late to part with her. If such a thing is +discovered after marriage, a man has no remedy but patience. They +therefore think it is reasonable that there should be good provision +made against such mischievous frauds. + +There was so much the more reason for them to make a regulation in this +matter, because they are the only people of those parts that neither +allow of polygamy, nor of divorces, except in the case of adultery, or +insufferable perverseness; for in these cases the Senate dissolves the +marriage, and grants the injured person leave to marry again; but the +guilty are made infamous, and are never allowed the privilege of a +second marriage. None are suffered to put away their wives against their +wills, from any great calamity that may have fallen on their persons; +for they look on it as the height of cruelty and treachery to abandon +either of the married persons when they need most the tender care of +their comfort, and that chiefly in the case of old age, which as it +carries many diseases along with it, so it is a disease of itself. But +it frequently falls out that when a married couple do not well agree, +they by mutual consent separate, and find out other persons with whom +they hope they may live more happily. Yet this is not done without +obtaining leave of the Senate, which never admits of a divorce, but upon +a strict inquiry made, both by the senators and their wives, into the +grounds upon which it is desired; and even when they are satisfied +concerning the reasons of it, they go on but slowly, for they imagine +that too great easiness in granting leave for new marriages would very +much shake the kindness of married people. They punish severely those +that defile the marriage-bed. If both parties are married they are +divorced, and the injured persons may marry one another, or whom they +please; but the adulterer and the adulteress are condemned to slavery. +Yet if either of the injured persons cannot shake off the love of the +married person, they may live with them still in that state, but they +must follow them to that labour to which the slaves are condemned; and +sometimes the repentance of the condemned, together with the unshaken +kindness of the innocent and injured person, has prevailed so far with +the Prince that he has taken off the sentence; but those that relapse +after they are once pardoned are punished with death. + +Their law does not determine the punishment for other crimes; but that +is left to the Senate, to temper it according to the circumstances of +the fact. Husbands have power to correct their wives, and parents to +chastise their children, unless the fault is so great that a public +punishment is thought necessary for striking terror into others. For the +most part, slavery is the punishment even of the greatest crimes; for as +that is no less terrible to the criminals themselves than death, so they +think the preserving them in a state of servitude is more for the +interest of the commonwealth than killing them; since as their labour is +a greater benefit to the public than their death could be, so the sight +of their misery is a more lasting terror to other men than that which +would be given by their death. If their slaves rebel, and will not bear +their yoke, and submit to the labour that is enjoined them, they are +treated as wild beasts that cannot be kept in order, neither by a +prison, nor by their chains; and are at last put to death. But those who +bear their punishment patiently, and are so much wrought on by that +pressure that lies so hard on them that it appears they are really more +troubled for the crimes they have committed than for the miseries they +suffer, are not out of hope but that at last either the Prince will, by +his prerogative, or the people by their intercession, restore them again +to their liberty, or at least very much mitigate their slavery. He that +tempts a married woman to adultery, is no less severely punished than he +that commits it; for they believe that a deliberate design to commit a +crime, is equal to the fact itself: since its not taking effect does +not make the person that miscarried in his attempt at all the less +guilty. + +They take great pleasure in fools, and as it is thought a base and +unbecoming thing to use them ill, so they do not think it amiss for +people to divert themselves with their folly: and, in their opinion, +this is a great advantage to the fools themselves: for if men were so +sullen and severe as not at all to please themselves with their +ridiculous behaviour and foolish sayings, which is all that they can do +to recommend themselves to others, it could not be expected that they +would be so well provided for, nor so tenderly used as they must +otherwise be. If any man should reproach another for his being misshaped +or imperfect in any part of his body, it would not at all be thought a +reflection on the person so treated, but it would be accounted +scandalous in him that had upbraided another with what he could not +help. It is thought a sign of a sluggish and sordid mind not to preserve +carefully one's natural beauty; but it is likewise infamous among them +to use paint. They all see that no beauty recommends a wife so much to +her husband as the probity of her life, and her obedience: for as some +few are catched and held only by beauty, so all are attracted by the +other excellences which charm all the world. + +As they fright men from committing crimes by punishments, so they invite +them to the love of virtue by public honours: therefore they erect +statues to the memories of such worthy men as have deserved well of +their country, and set these in their market-places, both to perpetuate +the remembrance of their actions, and to be an incitement to their +posterity to follow their example. + +If any man aspires to any office, he is sure never to compass it: they +all live easily together, for none of the magistrates are either +insolent or cruel to the people: they affect rather to be called +fathers, and by being really so, they well deserve the name; and the +people pay them all the marks of honour the more freely, because none +are exacted from them. The Prince himself has no distinction, either of +garments, or of a crown; but is only distinguished by a sheaf of corn +carried before him; as the high priest is also known by his being +preceded by a person carrying a wax light. + +They have but few laws, and such is their constitution that they need +not many. They very much condemn other nations, whose laws, together +with the commentaries on them, swell up to so many volumes; for they +think it an unreasonable thing to oblige men to obey a body of laws that +are both of such a bulk, and so dark as not to be read and understood by +every one of the subjects. + +They have no lawyers among them, for they consider them as a sort of +people whose profession it is to disguise matters, and to wrest the +laws; and therefore they think it is much better that every man should +plead his own cause, and trust it to the judge, as in other places the +client trusts it to a counsellor. By this means they both cut off many +delays, and find out truth more certainly: for after the parties have +laid open the merits of the cause, without those artifices which lawyers +are apt to suggest, the judge examines the whole matter, and supports +the simplicity of such well-meaning persons, whom otherwise crafty men +would be sure to run down: and thus they avoid those evils which appear +very remarkably among all those nations that labour under a vast load of +laws. Every one of them is skilled in their law, for as it is a very +short study, so the plainest meaning of which words are capable is +always the sense of their laws. And they argue thus: all laws are +promulgated for this end, that every man may know his duty; and +therefore the plainest and most obvious sense of the words is that which +ought to be put upon them; since a more refined exposition cannot be +easily comprehended, and would only serve to make the laws become +useless to the greater part of mankind, and especially to those who need +most the direction of them: for it is all one, not to make a law at +all, or to couch it in such terms that without a quick apprehension, and +much study, a man cannot find out the true meaning of it; since the +generality of mankind are both so dull, and so much employed in their +several trades, that they have neither the leisure nor the capacity +requisite for such an inquiry. + +Some of their neighbours, who are masters of their own liberties, having +long ago, by the assistance of the Utopians, shaken off the yoke of +tyranny, and being much taken with those virtues which they observe +among them, have come to desire that they would send magistrates to +govern them; some changing them every year, and others every five years. +At the end of their government they bring them back to Utopia, with +great expressions of honour and esteem, and carry away others to govern +in their stead. In this they seem to have fallen upon a very good +expedient for their own happiness and safety; for since the good or ill +condition of a nation depends so much upon their magistrates, they could +not have made a better choice than by pitching on men whom no advantages +can bias; for wealth is of no use to them, since they must so soon go +back to their own country; and they being strangers among them, are not +engaged in any of their heats or animosities; and it is certain that +when public judicatories are swayed, either by avarice or partial +affections, there must follow a dissolution of justice, the chief sinew +of society. + +The Utopians call those nations that come and ask magistrates from them, +neighbours; but those to whom they have been of more particular service, +friends. And as all other nations are perpetually either making leagues +or breaking them, they never enter into an alliance with any state. They +think leagues are useless things, and believe that if the common ties of +humanity do not knit men together, the faith of promises will have no +great effect; and they are the more confirmed in this by what they see +among the nations round about them, who are no strict observers of +leagues and treaties. We know how religiously they are observed in +Europe, more particularly where the Christian doctrine is received, +among whom they are sacred and inviolable. Which is partly owing to the +justice and goodness of the princes themselves, and partly to the +reverence they pay to the popes; who as they are most religious +observers of their own promises, so they exhort all other princes to +perform theirs; and when fainter methods do not prevail, they compel +them to it by the severity of the pastoral censure, and think that it +would be the most indecent thing possible if men who are particularly +distinguished by the title of the faithful, should not religiously keep +the faith of their treaties. But in that new-found world, which is not +more distant from us in situation than the people are in their manners +and course of life, there is no trusting to leagues, even though they +were made with all the pomp of the most sacred ceremonies; on the +contrary, they are on this account the sooner broken, some slight +pretence being found in the words of the treaties, which are purposely +couched in such ambiguous terms that they can never be so strictly bound +but they will always find some loophole to escape at; and thus they +break both their leagues and their faith. And this is done with such +impudence, that those very men who value themselves on having suggested +these expedients to their princes, would with a haughty scorn declaim +against such craft, or to speak plainer, such fraud and deceit, if they +found private men make use of it in their bargains, and would readily +say that they deserved to be hanged. + +By this means it is, that all sort of justice passes in the world for a +low-spirited and vulgar virtue, far below the dignity of royal +greatness. Or at least, there are set up two sorts of justice; the one +is mean, and creeps on the ground, and therefore becomes none but the +lower part of mankind, and so must be kept in severely by many +restraints that it may not break out beyond the bounds that are set to +it. The other is the peculiar virtue of princes, which as it is more +majestic than that which becomes the rabble, so takes a freer compass; +and thus lawful and unlawful are only measured by pleasure and interest. +These practices of the princes that lie about Utopia, who make so little +account of their faith, seem to be the reasons that determine them to +engage in no confederacies; perhaps they would change their mind if they +lived among us; but yet though treaties were more religiously observed, +they would still dislike the custom of making them; since the world has +taken up a false maxim upon it, as if there were no tie of Nature +uniting one nation to another, only separated perhaps by a mountain or a +river, and that all were born in a state of hostility, and so might +lawfully do all that mischief to their neighbours against which there is +no provision made by treaties; and that when treaties are made, they do +not cut off the enmity, or restrain the license of preying upon each +other, if by the unskilfulness of wording them there are not effectual +provisoes made against them. They, on the other hand, judge that no man +is to be esteemed our enemy that has never injured us; and that the +partnership of the human nature is instead of a league. And that +kindness and good-nature unite men more effectually and with greater +strength than any agreements whatsoever; since thereby the engagements +of men's hearts become stronger than the bond and obligation of words. + + +OF THEIR MILITARY DISCIPLINE. + +They detest war as a very brutal thing; and which, to the reproach of +human nature, is more practised by men than by any sort of beasts. They, +in opposition to the sentiments of almost all other nations, think that +there is nothing more inglorious than that glory that is gained by war. +And therefore though they accustom themselves daily to military +exercises and the discipline of war, in which not only their men but +their women likewise are trained up, that in cases of necessity they may +not be quite useless; yet they do not rashly engage in war, unless it be +either to defend themselves, or their friends, from any unjust +aggressors; or out of good-nature or in compassion assist an oppressed +nation in shaking off the yoke of tyranny. They indeed help their +friends, not only in defensive, but also in offensive wars; but they +never do that unless they had been consulted before the breach was made, +and being satisfied with the grounds on which they went, they had found +that all demands of reparation were rejected, so that a war was +unavoidable. This they think to be not only just, when one neighbour +makes an inroad on another, by public order, and carry away the spoils; +but when the merchants of one country are oppressed in another, either +under pretence of some unjust laws, or by the perverse wresting of good +ones. This they count a juster cause of war than the other, because +those injuries are done under some colour of laws. This was the only +ground of that war in which they engaged with the Nephelogetes against +the Aleopolitanes, a little before our time; for the merchants of the +former having, as they thought, met with great injustice among the +latter, which, whether it was in itself right or wrong, drew on a +terrible war, in which many of their neighbours were engaged; and their +keenness in carrying it on being supported by their strength in +maintaining it, it not only shook some very flourishing states, and very +much afflicted others, but after a series of much mischief ended in the +entire conquest and slavery of the Aleopolitanes, who though before the +war they were in all respects much superior to the Nephelogetes, were +yet subdued; but though the Utopians had assisted them in the war, yet +they pretended to no share of the spoil. + +But though they so vigorously assist their friends in obtaining +reparation for the injuries they have received in affairs of this +nature, yet if any such frauds was committed against themselves, +provided no violence was done to their persons, they would only on their +being refused satisfaction forbear trading with such a people. This is +not because they consider their neighbours more than their own citizens; +but since their neighbours trade every one upon his own stock, fraud is +a more sensible injury to them than it is to the Utopians, among whom +the public in such a case only suffers. As they expect nothing in return +for the merchandises they export but that in which they so much abound, +and is of little use to them, the loss does not much affect them; they +think therefore it would be too severe to revenge a loss attended with +so little inconvenience either to their lives, or their subsistence, +with the death of many persons; but if any of their people is either +killed or wounded wrongfully, whether it be done by public authority or +only by private men, as soon as they hear of it they send ambassadors, +and demand that the guilty persons may be delivered up to them; and if +that is denied, they declare war; but if it be complied with, the +offenders are condemned either to death or slavery. + +They would be both troubled and ashamed of a bloody victory over their +enemies, and think it would be as foolish a purchase as to buy the most +valuable goods at too high a rate. And in no victory do they glory so +much as in that which is gained by dexterity and good conduct, without +bloodshed. In such cases they appoint public triumphs, and erect +trophies to the honour of those who have succeeded; for then do they +reckon that a man acts suitably to his nature when he conquers his enemy +in such a way as that no other creature but a man could be capable of, +and that is by the strength of his understanding. Bears, lions, boars, +wolves, and dogs, and all other animals employ their bodily force one +against another, in which as many of them are superior to men, both in +strength and fierceness, so they are all subdued by his reason and +understanding. + +The only design of the Utopians in war is to obtain that by force, which +if it had been granted them in time would have prevented the war; or if +that cannot be done, to take so severe a revenge on those that have +injured them that they may be terrified from doing the like for the time +to come. By these ends they measure all their designs, and manage them +so that it is visible that the appetite of fame or vain-glory does not +work so much on them as a just care of their own security. + +As soon as they declare war, they take care to have a great many +schedules, that are sealed with their common seal, affixed in the most +conspicuous places of their enemies' country. This is carried secretly, +and done in many places all at once. In these they promise great rewards +to such as shall kill the prince, and lesser in proportion to such as +shall kill any other persons, who are those on whom, next to the prince +himself, they cast the chief balance of the war. And they double the sum +to him that, instead of killing the person so marked out, shall take him +alive and put him in their hands. They offer not only indemnity, but +rewards, to such of the persons themselves that are so marked, if they +will act against their countrymen: by this means those that are named in +their schedules become not only distrustful of their fellow-citizens, +but are jealous of one another, and are much distracted by fear and +danger; for it has often fallen out that many of them, and even the +Prince himself, have been betrayed by those in whom they have trusted +most: for the rewards that the Utopians offer are so unmeasurably great, +that there is no sort of crime to which men cannot be drawn by them. +They consider the risk that those run who undertake such services, and +offer a recompense proportioned to the danger; not only a vast deal of +gold, but great revenues in lands, that lie among other nations that are +their friends, where they may go and enjoy them very securely; and they +observe the promises they make of this kind most religiously. They very +much approve of this way of corrupting their enemies, though it appears +to others to be base and cruel; but they look on it as a wise course, to +make an end of what would be otherwise a long war, without so much as +hazarding one battle to decide it. They think it likewise an act of +mercy and love to mankind to prevent the great slaughter of those that +must otherwise be killed in the progress of the war, both on their own +side and on that of their enemies, by the death of a few that are most +guilty; and that in so doing they are kind even to their enemies, and +pity them no less than their own people, as knowing that the greater +part of them do not engage in the war of their own accord, but are +driven into it by the passions of their prince. + +If this method does not succeed with them, then they sow seeds of +contention among their enemies, and animate the prince's brother, or +some of the nobility, to aspire to the crown. If they cannot disunite +them by domestic broils, then they engage their neighbours against them, +and make them set on foot some old pretensions, which are never wanting +to princes when they have occasion for them. These they plentifully +supply with money, though but very sparingly with any auxiliary troops: +for they are so tender of their own people, that they would not +willingly exchange one of them, even with the prince of their enemies' +country. + +But as they keep their gold and silver only for such an occasion, so +when that offers itself they easily part with it, since it would be no +inconvenience to them though they should reserve nothing of it to +themselves. For besides the wealth that they have among them at home, +they have a vast treasure abroad, many nations round about them being +deep in their debt: so that they hire soldiers from all places for +carrying on their wars, but chiefly from the Zapolets, who live five +hundred miles east of Utopia. They are a rude, wild, and fierce nation, +who delight in the woods and rocks, among which they were born and bred +up. They are hardened both against heat, cold and labour, and know +nothing of the delicacies of life. They do not apply themselves to +agriculture, nor do they care either for their houses or their clothes. +Cattle is all that they look after; and for the greatest part they live +either by hunting, or upon rapine; and are made, as it were, only for +war. They watch all opportunities of engaging in it, and very readily +embrace such as are offered them. Great numbers of them will frequently +go out, and offer themselves for a very low pay, to serve any that will +employ them: they know none of the arts of life, but those that lead to +the taking it away; they serve those that hire them, both with much +courage and great fidelity; but will not engage to serve for any +determined time, and agree upon such terms, that the next day they may +go over to the enemies of those whom they serve, if they offer them a +greater encouragement: and will perhaps return to them the day after +that, upon a higher advance of their pay. There are few wars in which +they make not a considerable part of the armies of both sides: so it +often falls out that they who are related, and were hired in the same +country, and so have lived long and familiarly together, forgetting both +their relations and former friendship, kill one another upon no other +consideration than that of being hired to it for a little money, by +princes of different interests; and such a regard have they for money, +that they are easily wrought on by the difference of one penny a day to +change sides. So entirely does their avarice influence them; and yet +this money, which they value so highly, is of little use to them; for +what they purchase thus with their blood, they quickly waste on luxury, +which among them is but of a poor and miserable form. + +This nation serves the Utopians against all people whatsoever, for they +pay higher than any other. The Utopians hold this for a maxim, that as +they seek out the best sort of men for their own use at home, so they +make use of this worst sort of men for the consumption of war, and +therefore they hire them with the offers of vast rewards, to expose +themselves to all sorts of hazards, out of which the greater part never +returns to claim their promises. Yet they make them good most +religiously to such as escape. This animates them to adventure again, +whenever there is occasion for it; for the Utopians are not at all +troubled how many of these happen to be killed, and reckon it a service +done to mankind if they could be a means to deliver the world from such +a lewd and vicious sort of people, that seem to have run together as to +the drain of human nature. Next to these they are served in their wars +with those upon whose account they undertake them, and with the +auxiliary troops of their other friends, to whom they join a few of +their own people, and send some men of eminent and approved virtue to +command in chief. There are two sent with him, who during his command +are but private men, but the first is to succeed him if he should happen +to be either killed or taken; and in case of the like misfortune to him, +the third comes in his place; and thus they provide against ill events, +that such accidents as may befall their generals may not endanger their +armies. When they draw out troops of their own people, they take such +out of every city as freely offer themselves, for none are forced to go +against their wills, since they think that if any man is pressed that +wants courage, he will not only act faintly, but by his cowardice +dishearten others. But if an invasion is made on their country they make +use of such men, if they have good bodies, though they are not brave; +and either put them aboard their ships or place them on the walls of +their towns, that being so posted they may find no opportunity of flying +away; and thus either shame, the heat of action, or the impossibility of +flying, bears down their cowardice; they often make a virtue of +necessity and behave themselves well, because nothing else is left them. +But as they force no man to go into any foreign war against his will, so +they do not hinder those women who are willing to go along with their +husbands; on the contrary, they encourage and praise them, and they +stand often next their husbands in the front of the army. They also +place together those who are related, parents and children, kindred, and +those that are mutually allied, near one another; that those whom Nature +has inspired with the greatest zeal for assisting one another, may be +the nearest and readiest to do it; and it is matter of great reproach if +husband or wife survive one another, or if a child survives his parents, +and therefore when they come to be engaged in action they continue to +fight to the last man, if their enemies stand before them. And as they +use all prudent methods to avoid the endangering their own men, and if +it is possible let all the action and danger fall upon the troops that +they hire, so if it becomes necessary for themselves to engage, they +then charge with as much courage as they avoided it before with +prudence: nor is it a fierce charge at first, but it increases by +degrees; and as they continue in action, they grow more obstinate and +press harder upon the enemy, insomuch that they will much sooner die +than give ground; for the certainty that their children will be well +looked after when they are dead, frees them from all that anxiety +concerning them which often masters men of great courage; and thus they +are animated by a noble and invincible resolution. Their skill in +military affairs increases their courage; and the wise sentiments which, +according to the laws of their country are instilled into them in their +education, give additional vigour to their minds: for as they do not +undervalue life so as prodigally to throw it away, they are not so +indecently fond of it as to preserve it by base and unbecoming methods. +In the greatest heat of action, the bravest of their youth, who have +devoted themselves to that service, single out the general of their +enemies, set on him either openly or by ambuscade, pursue him +everywhere, and when spent and wearied out, are relieved by others, who +never give over the pursuit; either attacking him with close weapons +when they can get near him, or with those which wound at a distance, +when others get in between them; so that unless he secures himself by +flight, they seldom fail at last to kill or to take him prisoner. When +they have obtained a victory, they kill as few as possible, and are much +more bent on taking many prisoners than on killing those that fly before +them; nor do they ever let their men so loose in the pursuit of their +enemies, as not to retain an entire body still in order; so that if they +have been forced to engage the last of their battalions before they +could gain the day, they will rather let their enemies all escape than +pursue them, when their own army is in disorder; remembering well what +has often fallen out to themselves, that when the main body of their +army has been quite defeated and broken, when their enemies imagining +the victory obtained, have let themselves loose into an irregular +pursuit, a few of them that lay for a reserve, waiting a fit +opportunity, have fallen on them in their chase, and when straggling in +disorder and apprehensive of no danger, but counting the day their own, +have turned the whole action, and wresting out of their hands a victory +that seemed certain and undoubted, while the vanquished have suddenly +become victorious. + +It is hard to tell whether they are more dexterous in laying or avoiding +ambushes. They sometimes seem to fly when it is far from their thoughts; +and when they intend to give ground, they do it so that it is very hard +to find out their design. If they see they are ill posted, or are like +to be overpowered by numbers, they then either march off in the night +with great silence, or by some stratagem delude their enemies: if they +retire in the daytime, they do it in such order, that it is no less +dangerous to fall upon them in a retreat than in a march. They fortify +their camps with a deep and large trench, and throw up the earth that is +dug out of it for a wall; nor do they employ only their slaves in this, +but the whole army works at it, except those that are then upon the +guard; so that when so many hands are at work, a great line and a strong +fortification is finished in so short a time that it is scarce credible. +Their armour is very strong for defence, and yet is not so heavy as to +make them uneasy in their marches; they can even swim with it. All that +are trained up to war, practise swimming. Both horse and foot make great +use of arrows, and are very expert. They have no swords, but fight with +a pole-axe that is both sharp and heavy, by which they thrust or strike +down an enemy. They are very good at finding out warlike machines, and +disguise them so well, that the enemy does not perceive them till he +feels the use of them; so that he cannot prepare such a defence as would +render them useless; the chief consideration had in the making them, is +that they may be easily carried and managed. + +If they agree to a truce, they observe it so religiously that no +provocations will make them break it. They never lay their enemies' +country waste, nor burn their corn, and even in their marches they take +all possible care that neither horse nor foot may tread it down, for +they do not know but that they may have use for it themselves. They hurt +no man whom they find disarmed, unless he is a spy. When a town is +surrendered to them, they take it into their protection: and when they +carry a place by storm, they never plunder it, but put those only to the +sword that opposed the rendering of it up, and make the rest of the +garrison slaves, but for the other inhabitants, they do them no hurt; +and if any of them had advised a surrender, they give them good rewards +out of the estates of those that they condemn, and distribute the rest +among their auxiliary troops, but they themselves take no share of the +spoil. + +When a war is ended, they do not oblige their friends to reimburse their +expenses; but they obtain them of the conquered, either in money, which +they keep for the next occasion, or in lands, out of which a constant +revenue is to be paid them; by many increases, the revenue which they +draw out from several countries on such occasions, is now risen to above +700,000 ducats a year. They send some of their own people to receive +these revenues, who have orders to live magnificently, and like princes, +by which means they consume much of it upon the place; and either bring +over the rest to Utopia, or lend it to that nation in which it lies. +This they most commonly do, unless some great occasion, which falls out +but very seldom, should oblige them to call for it all. It is out of +these lands that they assign rewards to such as they encourage to +adventure on desperate attempts. If any prince that engages in war with +them is making preparations for invading their country, they prevent +him, and make his country the seat of the war; for they do not willingly +suffer any war to break in upon their island; and if that should happen, +they would only defend themselves by their own people, but would not +call for auxiliary troops to their assistance. + + +OF THE RELIGIONS OF THE UTOPIANS. + +There are several sorts of religions, not only in different parts of the +island, but even in every town; some worshipping the sun, others the +moon, or one of the planets; some worship such men as have been eminent +in former times for virtue, or glory, not only as ordinary deities, but +as the supreme God: yet the greater and wiser sort of them worship none +of these, but adore one eternal, invisible, infinite, and +incomprehensible Deity; as a Being that is far above all our +apprehensions, that is spread over the whole universe, not by His bulk, +but by His power and virtue; Him they call the Father of All, and +acknowledge that the beginnings, the increase, the progress, the +vicissitudes, and the end of all things come only from Him; nor do they +offer divine honours to any but to Him alone. And indeed, though they +differ concerning other things, yet all agree in this, that they think +there is one supreme Being that made and governs the world, whom they +call in the language of their country Mithras. They differ in this, that +one thinks the God whom he worships is this supreme Being, and another +thinks that his idol is that God; but they all agree in one principle, +that whoever is this supreme Being, He is also that great Essence to +whose glory and majesty all honours are ascribed by the consent of all +nations. + +By degrees, they fall off from the various superstitions that are among +them, and grow up to that one religion that is the best and most in +request; and there is no doubt to be made but that all the others had +vanished long ago, if some of those who advised them to lay aside their +superstitions had not met with some unhappy accident, which being +considered as inflicted by Heaven, made them afraid that the God whose +worship had like to have been abandoned, had interposed, and revenged +themselves on those who despised their authority. + +After they had heard from us an account of the doctrine, the course of +life, and the miracles of Christ, and of the wonderful constancy of so +many martyrs, whose blood, so willingly offered up by them, was the +chief occasion of spreading their religion over a vast number of +nations; it is not to be imagined how inclined they were to receive it. +I shall not determine whether this proceeded from any secret inspiration +of God, or whether it was because it seemed so favourable to that +community of goods, which is an opinion so particular as well as so dear +to them; since they perceived that Christ and His followers lived by +that rule, and that it was still kept up in some communities among the +sincerest sort of Christians. From whichsoever of these motives it might +be, true it is that many of them came over to our religion, and were +initiated into it by baptism. But as two of our number were dead, so +none of the four that survived were in priest's orders; we therefore +could only baptize them; so that to our great regret they could not +partake of the other sacraments, that can only be administered by +priests; but they are instructed concerning them, and long most +vehemently for them. They have had great disputes among themselves, +whether one chosen by them to be a priest would not be thereby qualified +to do all the things that belong to that character, even though he had +no authority derived from the Pope; and they seemed to be resolved to +choose some for that employment, but they had not done it when I left +them. + +Those among them that have not received our religion, do not fright any +from it, and use none ill that goes over to it; so that all the while I +was there, one man was only punished on this occasion. He being newly +baptized, did, notwithstanding all that we could say to the contrary, +dispute publicly concerning the Christian religion with more zeal than +discretion; and with so much heat, that he not only preferred our +worship to theirs, but condemned all their rites as profane; and cried +out against all that adhered to them, as impious and sacrilegious +persons, that were to be damned to everlasting burnings. Upon his having +frequently preached in this manner, he was seized, and after trial he +was condemned to banishment, not for having disparaged their religion, +but for his inflaming the people to sedition: for this is one of their +most ancient laws, that no man ought to be punished for his religion. At +the first constitution of their government, Utopus having understood +that before his coming among them the old inhabitants had been engaged +in great quarrels concerning religion, by which they were so divided +among themselves, that he found it an easy thing to conquer them, since +instead of uniting their forces against him, every different party in +religion fought by themselves; after he had subdued them, he made a law +that every man might be of what religion he pleased, and might endeavour +to draw others to it by the force of argument, and by amicable and +modest ways, but without bitterness against those of other opinions; but +that he ought to use no other force but that of persuasion, and was +neither to mix with it reproaches nor violence; and such as did +otherwise were to be condemned to banishment or slavery. + +This law was made by Utopus, not only for preserving the public peace, +which he saw suffered much by daily contentions and irreconcilable +heats, but because he thought the interest of religion itself required +it. He judged it not fit to determine anything rashly, and seemed to +doubt whether those different forms of religion might not all come from +God, who might inspire men in a different manner, and be pleased with +this variety; he therefore thought it indecent and foolish for any man +to threaten and terrify another to make him believe what did not appear +to him to be true. And supposing that only one religion was really true, +and the rest false, he imagined that the native force of truth would at +last break forth and shine bright, if supported only by the strength of +argument, and attended to with a gentle and unprejudiced mind; while, on +the other hand, if such debates were carried on with violence and +tumults, as the most wicked are always the most obstinate, so the best +and most holy religion might be choked with superstition, as corn is +with briars and thorns; he therefore left men wholly to their liberty, +that they might be free to believe as they should see cause; only he +made a solemn and severe law against such as should so far degenerate +from the dignity of human nature as to think that our souls died with +our bodies, or that the world was governed by chance, without a wise +overruling Providence: for they all formerly believed that there was a +state of rewards and punishments to the good and bad after this life; +and they now look on those that think otherwise as scarce fit to be +counted men, since they degrade so noble a being as the soul, and reckon +it no better than a beast's: thus they are far from looking on such men +as fit for human society, or to be citizens of a well-ordered +commonwealth; since a man of such principles must needs, as oft as he +dares do it, despise all their laws and customs: for there is no doubt +to be made that a man who is afraid of nothing but the law, and +apprehends nothing after death, will not scruple to break through all +the laws of his country, either by fraud or force, when by this means he +may satisfy his appetites. They never raise any that hold these maxims, +either to honours or offices, nor employ them in any public trust, but +despise them, as men of base and sordid minds: yet they do not punish +them, because they lay this down as a maxim that a man cannot make +himself believe anything he pleases; nor do they drive any to dissemble +their thoughts by threatenings, so that men are not tempted to lie or +disguise their opinions; which being a sort of fraud, is abhorred by the +Utopians. They take care indeed to prevent their disputing in defence of +these opinions, especially before the common people; but they suffer, +and even encourage them to dispute concerning them in private with their +priests and other grave men, being confident that they will be cured of +those mad opinions by having reason laid before them. There are many +among them that run far to the other extreme, though it is neither +thought an ill nor unreasonable opinion, and therefore is not at all +discouraged. They think that the souls of beasts are immortal, though +far inferior to the dignity of the human soul, and not capable of so +great a happiness. They are almost all of them very firmly persuaded +that good men will be infinitely happy in another state; so that though +they are compassionate to all that are sick, yet they lament no man's +death, except they see him loth to depart with life; for they look on +this as a very ill presage, as if the soul, conscious to itself of +guilt, and quite hopeless, was afraid to leave the body, from some +secret hints of approaching misery. They think that such a man's +appearance before God cannot be acceptable to Him, who, being called on, +does not go out cheerfully, but is backward and unwilling, and is, as it +were, dragged to it. They are struck with horror when they see any die +in this manner, and carry them out in silence and with sorrow, and +praying God that He would be merciful to the errors of the departed +soul, they lay the body in the ground; but when any die cheerfully, and +full of hope, they do not mourn for them, but sing hymns when they carry +out their bodies, and commending their souls very earnestly to God: +their whole behaviour is then rather grave than sad, they burn the body, +and set up a pillar where the pile was made, with an inscription to the +honour of the deceased. When they come from the funeral, they discourse +of his good life and worthy actions, but speak of nothing oftener and +with more pleasure than of his serenity at the hour of death. They think +such respect paid to the memory of good men is both the greatest +incitement to engage others to follow their example, and the most +acceptable worship that can be offered them; for they believe that +though by the imperfection of human sight they are invisible to us, yet +they are present among us, and hear those discourses that pass +concerning themselves. They believe it inconsistent, with the happiness +of departed souls not to be at liberty to be where they will, and do +not imagine them capable of the ingratitude of not desiring to see +those friends with whom they lived on earth in the strictest bonds of +love and kindness: besides they are persuaded that good men after death +have these affections and all other good dispositions increased rather +than diminished, and therefore conclude that they are still among the +living, and observe all they say or do. From hence they engage in all +their affairs with the greater confidence of success, as trusting to +their protection; while this opinion of the presence of their ancestors +is a restraint that prevents their engaging in ill designs. + +They despise and laugh at auguries, and the other vain and superstitious +ways of divination, so much observed among other nations; but have great +reverence for such miracles as cannot flow from any of the powers of +Nature, and look on them as effects and indications of the presence of +the supreme Being, of which they say many instances have occurred among +them; and that sometimes their public prayers, which upon great and +dangerous occasions they have solemnly put up to God, with assured +confidence of being heard, have been answered in a miraculous manner. + +They think the contemplating God in His works, and the adoring Him for +them, is a very acceptable piece of worship to Him. + +There are many among them, that upon a motive of religion neglect +learning, and apply themselves to no sort of study; nor do they allow +themselves any leisure time, but are perpetually employed, believing +that by the good things that a man does he secures to himself that +happiness that comes after death. Some of these visit the sick; others +mend highways, cleanse ditches, repair bridges, or dig turf, gravel, or +stones. Others fell and cleave timber, and bring wood, corn, and other +necessaries on carts into their towns. Nor do these only serve the +public, but they serve even private men, more than the slaves +themselves do; for if there is anywhere a rough, hard, and sordid piece +of work to be done, from which many are frightened by the labour and +loathsomeness of it, if not the despair of accomplishing it, they +cheerfully, and of their own accord, take that to their share; and by +that means, as they ease others very much, so they afflict themselves, +and spend their whole life in hard labour; and yet they do not value +themselves upon this, nor lessen other people's credit to raise their +own; but by their stooping to such servile employments, they are so far +from being despised, that they are so much the more esteemed by the +whole nation. + +Of these there are two sorts; some live unmarried and chaste, and +abstain from eating any sort of flesh; and thus weaning themselves from +all the pleasures of the present life, which they account hurtful, they +pursue, even by the hardest and painfullest methods possible, that +blessedness which they hope for hereafter; and the nearer they approach +to it, they are the more cheerful and earnest in their endeavours after +it. Another sort of them is less willing to put themselves to much toil, +and therefore prefer a married state to a single one; and as they do not +deny themselves the pleasure of it, so they think the begetting of +children is a debt which they owe to human nature and to their country; +nor do they avoid any pleasure that does not hinder labour, and +therefore eat flesh so much the more willingly, as they find that by +this means they are the more able to work; the Utopians look upon these +as the wiser sect, but they esteem the others as the most holy. They +would indeed laugh at any man, who from the principles of reason would +prefer an unmarried state to a married, or a life of labour to an easy +life; but they reverence and admire such as do it from the motives of +religion. There is nothing in which they are more cautious than in +giving their opinion positively concerning any sort of religion. The men +that lead those severe lives are called in the language of their +country Brutheskas, which answers to those we call religious orders. + +Their priests are men of eminent piety, and therefore they are but few, +for there are only thirteen in every town, one for every temple; but +when they go to war, seven of these go out with their forces, and seven +others are chosen to supply their room in their absence; but these enter +again upon their employment when they return; and those who served in +their absence attend upon the high-priest, till vacancies fall by death; +for there is one set over all the rest. They are chosen by the people as +the other magistrates are, by suffrages given in secret, for preventing +of factions; and when they are chosen they are consecrated by the +college of priests. The care of all sacred things, the worship of God, +and an inspection into the manners of the people, are committed to them. +It is a reproach to a man to be sent for by any of them, or for them to +speak to him in secret, for that always gives some suspicion. All that +is incumbent on them is only to exhort and admonish the people; for the +power of correcting and punishing ill men belongs wholly to the Prince +and to the other magistrates. The severest thing that the priest does, +is the excluding those that are desperately wicked from joining in their +worship. There is not any sort of punishment more dreaded by them than +this, for as it loads them with infamy, so it fills them with secret +horrors, such is their reverence to their religion; nor will their +bodies be long exempted from their share of trouble; for if they do not +very quickly satisfy the priests of the truth of their repentance, they +are seized on by the Senate, and punished for their impiety. The +education of youth belongs to the priests, yet they do not take so much +care of instructing them in letters as in forming their minds and +manners aright; they use all possible methods to infuse very early into +the tender and flexible minds of children such opinions as are both good +in themselves and will be useful to their country. For when deep +impressions of these things are made at that age, they follow men +through the whole course of their lives, and conduce much to preserve +the peace of the government, which suffers by nothing more than by vices +that rise out of ill opinions. The wives of their priests are the most +extraordinary women of the whole country; sometimes the women themselves +are made priests, though that falls out but seldom, nor are any but +ancient widows chosen into that order. + +None of the magistrates have greater honour paid them than is paid the +priests; and if they should happen to commit any crime, they would not +be questioned for it. Their punishment is left to God, and to their own +consciences; for they do not think it lawful to lay hands on any man, +how wicked soever he is, that has been in a peculiar manner dedicated to +God; nor do they find any great inconvenience in this, both because they +have so few priests, and because these are chosen with much caution, so +that it must be a very unusual thing to find one who merely out of +regard to his virtue, and for his being esteemed a singularly good man, +was raised up to so great a dignity, degenerate into corruption and +vice. And if such a thing should fall out, for man is a changeable +creature, yet there being few priests, and these having no authority but +what rises out of the respect that is paid them, nothing of great +consequence to the public can proceed from the indemnity that the +priests enjoy. + +They have indeed very few of them, lest greater numbers sharing in the +same honour might make the dignity of that order which they esteem so +highly to sink in its reputation. They also think it difficult to find +out many of such an exalted pitch of goodness, as to be equal to that +dignity which demands the exercise of more than ordinary virtues. Nor +are the priests in greater veneration among them than they are among +their neighbouring nations, as you may imagine by that which I think +gives occasion for it. + +When the Utopians engage in battle, the priests who accompany them to +the war, apparelled in their sacred vestments, kneel down during the +action, in a place not far from the field; and lifting up their hands to +heaven, pray, first for peace, and then for victory to their own side, +and particularly that it may be gained without the effusion of much +blood on either side; and when the victory turns to their side, they run +in among their own men to restrain their fury; and if any of their +enemies see them, or call to them, they are preserved by that means; and +such as can come so near them as to touch their garments, have not only +their lives, but their fortunes secured to them; it is upon this account +that all the nations roundabout consider them so much, and treat them +with such reverence, that they have been often no less able to preserve +their own people from the fury of their enemies, than to save their +enemies from their rage; for it has sometimes fallen out, that when +their armies have been in disorder, and forced to fly, so that their +enemies were running upon the slaughter and spoil, the priests by +interposing have separated them from one another, and stopped the +effusion of more blood; so that by their mediation a peace has been +concluded on very reasonable terms; nor is there any nation about them +so fierce, cruel, or barbarous as not to look upon their persons as +sacred and inviolable. + +The first and the last day of the month, and of the year, is a festival. +They measure their months by the course of the moon, and their years by +the course of the sun. The first days are called in their language the +Cynemernes, and the last the Trapemernes; which answers in our language +to the festival that begins, or ends the season. + +They have magnificent temples, that are not only nobly built, but +extremely spacious; which is the more necessary, as they have so few of +them; they are a little dark within, which proceeds not from any error +in the architecture, but is done with design; for their priests think +that too much light dissipates the thoughts, and that a more moderate +degree of it both recollects the mind and raises devotion. Though there +are many different forms of religion among them, yet all these, how +various soever, agree in the main point, which is the worshipping the +Divine Essence; and therefore there is nothing to be seen or heard in +their temples in which the several persuasions among them may not agree; +for every sect performs those rites that are peculiar to it, in their +private houses, nor is there anything in the public worship that +contradicts the particular ways of those different sects. There are no +images for God in their temples, so that every one may represent Him to +his thoughts, according to the way of his religion; nor do they call +this one God by any other name but that of Mithras, which is the common +name by which they all express the Divine Essence, whatsoever otherwise +they think it to be; nor are there any prayers among them but such as +every one of them may use without prejudice to his own opinion. + +They meet in their temples on the evening of the festival that concludes +a season: and not having yet broke their fast, they thank God for their +good success during that year or month, which is then at an end; and the +next day being that which begins the new season, they meet early in +their temples, to pray for the happy progress of all their affairs +during that period upon which they then enter. In the festival which +concludes the period, before they go to the temple, both wives and +children fall on their knees before their husbands or parents, and +confess everything in which they have either erred or failed in their +duty, and beg pardon for it. Thus all little discontents in families are +removed, that they may offer up their devotions with a pure and serene +mind; for they hold it a great impiety to enter upon them with disturbed +thoughts, or with a consciousness of their bearing hatred or anger in +their hearts to any person whatsoever; and think that they should become +liable to severe punishments if they presumed to offer sacrifices +without cleansing their hearts, and reconciling all their differences. +In the temples, the two sexes are separated, the men go to the right +hand, and the women to the left; and the males and females all place +themselves before the head and master or mistress of that family to +which they belong; so that those who have the government of them at home +may see their deportment in public; and they intermingle them so, that +the younger and the older may be set by one another; for if the younger +sort were all set together, they would perhaps trifle away that time too +much in which they ought to beget in themselves that religious dread of +the supreme Being, which is the greatest and almost the only incitement +to virtue. + +They offer up no living creature in sacrifice, nor do they think it +suitable to the divine Being, from whose bounty it is that these +creatures have derived their lives, to take pleasure in their deaths, or +the offering up their blood. They burn incense and other sweet odours, +and have a great number of wax lights during their worship; not out of +any imagination that such oblations can add anything to the divine +Nature, which even prayers cannot do; but as it is a harmless and pure +way of worshipping God, so they think those sweet savours and lights, +together with some other ceremonies, by a secret and unaccountable +virtue, elevate men's souls, and inflame them with greater energy and +cheerfulness during the divine worship. + +All the people appear in the temples in white garments, but the priest's +vestments are parti-coloured, and both the work and colours are +wonderful. They are made of no rich materials, for they are neither +embroidered nor set with precious stones, but are composed of the plumes +of several birds, laid together with so much art and so neatly, that the +true value of them is far beyond the costliest materials. They say that +in the ordering and placing those plumes some dark mysteries are +represented, which pass down among their priests in a secret tradition +concerning them; and that they are as hieroglyphics, putting them in +mind of the blessings that they have received from God, and of their +duties both to Him and to their neighbours. As soon as the priest +appears in those ornaments, they all fall prostrate on the ground, with +so much reverence and so deep a silence that such as look on cannot but +be struck with it, as if it were the effect of the appearance of a +Deity. After they have been for some time in this posture, they all +stand up, upon a sign given by the priest, and sing hymns to the honour +of God, some musical instruments playing all the while. These are quite +of another form than those used among us: but as many of them are much +sweeter than ours, so others are made use of by us. Yet in one thing +they very much exceed us; all their music, both vocal and instrumental, +is adapted to imitate and express the passions, and is so happily suited +to every occasion, that whether the subject of the hymn be cheerful or +formed to soothe or trouble the mind, or to express grief or remorse, +the music takes the impression of whatever is represented, affects and +kindles the passions, and works the sentiments deep into the hearts of +the hearers. When this is done, both priests and people offer up very +solemn prayers to God in a set form of words; and these are so composed, +that whatsoever is pronounced by the whole assembly may be likewise +applied by every man in particular to his own condition; in these they +acknowledge God to be the author and governor of the world, and the +fountain of all the good they receive, and therefore offer up to Him +their thanksgiving; and in particular bless Him for His goodness in +ordering it so, that they are born under the happiest government in the +world, and are of a religion which they hope is the truest of all +others: but if they are mistaken, and if there is either a better +government or a religion more acceptable to God, they implore His +goodness to let them know it, vowing that they resolve to follow Him +whithersoever He leads them. But if their government is the best, and +their religion the truest, then they pray that He may fortify them in +it, and bring all the world both to the same rules of life, and to the +same opinions concerning himself; unless, according to the +unsearchableness of His mind, He is pleased with a variety of religions. +Then they pray that God may give them an easy passage at last to +himself; not presuming to set limits to Him, how early or late it should +be; but if it may be wished for, without derogating from His supreme +authority, they desire to be quickly delivered, and to be taken to +himself, though by the most terrible kind of death, rather than to be +detained long from seeing Him by the most prosperous course of life. +When this prayer is ended, they all fall down again upon the ground, and +after a little while they rise up, go home to dinner, and spend the rest +of the day in diversion or military exercises. + +Thus have I described to you, as particularly as I could, the +constitution of that commonwealth, which I do not only think the best in +the world, but indeed the only commonwealth that truly deserves that +name. In all other places it is visible, that while people talk of a +commonwealth, every man only seeks his own wealth; but there, where no +man has any property, all men zealously pursue the good of the public: +and, indeed, it is no wonder to see men act so differently; for in other +commonwealths, every man knows that unless he provides for himself, how +flourishing soever the commonwealth may be, he must die of hunger; so +that he sees the necessity of preferring his own concerns to the public; +but in Utopia, where every man has a right to everything, they all know +that if care is taken to keep the public stores full, no private man can +want anything; for among them there is no unequal distribution, so that +no man is poor, none in necessity; and though no man has anything, yet +they are all rich; for what can make a man so rich as to lead a serene +and cheerful life, free from anxieties; neither apprehending want +himself, nor vexed with the endless complaints of his wife? He is not +afraid of the misery of his children, nor is he contriving how to raise +a portion for his daughters, but is secure in this, that both he and his +wife, his children and grandchildren, to as many generations as he can +fancy, will all live both plentifully and happily; since among them +there is no less care taken of those who were once engaged in labour, +but grow afterwards unable to follow it, than there is elsewhere of +these that continue still employed. I would gladly hear any man compare +the justice that is among them with that of all other nations; among +whom, may I perish, if I see anything that looks either like justice or +equity: for what justice is there in this, that a nobleman, a goldsmith, +a banker, or any other man, that either does nothing at all, or at best +is employed in things that are of no use to the public, should live in +great luxury and splendour, upon what is so ill acquired; and a mean +man, a carter, a smith, or a ploughman, that works harder even than the +beasts themselves, and is employed in labours so necessary, that no +commonwealth could hold out a year without them, can only earn so poor a +livelihood, and must lead so miserable a life, that the condition of the +beasts is much better than theirs? For as the beasts do not work so +constantly, so they feed almost as well, and with more pleasure; and +have no anxiety about what is to come, whilst these men are depressed by +a barren and fruitless employment, and tormented with the apprehensions +of want in their old age; since that which they get by their daily +labour does but maintain them at present, and is consumed as fast as it +comes in, there is no overplus left to lay up for old age. + +Is not that government both unjust and ungrateful, that is so prodigal +of its favours to those that are called gentlemen, or goldsmiths, or +such others who are idle, or live either by flattery, or by contriving +the arts of vain pleasure; and on the other hand, takes no care of those +of a meaner sort, such as ploughmen, colliers, and smiths, without whom +it could not subsist? But after the public has reaped all the advantage +of their service, and they come to be oppressed with age, sickness, and +want, all their labours and the good they have done is forgotten; and +all the recompense given them is that they are left to die in great +misery. The richer sort are often endeavouring to bring the hire of +labourers lower, not only by their fraudulent practices, but by the laws +which they procure to be made to that effect; so that though it is a +thing most unjust in itself, to give such small rewards to those who +deserve so well of the public, yet they have given those hardships the +name and colour of justice, by procuring laws to be made for regulating +them. + +Therefore I must say that, as I hope for mercy, I can have no other +notion of all the other governments that I see or know, than that they +are a conspiracy of the rich, who on pretence of managing the public +only pursue their private ends, and devise all the ways and arts they +can find out; first, that they may, without danger, preserve all that +they have so ill acquired, and then that they may engage the poor to +toil and labour for them at as low rates as possible, and oppress them +as much as they please. And if they can but prevail to get these +contrivances established by the show of public authority, which is +considered as the representative of the whole people, then they are +accounted laws. Yet these wicked men after they have, by a most +insatiable covetousness, divided that among themselves with which all +the rest might have been well supplied, are far from that happiness that +is enjoyed among the Utopians: for the use as well as the desire of +money being extinguished, much anxiety and great occasions of mischief +is cut off with it. And who does not see that the frauds, thefts, +robberies, quarrels, tumults, contentions, seditions, murders, +treacheries, and witchcrafts, which are indeed rather punished than +restrained by the severities of law, would all fall off, if money were +not any more valued by the world? Men's fears, solicitudes, cares, +labours, and watchings, would all perish in the same moment with the +value of money: even poverty itself, for the relief of which money seems +most necessary, would fall. But, in order to the apprehending this +aright, take one instance. + +Consider any year that has been so unfruitful that many thousands have +died of hunger; and yet if at the end of that year a survey was made of +the granaries of all the rich men that have hoarded up the corn, it +would be found that there was enough among them to have prevented all +that consumption of men that perished in misery; and that if it had been +distributed among them, none would have felt the terrible effects of +that scarcity; so easy a thing would it be to supply all the necessities +of life, if that blessed thing called money, which is pretended to be +invented for procuring them, was not really the only thing that +obstructed their being procured! + +I do not doubt but rich men are sensible of this, and that they well +know how much a greater happiness it is to want nothing necessary than +to abound in many superfluities, and to be rescued out of so much misery +than to abound with so much wealth; and I cannot think but the sense of +every man's interest, added to the authority of Christ's commands, who +as He was infinitely wise, knew what was best, and was not less good in +discovering it to us, would have drawn all the world over to the laws of +the Utopians, if pride, that plague of human nature, that source of so +much misery, did not hinder it; for this vice does not measure happiness +so much by its own conveniences as by the miseries of others; and would +not be satisfied with being thought a goddess, if none were left that +were miserable, over whom she might insult. Pride thinks its own +happiness shines the brighter by comparing it with the misfortunes of +other persons; that by displaying its own wealth, they may feel their +poverty the more sensibly. This is that infernal serpent that creeps +into the breasts of mortals, and possesses them too much to be easily +drawn out; and therefore I am glad that the Utopians have fallen upon +this form of government, in which I wish that all the world could be so +wise as to imitate them; for they have indeed laid down such a scheme +and foundation of policy, that as men live happily under it, so it is +like to be of great continuance; for they having rooted out of the minds +of their people all the seeds both of ambition and faction, there is no +danger of any commotion at home; which alone has been the ruin of many +states, that seemed otherwise to be well secured; but as long as they +live in peace at home, and are governed by such good laws, the envy of +all their neighbouring princes, who have often though in vain attempted +their ruin, will never be able to put their state into any commotion or +disorder. + + * * * * * + +When Raphael had thus made an end of speaking, though many things +occurred to me, both concerning the manners and laws of that people, +that seemed very absurd, as well as their way of making war, as in their +notions of religion and divine matters; together with several other +particulars, but chiefly what seemed the foundation of all the rest, +their living in common, without the use of money, by which all nobility, +magnificence, splendour, and majesty, which, according to the common +opinion, are the true ornaments of a nation, would be quite taken away; +yet since I perceived that Raphael was weary, and was not sure whether +he could easily bear contradiction, remembering that he had taken notice +of some who seemed to think they were bound in honour to support the +credit of their own wisdom, by finding out something to censure in all +other men's inventions, besides their own; I only commended their +constitution, and the account he had given of it in general; and so +taking him by the hand, carried him to supper, and told him I would find +out some other time for examining this subject more particularly, and +for discoursing more copiously upon it; and indeed I shall be glad to +embrace an opportunity of doing it. In the meanwhile, though it must be +confessed that he is both a very learned man, and a person who has +obtained a great knowledge of the world, I cannot perfectly agree to +everything he has related; however, there are many things in the +Commonwealth of Utopia that I rather wish, than hope, to see followed in +our governments. + + + + +BACON'S + +NEW ATLANTIS. + + + + +NEW ATLANTIS. + + +We sailed from Peru, where we had continued by the space of one whole +year, for China and Japan, by the South Sea, taking with us victuals for +twelve months; and had good winds from the east, though soft and weak, +for five months' space and more. But then the wind came about, and +settled in the west for many days, so as we could make little or no way, +and were sometimes in purpose to turn back. But then again there arose +strong and great winds from the south, with a point east; which carried +us up, for all that we could do, towards the north: by which time our +victuals failed us, though we had made good spare of them. So that +finding ourselves, in the midst of the greatest wilderness of waters in +the world, without victual, we gave ourselves for lost men, and prepared +for death. Yet we did lift up our hearts and voices to God above, who +showeth His wonders in the deep; beseeching Him of his mercy, that as in +the beginning He discovered the face of the deep, and brought forth dry +land, so He would now discover land to us, that we might not perish. And +it came to pass, that the next day about evening we saw within a kenning +before us, towards the north, as it were thick clouds, which did put us +in some hope of land: knowing how that part of the South Sea was utterly +unknown: and might have islands or continents, that hitherto were not +come to light. Wherefore we bent out course thither, where we saw the +appearance of land, all that night: and in the dawning of next day, we +might plainly discern that it was a land flat to our sight, and full of +boscage, which made it show the more dark. And after an hour and a +half's sailing, we entered into a good haven, being the port of a fair +city. Not great indeed, but well built, and that gave a pleasant view +from the sea. And we thinking every minute long till we were on land, +came close to the shore and offered to land. But straightways we saw +divers of the people, with bastons in their hands, as it were forbidding +us to land: yet without any cries or fierceness, but only as warning us +off, by signs that they made. Whereupon being not a little discomfited, +we were advising with ourselves what we should do. During which time +there made forth to us a small boat, with about eight persons in it, +whereof one of them had in his hand a tipstaff of a yellow cane, tipped +at both ends with blue, who made aboard our ship, without any show of +distrust at all. And when he saw one of our number present himself +somewhat afore the rest, he drew forth a little scroll of parchment +(somewhat yellower than our parchment, and shining like the leaves of +writing tables, but otherwise soft and flexible), and delivered it to +our foremost man. In which scroll were written in ancient Hebrew, and in +ancient Greek, and in good Latin of the school, and in Spanish these +words: "Land ye not, none of you, and provide to be gone from this coast +within sixteen days, except you have further time given you; meanwhile, +if you want fresh water, or victual, or help for your sick, or that your +ship needeth repair, write down your wants, and you shall have that +which belongeth to mercy." This scroll was signed with a stamp of +cherubim's wings, not spread, but hanging downwards; and by them a +cross. This being delivered, the officer returned, and left only a +servant with us to receive our answer. Consulting hereupon amongst +ourselves, we were much perplexed. The denial of landing, and hasty +warning us away, troubled us much: on the other side, to find that the +people had languages, and were so full of humanity, did comfort us not a +little. And above all, the sign of the cross to that instrument, was to +us a great rejoicing, and as it were a certain presage of good. Our +answer was in the Spanish tongue, "That for our ship, it was well; for +we had rather met with calms and contrary winds, than any tempests. For +our sick, they were many, and in very ill case; so that if they were not +permitted to land, they ran in danger of their lives." Our other wants +we set down in particular, adding, "That we had some little store of +merchandise, which if it pleased them to deal for, it might supply our +wants, without being chargeable unto them." We offered some reward in +pistolets unto the servant, and a piece of crimson velvet to be +presented to the officer; but the servant took them not, nor would +scarce look upon them; and so left us, and went back in another little +boat which was sent for him. + +About three hours after we had despatched our answer there came towards +us a person (as it seemed) of a place. He had on him a gown with wide +sleeves, of a kind of water chamolet, of an excellent azure colour, far +more glossy than ours: his under apparel was green, and so was his hat, +being in the form of a turban, daintily made, and not so huge as the +Turkish turbans; and the locks of his hair came down below the brims of +it. A reverend man was he to behold. He came in a boat, gilt in some +part of it, with four persons more only in that boat; and was followed +by another boat, wherein were some twenty. When he was come within a +flight-shot of our ship, signs were made to us that we should send forth +some to meet him upon the water, which we presently did in our +ship-boat, sending the principal man amongst us save one, and four of +our number with him. When we were come within six yards of their boat, +they called to us to stay, and not to approach farther, which we did. +And thereupon the man, whom I before described, stood up, and with a +loud voice in Spanish, asked, "Are ye Christians?" We answered, "We +were;" fearing the less, because of the cross we had seen in the +subscription. At which answer the said person lift up his right hand +towards heaven, and drew it softly to his mouth (which is the gesture +they use, when they thank God), and then said: "If ye will swear, all of +you, by the merits of the Saviour, that ye are no pirates; nor have shed +blood, lawfully nor unlawfully, within forty days past; you may have +license to come on land." We said, "We were all ready to take that +oath." Whereupon one of those that were with him, being (as it seemed) a +notary, made an entry of this act. Which done, another of the attendants +of the great person, which was with him in the same boat, after his lord +had spoken a little to him, said aloud: "My lord would have you know, +that it is not of pride, or greatness, that he cometh not aboard your +ship: but for that, in your answer, you declare that you have many sick +amongst you, he was warned by the conservator of health of the city that +he should keep a distance." We bowed ourselves towards him, and +answered: "We were his humble servants; and accounted for great honour +and singular humanity towards us, that which was already done: but hoped +well, that the nature of the sickness of our men was not infectious." So +he returned; and a while after came the notary to us aboard our ship; +holding in his hand a fruit of that country, like an orange, but of +colour between orange-tawny and scarlet: which cast a most excellent +odour. He used it (as it seemed) for a preservative against infection. +He gave us our oath, "By the name of Jesus, and His merits:" and after +told us, that the next day by six of the clock in the morning, we should +be sent to, and brought to the strangers' house (so he called it), where +we should be accommodated of things, both for our whole and for our +sick. So he left us; and when we offered him some pistolets, he +smiling, said, "He must not be twice paid for one labour:" meaning (as I +take it) that he had salary sufficient of the state for his service. For +(as I after learned) they call an officer that taketh rewards +twice-paid. + +The next morning early, there came to us the same officer that came to +us at first with his cane, and told us: "He came to conduct us to the +strangers' house: and that he had prevented the hour, because we might +have the whole day before us for our business. For (said he) if you will +follow my advice, there shall first go with me some few of you, and see +the place, and how it may be made convenient for you: and then you may +send for your sick, and the rest of your number, which ye will bring on +land." We thanked him, and said, "That his care which he took of +desolate strangers, God would reward." And so six of us went on land +with him; and when we were on land, he went before us, and turned to us, +and said, "He was but our servant, and our guide." He led us through +three fair streets; and all the way we went there were gathered some +people on both sides, standing in a row; but in so civil a fashion, as +if it had been, not to wonder at us, but to welcome us; and divers of +them, as we passed by them, put their arms a little abroad, which is +their gesture when they bid any welcome. The strangers' house is a fair +and spacious house, built of brick, of somewhat a bluer colour than our +brick; and with handsome windows, some of glass, some of a kind of +cambric oiled. He brought us first into a fair parlour above stairs, and +then asked us, "What number of persons we were? and how many sick?" We +answered, "We were in all (sick and whole) one and fifty persons, +whereof our sick were seventeen." He desired us to have patience a +little, and to stay till he came back to us, which was about an hour +after; and then he led us to see the chambers which were provided for +us, being in number nineteen. They having cast it (as it seemeth) that +four of those chambers, which were better than the rest, might receive +four of the principal men of our company; and lodge them alone by +themselves; and the other fifteen chambers were to lodge us, two and two +together. The chambers were handsome and cheerful chambers, and +furnished civilly. Then he led us to a long gallery, like a dorture, +where he showed us all along the one side (for the other side was but +wall and window) seventeen cells, very neat ones, having partitions of +cedar wood. Which gallery and cells, being in all forty (many more than +we needed), were instituted as an infirmary for sick persons. And he +told us withal, that as any of our sick waxed well, he might be removed +from his cell to a chamber: for which purpose there were set forth ten +spare chambers, besides the number we spake of before. This done, he +brought us back to the parlour, and lifting up his cane a little (as +they do when they give any charge or command), said to us, "Ye are to +know that the custom of the land requireth, that after this day and +to-morrow (which we give you for removing your people from your ship), +you are to keep within doors for three days. But let it not trouble you, +nor do not think yourselves restrained, but rather left to your rest and +ease. You shall want nothing; and there are six of our people appointed +to attend you for any business you may have abroad." We gave him thanks +with all affection and respect, and said, "God surely is manifested in +this land." We offered him also twenty pistolets; but he smiled, and +only said: "What? Twice paid!" And so he left us. Soon after our dinner +was served in; which was right good viands, both for bread and meat: +better than any collegiate diet that I have known in Europe. We had also +drink of three sorts, all wholesome and good; wine of the grape; a drink +of grain, such as is with us our ale, but more clear; and a kind of +cider made of a fruit of that country; a wonderful pleasing and +refreshing drink. Besides, there were brought in to us great store of +those scarlet oranges for our sick; which (they said) were an assured +remedy for sickness taken at sea. There was given us also a box of small +grey or whitish pills, which they wished our sick should take, one of +the pills every night before sleep; which (they said) would hasten their +recovery. The next day, after that our trouble of carriage and removing +of our men and goods out of our ship was somewhat settled and quiet, I +thought good to call our company together, and when they were assembled, +said unto them, "My dear friends, let us know ourselves, and how it +standeth with us. We are men cast on land, as Jonas was out of the +whale's belly, when we were as buried in the deep; and now we are on +land, we are but between death and life, for we are beyond both the old +world and the new; and whether ever we shall see Europe, God only +knoweth. It is a kind of miracle hath brought us hither, and it must be +little less that shall bring us hence. Therefore in regard of our +deliverance past, and our danger present and to come, let us look up to +God, and every man reform his own ways. Besides we are come here amongst +a Christian people, full of piety and humanity. Let us not bring that +confusion of face upon ourselves, as to show our vices or unworthiness +before them. Yet there is more, for they have by commandment (though in +form of courtesy) cloistered us within these walls for three days; who +knoweth whether it be not to take some taste of our manners and +conditions? And if they find them bad, to banish us straightways; if +good, to give us further time. For these men that they have given us for +attendance, may withal have an eye upon us. Therefore, for God's love, +and as we love the weal of our souls and bodies, let us so behave +ourselves, as we may be at peace with God, and may find grace in the +eyes of this people." Our company with one voice thanked me for my good +admonition, and promised me to live soberly and civilly, and without +giving any the least occasion of offence. So we spent our three days +joyfully, and without care, in expectation what would be done with us +when they were expired. During which time, we had every hour joy of the +amendment of our sick, who thought themselves cast into some divine pool +of healing, they mended so kindly and so fast. + +The morrow after our three days were past, there came to us a new man, +that we had not seen before, clothed in blue as the former was, save +that his turban was white with a small red cross on the top. He had also +a tippet of fine linen. At his coming in, he did bend to us a little, +and put his arms abroad. We of our parts saluted him in a very lowly and +submissive manner; as looking that from him we should receive sentence +of life or death. He desired to speak with some few of us. Whereupon six +of us only stayed, and the rest avoided the room. He said, "I am by +office governor of this house of strangers, and by vocation I am a +Christian priest; and therefore am come to you, to offer you my service, +both as strangers, and chiefly as Christians. Some things I may tell +you, which I think you will not be unwilling to hear. The state hath +given you license to stay on land for the space of six weeks: and let it +not trouble you, if your occasions ask further time, for the law in this +point is not precise; and I do not doubt, but myself shall be able to +obtain for you such further time as shall be convenient. Ye shall also +understand, that the strangers' house is at this time rich, and much +aforehand; for it hath laid up revenue these thirty-seven years: for so +long it is since any stranger arrived in this part; and therefore take +ye no care; the state will defray you all the time you stay. Neither +shall you stay one day the less for that. As for any merchandise you +have brought, ye shall be well used, and have your return, either in +merchandise or in gold and silver: for to us it is all one. And if you +have any other request to make, hide it not; for ye shall find we will +not make your countenance to fall by the answer ye shall receive. Only +this I must tell you, that none of you must go above a karan (that is +with them a mile and a half) from the walls of the city, without special +leave." We answered, after we had looked a while upon one another, +admiring this gracious and parent-like usage, that we could not tell +what to say, for we wanted words to express our thanks; and his noble +free offers left us nothing to ask. It seemed to us, that we had before +us a picture of our salvation in heaven; for we that were a while since +in the jaws of death, were now brought into a place where we found +nothing but consolations. For the commandment laid upon us, we would not +fail to obey it, though it was impossible but our hearts should be +inflamed to tread further upon this happy and holy ground. We added, +that our tongues should first cleave to the roofs of our mouths, ere we +should forget, either this reverend person, or this whole nation, in our +prayers. We also most humbly besought him to accept of us as his true +servants, by as just a right as ever men on earth were bounden; laying +and presenting both our persons and all we had at his feet. He said, he +was a priest, and looked lot a priest's reward; which was our brotherly +love, and the good of our souls and bodies. So he went from us, not +without tears of tenderness in his eyes, and left us also confused with +joy and kindness, saying amongst ourselves, that we were come into a +land of angels, which did appear to us daily, and prevent us with +comforts, which we thought not of, much less expected. + +The next day, about ten of the clock, the governor came to us again, and +after salutations, said familiarly, that he was come to visit us; and +called for a chair, and sat him down; and we being some ten of us (the +rest were of the meaner sort, or else gone abroad), sat down with him; +and when we were set, he began thus: "We of this island of Bensalem +(for so they called it in their language) have this: that by means of +our solitary situation, and of the laws of secrecy, which we have for +our travellers, and our rare admission of strangers; we know well most +part of the habitable world, and are ourselves unknown. Therefore +because he that knoweth least is fittest to ask questions, it is more +reason, for the entertainment of the time, that ye ask me questions, +than that I ask you." We answered, that we humbly thanked him, that he +would give us leave so to do. And that we conceived by the taste we had +already, that there was no worldly thing on earth more worthy to be +known than the state of that happy land. But above all (we said) since +that we were met from the several ends of the world, and hoped assuredly +that we should meet one day in the kingdom of heaven (for that we were +both parts Christians), we desired to know (in respect that land was so +remote, and so divided by vast and unknown seas from the land where our +Saviour walked on earth) who was the apostle of that nation, and how it +was converted to the faith? It appeared in his face, that he took great +contentment in this our question; he said, "Ye knit my heart to you, by +asking this question in the first place: for it showeth that you first +seek the kingdom of heaven: and I shall gladly, and briefly, satisfy +your demand. + +"About twenty years after the ascension of our Saviour it came to pass, +that there was seen by the people of Renfusa (a city upon the eastern +coast of our island, within sight, the night was cloudy and calm), as it +might be some mile in the sea, a great pillar of light; not sharp, but +in form of a column, or cylinder, rising from the sea, a great way up +towards heaven; and on the top of it was seen a large cross of light, +more bright and resplendent than the body of the pillar. Upon which so +strange a spectacle, the people of the city gathered apace together upon +the sands, to wonder; and so after put themselves into a number of +small boats to go nearer to this marvellous sight. But when the boats +were come within about sixty yards of the pillar, they found themselves +all bound, and could go no further, yet so as they might move to go +about, but might not approach nearer; so as the boats stood all as in a +theatre, beholding this light, as an heavenly sign. It so fell out, that +there was in one of the boats one of the wise men of the Society of +Salomon's House; which house or college, my good brethren, is the very +eye of this kingdom, who having a while attentively and devoutly viewed +and contemplated this pillar and cross, fell down upon his face; and +then raised himself upon his knees, and lifting up his hands to heaven, +made his prayers in this manner: + +"'Lord God of heaven and earth; thou hast vouchsafed of thy grace, to +those of our order to know thy works of creation, and true secrets of +them; and to discern (as far as appertaineth to the generations of men) +between divine miracles, works of Nature, works of art and impostures, +and illusions of all sorts. I do here acknowledge and testify before +this people, that the thing we now see before our eyes, is thy finger, +and a true miracle. And forasmuch as we learn in our books, that thou +never workest miracles, but to a divine and excellent end (for the laws +of Nature are thine own laws, and thou exceedest them not but upon great +cause), we most humbly beseech thee to prosper this great sign, and to +give us the interpretation and use of it in mercy; which thou dost in +some part secretly promise, by sending it unto us.' + +"When he had made his prayer, he presently found the boat he was in +movable and unbound; whereas all the rest remained still fast; and +taking that for an assurance of leave to approach, he caused the boat to +be softly and with silence rowed towards the pillar; but ere he came +near it, the pillar and cross of light broke up, and cast itself abroad, +as it were into a firmament of many stars, which also vanished soon +after; and there was nothing left to be seen but a small ark, or chest +of cedar, dry and not wet at all with water, though it swam; and in the +fore-end of it, which was towards him, grew a small green branch of +palm; and when the wise man had taken it with all reverence into his +boat, it opened of itself, and there were found in it a book and a +letter, both written in fine parchment, and wrapped in sindons of linen. +The book contained all the canonical books of the Old and New Testament, +according as you have them (for we know well what the churches with you +receive), and the Apocalypse itself; and some other books of the New +Testament, which were not at that time written, were nevertheless in the +book. And for the letter, it was in these words: + +"'I Bartholomew, a servant of the Highest, and apostle of Jesus Christ, +was warned by an angel that appeared to me in a vision of glory, that I +should commit this ark to the floods of the sea. Therefore I do testify +and declare unto that people where God shall ordain this ark to come to +land, that in the same day is come unto them salvation and peace, and +goodwill from the Father, and from the Lord Jesus.' + +"There was also in both these writings, as well the book as the letter, +wrought a great miracle, conform to that of the apostles, in the +original gift of tongues. For there being at that time, in this land, +Hebrews, Persians, and Indians, besides the natives, every one read upon +the book and letter, as if they had been written in his own language. +And thus was this land saved from infidelity (as the remain of the old +world was from water) by an ark, through the apostolical and miraculous +evangelism of St. Bartholomew." And here he paused, and a messenger +came, and called him forth from us. So this was all that passed in that +conference. + +The next day, the same governor came again to us, immediately after +dinner, and excused himself, saying, "That the day before he was called +from us somewhat abruptly, but now he would make us amends, and spend +time with us, if we held his company and conference agreeable." We +answered, that we held it so agreeable and pleasing to us, as we forgot +both dangers past, and fears to come, for the time we heard him speak; +and that we thought an hour spent with him was worth years of our former +life. He bowed himself a little to us, and after we were set again, he +said, "Well, the questions are on your part." One of our number said, +after a little pause, that there was a matter we were no less desirous +to know than fearful to ask, lest we might presume too far. But +encouraged by his rare humanity towards us (that could scarce think +ourselves strangers, being his vowed and professed servants), we would +take the hardness to propound it; humbly beseeching him, if he thought +it not fit to be answered, that he would pardon it, though he rejected +it. We said, we well observed those his words, which he formerly spake, +that this happy island, where we now stood, was known to few, and yet +knew most of the nations of the world, which we found to be true, +considering they had the languages of Europe, and knew much of our state +and business; and yet we in Europe (notwithstanding all the remote +discoveries and navigations of this last age) never heard any of the +least inkling or glimpse of this island. This we found wonderful +strange; for that all nations have interknowledge one of another, either +by voyage into foreign parts, or by strangers that come to them; and +though the traveller into a foreign country doth commonly know more by +the eye than he that stayeth at home can by relation of the traveller; +yet both ways suffice to make a mutual knowledge, in some degree, on +both parts. But for this island, we never heard tell of any ship of +theirs, that had been seen to arrive upon any shore of Europe; no, nor +of either the East or West Indies, nor yet of any ship of any other +part of the world, that had made return for them. And yet the marvel +rested not in this. For the situation of it (as his lordship said) in +the secret conclave of such a vast sea might cause it. But then, that +they should have knowledge of the languages, books, affairs, of those +that lie such a distance from them, it was a thing we could not tell +what to make of; for that it seemed to us a condition and propriety of +divine powers and beings, to be hidden and unseen to others, and yet to +have others open, and as in a light to them. At this speech the governor +gave a gracious smile and said, that we did well to ask pardon for this +question we now asked, for that it imported, as if we thought this land +a land of magicians, that sent forth spirits of the air into all parts, +to bring them news and intelligence of other countries. It was answered +by us all, in all possible humbleness, but yet with a countenance taking +knowledge, that we knew that he spake it but merrily. That we were apt +enough to think, there was somewhat supernatural in this island, but yet +rather as angelical than magical. But to let his lordship know truly +what it was that made us tender and doubtful to ask this question, it +was not any such conceit, but because we remembered he had given a touch +in his former speech, that this land had laws of secrecy touching +strangers. To this he said, "You remember it aright; and therefore in +that I shall say to you, I must reserve some particulars, which it is +not lawful for me to reveal, but there will be enough left to give you +satisfaction. + +"You shall understand (that which perhaps you will scarce think +credible) that about three thousand years ago, or somewhat more, the +navigation of the world (especially for remote voyages) was greater than +at this day. Do not think with yourselves, that I know not how much it +is increased with you, within these threescore years; I know it well, +and yet I say, greater then than now; whether it was, that the example +of the ark, that saved the remnant of men from the universal deluge, +gave men confidence to adventure upon the waters, or what it was; but +such is the truth. The Phoenicians, and especially the Tyrians, had +great fleets; so had the Carthaginians their colony, which is yet +farther west. Toward the east the shipping of Egypt, and of Palestine, +was likewise great. China also, and the great Atlantis (that you call +America), which have now but junks and canoes, abounded then in tall +ships. This island (as appeareth by faithful registers of those times) +had then fifteen hundred strong ships, of great content. Of all this +there is with you sparing memory, or none; but we have large knowledge +thereof. + +"At that time, this land was known and frequented by the ships and +vessels of all the nations before named. And (as it cometh to pass) they +had many times men of other countries, that were no sailors, that came +with them; as Persians, Chaldeans, Arabians, so as almost all nations of +might and fame resorted hither; of whom we have some stirps and little +tribes with us at this day. And for our own ships, they went sundry +voyages, as well to your straits, which you call the Pillars of +Hercules, as to other parts in the Atlantic and Mediterranean Seas; as +to Paguin (which is the same with Cambalaine) and Quinzy, upon the +Oriental Seas, as far as to the borders of the East Tartary. + +"At the same time, and an age after or more, the inhabitants of the +great Atlantis did flourish. For though the narration and description +which is made by a great man with you, that the descendants of Neptune +planted there, and of the magnificent temple, palace, city and hill; and +the manifold streams of goodly navigable rivers, which as so many chains +environed the same site and temple; and the several degrees of ascent, +whereby men did climb up to the same, as if it had been a Scala CÅ“li; +be all poetical and fabulous; yet so much is true, that the said country +of Atlantis, as well that of Peru, then called Coya, as that of Mexico, +then named Tyrambel, were mighty and proud kingdoms, in arms, shipping, +and riches; so mighty, as at one time, or at least within the space of +ten years, they both made two great expeditions; they of Tyrambel +through the Atlantic to the Mediterranean Sea; and they of Coya, through +the South Sea upon this our island; and for the former of these, which +was into Europe, the same author amongst you, as it seemeth, had some +relation from the Egyptian priest, whom he citeth. For assuredly, such a +thing there was. But whether it were the ancient Athenians that had the +glory of the repulse and resistance of those forces, I can say nothing; +but certain it is there never came back either ship or man from that +voyage. Neither had the other voyage of those of Coya upon us had better +fortune, if they had not met with enemies of greater clemency. For the +king of this island, by name Altabin, a wise man and a great warrior, +knowing well both his own strength and that of his enemies, handled the +matter so, as he cut off their land forces from their ships, and +entoiled both their navy and their camp with a greater power than +theirs, both by sea and land; and compelled them to render themselves +without striking a stroke; and after they were at his mercy, contenting +himself only with their oath, that they should no more bear arms against +him, dismissed them all in safety. But the divine revenge overtook not +long after those proud enterprises. For within less than the space of +one hundred years the Great Atlantis was utterly lost and destroyed; not +by a great earthquake, as your man saith, for that whole tract is little +subject to earthquakes, but by a particular deluge, or inundation; those +countries having at this day far greater rivers, and far higher +mountains to pour down waters, than any part of the old world. But it is +true that the same inundation was not deep, not past forty foot, in most +places, from the ground, so that although it destroyed man and beast +generally, yet some few wild inhabitants of the wood escaped. Birds also +were saved by flying to the high trees and woods. For as for men, +although they had buildings in many places higher than the depth of the +water, yet that inundation, though it were shallow, had a long +continuance, whereby they of the vale that were not drowned perished for +want of food, and other things necessary. So as marvel you not at the +thin population of America, nor at the rudeness and ignorance of the +people; for you must account your inhabitants of America as a young +people, younger a thousand years at the least than the rest of the +world, for that there was so much time between the universal flood and +their particular inundation. For the poor remnant of human seed which +remained in their mountains, peopled the country again slowly, by little +and little, and being simple and a savage people (not like Noah and his +sons, which was the chief family of the earth), they were not able to +leave letters, arts, and civility to their posterity; and having +likewise in their mountainous habitations been used, in respect of the +extreme cold of those regions, to clothe themselves with the skins of +tigers, bears, and great hairy goats, that they have in those parts; +when after they came down into the valley, and found the intolerable +heats which are there, and knew no means of lighter apparel, they were +forced to begin the custom of going naked, which continueth at this day. +Only they take great pride and delight in the feathers of birds, and +this also they took from those their ancestors of the mountains, who +were invited unto it, by the infinite flight of birds, that came up to +the high grounds, while the waters stood below. So you see, by this main +accident of time, we lost our traffic with the Americans, with whom of +all others, in regard they lay nearest to us, we had most commerce. As +for the other parts of the world, it is most manifest that in the ages +following (whether it were in respect of wars, or by a natural +revolution of time) navigation did everywhere greatly decay, and +specially far voyages (the rather by the use of galleys, and such +vessels as could hardly brook the ocean) were altogether left and +omitted. So then, that part of intercourse which could be from other +nations, to sail to us, you see how it hath long since ceased; except it +were by some rare accident, as this of yours. But now of the cessation +of that other part of intercourse, which might be by our sailing to +other nations, I must yield you some other cause. For I cannot say, if I +shall say truly, but our shipping, for number, strength, mariners, +pilots, and all things that appertain to navigation, is as great as +ever; and therefore why we should sit at home, I shall now give you an +account by itself; and it will draw nearer, to give you satisfaction, to +your principal question. + +"There reigned in this island, about 1,900 years ago, a king, whose +memory of all others we most adore; not superstitiously, but as a divine +instrument, though a mortal man: his name was Salomona; and we esteem +him as the lawgiver of our nation. This king had a large heart, +inscrutable for good; and was wholly bent to make his kingdom and people +happy. He therefore taking into consideration how sufficient and +substantive this land was, to maintain itself without any aid at all of +the foreigner; being 5,000 miles in circuit, and of rare fertility of +soil, in the greatest part thereof; and finding also the shipping of +this country might be plentifully set on work, both by fishing and by +transportations from port to port, and likewise by sailing unto some +small islands that are not far from us, and are under the crown and laws +of this state; and recalling into his memory the happy and flourishing +estate wherein this land then was, so as it might be a thousand ways +altered to the worse, but scarce any one way to the better; though +nothing wanted to his noble and heroical intentions, but only (as far as +human foresight might reach) to give perpetuity to that which was in +his time so happily established, therefore amongst his other fundamental +laws of this kingdom he did ordain the interdicts and prohibitions which +we have touching entrance of strangers; which at that time (though it +was after the calamity of America) was frequent; doubting novelties and +commixture of manners. It is true, the like law against the admission of +strangers without license is an ancient law in the kingdom of China, and +yet continued in use. But there it is a poor thing; and hath made them a +curious, ignorant, fearful foolish nation. But our lawgiver made his law +of another temper. For first, he hath preserved all points of humanity, +in taking order and making provision for the relief of strangers +distressed; whereof you have tasted." At which speech (as reason was) we +all rose up, and bowed ourselves. He went on: "That king also still +desiring to join humanity and policy together; and thinking it against +humanity, to detain strangers here against their wills; and against +policy, that they should return, and discover their knowledge of this +estate, he took this course; he did ordain, that of the strangers that +should be permitted to land, as many at all times might depart as many +as would; but as many as would stay, should have very good conditions, +and means to live from the state. Wherein he saw so far, that now in so +many ages since the prohibition, we have memory not of one ship that +ever returned, and but of thirteen persons only, at several times, that +chose to return in our bottoms. What those few that returned may have +reported abroad, I know not. But you must think, whatsoever they have +said, could be taken where they came but for a dream. Now for our +travelling from hence into parts abroad, our lawgiver thought fit +altogether to restrain it. So is it not in China. For the Chinese sail +where they will, or can; which showeth, that their law of keeping out +strangers is a law of pusillanimity and fear. But this restraint of ours +hath one only exception, which is admirable; preserving the good which +cometh by communicating with strangers, and avoiding the hurt: and I +will now open it to you. And here I shall seem a little to digress, but +you will by-and-by find it pertinent. Ye shall understand, my dear +friends, that amongst the excellent acts of that king, one above all +hath the pre-eminence. It was the erection and institution of an order, +or society, which we call Salomon's House; the noblest foundation, as we +think, that ever was upon the earth, and the lantern of this kingdom. It +is dedicated to the study of the works and creatures of God. Some think +it beareth the founder's name a little corrupted, as if it should be +Solomon's House. But the records write it as it is spoken. So as I take +it to be denominate of the king of the Hebrews, which is famous with +you, and no strangers to us; for we have some parts of his works which +with you are lost; namely, that natural history which he wrote of all +plants, from the cedar of Libanus to the moss that groweth out of the +wall; and of all things that have life and motion. This maketh me think +that our king finding himself to symbolize, in many things, with that +king of the Hebrews, which lived many years before him, honoured him +with the title of this foundation. And I am the rather induced to be of +this opinion, for that I find in ancient records, this order or society +is sometimes called Solomon's House, and sometimes the College of the +Six Days' Works; whereby I am satisfied that our excellent king had +learned from the Hebrews that God had created the world, and all that +therein is, within six days: and therefore he instituted that house, for +the finding out of the true nature of all things, whereby God might have +the more glory in the workmanship of them, and men the more fruit in +their use of them, did give it also that second name. But now to come to +our present purpose. When the king had forbidden to all his people +navigation into any part that was not under his crown, he made +nevertheless this ordinance; that every twelve years there should be +set forth out of this kingdom, two ships, appointed to several voyages; +that in either of these ships there should be a mission of three of the +fellows or brethren of Salomon's House, whose errand was only to give us +knowledge of the affairs and state of those countries to which they were +designed; and especially of the sciences, arts, manufactures, and +inventions of all the world; and withal to bring unto us books, +instruments, and patterns in every kind: that the ships, after they had +landed the brethren, should return; and that the brethren should stay +abroad till the new mission, the ships are not otherwise fraught than +with store of victuals, and good quantity of treasure to remain with the +brethren, for the buying of such things, and rewarding of such persons, +as they should think fit. Now for me to tell you how the vulgar sort of +mariners are contained from being discovered at land, and how they that +must be put on shore for any time, colour themselves under the names of +other nations, and to what places these voyages have been designed; and +what places of rendezvous are appointed for the new missions, and the +like circumstances of the practice, I may not do it, neither is it much +to your desire. But thus you see we maintain a trade, not for gold, +silver, or jewels, nor for silks, nor for spices, nor any other +commodity of matter; but only for God's first creature, which was light; +to have light, I say, of the growth of all parts of the world." And when +he had said this, he was silent, and so were we all; for indeed we were +all astonished to hear so strange things so probably told. And he +perceiving that we were willing to say somewhat, but had it not ready, +in great courtesy took us off, and descended to ask us questions of our +voyage and fortunes, and in the end concluded that we might do well to +think with ourselves, what time of stay we would demand of the state, +and bade us not to scant ourselves; for he would procure such time as we +desired. Whereupon we all rose up and presented ourselves to kiss the +skirt of his tippet, but he would not suffer us, and so took his leave. +But when it came once amongst our people, that the state used to offer +conditions to strangers that would stay, we had work enough to get any +of our men to look to our ship, and to keep them from going presently to +the governor, to crave conditions; but with much ado we restrained them, +till we might agree what course to take. + +We took ourselves now for freemen, seeing there was no danger of our +utter perdition, and lived most joyfully, going abroad and seeing what +was to be seen in the city and places adjacent, within our tedder; and +obtaining acquaintance with many of the city, not of the meanest +quality, at whose hands we found such humanity, and such a freedom and +desire to take strangers, as it were, into their bosom, as was enough to +make us forget all that was dear to us in our own countries; and +continually we met with many things, right worthy of observation and +relation; as indeed, if there be a mirror in the world, worthy to hold +men's eyes, it is that country. One day there were two of our company +bidden to a feast of the family, as they call it; a most natural, pious, +and reverend custom it is, showing that nation to be compounded of all +goodness. This is the manner of it; it is granted to any man that shall +live to see thirty persons descended of his body, alive together, and +all above three years old, to make this feast, which is done at the cost +of the state. The father of the family, whom they call the Tirsan, two +days before the feast, taketh to him three of such friends as he liketh +to choose, and is assisted also by the governor of the city or place +where the feast is celebrated, and all the persons of the family, of +both sexes, are summoned to attend him. These two days the Tirsan +sitteth in consultation, concerning the good estate of the family. +There, if there be any discord or suits between any of the family, they +are compounded and appeased. There, if any of the family be distressed +or decayed, order is taken for their relief, and competent means to +live. There, if any be subject to vice, or take ill courses, they are +reproved and censured. So likewise direction is given touching +marriages, and the courses of life which any of them should take, with +divers other the like orders and advices. The governor assisteth to the +end, to put in execution, by his public authority, the decrees and +orders of the Tirsan, if they should be disobeyed, though that seldom +needeth; such reverence and obedience they give to the order of Nature. +The Tirsan doth also then ever choose one man from amongst his sons, to +live in house with him; who is called ever after the Son of the Vine. +The reason will hereafter appear. On the feast day, the father or Tirsan +cometh forth after divine service into a large room where the feast is +celebrated; which room hath an half-pace at the upper end. Against the +wall, in the middle of the half-pace, is a chair placed for him, with a +table and carpet before it. Over the chair is a state, made round or +oval, and it is of ivy; an ivy somewhat whiter than ours, like the leaf +of a silver asp, but more shining; for it is green all winter. And the +state is curiously wrought with silver and silk of divers colours, +broiding or binding in the ivy; and is ever of the work of some of the +daughters of the family; and veiled over at the top, with a fine net of +silk and silver. But the substance of it is true ivy; whereof after it +is taken down, the friends of the family are desirous to have some leaf +or sprig to keep. The Tirsan cometh forth with all his generation or +lineage, the males before him, and the females following him; and if +there be a mother, from whose body the whole lineage is descended, there +is a traverse placed in a loft above on the right hand of the chair, +with a privy door, and a carved window of glass, leaded with gold and +blue; where she sitteth, but is not seen. When the Tirsan is come forth, +he sitteth down in the chair; and all the lineage place themselves +against the wall, both at his back, and upon the return of the +half-pace, in order of their years, without difference of sex, and stand +upon their feet. When he is set, the room being always full of company, +but well kept and without disorder, after some pause there cometh in +from the lower end of the room a Taratan (which is as much as an +herald), and on either side of him two young lads: whereof one carrieth +a scroll of their shining yellow parchment, and the other a cluster of +grapes of gold, with a long foot or stalk. The herald and children are +clothed with mantles of sea-water green satin; but the herald's mantle +is streamed with gold, and hath a train. Then the herald with three +curtsies, or rather inclinations, cometh up as far as the half-pace, and +there first taketh into his hand the scroll. This scroll is the king's +charter, containing gift of revenue, and many privileges, exemptions, +and points of honour, granted to the father of the family; and it is +ever styled and directed, "To such an one, our well-beloved friend and +creditor," which is a title proper only to this case. For they say, the +king is debtor to no man, but for propagation of his subjects; the seal +set to the king's charter is the king's image, embossed or moulded in +gold; and though such charters be expedited of course, and as of right, +yet they are varied by discretion, according to the number and dignity +of the family. This charter the herald readeth aloud; and while it is +read, the father or Tirsan standeth up, supported by two of his sons, +such as he chooseth. Then the herald mounteth the half-pace, and +delivereth the charter into his hand: and with that there is an +acclamation, by all that are present, in their language, which is thus +much, "Happy are the people of Bensalem." Then the herald taketh into +his hand from the other child the cluster of grapes, which is of gold; +both the stalk, and the grapes. But the grapes are daintily enamelled; +and if the males of the family be the greater number, the grapes are +enamelled purple, with a little sun set on the top; if the females, then +they are enamelled into a greenish yellow, with a crescent on the top. +The grapes are in number as many as there are descendants of the family. +This golden cluster the herald delivereth also to the Tirsan; who +presently delivereth it over to that son that he had formerly chosen, to +be in house with him: who beareth it before his father, as an ensign of +honour, when he goeth in public ever after; and is thereupon called the +Son of the Vine. After this ceremony ended the father or Tirsan +retireth; and after some time cometh forth again to dinner, where he +sitteth alone under the state, as before; and none of his descendants +sit with him, of what degree or dignity so ever, except he hap to be of +Salomon's House. He is served only by his own children, such as are +male; who perform unto him all service of the table upon the knee, and +the women only stand about him, leaning against the wall. The room below +his half-pace hath tables on the sides for the guests that are bidden; +who are served with great and comely order; and towards the end of +dinner (which in the greatest feasts with them lasteth never above an +hour and a half) there is an hymn sung, varied according to the +invention of him that composeth it (for they have excellent poesy), but +the subject of it is always the praises of Adam, and Noah, and Abraham; +whereof the former two peopled the world, and the last was the father of +the faithful: concluding ever with a thanksgiving for the nativity of +our Saviour, in whose birth the births of all are only blessed. Dinner +being done, the Tirsan retireth again; and having withdrawn himself +alone into a place, where he maketh some private prayers, he cometh +forth the third time, to give the blessing; with all his descendants, +who stand about him as at the first. Then he calleth them forth by one +and by one, by name as he pleaseth, though seldom the order of age be +inverted. The person that is called (the table being before removed) +kneeleth down before the chair, and the father layeth his hand upon his +head, or her head, and giveth the blessing in these words: "Son of +Bensalem (or daughter of Bensalem), thy father saith it; the man by whom +thou hast breath and life speaketh the word; the blessing of the +everlasting Father, the Prince of Peace, and the Holy Dove be upon thee, +and make the days of thy pilgrimage good and many." This he saith to +every of them; and that done, if there be any of his sons of eminent +merit and virtue, so they be not above two, he calleth for them again, +and saith, laying his arm over their shoulders, they standing: "Sons, it +is well you are born, give God the praise, and persevere to the end." +And withal delivereth to either of them a jewel, made in the figure of +an ear of wheat, which they ever after wear in the front of their +turban, or hat; this done, they fall to music and dances, and other +recreations, after their manner, for the rest of the day. This is the +full order of that feast. + +By that time six or seven days were spent, I was fallen into straight +acquaintance with a merchant of that city, whose name was Joabin. He was +a Jew and circumcised; for they have some few stirps of Jews yet +remaining among them, whom they leave to their own religion. Which they +may the better do, because they are of a far differing disposition from +the Jews in other parts. For whereas they hate the name of Christ, and +have a secret inbred rancour against the people amongst whom they live; +these, contrariwise, give unto our Saviour many high attributes, and +love the nation of Bensalem extremely. Surely this man of whom I speak +would ever acknowledge that Christ was born of a Virgin; and that He was +more than a man; and he would tell how God made Him ruler of the +seraphims, which guard His throne; and they call Him also the Milken +Way, and the Eliah of the Messiah, and many other high names, which +though they be inferior to His divine majesty, yet they are far from the +language of other Jews. And for the country of Bensalem, this man would +make no end of commending it, being desirous by tradition among the Jews +there to have it believed that the people thereof were of the +generations of Abraham, by another son, whom they call Nachoran; and +that Moses by a secret cabala ordained the laws of Bensalem which they +now use; and that when the Messias should come, and sit in His throne at +Hierusalem, the King of Bensalem should sit at His feet, whereas other +kings should keep a great distance. But yet setting aside these Jewish +dreams, the man was a wise man and learned, and of great policy, and +excellently seen in the laws and customs of that nation. Amongst other +discourses one day I told him, I was much affected with the relation I +had from some of the company of their custom in holding the feast of the +family, for that, methought, I had never heard of a solemnity wherein +Nature did so much preside. And because propagation of families +proceedeth from the nuptial copulation, I desired to know of him what +laws and customs they had concerning marriage, and whether they kept +marriage well, and whether they were tied to one wife? For that where +population is so much affected, and such as with them it seemed to be, +there is commonly permission of plurality of wives. To this he said: +"You have reason for to commend that excellent institution of the feast +of the family; and indeed we have experience, that those families that +are partakers of the blessings of that feast, do flourish and prosper +ever after, in an extraordinary manner. But hear me now, and I will tell +you what I know. You shall understand that there is not under the +heavens so chaste a nation as this of Bensalem, nor so free from all +pollution or foulness. It is the virgin of the world; I remember, I have +read in one of your European books, of an holy hermit amongst you, that +desired to see the spirit of fornication, and there appeared to him a +little foul ugly Ethiope; but if he had desired to see the spirit of +chastity of Bensalem, it would have appeared to him in the likeness of a +fair beautiful cherubim. For there is nothing, amongst mortal men, more +fair and admirable than the chaste minds of this people. Know, +therefore, that with them there are no stews, no dissolute houses, no +courtezans, nor anything of that kind. Nay, they wonder, with +detestation, at you in Europe, which permit such things. They say ye +have put marriage out of office; for marriage is ordained a remedy for +unlawful concupiscence; and natural concupiscence seemeth as a spur to +marriage. But when men have at hand a remedy, more agreeable to their +corrupt will, marriage is almost expulsed. And therefore there are with +you seen infinite men that marry not, but choose rather a libertine and +impure single life, than to be yoked in marriage; and many that do +marry, marry late, when the prime and strength of their years is past. +And when they do marry, what is marriage to them but a very bargain; +wherein is sought alliance, or portion, or reputation, with some desire +(almost indifferent) of issue; and not the faithful nuptial union of man +and wife, that was first instituted. Neither is it possible, that those +that have cast away so basely so much of their strength, should greatly +esteem children (being of the same matter) as chaste men do. So likewise +during marriage is the case much amended, as it ought to be if those +things were tolerated only for necessity; no, but they remain still as a +very affront to marriage. The haunting of those dissolute places, or +resort to courtezans, are no more punished in married men than in +bachelors. And the depraved custom of change, and the delight in +meretricious embracements (where sin is turned into art), maketh +marriage a dull thing, and a kind of imposition or tax. They hear you +defend these things, as done to avoid greater evils; as advoutries, +deflowering of virgins, unnatural lust, and the like. But they say, this +is a preposterous wisdom; and they call it Lot's offer, who to save his +guests from abusing, offered his daughters; nay, they say further, that +there is little gained in this; for that the same vices and appetites do +still remain and abound, unlawful lust being like a furnace, that if you +stop the flames altogether it will quench, but if you give it any vent +it will rage; as for masculine love, they have no touch of it; and yet +there are not so faithful and inviolate friendships in the world again +as are there, and to speak generally (as I said before) I have not read +of any such chastity in any people as theirs. And their usual saying is +that whosoever is unchaste cannot reverence himself; and they say that +the reverence of a man's self, is, next religion, the chiefest bridle of +all vices." And when he had said this the good Jew paused a little; +whereupon I, far more willing to hear him speak on than to speak myself; +yet thinking it decent that upon his pause of speech I should not be +altogether silent, said only this; that I would say to him, as the widow +of Sarepta said to Elias: "that he was come to bring to memory our +sins;" and that I confess the righteousness of Bensalem was greater than +the righteousness of Europe. At which speech he bowed his head, and went +on this manner: "They have also many wise and excellent laws, touching +marriage. They allow no polygamy. They have ordained that none do +intermarry, or contract, until a month be past from their first +interview. Marriage without consent of parents they do not make void, +but they mulct it in the inheritors; for the children of such marriages +are not admitted to inherit above a third part of their parents' +inheritance. I have read in a book of one of your men, of a feigned +commonwealth, where the married couple are permitted, before they +contract, to see one another naked. This they dislike; for they think it +a scorn to give a refusal after so familiar knowledge; but because of +many hidden defects in men and women's bodies, they have a more civil +way; for they have near every town a couple of pools (which they call +Adam and Eve's pools), where it is permitted to one of the friends of +the man, and another of the friends of the woman, to see them severally +bathe naked." + +And as we were thus in conference, there came one that seemed to be a +messenger, in a rich huke, that spake with the Jew; whereupon he turned +to me, and said, "You will pardon me, for I am commanded away in haste." +The next morning he came to me again, joyful as it seemed, and said, +"There is word come to the governor of the city, that one of the fathers +of Salomon's House will be here this day seven-night; we have seen none +of them this dozen years. His coming is in state; but the cause of his +coming is secret. I will provide you and your fellows of a good standing +to see his entry." I thanked him, and told him I was most glad of the +news. The day being come he made his entry. He was a man of middle +stature and age, comely of person, and had an aspect as if he pitied +men. He was clothed in a robe of fine black cloth with wide sleeves, and +a cape: his under garment was of excellent white linen down to the foot, +girt with a girdle of the same; and a sindon or tippet of the same about +his neck. He had gloves that were curious, and set with stone; and shoes +of peach-coloured velvet. His neck was bare to the shoulders. His hat +was like a helmet, or Spanish montero; and his locks curled below it +decently; they were of colour brown. His beard was cut round and of the +same colour with his hair, somewhat lighter. He was carried in a rich +chariot, without wheels, litter-wise, with two horses at either end, +richly trapped in blue velvet embroidered; and two footmen on each side +in the like attire. The chariot was all of cedar, gilt and adorned with +crystal; save that the fore-end had panels of sapphires, set in borders +of gold, and the hinder-end the like of emeralds of the Peru colour. +There was also a sun of gold, radiant upon the top, in the midst; and on +the top before a small cherub of gold, with wings displayed. The chariot +was covered with cloth of gold tissued upon blue. He had before him +fifty attendants, young men all, in white satin loose coats up to the +mid-leg, and stockings of white silk; and shoes of blue velvet; and hats +of blue velvet, with fine plumes of divers colours, set round like +hat-bands. Next before the chariot went two men, bare-headed, in linen +garments down to the foot, girt, and shoes of blue velvet, who carried +the one a crosier, the other a pastoral staff like a sheep-hook; neither +of them of metal, but the crosier of balm-wood, the pastoral staff of +cedar. Horsemen he had none, neither before nor behind his chariot; as +it seemeth, to avoid all tumult and trouble. Behind his chariot went all +the officers and principals of the companies of the city. He sat alone, +upon cushions, of a kind of excellent plush, blue; and under his foot +curious carpets of silk of divers colours, like the Persian, but far +finer. He held up his bare hand, as he went, as blessing the people, but +in silence. The street was wonderfully well kept; so that there was +never any army had their men stand in better battle-array than the +people stood. The windows likewise were not crowded, but every one stood +in them, as if they had been placed. When the show was passed, the Jew +said to me, "I shall not be able to attend you as I would, in regard of +some charge the city hath laid upon me for the entertaining of this +great person." Three days after the Jew came to me again, and said, "Ye +are happy men; for the father of Salomon's House taketh knowledge of +your being here, and commanded me to tell you, that he will admit all +your company to his presence, and have private conference with one of +you, that ye shall choose; and for this hath appointed the next day +after to-morrow. And because he meaneth to give you his blessing, he +hath appointed it in the forenoon." We came at our day and hour, and I +was chosen by my fellows for the private access. We found him in a fair +chamber, richly hanged, and carpeted under foot, without any degrees to +the state; he was set upon a low throne richly adorned, and a rich cloth +of state over his head of blue satin embroidered. He was alone, save +that he had two pages of honour, on either hand one, finely attired in +white. His under garments were the like that we saw him wear in the +chariot; but instead of his gown, he had on him a mantle with a cape, of +the same fine black, fastened about him. When we came in, as we were +taught, we bowed low at our first entrance; and when we were come near +his chair, he stood up, holding forth his hand ungloved, and in posture +of blessing; and we every one of us stooped down, and kissed the end of +his tippet. That done, the rest departed, and I remained. Then he warned +the pages forth of the room, and caused me to sit down beside him, and +spake to me thus in the Spanish tongue: + +"God bless thee, my son; I will give thee the greatest jewel I have. For +I will impart unto thee, for the love of God and men, a relation of the +true state of Salomon's House. Son, to make you know the true state of +Salomon's House, I will keep this order. First, I will set forth unto +you the end of our foundation. Secondly, the preparations and +instruments we have for our works. Thirdly, the several employments and +functions whereto our fellows are assigned. And fourthly, the ordinances +and rites which we observe. + +"The end of our foundation is the knowledge of causes, and secret +motions of things; and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire, to +the effecting of all things possible. + +"The preparations and instruments are these. We have large and deep +caves of several depths; the deepest are sunk 600 fathoms; and some of +them are digged and made under great hills and mountains; so that if you +reckon together the depth of the hill, and the depth of the cave, they +are, some of them, above three miles deep. For we find that the depth of +an hill, and the depth of a cave from the flat, is the same thing; both +remote alike from the sun and heaven's beams, and from the open air. +These caves we call the lower region. And we use them for all +coagulations, indurations, refrigerations, and conservations of bodies. +We use them likewise for the imitation of natural mines and the +producing also of new artificial metals, by compositions and materials +which we use and lay there for many years. We use them also sometimes +(which may seem strange) for curing of some diseases, and for +prolongation of life, in some hermits that choose to live there, well +accommodated of all things necessary, and indeed live very long; by whom +also we learn many things. + +"We have burials in several earths, where we put divers cements, as the +Chinese do their porcelain. But we have them in greater variety, and +some of them more fine. We also have great variety of composts and +soils, for the making of the earth fruitful. + +"We have high towers, the highest about half a mile in height, and some +of them likewise set upon high mountains, so that the vantage of the +hill with the tower, is in the highest of them three miles at least. And +these places we call the upper region, account the air between the high +places and the low, as a middle region. We use these towers, according +to their several heights and situations, for insulation, refrigeration, +conservation, and for the view of divers meteors--as winds, rain, snow, +hail; and some of the fiery meteors also. And upon them, in some places, +are dwellings of hermits, whom we visit sometimes, and instruct what to +observe. + +"We have great lakes, both salt and fresh, whereof we have use for the +fish and fowl. We use them also for burials of some natural bodies, for +we find a difference in things buried in earth, or in air below the +earth, and things buried in water. We have also pools, of which some do +strain fresh water out of salt, and others by art do turn fresh water +into salt. We have also some rocks in the midst of the sea, and some +bays upon the shore for some works, wherein is required the air and +vapour of the sea. We have likewise violent streams and cataracts, which +serve us for many motions; and likewise engines for multiplying and +enforcing of winds to set also on divers motions. + +"We have also a number of artificial wells and fountains, made in +imitation of the natural sources and baths, as tincted upon vitriol, +sulphur, steel, brass, lead, nitre, and other minerals; and again, we +have little wells for infusions of many things, where the waters take +the virtue quicker and better than in vessels or basins. And amongst +them we have a water, which we call water of Paradise, being by that we +do it made very sovereign for health and prolongation of life. + +"We have also great and spacious houses, where we imitate and +demonstrate meteors--as snow, hail, rain, some artificial rains of +bodies, and not of water, thunders, lightnings; also generations of +bodies in air--as frogs, flies, and divers others. + +"We have also certain chambers, which we call chambers of health, where +we qualify the air as we think good and proper for the cure of divers +diseases, and preservation of health. + +"We have also fair and large baths, of several mixtures, for the cure of +diseases, and the restoring of man's body from arefaction; and others +for the confirming of it in strength of sinews, vital parts, and the +very juice and substance of the body. + +"We have also large and various orchards and gardens, wherein we do not +so much respect beauty as variety of ground and soil, proper for divers +trees and herbs, and some very spacious, where trees and berries are +set, whereof we make divers kinds of drinks, besides the vineyards. In +these we practise likewise all conclusions of grafting, and inoculating, +as well of wild-trees as fruit-trees, which produceth many effects. And +we make by art, in the same orchards and gardens, trees and flowers, to +come earlier or later than their seasons, and to come up and bear more +speedily than by their natural course they do. We make them also by art +greater much than their nature; and their fruit greater and sweeter, and +of differing taste, smell, colour, and figure, from their nature. And +many of them we so order, as that they become of medicinal use. + +"We have also means to make divers plants rise by mixtures of earths +without seeds, and likewise to make divers new plants, differing from +the vulgar, and to make one tree or plant turn into another. + +"We have also parks, and enclosures of all sorts, of beasts and birds; +which we use not only for view or rareness, but likewise for dissections +and trials, that thereby may take light what may be wrought upon the +body of man. Wherein we find many strange effects: as continuing life in +them, though divers parts, which you account vital, be perished and +taken forth; resuscitating of some that seem dead in appearance, and the +like. We try also all poisons, and other medicines upon them, as well of +chirurgery as physic. By art likewise we make them greater or smaller +than their kind is, and contrariwise dwarf them and stay their growth; +we make them more fruitful and bearing than their kind is, and +contrariwise barren and not generative. Also we make them differ in +colour, shape, activity, many ways. We find means to make commixtures +and copulations of divers kinds, which have produced many new kinds, and +them not barren, as the general opinion is. We make a number of kinds of +serpents, worms, flies, fishes of putrefaction, whereof some are +advanced (in effect) to be perfect creatures, like beasts or birds, and +have sexes, and do propagate. Neither do we this by chance, but we know +beforehand of what matter and commixture, what kind of those creatures +will arise. + +"We have also particular pools where we make trials upon fishes, as we +have said before of beasts and birds. + +"We have also places for breed and generation of those kinds of worms +and flies which are of special use; such as are with you your silkworms +and bees. + +"I will not hold you long with recounting of our brew-houses, +bake-houses, and kitchens, where are made divers drinks, breads, and +meats, rare and of special effects. Wines we have of grapes, and drinks +of other juice, of fruits, of grains, and of roots, and of mixtures with +honey, sugar, manna, and fruits dried and decocted; also of the tears or +wounding of trees, and of the pulp of canes. And these drinks are of +several ages, some to the age or last of forty years. We have drinks +also brewed with several herbs, and roots, and spices; yea, with several +fleshes, and white-meats; whereof some of the drinks are such as they +are in effect meat and drink both, so that divers, especially in age, do +desire to live with them with little or no meat or bread. And above all +we strive to have drinks of extreme thin parts, to insinuate into the +body, and yet without all biting, sharpness, or fretting; insomuch as +some of them put upon the back of your hand, will with a little stay +pass through to the palm, and yet taste mild to the mouth. We have also +waters, which we ripen in that fashion, as they become nourishing, so +that they are indeed excellent drinks, and many will use no other. Bread +we have of several grains, roots, and kernels; yea, and some of flesh, +and fish, dried; with divers kinds of leavings and seasonings; so that +some do extremely move appetites, some do nourish so, as divers do live +of them, without any other meat, who live very long. So for meats, we +have some of them so beaten, and made tender, and mortified, yet without +all corrupting, as a weak heat of the stomach will turn them into good +chilus, as well as a strong heat would meat otherwise prepared. We have +some meats also and bread, and drinks, which taken by men, enable them +to fast long after; and some other, that used make the very flesh of +men's bodies sensibly more hard and tough, and their strength far +greater than otherwise it would be. + +"We have dispensatories or shops of medicines; wherein you may easily +think, if we have such variety of plants, and living creatures, more +than you have in Europe (for we know what you have), the simples, drugs, +and ingredients of medicines, must likewise be in so much the greater +variety. We have them likewise of divers ages, and long fermentations. +And for their preparations, we have not only all manner of exquisite +distillations, and separations, and especially by gentle heats, and +percolations through divers strainers, yea, and substances; but also +exact forms of composition, whereby they incorporate almost as they were +natural simples. + +"We have also divers mechanical arts, which you have not; and stuffs +made by them, as papers, linen, silks, tissues, dainty works of feathers +of wonderful lustre, excellent dyes, and many others, and shops likewise +as well for such as are not brought into vulgar use amongst us, as for +those that are. For you must know, that of the things before recited, +many of them are grown into use throughout the kingdom, but yet, if they +did flow from our invention, we have of them also for patterns and +principals. + +"We have also furnaces of great diversities, and that keep great +diversity of heats; fierce and quick, strong and constant, soft and +mild, blown, quiet, dry, moist, and the like. But above all we have +heats, in imitation of the sun's and heavenly bodies' heats, that pass +divers inequalities, and as it were orbs, progresses, and returns +whereby we produce admirable effects. Besides, we have heats of dungs, +and of bellies and maws of living creatures and of their bloods and +bodies, and of hays and herbs laid up moist, of lime unquenched, and +such like. Instruments also which generate heat only by motion. And +farther, places for strong insulations; and again, places under the +earth, which by nature or art yield heat. These divers heats we use, as +the nature of the operation which we intend requireth. + +"We have also perspective-houses, where we make demonstrations of all +lights and radiations, and of all colours; and out of things uncoloured +and transparent, we can represent unto you all several colours, not in +rainbows, as it is in gems and prisms, but of themselves single. We +represent also all multiplications of light, which we carry to great +distance, and make so sharp, as to discern small points and lines. Also +all colourations of light: all delusions and deceits of the sight, in +figures, magnitudes, motions, colours; all demonstrations of shadows. We +find also divers means, yet unknown to you, of producing of light, +originally from divers bodies. We procure means of seeing objects afar +off, as in the heaven and remote places; and represent things near as +afar off, and things afar off as near; making feigned distances. We have +also helps for the sight far above spectacles and glasses in use; we +have also glasses and means to see small and minute bodies, perfectly +and distinctly; as the shapes and colours of small flies and worms, +grains, and flaws in gems, which cannot otherwise be seen, observations +in urine and blood not otherwise to be seen. We make artificial +rainbows, halos, and circles about light. We represent also all manner +of reflections, refractions, and multiplications of visual beams of +objects. + +"We have also precious stones, of all kinds, many of them of great +beauty and to you unknown; crystals likewise, and glasses of divers +kind; and amongst them some of metals vitrificated, and other materials, +besides those of which you make glass. Also a number of fossils, and +imperfect minerals, which you have not. Likewise loadstones of +prodigious virtue: and other rare stones, both natural and artificial. + +"We have also sound-houses, where we practise and demonstrate all sounds +and their generation. We have harmony which you have not, of +quarter-sounds and lesser slides of sounds. Divers instruments of music +likewise to you unknown, some sweeter than any you have; with bells and +rings that are dainty and sweet. We represent small sounds as great and +deep, likewise great sounds, extenuate and sharp; we make divers +tremblings and warblings of sounds, which in their original are entire. +We represent and imitate all articulate sounds and letters, and the +voices and notes of beasts and birds. We have certain helps, which set +to the ear do further the hearing greatly; we have also divers strange +and artificial echoes, reflecting the voice many times, and as it were +tossing it; and some that give back the voice louder than it came, some +shriller and some deeper; yea, some rendering the voice, differing in +the letters or articulate sound from that they receive. We have all +means to convey sounds in trunks and pipes, in strange lines and +distances. + +"We have also perfume-houses, wherewith we join also practices of taste. +We multiply smells which may seem strange: we imitate smells, making all +smells to breathe out of other mixtures than those that give them. We +make divers imitations of taste likewise, so that they will deceive any +man's taste. And in this house we contain also a confiture-house, where +we make all sweetmeats, dry and moist, and divers pleasant wines, milks, +broths, and salads, far in greater variety than you have. + +"We have also engine-houses, where are prepared engines and instruments +for all sorts of motions. There we imitate and practise to make swifter +motions than any you have, either out of your muskets or any engine that +you have; and to make them and multiply them more easily and with small +force, by wheels and other means, and to make them stronger and more +violent than yours are, exceeding your greatest cannons and basilisks. +We represent also ordnance and instruments of war and engines of all +kinds; and likewise new mixtures and compositions of gunpowder, +wild-fires burning in water and unquenchable, also fire-works of all +variety, both for pleasure and use. We imitate also flights of birds; we +have some degrees of flying in the air. We have ships and boats for +going under water and brooking of seas, also swimming-girdles and +supporters. We have divers curious clocks and other like motions of +return, and some perpetual motions. We imitate also motions of living +creatures by images of men, beasts, birds, fishes, and serpents; we have +also a great number of other various motions, strange for equality, +fineness and subtilty. + +"We have also a mathematical-house, where are represented all +instruments, as well of geometry as astronomy, exquisitely made. + +"We have also houses of deceits of the senses, where we represent all +manner of feats of juggling, false apparitions, impostures and +illusions, and their fallacies. And surely you will easily believe that +we, that have so many things truly natural which induce admiration, +could in a world of particulars deceive the senses if we would disguise +those things, and labour to make them more miraculous. But we do hate +all impostures and lies, insomuch as we have severely forbidden it to +all our fellows, under pain of ignominy and fines, that they do not show +any natural work or thing adorned or swelling, but only pure as it is, +and without all affectation of strangeness. + +"These are, my son, the riches of Salomon's House. + +"For the several employments and offices of our fellows, we have twelve +that sail into foreign countries under the names of other nations (for +our own we conceal), who bring us the books and abstracts, and patterns +of experiments of all other parts. These we call merchants of light. + +"We have three that collect the experiments which are in all books. +These we call deprepators. + +"We have three that collect the experiments of all mechanical arts, and +also of liberal sciences, and also of practices which are not brought +into arts. These we call mystery-men. + +"We have three that try new experiments. + +"Such as themselves think good. These we call pioneers or miners. + +"We have three that draw the experiments of the former four into titles +and tables, to give the better light for the drawing of observations and +axioms out of them. These we call compilers. We have three that bend +themselves, looking into the experiments of their fellows, and cast +about how to draw out of them things of use and practice for man's life +and knowledge, as well for works as for plain demonstration of causes, +means of natural divinations, and the easy and clear discovery of the +virtues and parts of bodies. These we call dowry-men or benefactors. + +"Then after divers meetings and consults of our whole number, to +consider of the former labours and collections, we have three that take +care out of them to direct new experiments, of a higher light, more +penetrating into Nature than the former. These we call lamps. + +"We have three others that do execute the experiment so directed, and +report them. These we call inoculators. + +"Lastly, we have three that raise the former discoveries by experiments +into greater observations, axioms, and aphorisms. These we call +interpreters of Nature. + +"We have also, as you must think, novices and apprentices, that the +succession of the former employed men do not fail; besides a great +number of servants and attendants, men and women. And this we do also: +we have consultations, which of the inventions and experiences which we +have discovered shall be published, and which not: and take all an oath +of secrecy for the concealing of those which we think fit to keep +secret: though some of those we do reveal sometime to the state, and +some not. + +"For our ordinances and rites, we have two very long and fair galleries: +in one of these we place patterns and samples of all manner of the more +rare and excellent inventions: in the other we place the statues of all +principal inventors. There we have the statue of your Columbus, that +discovered the West Indies: also the inventor of ships: your Monk that +was the inventor of ordnance and of gunpowder: the inventor of music: +the inventor of letters: the inventor of printing: the inventor of +observations of astronomy: the inventor of works in metal: the inventor +of glass: the inventor of silk of the worm: the inventor of wine: the +inventor of corn and bread: the inventor of sugars; and all these by +more certain tradition than you have. Then we have divers inventors of +our own, of excellent works; which since you have not seen, it were too +long to make descriptions of them; and besides, in the right +understanding of those descriptions you might easily err. For upon every +invention of value we erect a statue to the inventor, and give him a +liberal and honourable reward. These statues are some of brass, some of +marble and touchstone, some of cedar and other special woods gilt and +adorned; some of iron, some of silver, some of gold. + +"We have certain hymns and services, which we say daily, of laud and +thanks to God for His marvellous works. And forms of prayers, imploring +His aid and blessing for the illumination of our labours; and turning +them into good and holy uses. + +"Lastly, we have circuits or visits, of divers principal cities of the +kingdom; where as it cometh to pass we do publish such new profitable +inventions as we think good. And we do also declare natural divinations +of diseases, plagues, swarms of hurtful creatures, scarcity, tempest, +earthquakes, great inundations, comets, temperature of the year, and +divers other things; and we give counsel thereupon, what the people +shall do for the prevention and remedy of them." + +And when he had said this, he stood up; and I, as I had been taught, +knelt down; and he laid his right hand upon my head, and said, "God +bless thee, my son, and God bless this relation which I have made. I +give thee leave to publish it, for the good of other nations; for we +here are in God's bosom, a land unknown." And so he left me; having +assigned a value of about two thousand ducats for a bounty to me and my +fellows. For they give great largesses, where they come, upon all +occasions. + + +THE REST WAS NOT PERFECTED. + + + + +CAMPANELLA'S + +CITY OF THE SUN. + + + + +THE CITY OF THE SUN. + +_A Poetical Dialogue between a Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitallers +and a Genoese Sea-captain, his guest._ + +_G.M._ Prithee, now, tell me what happened to you during that voyage? + +_Capt._ I have already told you how I wandered over the whole earth. In +the course of my journeying I came to Taprobane, and was compelled to go +ashore at a place, where through fear of the inhabitants I remained in a +wood. When I stepped out of this I found myself on a large plain +immediately under the equator. + +_G.M._ And what befell you here? + +_Capt._ I came upon a large crowd of men and armed women, many of whom +did not understand our language, and they conducted me forthwith to the +City of the Sun. + +_G.M._ Tell me after what plan this city is built and how it is +governed? + +_Capt._ The greater part of the city is built upon a high hill, which +rises from an extensive plain, but several of its circles extend for +some distance beyond the base of the hill, which is of such a size that +the diameter of the city is upwards of two miles, so that its +circumference becomes about seven. On account of the humped shape of the +mountain, however, the diameter of the city is really more than if it +were built on a plain. + +It is divided into seven rings or huge circles named from the seven +planets, and the way from one to the other of these is by four streets +and through four gates, that look towards the four points of the +compass. Furthermore, it is so built that if the first circle were +stormed, it would of necessity entail a double amount of energy to storm +the second; still more to storm the third; and in each succeeding case +the strength and energy would have to be doubled; so that he who wishes +to capture that city must, as it were, storm it seven times. For my own +part, however, I think that not even the first wall could be occupied, +so thick are the earthworks and so well fortified is it with +breastworks, towers, guns and ditches. + +When I had been taken through the northern gate (which is shut with an +iron door so wrought that it can be raised and let down, and locked in +easily and strongly, its projections running into the grooves of the +thick posts by a marvellous device), I saw a level space seventy +paces[1] wide between the first and second walls. From hence can be seen +large palaces all joined to the wall of the second circuit, in such a +manner as to appear all one palace. Arches run on a level with the +middle height of the palaces, and are continued round the whole ring. +There are galleries for promenading upon these arches, which are +supported from beneath by thick and well-shaped columns, enclosing +arcades like peristyles, or cloisters of an abbey. + +[Footnote 1: A pace was 1-9/25 yards, 1,000 paces making a mile.] + +But the palaces have no entrances from below, except on the inner or +concave partition, from which one enters directly to the lower parts of +the building. The higher parts, however, are reached by flights of +marble steps, which lead to galleries for promenading on the inside +similar to those on the outside. From these one enters the higher rooms, +which are very beautiful, and have windows on the concave and convex +partitions. These rooms are divided from one another by richly +decorated walls. The convex or outer wall of the ring is about eight +spans thick; the concave, three; the intermediate walls are one, or +perhaps one and a half. Leaving this circle one gets to the second +plain, which is nearly three paces narrower than the first. Then the +first wall of the second ring is seen adorned above and below with +similar galleries for walking, and there is on the inside of it another +interior wall enclosing palaces. It has also similar peristyles +supported by columns in the lower part, but above are excellent +pictures, round the ways into the upper houses. And so on afterwards +through similar spaces and double walls, enclosing palaces, and adorned +with galleries for walking, extending along their outer side, and +supported by columns, till the last circuit is reached, the way being +still over a level plain. + +But when the two gates, that is to say, those of the outmost and the +inmost walls, have been passed, one mounts by means of steps so formed +that an ascent is scarcely discernible, since it proceeds in a slanting +direction, and the steps succeed one another at almost imperceptible +heights. On the top of the hill is a rather spacious plain, and in the +midst of this there rises a temple built with wondrous art. + +_G.M._ Tell on, I pray you! Tell on! I am dying to hear more. + +_Capt._ The temple is built in the form of a circle; it is not girt with +walls, but stands upon thick columns, beautifully grouped. A very large +dome, built with great care in the centre or pole, contains another +small vault as it were rising out of it, and in this is a spiracle, +which is right over the altar. There is but one altar in the middle of +the temple, and this is hedged round by columns. The temple itself is on +a space of more than three hundred and fifty paces. Without it, arches +measuring about eight paces extend from the heads of the columns +outwards, whence other columns rise about three paces from the thick, +strong and erect wall. Between these and the former columns there are +galleries for walking, with beautiful pavements, and in the recess of +the wall, which is adorned with numerous large doors, there are +immovable seats, placed as it were between the inside columns, +supporting the temple. Portable chairs are not wanting, many and well +adorned. Nothing is seen over the altar but a large globe, upon which +the heavenly bodies are painted, and another globe upon which there is a +representation of the earth. Furthermore, in the vault of the dome there +can be discerned representations of all the stars of heaven from the +first to the sixth magnitude, with their proper names and power to +influence terrestrial things marked in three little verses for each. +There are the poles and greater and lesser circles according to the +right latitude of the place, but these are not perfect because there is +no wall below. They seem, too, to be made in their relation to the +globes on the altar. The pavement of the temple is bright with precious +stones. Its seven golden lamps hang always burning, and these bear the +names of the seven planets. + +At the top of the building several small and beautiful cells surround +the small dome, and behind the level space above the bands or arches of +the exterior and interior columns there are many cells, both small and +large, where the priests and religious officers dwell to the number of +forty-nine. + +A revolving flag projects from the smaller dome, and this shows in what +quarter the wind is. The flag is marked with figures up to thirty-six, +and the priests know what sort of year the different kinds of winds +bring and what will be the changes of weather on land and sea. +Furthermore, under the flag a book is always kept written with letters +of gold. + +_G.M._ I pray you, worthy hero, explain to me their whole system of +government; for I am anxious to hear it. + +_Capt._ The great ruler among them is a priest whom they call by the +name HOH, though we should call him Metaphysic. He is head over all, in +temporal and spiritual matters, and all business and lawsuits are +settled by him, as the supreme authority. Three princes of equal +power--viz., Pon, Sin and Mor--assist him, and these in our tongue we +should call POWER, WISDOM and LOVE. To POWER belongs the care of all +matters relating to war and peace. He attends to the military arts, and, +next to Hoh, he is ruler in every affair of a warlike nature. He governs +the military magistrates and the soldiers, and has the management of the +munitions, the fortifications, the storming of places, the implements of +war, the armories, the smiths and workmen connected with matters of this +sort. + +But WISDOM is the ruler of the liberal arts, of mechanics, of all +sciences with their magistrates and doctors, and of the discipline of +the schools. As many doctors as there are, are under his control. There +is one doctor who is called Astrologus; a second, Cosmographus; a third, +Arithmeticus; a fourth, Geometra; a fifth, Historiographus; a sixth, +Poeta; a seventh, Logicus; an eighth, Rhetor; a ninth, Grammaticus; a +tenth, Medicus; an eleventh, Physiologus; a twelfth, Politicus; a +thirteenth, Moralis. They have but one book, which they call Wisdom, and +in it all the sciences are written with conciseness and marvellous +fluency of expression. This they read to the people after the custom of +the Pythagoreans. It is Wisdom who causes the exterior and interior, the +higher and lower walls of the city to be adorned with the finest +pictures, and to have all the sciences painted upon them in an admirable +manner. On the walls of the temple and on the dome, which is let down +when the priest gives an address, lest the sounds of his voice, being +scattered, should fly away from his audience, there are pictures of +stars in their different magnitudes, with the powers and motions of +each, expressed separately in three little verses. + +On the interior wall of the first circuit all the mathematical figures +are conspicuously painted--figures more in number than Archimedes or +Euclid discovered, marked symmetrically, and with the explanation of +them neatly written and contained each in a little verse. There are +definitions and propositions, &c. &c. On the exterior convex wall is +first an immense drawing of the whole earth, given at one view. +Following upon this, there are tablets setting forth for every separate +country the customs both public and private, the laws, the origins and +the power of the inhabitants; and the alphabets the different people use +can be seen above that of the City of the Sun. + +On the inside of the second circuit, that is to say of the second ring +of buildings, paintings of all kinds of precious and common stones, of +minerals and metals, are seen; and a little piece of the metal itself is +also there with an apposite explanation in two small verses for each +metal or stone. On the outside are marked all the seas, rivers, lakes +and streams which are on the face of the earth; as are also the wines +and the oils and the different liquids, with the sources from which the +last are extracted, their qualities and strength. There are also vessels +built into the wall above the arches, and these are full of liquids from +one to three hundred years old, which cure all diseases. Hail and snow, +storms and thunder, and whatever else takes place in the air, are +represented with suitable figures and little verses. The inhabitants +even have the art of representing in stone all the phenomena of the air, +such as the wind, rain, thunder, the rainbow, &c. + +On the interior of the third circuit all the different families of trees +and herbs are depicted, and there is a live specimen of each plant in +earthenware vessels placed upon the outer partition of the arches. With +the specimens there are explanations as to where they were first found, +what are their powers and natures, and resemblances to celestial things +and to metals: to parts of the human body and to things in the sea, and +also as to their uses in medicine, &c. On the exterior wall are all the +races of fish, found in rivers, lakes and seas, and their habits and +values, and ways of breeding, training and living, the purposes for +which they exist in the world, and their uses to man. Further, their +resemblances to celestial and terrestrial things, produced both by +nature and art, are so given that I was astonished when I saw a fish +which was like a bishop, one like a chain, another like a garment, a +fourth like a nail, a fifth like a star, and others like images of those +things existing among us, the relation in each case being completely +manifest. There are sea-urchins to be seen, and the purple shell-fish +and mussels; and whatever the watery world possesses worthy of being +known is there fully shown in marvellous characters of painting and +drawing. + +On the fourth interior wall all the different kinds of birds are +painted, with their natures, sizes, customs, colours, manner of living, +&c.; and the only real phoenix is possessed by the inhabitants of this +city. On the exterior are shown all the races of creeping animals, +serpents, dragons and worms; the insects, the flies, gnats, beetles, +&c., in their different states, strength, venoms and uses, and a great +deal more than you or I can think of. + +On the fifth interior they have all the larger animals of the earth, as +many in number as would astonish you. We indeed know not the thousandth +part of them, for on the exterior wall also a great many of immense size +are also portrayed. To be sure, of horses alone, how great a number of +breeds there is and how beautiful are the forms there cleverly +displayed! + +On the sixth interior are painted all the mechanical arts, with the +several instruments for each and their manner of use among different +nations. Alongside the dignity of such is placed, and their several +inventors are named. But on the exterior all the inventors in science, +in warfare, and in law are represented. There I saw Moses, Osiris, +Jupiter, Mercury, Lycurgus, Pompilius, Pythagoras, Zamolxis, Solon, +Charondas, Phoroneus, with very many others. They even have Mahomet, +whom nevertheless they hate as a false and sordid legislator. In the +most dignified position I saw a representation of Jesus Christ and of +the twelve Apostles, whom they consider very worthy and hold to be +great. Of the representations of men, I perceived Cæsar, Alexander, +Pyrrhus and Hannibal in the highest place; and other very renowned +heroes in peace and war, especially Roman heroes, were painted in lower +positions, under the galleries. And when I asked with astonishment +whence they had obtained our history, they told me that among them there +was a knowledge of all languages, and that by perseverance they +continually send explorers and ambassadors over the whole earth, who +learn thoroughly the customs, forces, rule and histories of the nations, +bad and good alike. These they apply all to their own republic, and with +this they are well pleased. I learnt that cannon and typography were +invented by the Chinese before we knew of them. There are magistrates, +who announce the meaning of the pictures, and boys are accustomed to +learn all the sciences, without toil and as if for pleasure; but in the +way of history only until they are ten years old. + +LOVE is foremost in attending to the charge of the race. He sees that +men and women are so joined together, that they bring forth the best +offspring. Indeed, they laugh at us who exhibit a studious care for our +breed of horses and dogs, but neglect the breeding of human beings. Thus +the education of the children is under his rule. So also is the medicine +that is sold, the sowing and collecting of fruits of the earth and of +trees, agriculture, pasturage, the preparations for the months, the +cooking arrangements, and whatever has any reference to food, clothing, +and the intercourse of the sexes. Love himself is ruler, but there are +many male and female magistrates dedicated to these arts. + +Metaphysic then with these three rulers manage all the above-named +matters, and even by himself alone nothing is done; all business is +discharged by the four together, but in whatever Metaphysic inclines to +the rest are sure to agree. + +_G.M._ Tell me, please, of the magistrates, their services and duties, +of the education and mode of living, whether the government is a +monarchy, a republic, or an aristocracy. + +_Capt._ This race of men came there from India, flying from the sword of +the Magi, a race of plunderers and tyrants who laid waste their country, +and they determined to lead a philosophic life in fellowship with one +another. Although the community of wives is not instituted among the +other inhabitants of their province, among them it is in use after this +manner. All things are common with them, and their dispensation is by +the authority of the magistrates. Arts and honours and pleasures are +common, and are held in such a manner that no one can appropriate +anything to himself. + +They say that all private property is acquired and improved for the +reason that each one of us by himself has his own home and wife and +children. From this self-love springs. For when we raise a son to riches +and dignities, and leave an heir to much wealth, we become either ready +to grasp at the property of the state, if in any case fear should be +removed from the power which belongs to riches and rank; or avaricious, +crafty, and hypocritical, if any one is of slender purse, little +strength, and mean ancestry. But when we have taken away self-love, +there remains only love for the state. + +_G.M._ Under such circumstances no one will be willing to labour, while +he expects others to work, on the fruit of whose labours he can live, as +Aristotle argues against Plato. + +_Capt._ I do not know how to deal with that argument, but I declare to +you that they burn with so great a love for their fatherland, as I could +scarcely have believed possible; and indeed with much more than the +histories tell us belonged to the Romans, who fell willingly for their +country, inasmuch as they have to a greater extent surrendered their +private property. I think truly that the friars and monks and clergy of +our country, if they were not weakened by love for their kindred and +friends, or by the ambition to rise to higher dignities, would be less +fond of property, and more imbued with a spirit of charity towards all, +as it was in the time of the Apostles, and is now in a great many cases. + +_G.M._ St. Augustine may say that, but I say that among this race of +men, friendship is worth nothing; since they have not the chance of +conferring mutual benefits on one another. + +_Capt._ Nay, indeed. For it is worth the trouble to see that no one can +receive gifts from another. Whatever is necessary they have, they +receive it from the community, and the magistrate takes care that no one +receives more than he deserves. Yet nothing necessary is denied to any +one. Friendship is recognized among them in war, in infirmity, in the +art contests, by which means they aid one another mutually by teaching. +Sometimes they improve themselves mutually with praises, with +conversation, with actions and out of the things they need. All those of +the same age call one another brothers. They call all over twenty-two +years of age, fathers; those who are less than twenty-two are named +sons. Moreover, the magistrates govern well, so that no one in the +fraternity can do injury to another. + +_G.M._ And how? + +_Capt._ As many names of virtues as there are amongst us, so many +magistrates there are among them. There is a magistrate who is named +Magnanimity, another Fortitude, a third Chastity, a fourth Liberality, a +fifth Criminal and Civil Justice, a sixth Comfort, a seventh Truth, an +eighth Kindness, a tenth Gratitude, an eleventh Cheerfulness, a twelfth +Exercise, a thirteenth Sobriety, &c. They are elected to duties of that +kind, each one to that duty for excellence in which he is known from +boyhood to be most suitable. Wherefore among them neither robbery nor +clever murders, nor lewdness, incest, adultery, or other crimes of +which we accuse one another, can be found. They accuse themselves of +ingratitude and malignity when any one denies a lawful satisfaction to +another, of indolence, of sadness, of anger, of scurrility, of slander, +and of lying, which curseful thing they thoroughly hate. Accused persons +undergoing punishment are deprived of the common table, and other +honours, until the judge thinks that they agree with their correction. + +_G.M._ Tell me the manner in which the magistrates are chosen. + +_Capt._ You would not rightly understand this, unless you first learnt +their manner of living. That you may know then, men and women wear the +same kind of garment, suited for war. The women wear the toga below the +knee, but the men above. And both sexes are instructed in all the arts +together. When this has been done as a start, and before their third +year, the boys learn the language and the alphabet on the walls by +walking round them. They have four leaders, and four elders, the first +to direct them, the second to teach them, and these are men approved +beyond all others. After some time they exercise themselves with +gymnastics, running, quoits, and other games, by means of which all +their muscles are strengthened alike. Their feet are always bare, and so +are their heads as far as the seventh ring. Afterwards they lead them to +the offices of the trades, such as shoemaking, cooking, metal-working, +carpentry, painting, &c. In order to find out the bent of the genius of +each one, after their seventh year, when they have already gone through +the mathematics on the walls, they take them to the readings of all the +sciences; there are four lectures at each reading, and in the course of +four hours the four in their order explain everything. + +For some take physical exercise or busy themselves with public services +or functions, others apply themselves to reading. Leaving these studies +all are devoted to the more abstruse subjects, to mathematics, to +medicine, and to other sciences. There is continual debate and studied +argument amongst them, and after a time they become magistrates of those +sciences or mechanical arts in which they are the most proficient; for +every one follows the opinion of his leader and judge, and goes out to +the plains to the works of the field, and for the purpose of becoming +acquainted with the pasturage of the dumb animals. And they consider him +the more noble and renowned who has dedicated himself to the study of +the most arts and knows how to practise them wisely. Wherefore they +laugh at us in that we consider our workmen ignoble, and hold those to +be noble who have mastered no pursuit; but live in ease, and are so many +slaves given over to their own pleasure and lasciviousness; and thus as +it were from a school of vices so many idle and wicked fellows go forth +for the ruin of the state. + +The rest of the officials, however, are chosen by the four chiefs, Hoh, +Pon, Sin and Mor, and by the teachers of that art over which they are +fit to preside. And these teachers know well who is most suited for +rule. Certain men are proposed by the magistrates in council, they +themselves not seeking to become candidates, and he opposes who knows +anything against those brought forward for election, or if not, speaks +in favour of them. But no one attains to the dignity of Hoh except him +who knows the histories of the nations, and their customs and sacrifices +and laws, and their form of government, whether a republic or a +monarchy. He must also know the names of the lawgivers and the inventors +in science, and the laws and the history of the earth and the heavenly +bodies. They think it also necessary that he should understand all the +mechanical arts, the physical sciences, astrology and mathematics. +(Nearly every two days they teach our mechanical art. They are not +allowed to overwork themselves, but frequent practice and the paintings +render learning easy to them. Not too much care is given to the +cultivation of languages, as they have a goodly number of interpreters +who are grammarians in the state.) But beyond everything else it is +necessary that Hoh should understand metaphysics and theology; that he +should know thoroughly the derivations, foundations and demonstrations +of all the arts and sciences; the likeness and difference of things; +necessity, fate, and the harmonies of the universe; power, wisdom, and +the love of things and of God; the stages of life and its symbols; +everything relating to the heavens, the earth and the sea; and the ideas +of God, as much as mortal man can know of Him. He must also be well read +in the Prophets and in astrology. And thus they know long beforehand who +will be Hoh. He is not chosen to so great a dignity unless he has +attained his thirty-fifth year. And this office is perpetual, because it +is not known who may be too wise for it or who too skilled in ruling. + +_G.M._ Who indeed can be so wise? If even any one has a knowledge of the +sciences it seems that he must be unskilled in ruling. + +_Capt._ This very question I asked them and they replied thus: "We, +indeed, are more certain that such a very learned man has the knowledge +of governing, than you who place ignorant persons in authority, and +consider them suitable merely because they have sprung from rulers or +have been chosen by a powerful faction. But our Hoh, a man really the +most capable to rule, is for all that never cruel nor wicked, nor a +tyrant, inasmuch as he possesses so much wisdom. This, moreover, is not +unknown to you, that the same argument cannot apply among you, when you +consider that man the most learned who knows most of grammar, or logic, +or of Aristotle or any other author. For such knowledge as this of yours +much servile labour and memory work is required, so that a man is +rendered unskilful; since he has contemplated nothing but the words of +books and has given his mind with useless result to the consideration of +the dead signs of things. Hence he knows not in what way God rules the +universe, nor the ways and customs of Nature and the nations. Wherefore +he is not equal to our HOH. For that one cannot know so many arts and +sciences thoroughly, who is not esteemed for skilled ingenuity, very apt +at all things, and therefore at ruling especially. This also is plain to +us that he who knows only one science, does not really know either that +or the others, and he who is suited for only one science and has +gathered his knowledge from books, is unlearned and unskilled. But this +is not the case with intellects prompt and expert in every branch of +knowledge and suitable for the consideration of natural objects, as it +is necessary that our HOH should be. Besides in our state the sciences +are taught with a facility (as you have seen) by which more scholars are +turned out by us in one year than by you in ten, or even fifteen. Make +trial, I pray you, of these boys." In this matter I was struck with +astonishment at their truthful discourse and at the trial of their boys, +who did not understand my language well. Indeed it is necessary that +three of them should be skilled in our tongue, three in Arabic, three in +Polish, and three in each of the other languages, and no recreation is +allowed them unless they become more learned. For that they go out to +the plain for the sake of running about and hurling arrows and lances, +and of firing harquebuses, and for the sake of hunting the wild animals +and getting a knowledge of plants and stones, and agriculture and +pasturage; sometimes the band of boys does one thing, sometimes another. + +They do not consider it necessary that the three rulers assisting HOH +should know other than the arts having reference to their rule, and so +they have only a historical knowledge of the arts which are common to +all. But their own they know well, to which certainly one is dedicated +more than another. Thus POWER is the most learned in the equestrian art, +in marshalling the army, in marking out of camps, in the manufacture of +every kind of weapon and of warlike machines, in planning stratagems, +and in every affair of a military nature. And for these reasons, they +consider it necessary that these chiefs should have been philosophers, +historians, politicians, and physicists. Concerning the other two +triumvirs, understand remarks similar to those I have made about POWER. + +_G.M._ I really wish that you would recount all their public duties, and +would distinguish between them, and also that you would tell clearly how +they are all taught in common. + +_Capt._ They have dwellings in common and dormitories, and couches and +other necessaries. But at the end of every six months they are separated +by the masters. Some shall sleep in this ring, some in another; some in +the first apartment, and some in the second; and these apartments are +marked by means of the alphabet on the lintel. There are occupations, +mechanical and theoretical, common to both men and women, with this +difference, that the occupations which require more hard work, and +walking a long distance, are practised by men, such as ploughing, +sowing, gathering the fruits, working at the threshing-floor, and +perchance at the vintage. But it is customary to choose women for +milking the cows, and for making cheese. In like manner, they go to the +gardens near to the outskirts of the city both for collecting the plants +and for cultivating them. In fact, all sedentary and stationary pursuits +are practised by the women, such as weaving, spinning, sewing, cutting +the hair, shaving, dispensing medicines, and making all kinds of +garments. They are, however, excluded from working in wood and the +manufacture of arms. If a woman is fit to paint, she is not prevented +from doing so; nevertheless, music is given over to the women alone, +because they please the more, and of a truth to boys also. But the women +have not the practice of the drum and the horn. + +And they prepare their feasts and arrange the tables in the following +manner. It is the peculiar work of the boys and girls under twenty to +wait at the tables. In every ring there are the suitable kitchens, +barns, and stores of utensils for eating and drinking, and over every +department an old man and an old woman preside. These two have at once +the command of those who serve, and the power of chastising, or causing +to be chastised, those who are negligent or disobedient; and they also +examine and mark each one, both male and female, who excels in his or +her duties. + +All the young people wait upon the older ones who have passed the age of +forty, and in the evening when they go to sleep the master and mistress +command that those should be sent to work in the morning, upon whom in +succession the duty falls, one or two to separate apartments. The young +people, however, wait upon one another, and that alas! with some +unwillingness. They have first and second tables, and on both sides +there are seats. On one side sit the women, on the other the men; and as +in the refectories of the monks, there is no noise. While they are +eating a young man reads a book from a platform, intoning distinctly and +sonorously, and often the magistrates question them upon the more +important parts of the reading. And truly it is pleasant to observe in +what manner these young people, so beautiful and clothed in garments so +suitable, attend to them, and to see at the same time so many friends, +brothers, sons, fathers and mothers all in their turn living together +with so much honesty, propriety and love. So each one is given a napkin, +a plate, fish, and a dish of food. It is the duty of the medical +officers to tell the cooks what repasts shall be prepared on each day, +and what food for the old, what for the young, and what for the sick. +The magistrates receive the full-grown and fatter portion, and they from +their share always distribute something to the boys at the table who +have shown themselves more studious in the morning at the lectures and +debates concerning wisdom and arms. And this is held to be one of the +most distinguished honours. For six days they ordain to sing with music +at table. Only a few, however, sing; or there is one voice accompanying +the lute and one for each other instrument. And when all alike in +service join their hands, nothing is found to be wanting. The old men +placed at the head of the cooking business and of the refectories of the +servants praise the cleanliness of the streets, the houses, the vessels, +the garments, the workshops and the warehouses. + +They wear white undergarments to which adheres a covering, which is at +once coat and legging, without wrinkles. The borders of the fastenings +are furnished with globular buttons, extended round and caught up here +and there by chains. The coverings of the legs descend to the shoes and +are continued even to the heels. Then they cover the feet with large +socks, or as it were half-buskins fastened by buckles, over which they +wear a half-boot, and besides, as I have already said, they are clothed +with a toga. And so aptly fitting are the garments, that when the toga +is destroyed, the different parts of the whole body are straight-way +discerned, no part being concealed. They change their clothes for +different ones four times in the year, that is when the sun enters +respectively the constellations Aries, Cancer, Libra and Capricorn, and +according to the circumstances and necessity as decided by the officer +of health. The keepers of clothes for the different rings are wont to +distribute them, and it is marvellous that they have at the same time as +many garments as there is need for, some heavy and some slight, +according to the weather. They all use white clothing, and this is +washed in each month with lye or soap, as are also the workshops of the +lower trades, the kitchens, the pantries, the barns, the store-houses, +the armories, the refectories and the baths. Moreover, the clothes are +washed at the pillars of the peristyles, and the water is brought down +by means of canals which are continued as sewers. In every street of the +different rings there are suitable fountains, which send forth their +water by means of canals, the water being drawn up from nearly the +bottom of the mountain by the sole movement of a cleverly contrived +handle. There is water in fountains and in cisterns, whither the +rain-water collected from the roofs of the houses is brought through +pipes full of sand. They wash their bodies often, according as the +doctor and master command. All the mechanical arts are practised under +the peristyles, but the speculative are carried on above in the walking +galleries and ramparts where are the more splendid paintings, but the +more sacred ones are taught in the temple. In the halls and wings of the +rings there are solar time-pieces and bells, and hands by which the +hours and seasons are marked off. + +_G.M._ Tell me about their children. + +_Capt._ When their women have brought forth children, they suckle and +rear them in temples set apart for all. They give milk for two years or +more as the physician orders. After that time the weaned child is given +into the charge of the mistresses, if it is a female, and to the +masters, if it is a male. And then with other young children they are +pleasantly instructed in the alphabet, and in the knowledge of the +pictures, and in running, walking and wrestling; also in the historical +drawings, and in languages; and they are adorned with a suitable garment +of different colours. After their sixth year they are taught natural +science, and then the mechanical sciences. The men who are weak in +intellect are sent to farms, and when they have become more proficient +some of them are received into the state. And those of the same age and +born under the same constellation are especially like one another in +strength and in appearance, and hence arises much lasting concord in the +state, these men honouring one another with mutual love and help. Names +are given to them by Metaphysicus, and that not by chance but +designedly, and according to each one's peculiarity, as was the custom +among the ancient Romans. Wherefore one is called Beautiful (_Pulcher_), +another the Big-nosed (_Naso_), another the Fat-legged (_Cranipes_) +another Crooked (_Torvus_) another Lean (_Macer_) and so on. But when +they have become very skilled in their professions and done any great +deed in war or in time of peace, a cognomen from art is given to them, +such as Beautiful, the great painter (_Pulcher_, _Pictor Magnus_), the +golden one (_Aureus_) the excellent one (_Excellens_) or the strong +(_Strenuus_); or from their deeds, such as Naso the Brave (_Nason +Fortis_) or the cunning, or the great, or very great conqueror; or from +the enemy any one has overcome, Africanus, Asiaticus, Etruscus; or if +any one has overcome Manfred or Tortelius, he is called Macer Manfred or +Tortelius, and so on. All these cognomens are added by the higher +magistrates, and very often with a crown suitable to the deed or art, +and with the flourish of music. For gold and silver is reckoned of +little value among them except as material for their vessels and +ornaments, which are common to all. + +_G.M._ Tell me, I pray you, is there no jealousy among them or +disappointment to that one who has not been elected to a magistracy, or +to any other dignity to which he aspires? + +_Capt._ Certainly not. For no one wants either necessaries or luxuries. +Moreover, the race is managed for the good of the commonwealth and not +of private individuals, and the magistrates must be obeyed. They deny +what we hold--viz., that it is natural to man to recognize his offspring +and to educate them, and to use his wife and house and children as his +own. For they say that children are bred for the preservation of the +species and not for individual pleasure, as St. Thomas also asserts. +Therefore the breeding of children has reference to the commonwealth and +not to individuals, except in so far as they are constituents of the +commonwealth. And since individuals for the most part bring forth +children wrongly and educate them wrongly, they consider that they +remove destruction from the state, and therefore, for this reason, with +most sacred fear, they commit the education of the children, who as it +were are the element of the republic, to the care of magistrates; for +the safety of the community is not that of a few. And thus they +distribute male and female breeders of the best natures according to +philosophical rules. Plato thinks that this distribution ought to be +made by lot, lest some men seeing that they are kept away from the +beautiful women, should rise up with anger and hatred against the +magistrates; and he thinks further that those who do not deserve +cohabitation with the more beautiful women, should be deceived whilst +the lots are being led out of the city by the magistrates, so that at +all times the women who are suitable should fall to their lot, not those +whom they desire. This shrewdness, however, is not necessary among the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun. For with them deformity is unknown. +When the women are exercised they get a clear complexion, and become +strong of limb, tall and agile, and with them beauty consists in +tallness and strength. Therefore, if any woman dyes her face, so that it +may become beautiful, or uses high-heeled boots so that she may appear +tall, or garments with trains to cover her wooden shoes, she is +condemned to capital punishment. But if the women should even desire +them, they have no facility for doing these things. For who indeed would +give them this facility? Further, they assert that among us abuses of +this kind arise from the leisure and sloth of women. By these means they +lose their colour and have pale complexions, and become feeble and +small. For this reason they are without proper complexions, use high +sandals, and become beautiful not from strength, but from slothful +tenderness. And thus they ruin their own tempers and natures, and +consequently those of their offspring. Furthermore, if at any time a man +is taken captive with ardent love for a certain woman, the two are +allowed to converse and joke together, and to give one another garlands +of flowers or leaves, and to make verses. But if the race is endangered, +by no means is further union between them permitted. Moreover, the love +born of eager desire is not known among them; only that born of +friendship. + +Domestic affairs and partnerships are of little account, because, +excepting the sign of honour, each one receives what he is in need of. +To the heroes and heroines of the republic, it is customary to give the +pleasing gifts of honour, beautiful wreaths, sweet food or splendid +clothes, while they are feasting. In the daytime all use white garments +within the city, but at night or outside the city they use red garments +either of wool or silk. They hate black as they do dung, and therefore +they dislike the Japanese, who are fond of black. Pride they consider +the most execrable vice, and one who acts proudly is chastised with the +most ruthless correction. Wherefore no one thinks it lowering to wait at +table or to work in the kitchen or fields. All work they call +discipline, and thus they say that it is honourable to go on foot, to do +any act of nature, to see with the eye, and to speak with the tongue; +and when there is need, they distinguish philosophically between tears +and spittle. + +Every man who, when he is told off to work, does his duty, is considered +very honourable. It is not the custom to keep slaves. For they are +enough, and more than enough, for themselves. But with us, alas! it is +not so. In Naples there exists seventy thousand souls, and out of these +scarcely ten or fifteen thousand do any work, and they are always lean +from overwork and are getting weaker every day. The rest become a prey +to idleness, avarice, ill-health, lasciviousness, usury and other vices, +and contaminate and corrupt very many families by holding them in +servitude for their own use, by keeping them in poverty and slavishness, +and by imparting to them their own vices. Therefore public slavery ruins +them; useful works, in the field, in military service and in arts, +except those which are debasing, are not cultivated, the few who do +practise them doing so with much aversion. But in the City of the Sun, +while duty and work is distributed among all, it only falls to each one +to work for about four hours every day. The remaining hours are spent in +learning joyously, in debating, in reading, in reciting, in writing, in +walking, in exercising the mind and body, and with play. They allow no +game which is played while sitting, neither the single die nor dice, nor +chess, nor others like these. But they play with the ball, with the +sack, with the hoop, with wrestling, with hurling at the stake. They +say, moreover, that grinding poverty renders men worthless, cunning, +sulky, thievish, insidious, vagabonds, liars, false witnesses, &c.; and +that wealth makes them insolent, proud, ignorant, traitors, assumers of +what they know not, deceivers, boasters, wanting in affection, +slanderers, &c. But with them all the rich and poor together make up the +community. They are rich because they want nothing, poor because they +possess nothing; and consequently they are not slaves to circumstances, +but circumstances serve them. And on this point they strongly recommend +the religion of the Christians, and especially the life of the Apostles. + +_G.M._ This seems excellent and sacred, but the community of women is a +thing too difficult to attain. The holy Roman Clement says that wives +ought to be common in accordance with the apostolic institution, and +praises Plato and Socrates, who thus teach, but the Glossary interprets +this community with regard to obedience. And Tertullian agrees with the +Glossary, that the first Christians had everything in common except +wives. + +_Capt._ These things I know little of. But this I saw among the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun that they did not make this +exception. And they defend themselves by the opinion of Socrates, of +Cato, of Plato, and of St. Clement but, as you say, they misunderstand +the opinions of these thinkers. And the inhabitants of the solar city +ascribe this to their want of education, since they are by no means +learned in philosophy. Nevertheless, they send abroad to discover the +customs of nations, and the best of these they always adopt. Practice +makes the women suitable for war and other duties. Thus they agree with +Plato, in whom I have read these same things. The reasoning of our +Cajetan does not convince me, and least of all that of Aristotle. This +thing, however, existing among them is excellent and worthy of +imitation--viz., that no physical defect renders a man incapable of +being serviceable except the decrepitude of old age, since even the +deformed are useful for consultation. The lame serve as guards, watching +with the eyes which they possess. The blind card wool with their hands, +separating the down from the hairs, with which latter they stuff the +couches and sofas; those who are without the use of eyes and hands give +the use of their ears or their voice for the convenience of the state, +and if one has only one sense, he uses it in the farms. And these +cripples are well treated, and some become spies, telling the officers +of the state what they have heard. + +_G.M._ Tell me now, I pray you, of their military affairs. Then you may +explain their arts, ways of life and sciences, and lastly their +religion. + +_Capt._ The triumvir, Power, has under him all the magistrates of arms, +of artillery, of cavalry, of foot-soldiers, of architects, and of +strategists, and the masters and many of the most excellent workmen obey +the magistrates, the men of each art paying allegiance to their +respective chiefs. Moreover, Power is at the head of all the professors +of gymnastics, who teach military exercise, and who are prudent +generals, advanced in age. By these the boys are trained after their +twelfth year. Before this age, however, they have been accustomed to +wrestling, running, throwing the weight and other minor exercises, under +inferior masters. But at twelve they are taught how to strike at the +enemy, at horses and elephants, to handle the spear, the sword, the +arrow and the sling; to manage the horse; to advance and to retreat; to +remain in order of battle; to help a comrade in arms; to anticipate the +enemy by cunning; and to conquer. + +The women also are taught these arts under their own magistrates and +mistresses, so that they may be able if need be to render assistance to +the males in battles near the city. They are taught to watch the +fortifications lest at some time a hasty attack should suddenly be made. +In this respect they praise the Spartans and Amazons. The women know +well also how to let fly fiery balls, and how to make them from lead; +how to throw stones from pinnacles and to go in the way of an attack. +They are accustomed also to give up wine unmixed altogether, and that +one is punished most severely who shows any fear. + +The inhabitants of the City of the Sun do not fear death, because they +all believe that the soul is immortal, and that when it has left the +body it is associated with other spirits, wicked or good, according to +the merits of this present life. Although they are partly followers of +Bramah and Pythagoras, they do not believe in the transmigration of +souls, except in some cases, by a distinct decree of God. They do not +abstain from injuring an enemy of the republic and of religion, who is +unworthy of pity. During the second month the army is reviewed, and +every day there is practice of arms, either in the cavalry plain or +within the walls. Nor are they ever without lectures on the science of +war. They take care that the accounts of Moses, of Joshua, of David, of +Judas Maccabeus, of Cæsar, of Alexander, of Scipio, of Hannibal, and +other great soldiers should be read. And then each one gives his own +opinion as to whether these generals acted well or ill, usefully or +honourably, and then the teacher answers and says who are right. + +_G.M._ With whom do they wage war, and for what reasons, since they are +so prosperous? + +_Capt._ Wars might never occur, nevertheless they are exercised in +military tactics and in hunting, lest perchance they should become +effeminate and unprepared for any emergency. Besides there are four +kingdoms in the island, which are very envious of their prosperity, for +this reason that the people desire to live after the manner of the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun, and to be under their rule rather +than that of their own kings. Wherefore the state often makes war upon +these because, being neighbours, they are usurpers and live impiously, +since they have not an object of worship and do not observe the religion +of other nations or of the Brahmins. And other nations of India, to +which formerly they were subject, rise up as it were in rebellion, as +also do the Taprobanese, whom they wanted to join them at first. The +warriors of the City of the Sun, however, are always the victors. As +soon as they suffered from insult or disgrace or plunder, or when their +allies have been harassed, or a people have been oppressed by a tyrant +of the state (for they are always the advocates of liberty), they go +immediately to the council for deliberation. After they have knelt in +the presence of God that He might inspire their consultation, they +proceed to examine the merits of the business, and thus war is decided +on. Immediately after a priest, whom they call Forensic, is sent away. +He demands from the enemy the restitution of the plunder, asks that the +allies should be freed from oppression, or that the tyrant should be +deposed. If they deny these things war is declared by invoking the +vengeance of God--the God of Sabaoth--for destruction of those who +maintain an unjust cause. But if the enemy refuse to reply, the priest +gives him the space of one hour for his answer, if he is a king, but +three if it is a republic, so that they cannot escape giving a response. +And in this manner is war undertaken against the insolent enemies of +natural rights and of religion. When war has been declared, the deputy +of Power performs everything, but Power, like the Roman dictator, plans +and wills everything, so that hurtful tardiness may be avoided. And when +anything of great moment arises he consults Hoh and Wisdom and Love. + +Before this, however, the occasion of war and the justice of making an +expedition is declared by a herald in the great council. All from twenty +years and upwards are admitted to this council, and thus the necessaries +are agreed upon. All kinds of weapons stand in the armories, and these +they use often in sham fights. The exterior walls of each ring are full +of guns prepared by their labours, and they have other engines for +hurling which are called cannons, and which they take into battle upon +mules and asses and carriages. When they have arrived in an open plain +they enclose in the middle the provisions, engines of war, chariots, +ladders and machines and all fight courageously. Then each one returns +to the standards, and the enemy thinking that they are giving and +preparing to flee, are deceived and relax their order: then the warriors +of the City of the Sun, wheeling into wings and columns on each side, +regain their breath and strength, and ordering the artillery to +discharge their bullets they resume the fight against a disorganized +host. And they observe many ruses of this kind. They overcome all +mortals with their stratagems and engines. Their camp is fortified after +the manner of the Romans. They pitch their tents and fortify with wall +and ditch with wonderful quickness. The masters of works, of engines and +hurling machines, stand ready, and the soldiers understand the use of +the spade and the axe. + +Five, eight, or ten leaders learned in the order of battle and in +strategy consult together concerning the business of war, and command +their bands after consultation. It is their wont to take out with them +a body of boys, armed and on horses, so that they may learn to fight, +just as the whelps of lions and wolves are accustomed to blood. And +these in time of danger betake themselves to a place of safety, along +with many armed women. After the battle the women and boys soothe and +relieve the pain of the warriors, and wait upon them and encourage them +with embraces and pleasant words. How wonderful a help is this! For the +soldiers, in order that they may acquit themselves as sturdy men in the +eyes of their wives and offspring, endure hardships, and so love makes +them conquerors. He who in the fight first scales the enemy's walls +receives after the battle a crown of grass, as a token of honour, and at +the presentation the women and boys applaud loudly; that one who affords +aid to an ally gets a civic crown of oak-leaves; he who kills a tyrant +dedicates his arms in the temple and receives from Hoh the cognomen of +his deed, and other warriors obtain other kinds of crowns. Every +horse-soldier carries a spear and two strongly tempered pistols, narrow +at the mouth, hanging from his saddle. And to get the barrels of their +pistols narrow they pierce the metal which they intend to convert into +arms. Further, every cavalry soldier has a sword and a dagger. But the +rest, who form the light-armed troops, carry a metal cudgel. For if the +foe cannot pierce their metal for pistols and cannot make swords, they +attack him with clubs, shatter and overthrow him. Two chains of six +spans length hang from the club, and at the end of these are iron balls, +and when these aimed at the enemy they surround his neck and drag him to +the ground; and in order that they may be able to use the club more +easily, they do not hold the reins with their hands, but use them by +means of the feet. If perchance the reins are interchanged above the +trappings of the saddle, the ends are fastened to the stirrups with +buckles and not to the feet. And the stirrups have an arrangement for +swift movement of the bridle, so that they draw in or let out the rein +with marvellous celerity. With the right foot they turn the horse to the +left and with the left to the right. This secret, moreover, is not known +to the Tartars. For, although they govern the reins with their feet, +they are ignorant nevertheless of turning them and drawing them in and +letting them out by means of the block of the stirrups. The light-armed +cavalry with them are the first to engage in battle, then the men +forming the phalanx with their spears, then the archers for whose +services a great price is paid, and who are accustomed to fight in lines +crossing one another as the threads of cloth, some rushing forward in +their turn and others receding. They have a band of lancers +strengthening the line of battle, but they make trial of the swords only +at the end. + +After the battle they celebrate the military triumphs after the manner +of the Romans, and even in a more magnificent way. Prayers by the way of +thank-offerings are made to God, and then the general presents himself +in the temple, and the deeds, good and bad, are related by the poet or +historian, who according to custom was with the expedition. And the +greatest chief, Hoh, crowns the general with laurel and distributes +little gifts and honours to all the valorous soldiers, who are for some +days free from public duties. But this exemption from work is by no +means pleasing to them, since they know not what it is to be at leisure, +and so they help their companions. On the other hand, they who have been +conquered through their own fault, or have lost the victory, are blamed; +and they who were the first to take to flight are in no way worthy to +escape death, unless when the whole army asks their lives, and each one +takes upon himself a part of their punishment. But this indulgence is +rarely granted, except when there are good reasons favouring it. But he +who did not bear help to an ally or friend is beaten with rods. That one +who did not obey orders is given to the beasts, in an enclosure, to be +devoured, and a staff is put in his hand, and if he should conquer the +lions and the bears that are there, which is almost impossible, he is +received into favour again. The conquered states or those willingly +delivered up to them, forthwith have all things in common, and receive a +garrison and magistrates from the City of the Sun, and by degrees they +are accustomed to the ways of the city, the mistress of all, to which +they even send their sons to be taught without contributing anything for +expense. + +It would be too great trouble to tell you about the spies and their +master, and about the guards and laws and ceremonies, both within and +without the state, which you can of yourself imagine. Since from +childhood they are chosen according to their inclination and the star +under which they were born, therefore each one working according to his +natural propensity does his duty well and pleasantly, because naturally. +The same things I may say concerning strategy and the other functions. + +There are guards in the city by day and by night, and they are placed at +the four gates, and outside the walls of the seventh ring, above the +breastworks and towers and inside mounds. These places are guarded in +the day by women, in the night by men. And lest the guard should become +weary of watching, and in case of a surprise, they change them every +three hours, as is the custom with our soldiers. At sunset, when the +drum and symphonia sound, the armed guards are distributed. Cavalry and +infantry make use of hunting as the symbol of war, and practise games +and hold festivities in the plains. Then the music strikes up, and +freely they pardon the offences and faults of the enemy, and after the +victories they are kind to them, if it has been decreed that they should +destroy the walls of the enemy's city and take their lives. All these +things are done on the same day as the victory, and afterwards they +never cease to load the conquered with favours, for they say that there +ought to be no fighting, except when the conquerors give up the +conquered, not when they kill them. If there is a dispute among them +concerning injury or any other matter (for they themselves scarcely ever +contend except in matters of honour), the chief and his magistrates +chastise the accused one secretly, if he has done harm in deeds after he +has been first angry. If they wait until the time of the battle for the +verbal decision, they must give vent to their anger against the enemy, +and he who in battle shows the most daring deeds is considered to have +defended the better and truer cause in the struggle, and the other +yields, and they are punished justly. Nevertheless, they are not allowed +to come to single combat, since right is maintained by the tribunal, and +because the unjust cause is often apparent when the more just succumbs, +and he who professes to be the better man shows this in public fight. + +_G.M._ This is worth while, so that factions should not be cherished for +the harm of the fatherland, and so that civil wars might not occur, for +by means of these a tyrant often arises, as the examples of Rome and +Athens show. Now, I pray you, tell me of their works and matter +connected therewith. + +_Capt._ I believe that you have already heard about their military +affairs and about their agricultural and pastoral life, and in what way +these are common to them, and how they honour with the first grade of +nobility whoever is considered, to have a knowledge of these. They who +are skilful in more arts than these they consider still nobler, and they +set that one apart for teaching the art in which he is most skilful. The +occupations which require the most labour, such as working in metals and +building, are the most praiseworthy amongst them. No one declines to go +to these occupations, for the reason that from the beginning their +propensities are well known, and among them, on account of the +distribution of labour, no one does work harmful to him, but only that +which is necessary for him. The occupations entailing less labour belong +to the women. All of them are expected to know how to swim, and for this +reason ponds are dug outside the walls of the city and within them near +to the fountains. + +Commerce is of little use to them, but they know the value of money, and +they count for the use of their ambassadors and explorers, so that with +it they may have the means of living. They receive merchants into their +states from the different countries of the world, and these buy the +superfluous goods of the city. The people of the City of the Sun refuse +to take money, but in importing they accept in exchange those things of +which they are in need, and sometimes they buy with money; and the young +people in the City of the Sun are much amused when they see that for a +small price they receive so many things in exchange. The old men, +however, do not laugh. They are unwilling that the state should be +corrupted by the vicious customs of slaves and foreigners. Therefore +they do business at the gates, and sell those whom they have taken in +war or keep them for digging ditches and other hard work without the +city, and for this reason they always send four bands of soldiers to +take care of the fields, and with them there are the labourers. They go +out of the four gates from which roads with walls on both sides of them +lead to the sea, so that goods might easily be carried over them and +foreigners might not meet with difficulty on their way. + +To strangers they are kind and polite; they keep them for three days at +the public expense; after they have first washed their feet, they show +them their city and its customs, and they honour them with a seat at the +council and public table, and there are men whose duty it is to take +care of and guard the guests. But if strangers should wish to become +citizens of their state, they try them first for a month on a farm, and +for another month in the city, then they decide concerning them, and +admit them with certain ceremonies and oaths. + +Agriculture is much followed among them; there is not a span of earth +without cultivation, and they observe the winds and propitious stars. +With the exception of a few left in the city all go out armed, and with +flags and drums and trumpets sounding, to the fields, for the purposes +of ploughing, sowing, digging, hoeing, reaping, gathering fruit and +grapes; and they set in order everything, and do their work in a very +few hours and with much care. They use waggons fitted with sails which +are borne along by the wind even when it is contrary, by the marvellous +contrivance of wheels within wheels. + +And when there is no wind a beast draws along a huge cart, which is a +grand sight. + +The guardians of the land move about in the meantime, armed and always +in their proper turn. They do not use dung and filth for manuring the +fields, thinking that the fruit contracts something of their rottenness, +and when eaten gives a short and poor subsistence, as women who are +beautiful with rouge and from want of exercise bring forth feeble +offspring. Wherefore they do not as it were paint the earth, but dig it +up well and use secret remedies, so that fruit is borne quickly and +multiplies, and is not destroyed. They have a book for this work, which +they call the Georgics. As much of the land as is necessary is +cultivated, and the rest is used for the pasturage of cattle. + +The excellent occupation of breeding and rearing horses, oxen, sheep, +dogs and all kinds of domestic and tame animals, is in the highest +esteem among them as it was in the time of Abraham. And the animals are +led so to pair that they may be able to breed well. + +Fine pictures of oxen, horses, sheep, and other animals are placed +before them. They do not turn out horses with mares to feed, but at the +proper time they bring them together in an enclosure of the stables in +their fields. And this is done when they observe that the constellation +Archer is in favourable conjunction with Mars and Jupiter. For the oxen +they observe the Bull, for the sheep the Ram, and so on in accordance +with art. Under the Pleiades they keep a drove of hens and ducks and +geese, which are driven out by the women to feed near the city. The +women only do this when it is a pleasure to them. There are also places +enclosed, where they make cheese, butter, and milk-food. They also keep +capons, fruit and other things, and for all these matters there is a +book which they call the Bucolics. They have an abundance of all things, +since every one likes to be industrious, their labours being slight and +profitable. They are docile, and that one among them who is head of the +rest in duties of this kind they call king. For they say that this is +the proper name of the leaders, and it does not belong to ignorant +persons. It is wonderful to see how men and women march together +collectively, and always in obedience to the voice of the king. Nor do +they regard him with loathing as we do, for they know that although he +is greater than themselves, he is for all that their father and brother. +They keep groves and woods for wild animals, and they often hunt. + +The science of navigation is considered very dignified by them, and they +possess rafts and triremes, which go over the waters without rowers or +the force of the wind, but by a marvellous contrivance. And other +vessels they have which are moved by the winds. They have a correct +knowledge of the stars, and of the ebb and flow of the tide. They +navigate for the sake of becoming acquainted with nations and different +countries and things. They injure nobody, and they do not put up with +injury, and they never go to battle unless when provoked. They assert +that the whole earth will in time come to live in accordance with their +customs, and consequently they always find out whether there be a +nation whose manner of living is better and more approved than the rest. +They admire the Christian institutions and look for a realisation of the +apostolic life in vogue among themselves and in us. There are treaties +between them and the Chinese, and many other nations, both insular and +continental, such as Siam and Calicut, which they are only just able to +explore. Furthermore, they have artificial fires, battles on sea and +land, and many strategic secrets. Therefore they are nearly always +victorious. + +_G.M._ Now it would be very pleasant to learn with what foods and drinks +they are nourished, and in what way and for how long they live. + +_Capt._ Their food consists of flesh, butter, honey, cheese, garden +herbs, and vegetables of various kinds. They were unwilling at first to +slay animals, because it seemed cruel; but thinking afterwards that it +was also cruel to destroy herbs which have a share of sensitive feeling, +they saw that they would perish from hunger unless they did an +unjustifiable action for the sake of justifiable ones, and so now they +all eat meat. Nevertheless, they do not kill willingly useful animals, +such as oxen and horses. They observe the difference between useful and +harmful foods, and for this they employ the science of medicine. They +always change their food. First they eat flesh, then fish, then +afterwards they go back to flesh, and nature is never incommoded or +weakened. The old people use the more digestible kind of food, and take +three meals a day, eating only a little. But the general community eat +twice, and the boys four times, that they might satisfy nature. The +length of their lives is generally one hundred years, but often they +reach two hundred. + +As regards drinking, they are extremely moderate. Wine is never given to +young people until they are ten years old, unless the state of their +health demands it. After their tenth year they take it diluted with +water, and so do the women, but the old men of fifty and upwards use +little or no water. They eat the most healthy things, according to the +time of the year. + +They think nothing harmful which is brought forth by God, except when +there has been abuse by taking too much. And therefore in the summer +they feed on fruits, because they are moist and juicy and cool, and +counteract the heat and dryness. In the winter they feed on dry +articles, and in the autumn they eat grapes, since they are given by God +to remove melancholy and sadness; and they also make use of scents to a +great degree. In the morning, when they have all risen they comb their +hair and wash their faces and hands with cold water. Then they chew +thyme or rock parsley or fennel, or rub their hands with these plants. +The old men make incense, and with their faces to the east repeat the +short prayer which Jesus Christ taught us. After this they go to wait +upon the old men, some go to the dance, and others to the duties of the +state. Later on they meet at the early lectures, then in the temple, +then for bodily exercise. Then for a little while they sit down to rest, +and at length they go to dinner. + +Among them there is never gout in the hands or feet, no catarrh, nor +sciatica, nor grievous colics, nor flatulency, nor hard breathing. For +these diseases are caused by indigestion and flatulency, and by +frugality and exercise they remove every humour and spasm. Wherefore it +is unseemly in the extreme to be seen vomiting or spitting, since they +say that this is a sign either of little exercise or of ignoble sloth, +or of drunkenness or gluttony. They suffer rather from swellings or from +the dry spasm, which they relieve with plenty of good and juicy food. +They heal fevers with pleasant baths and with milk-food, and with a +pleasant habitation in the country and by gradual exercise. Unclean +diseases cannot be prevalent with them because they often clean their +bodies by bathing in wine, and soothe them with aromatic oil, and by +the sweat of exercise they diffuse the poisonous vapour which corrupts +the blood and the marrow. They do suffer a little from consumption, +because they cannot perspire at the breast, but they never have asthma, +for the humid nature of which a heavy man is required. They cure hot +fevers with cold potations of water, but slight ones with sweet smells, +with cheese-bread or sleep, with music or dancing. Tertiary fevers are +cured by bleeding, by rhubarb or by a similar drawing remedy, or by +water soaked in the roots of plants, with purgative and sharp-tasting +qualities. But it is rarely that they take purgative medicines. Fevers +occurring every fourth day are cured easily by suddenly startling the +unprepared patients, and by means of herbs producing effects opposite to +the humours of this fever. All these secrets they told me in opposition +to their own wishes. They take more diligent pains to cure the lasting +fevers, which they fear more, and they strive to counteract these by the +observation of stars and of plants, and by prayers to God. Fevers +recurring every fifth, sixth, eighth or more days, you never find +whenever heavy humours are wanting. + +They use baths, and moreover they have warm ones according to the Roman +custom, and they make use also of olive oil. They have found out, too, a +great many secret cures for the preservation of cleanliness and health. +And in other ways they labour to cure the epilepsy, with which they are +often troubled. + +_G.M._ A sign this disease is of wonderful cleverness, for from it +Hercules, Scotus, Socrates, Callimachus, and Mahomet have suffered. + +_Capt._ They cure by means of prayers to heaven, by strengthening the +head, by acids, by planned gymnastics, and with fat cheese-bread +sprinkled with the flour of wheaten corn. They are very skilled in +making dishes, and in them they put spice, honey, butter and many highly +strengthening spices, and they temper their richness with acids, so that +they never vomit. They do not drink ice-cold drinks nor artificial hot +drinks, as the Chinese do; for they are not without aid against the +humours of the body, on account of the help they get from the natural +heat of the water; but they strengthen it with crushed garlic, with +vinegar, with wild thyme, with mint, and with basil, in the summer or in +time of special heaviness. They know also a secret for renovating life +after about the seventieth year, and for ridding it of affliction, and +this they do by a pleasing and indeed wonderful art. + +_G.M._ Thus far you have said nothing concerning their sciences and +magistrates. + +_Capt._ Undoubtedly I have. But since you are so curious I will add +more. Both when it is new moon and full moon they call a council after a +sacrifice. To this all from twenty years upwards are admitted, and each +one is asked separately to say what is wanting in the state, and which +of the magistrates have discharged their duties rightly and which +wrongly. Then after eight days all the magistrates assemble, to wit, Hoh +first, and with him Power, Wisdom and Love. Each one of the three last +has three magistrates under him, making in all thirteen, and they +consider the affairs of the arts pertaining to each one of them; Power, +of war; Wisdom, of the sciences; Love, of food, clothing, education and +breeding. The masters of all the bands, who are captains of tens, of +fifties, of hundreds, also assemble, the women first and then the men. +They argue about those things which are for the welfare of the state, +and they choose the magistrates from among those who have already been +named in the great council. In this manner they assemble daily, Hoh and +his three princes, and they correct, confirm and execute the matters +passing to them, as decisions in the elections; other necessary +questions they provide of themselves. They do not use lots unless when +they are altogether doubtful how to decide. The eight magistrates under +Hoh, Power, Wisdom and Love are changed according to the wish of the +people, but the first four are never changed, unless they, taking +counsel with themselves, give up the dignity of one to another, whom +among them they know to be wiser, more renowned, and more nearly +perfect. And then they are obedient and honourable, since they yield +willingly to the wiser man and are taught by him. This, however, rarely +happens. The principals of the sciences, except Metaphysics, who is Hoh +himself, and is as it were the architect of all science, having rule +over all, are attached to Wisdom. Hoh is ashamed to be ignorant of any +possible thing. Under Wisdom therefore is Grammar, Logic, Physics, +Medicine, Astrology, Astronomy, Geometry, Cosmography, Music, +Perspective, Arithmetic, Poetry, Rhetoric, Painting, Sculpture. Under +the triumvir Love are Breeding, Agriculture, Education, Medicine, +Clothing, Pasturage, Coining. + +_G.M._ What about their judges? + +_Capt._ This is the point I was just thinking of explaining. Everyone is +judged by the first master of his trade, and thus all the head +artificers are judges. They punish with exile, with flogging, with +blame, with deprivation of the common table, with exclusion from the +church and from the company of women. When there is a case in which +great injury has been done, it is punished with death, and they repay an +eye with an eye, a nose for a nose, a tooth for a tooth, and so on, +according to the law of retaliation. If the offence is wilful the +council decides. When there is strife and it takes place undesignedly, +the sentence is mitigated; nevertheless, not by the judge but by the +triumvirate, from whom even it may be referred to Hoh, not on account of +justice but of mercy, for Hoh is able to pardon. They have no prisons, +except one tower for shutting up rebellious enemies, and there is no +written statement of a case, which we commonly call a lawsuit. But the +accusation and witnesses are produced in the presence of the judge and +Power; the accused person makes his defence, and he is immediately +acquitted or condemned by the judge; and if he appeals to the +triumvirate, on the following day he is acquitted of condemned. On the +third day he is dismissed through the mercy and clemency of Hoh, or +receives the inviolable rigour of his sentence. An accused person is +reconciled to his accuser and to his witnesses, as it were, with the +medicine of his complaint, that is, with embracing and kissing. No one +is killed or stoned unless by the hands of the people, the accuser and +the witnesses beginning first. For they have no executioners and +lictors, lest the state should sink into ruin. The choice of death is +given to the rest of the people, who enclose the lifeless remains in +little bags and burn them by the application of fire, while exhorters +are present for the purpose of advising concerning a good death. +Nevertheless, the whole nation laments and beseeches God that His anger +may be appeased, being in grief that it should as it were have to cut +off a rotten member of the state. Certain officers talk to and convince +the accused man by means of arguments until he himself acquiesces in the +sentence of death passed upon him, or else he does not die. But if a +crime has been committed against the liberty of the republic, or against +God, or against the supreme magistrates, there is immediate censure +without pity. These only are punished with death. He who is about to die +is compelled to state in the presence of the people and with religious +scrupulousness the reasons for which he does not deserve death, and also +the sins of the others who ought to die instead of him, and further the +mistakes of the magistrates. If, moreover, it should seem right to the +person thus asserting, he must say why the accused ones are deserving of +less punishment than he. And if by his arguments he gains the victory he +is sent into exile, and appeases the state by means of prayers and +sacrifices and good life ensuing. They do not torture those named by the +accused person, but they warn them. Sins of frailty and ignorance are +punished only with blaming, and with compulsory continuation as +learners under the law and discipline of those sciences or arts against +which they have sinned. And all these things they have mutually among +themselves, since they seem to be in very truth members of the same +body, and one of another. + +This further I would have you know, that if a transgressor, without +waiting to be accused, goes of his own accord before a magistrate, +accusing himself and seeking to make amends, that one is liberated from +the punishment of a secret crime, and since he has not been accused of +such a crime, his punishment is changed into another. They take special +care that no one should invent slander, and if this should happen they +meet the offence with the punishment of retaliation. Since they always +walk about and work in crowds, five witnesses are required for the +conviction of a transgressor. If the case is otherwise, after having +threatened him, he is released after he has sworn an oath as the warrant +of good conduct. Or if he is accused a second or third time, his +increased punishment rests on the testimony of three or two witnesses. +They have but few laws, and these short and plain, and written upon a +flat table, and hanging to the doors of the temple, that is between the +columns. And on single columns can be seen the essences of things +described in the very terse style of Metaphysics--viz., the essences of +God, of the angels, of the world, of the stars, of man, of fate, of +virtue, all done with great wisdom. The definitions of all the virtues +are also delineated here, and here is the tribunal, where the judges of +all the virtues have their seat. The definition of a certain virtue is +written under that column where the judges for the aforesaid virtue sit, +and when a judge gives judgment he sits and speaks thus: O son, thou +hast sinned against this sacred definition of beneficence, or of +magnanimity, or of another virtue, as the case may be. And after +discussion the judge legally condemns him to the punishment for the +crime of which he is accused--viz., for injury for despondency, for +pride, for ingratitude, for sloth, &c. But the sentences are certain and +true correctives, savouring more of clemency than of actual punishment. + +_G.M._ Now you ought to tell me about their priests, their sacrifices, +their religion, and their belief. + +_Capt._ The chief priest is Hoh, and it is the duty of all the superior +magistrates to pardon sins. Therefore the whole state by secret +confession, which we also use, tell their sins to the magistrates, who +at once purge their souls and teach those that are inimical to the +people. Then the sacred magistrates themselves confess their own +sinfulness to the three supreme chiefs, and together they confess the +faults of one another, though no special one is named, and they confess +especially the heavier faults and those harmful to the state. At length +the triumvirs confess their sinfulness to Hoh himself, who forthwith +recognizes the kinds of sins that are harmful to the state, and succours +with timely remedies. Then he offers sacrifices and prayers to God. And +before this he confesses the sins of the whole people, in the presence +of God, and publicly in the temple, above the altar, as often as it had +been necessary that the fault should be corrected. Nevertheless, no +transgressor is spoken of by his name. In this manner he absolves the +people by advising them that they should beware of sins of the aforesaid +kind. Afterwards he offers sacrifice to God, that He should pardon the +state and absolve it of its sins, and to teach and defend it. Once in +every year the chief priests of each separate subordinate state confess +their sins in the presence of Hoh. Thus he is not ignorant of the +wrong-doings of the provinces, and forthwith he removes them with all +human and heavenly remedies. + +Sacrifice is conducted after the following manner: Hoh asks the people +which one among them wishes to give himself as a sacrifice to God for +the sake of his fellows. He is then placed upon the fourth table, with +ceremonies and the offering up of prayers: the table is hung up in a +wonderful manner by means of four ropes passing through four cords +attached to firm pulley-blocks in the small dome of the temple. This +done they cry to the God of mercy, that He may accept the offering, not +of a beast as among the heathen, but of a human being. Then Hoh orders +the ropes to be drawn and the sacrifice is pulled up above to the centre +of the small dome, and there it dedicates itself with the most fervent +supplications. Food is given to it through a window by the priests, who +live around the dome, but it is allowed a very little to eat, until it +has atoned for the sins of the state. There with prayer and fasting he +cries to the God of heaven that He might accept its willing offering. +And after twenty or thirty days, the anger of God being appeased, the +sacrifice becomes a priest, or sometimes, though rarely, returns below +by means of the outer way for the priests. Ever after this man is +treated with great benevolence and much honour, for the reason that he +offered himself unto death for the sake of his country. But God does not +require death. The priests above twenty-four years of age offer praises +from their places in the top of the temple. This they do in the middle +of the night, at noon, in the morning and in the evening, to wit, four +times a day they sing their chants in the presence of God. It is also +their work to observe the stars and to note with the astrolabe their +motions and influences upon human things, and to find out their powers. +Thus they know in what part of the earth any change has been or will be, +and at what time it has taken place, and they send to find whether the +matter be as they have it. They make a note of predictions, true and +false, so that they may be able from experience to predict most +correctly. The priests, moreover, determine the hours for breeding and +the days for sowing, reaping, and gathering the vintage, and are as it +were the ambassadors and intercessors and connection between God and +man. And it is from among them mostly that Hoh is elected. They write +very learned treatises and search into the sciences. Below they never +descend, unless for their dinner and supper, so that the essence of +their heads do not descend to the stomachs and liver. Only very seldom, +and that as a cure for the ills of solitude, do they have converse with +women. On certain days Hoh goes up to them and deliberates with them +concerning the matters which he has lately investigated for the benefit +of the state and all the nations of the world. + +In the temple beneath one priest always stands near the altar praying +for the people, and at the end of every hour another succeeds him, just +as we are accustomed in solemn prayer to change every fourth hour. And +this method of supplication they call perpetual prayer. After a meal +they return thanks to God. Then they sing the deeds of the Christian, +Jewish, and Gentile heroes, and of those of all other nations, and this +is very delightful to them. Forsooth, no one is envious of another. They +sing a hymn to Love, one to Wisdom, and one each to all the other +virtues, and this they do under the direction of the ruler of each +virtue. Each one takes the woman he loves most, and they dance for +exercise with propriety and stateliness under the peristyles. The women +wear their long hair all twisted together and collected into one knot on +the crown of the head, but in rolling it they leave one curl. The men, +however, have one curl only and the rest of their hair around the head +is shaven off. Further, they wear a slight covering, and above this a +round hat a little larger than the size of their head. In the fields +they use caps, but at home each one wears a biretto white, red, or +another colour according to his trade or occupation. Moreover, the +magistrates use grander and more imposing-looking coverings for the +head. + +They hold great festivities when the sun enters the four cardinal points +of the heavens, that is, when he enters Cancer, Libra, Capricorn, and +Aries. On these occasions they have very learned, splendid, and as it +were comic performances. They celebrate also every full and every new +moon with a festival, as also they do the anniversaries of the founding +of the city, and of the days when they have won victories or done any +other great achievement. The celebrations take place with the music of +female voices, with the noise of trumpets and drums, and the firing of +salutations. The poets sing the praises of the most renowned leaders and +the victories. Nevertheless, if any of them should deceive even by +disparaging a foreign hero, he is punished. No one can exercise the +function of a poet who invents that which is not true, and a license +like this they think to be a pest of our world, for the reason that it +puts a premium upon virtue and often assigns it to unworthy persons, +either from fear or flattery, or ambition or avarice. For the praise of +no one is a statue erected until after his death; but whilst he is +alive, who has found out new arts and very useful secrets, or who has +rendered great service to the state either at home or on the +battle-field, his name is written in the book of heroes. They do not +bury dead bodies, but burn them, so that a plague may not arise from +them, and so that they may be converted into fire, a very noble and +powerful thing, which has its coming from the sun and returns to it. And +for the above reasons no chance is given for idolatry. The statues and +pictures of the heroes, however, are there, and the splendid women set +apart to become mothers often look at them. Prayers are made from the +state to the four horizontal corners of the world. In the morning to the +rising sun, then to the setting sun, then to the south, and lastly to +the north; and in the contrary order in the evening, first to the +setting sun, to the rising sun, to the north, and at length to the +south. They repeat but one prayer, which asks for health of body and of +mind, and happiness for themselves and all people, and they conclude it +with the petition "As it seems best to God." The public prayer for all +is long, and it is poured forth to heaven. For this reason the altar is +round and is divided crosswise by ways at right angles to one another. +By these ways Hoh enters after he has repeated the four prayers, and he +prays looking up to heaven. And then a great mystery is seen by them. +The priestly vestments are of a beauty and meaning like to those of +Aaron. They resemble Nature and they surpass Art. + +They divide the seasons according to the revolution of the sun, and not +of the stars, and they observe yearly by how much time the one precedes +the other. They hold that the sun approaches nearer and nearer, and +therefore by ever-lessening circles reaches the tropics and the equator +every year a little sooner. They measure months by the course of the +moon, years by that of the sun. They praise Ptolemy, admire Copernicus, +but place Aristarchus and Philolaus before him. They take great pains in +endeavouring to understand the construction of the world, and whether or +not it will perish, and at what time. They believe that the true oracle +of Jesus Christ is by the signs in the sun, in the moon, and in the +stars, which signs do not thus appear to many of us foolish ones. +Therefore they wait for the renewing of the age, and perchance for its +end. They say that it is very doubtful whether the world was made from +nothing, or from the ruins of other worlds, or from chaos, but they +certainly think that it was made, and did not exist from eternity. +Therefore they disbelieve in Aristotle, whom they consider a logician +and not a philosopher. From analogies, they can draw many arguments +against the eternity of the world. The sun and the stars they, so to +speak, regard as the living representatives and signs of God, as the +temples and holy living altars, and they honour but do not worship them. +Beyond all other things they venerate the sun, but they consider no +created thing worthy the adoration of worship. This they give to God +alone, and thus they serve Him, that they may not come into the power of +a tyrant and fall into misery by undergoing punishment by creatures of +revenge. They contemplate and know God under the image of the Sun, and +they call it the sign of God, His face and living image, by means of +which light, heat, life, and the making of all things good and bad +proceeds. Therefore they have built an altar like to the Sun in shape, +and the priests praise God in the sun and in the stars, as it were His +altars, and in the heavens, His temple as it were; and they pray to good +angels, who are, so to speak, the intercessors living in the stars, +their strong abodes. For God long since set signs of their beauty in +heaven, and of His glory in the Sun. They say there is but one heaven, +and that the planets move and rise of themselves when they approach the +sun or are in conjunction with it. + +They assert two principles of the physics of things below, namely, that +the Sun is the father, and the Earth the mother; the air is an impure +part of the heavens; all fire is derived from the sun. The sea is the +sweat of earth, or the fluid of earth combusted, and fused within its +bowels; but is the bond of union between air and earth, as the blood is +of the spirit and flesh of animals. The world is a great animal, and we +live within it as worms live within us. Therefore we do not belong to +the system of stars, sun, and earth, but to God only; for in respect to +them which seek only to amplify themselves, we are born and live by +chance; but in respect to God, whose instruments we are, we are formed +by prescience and design, and for a high end. Therefore we are bound to +no Father but God, and receive all things from Him. They hold as beyond +question the immortality of souls, and that these associate with good +angels after death, or with bad angels, according as they have likened +themselves in this life to either. For all things seek their like. They +differ little from us as to places of reward and punishment. They are in +doubt whether there are other worlds beyond ours, and account it +madness to say there is nothing. Nonentity is incompatible with the +infinite entity of God. They lay down two principles of metaphysics, +entity which is the highest God, and nothingness which is the defect of +entity. Evil and sin come of the propensity to nothingness; the sin +having its cause not efficient, but in deficiency. Deficiency is, they +say, of power, wisdom or will. Sin they place in the last of these +three, because he who knows and has the power to do good is bound also +to have the will, for will arises out of them. They worship God in +Trinity, saying God is the supreme Power, whence proceeds the highest +Wisdom, which is the same with God, and from these comes Love, which is +both Power and Wisdom; but they do not distinguish persons by name, as +in our Christian law, which has not been revealed to them. This +religion, when its abuses have been removed, will be the future mistress +of the world, as great theologians teach and hope. Therefore Spain found +the New World (though its first discoverer, Columbus, greatest of +heroes, was a Genoese), that all nations should be gathered under one +law. We know not what we do, but God knows, whose instruments we are. +They sought new regions for lust of gold and riches, but God works to a +higher end. The sun strives to burn up the earth, not to produce plants +and men, but God guides the battle to great issues. His the praise, to +Him the glory! + +_G.M._ Oh, if you knew what our astrologers say of the coming age, and +of our age, that has in it more history within a hundred years than all +the world had in four thousand years before! Of the wonderful invention +of printing and guns, and the use of the magnet, and how it all comes of +Mercury, Mars, the Moon, and the Scorpion! + +_Capt._ Ah, well! God gives all in His good time. They astrologize too +much. + + + + +A FRAGMENT OF + +JOSEPH HALL'S + +MUNDUS ALTER ET IDEM + +(_THE OTHER-AND SAME WORLD_) + +TRANSLATED BY + +DR. WILLIAM KING. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY SKETCH. + + +Joseph Hall was born at Bristow Park, by Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in the year +1574, and educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In 1597 he published +three books, and in 1598 three more books, of Satires, "_Virgidemiarum_, +Six Bookes." These satires, with others published about the same time by +Marlowe and Marston, were burnt by order of Whitgift, Archbishop of +Canterbury, who had no relish for that kind of writing. Nine years +later, in the year 1607, at the age of thirty-two, Hall published the +satire now to be described. He was a witty and an earnest man, who rose +to honour in the Church, became successively Bishop of Exeter and of +Norwich; as Bishop of Norwich was in controversy with John Milton on +Church Discipline; suffered patiently imprisonment and persecution from +the Puritans; and closed an honourable life of more than fourscore years +in 1656. He has been called by some the Christian Seneca. + +His early work, the "Mundus Alter et Idem," represents an ideal world +divided into regions answering to man's chief weaknesses or vices. He +gave with it a map of its Crapulia, Latronia, &c., fully peopled, with a +neighbouring land in which there are no signs of settlement, _Terra +Sancta, ignota etiam adhuc_, the Holy Land, even yet unknown. + +Joseph Hall's new world is also figured as an Austral Continent. They +are good travellers, he says, who tell what they have seen in known +lands, but he is a better who not only travels but is himself the maker +of the lands he travels through. He chose his day, and went aboard the +good ship Phantasy, quitted harbour, sailed away, reached in two years +the Fortunate Isles, and, leaving the shores of Africa behind him, came +in sight of the black headland of Crapulia. + +Here Introduction ends and Travel begins with the part partly translated +by Dr. King: Crapulia, named from Crapula, is the Land of Inebriate +Excess, and its two provinces, Pamphagonia and Yvronia, mean by their +names the provinces of Omnivorous Gluttony and Drunkenness. Dr. King has +translated six chapters, and begun the seventh, which is upon the wars +of the Pamphagonians, to which they march forth armed with spits and +two-pronged forks and heavy ribs of beef. In their free city, Ucalegon, +built near the borders of Moronia, the citizens live happy as monks. +They are so well shut in by high rocks that they can laugh at enemies, +and through a hollow in the rocks with softest pace creeps the river +Oysivius (the Idle). There is only one way up, their rocks for the +inhabitants, and that is not by zigzag steps, but by a rope and basket. +Birds wholly peculiar to the place supply food by being themselves +eatable, and by the great multitude of their eggs, and by the loads of +fish they bring into their nests to feed their young. The citizens make +to themselves also beds of the soft feathers of these birds. This valley +yields to the people of Ucalegon everything except what they don't care +for. They are free, therefore, to sup, sleep, rise, dine, and lie down. + +Husbandry, as among the old Egyptians, consists chiefly in feeding pigs, +for the husbandmen wait on the rich. One, with a gentle touch, opens the +richer man's eyes when he wakes; another fans him with a flapper while +he eats; another puts bits into his mouth when it opens. There are two +cities under Ucalegon, Livona and Roncara (Snort and Snore), which have +like privileges, except that here the inhabitants are almost always +asleep, and fatten wonderfully. + +These are among the laws of Crapulia:--It is a crime to drink alone. +Whoever has defrauded Nature by fasting four hours after sleep shall be +compelled to sup. When the mouth is full it is enough to answer +questions by holding out a finger. What cook soever shall treat food so +that it cannot be eaten, shall be tied to a stake beside which is hung +meat half raw or half burnt, and shall remain so tied until somebody +comes who will eat that meat. + +No coin of metal is current in Crapulia, but they make payment in kind. +Thus two sparrows are one starling, two starlings are one fieldfare, two +fieldfares one hen, two hens one goose, two geese one lamb, two lambs +one kid, two kids one goat, two goats one cow, and so forth. + +The next chapter is on the Religion of the Crapulians. They hate Jove +because his thunder turns the wine sour and he spoils ripe fruit by +raining on it. Their God is Time, who eats everything. + +But I hasten, says the traveller, to the palace of the Grand Duke, +whither I was happily led by my genius. The first Duke must have been as +large as the man two of whose teeth were dug up at Cambridge, each as +big as a man's head. On his tomb is an inscription. "I Omasius, Duke of +Fagonia, Lord, Victor, Prince and God lie here. No man shall say I +starved, shall pass by fasting, or salute me sober. Let him be my heir +who can, my subject who will, my enemy who dares. Farewell and Fatten." + +After a description of the Island of Hunger, the traveller passes from +Pamphagonia to Yvronia, the other province of Crapulia. + +These are among the laws of Yvronia:--A cup must be either full or +empty. Whoever takes or returns a cup half empty shall be guilty of +_lèse societé_. The sober man who hurts a drunkard, shall be cut off +from wine for ever: if he kill a drunkard, he shall die by thirst. To +walk from supper in a right line shall be criminal. He who adds water to +wine shall be degraded to the table of the dogs. + +Yvronia having been described in seven chapters, the traveller in this +Other-and-Same World passes on to Viraginia, the land of the Viragoes. +This is Gynia Nova, miswritten New Guinea. The chief of its many +provinces is Linguadocia, in which Garrula is one of the famous cities. +In Viraginia the traveller was at once made prisoner, but permitted to +see the land after he had subscribed to certain articles, as, That in +word or deed he would work no ill to the nobler sex; That he would never +interpose a word when a woman was speaking; That wherever he might be he +would concede domestic rule to the woman; That he would never deny to a +wife any ornament of dress she looked at. + +As to its form of government, the state seemed to be a democracy, in +which all governed and none obeyed. They settled affairs at public +meetings, in which all spoke and none listened; and they had a perpetual +Parliament. + +The men in Viraginia are subject to the women. When a wife leaves her +house for any reason, she places the care of her husband under any other +woman of the household until she returns. A husband who survives his +wife, is married at once to his wife's maid, or goes into bondage to the +nearest mother of a family, because it is not permitted that any man +shall become master in his own house. + +The women sit while the men serve, sleep when the men are roused to get +up, scold them when they complain, and beat them. That day is worthy to +be marked with a white stone to which men can say good-bye with a whole +skin. + +Contrary to the custom with us, the women in Viraginia cut their hair +and let their nails grow. Some of them also practise with profit the +gymnastic art, so that they can make beautiful use of teeth, nails, and +heels. A nobler and more cleanly polished place is not to be seen than +Viraginia, where everything is washed, cooked and cared for by the men, +and there is nothing unbecoming but the garments of the men themselves. + +The next land to be visited was Moronia, Foolsland, the vastest, the +most uncultivated and the most populous of all these countries. To the +east is Variana or Moronia Mobilis, to the north is Moronia Aspera, to +the south Moronia Felix, and to the west Moronia Pia. The people are, +nearly all of them, tall and fat, with palish hair, prominent lips, and +very thick ears. In midwinter they go with their chests open, and the +rest of the body lightly clothed, that the warmth may enter the more +readily, and the cold go out of them; but in summer they put on thick +overcoats and cloaks, and all the clothes they have, to shut out the +heat. They shave their heads, either because they remember that they +were born bald, or to allay the heat of the brain, or because the hair +comes between the brain and heaven, and checks the freedom of the mind +in going heavenward. + +Provinces, towns and people of Moronia having been visited and fully +described, the traveller through this Other-and-Same World then proceeds +to describe Lavernia, the Land of Thieves and Cheats, who obtain great +part of their plunder from Moronia. In this land the Larcinians require +much attention. And at the end of all, adds Joseph Hall, "These men, +these manners, these cities I have seen, have marvelled at, have laughed +at, and at last, broken by the toils of so great a journey, have +returned to my own land. PEREGRINUS, QUONDAM ACADEMICUS." + +Dr. William King was born in the year 1663, son of Ezekiel King, a +gentleman of London. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ +Church, Oxford. He early inherited a fair estate, took his Master of +Arts degree in 1688, and began his career as writer with a refutation of +attacks upon Wiclif in the "History of Heresy," by M. Varillas. He then +chose law for a profession, in 1692 graduated as LL.D., and was admitted +an Advocate at Doctor's Commons. He kept a light heart and a lighter +purse than beseemed one of his fraternity, publishing playful satires, +at times showing an earnest mind under his mirth. In or soon after the +year 1702 Dr. King went to Ireland as judge of the High Court of +Admiralty, sole Commissioner of the Prizes, Vicar-General to the Lord +Primate, and Keeper of the Records in Birmingham's Tower, in which +office he was succeeded in 1708 by Joseph Addison. Dr. King, who had not +increased his credit for a love of work, returned to London about that +time, and following his own way of mirth began publishing "Useful +Transactions in Philosophy and other sorts of learning." In 1709 he +published the best of his playful poems, "The Art of Cookery, in +imitation of Horace's Art of Poetry; with some letters to Dr. Lister and +others, occasioned principally by the Title of a Book published by the +Doctor, being the works of Apicius CÅ“lius concerning the Soups and +Sauces of the Ancients." When he came across Joseph Hall's satire, he +found it so much to his mind that he began to translate as follows:-- + +H.M. + + + + +CRAPULIA. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +_The Situation of the Country._ + + +Crapulia is a very fair and large territory, which on the north is +bounded with the Æthiopic Ocean, on the east with Laconia and Viraginia, +on the south by Moronia Felix, and westward with the Tryphonian Fens. It +lies in that part of the universe where is bred the monstrous bird +called Ruc, that for its prey will bear off an elephant in its talons; +and is described by the modern geographers. + +The soil is too fruitful, and the heavens too serene; so that I have +looked upon them with a silent envy, not without pity, when I considered +they were blessings so little deserved by the inhabitants. It lies in +seventy-four degrees of longitude, and sixty degrees of latitude, and +eleven degrees distant from the Cape of Good Hope; and lies, as it were, +opposite to the whole coast of Africa. It is commonly divided into two +provinces, Pamphagonia and Ivronia, the former of which is of the same +length and breadth as Great Britain (which I hope will not be taken as +any reflection), the other is equal to the High and Low Dutch Lands. +Both obey the same prince, are governed by the same laws, and differ +very little in their habit or their manners. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +_Pamphagonia; or, Glutton's Paradise._ + + +Pamphagonia is of a triangular figure, like that of ancient Egypt, or +the Greek letter delta, Δ. It is mountainous, inclosed with very high +hills; its soil is of the richest, so that birds which come thither to +feed, if they tarry but three months, grow so very fat and weighty, that +they cannot fly back again over the mountains, but suffer themselves to +be taken up in the hand, and are as delicious as the ortolan or the +beccaficos of the Italians. And it is no wonder to them who know that +geese in Scotland are generated from leaves fallen into the water, and +believe the testimony of one of our ambassadors, that in the north-east +parts of the world lambs grow upon stalks like cabbages and eat up the +grass all around about them, to find the same sort of provisions in this +country. Besides, the fish upon that coast are in such plenty, and so +voracious (whether they conform themselves to the genius of the place +and people, or presage to themselves the honour of so magnificent a +sepulchre as was given to Nero's turbot), that, as soon as the hook is +cast in, they press to it as the ghosts in Lucian did to Charon's boat, +and cling to the iron as miners do to a rope that is let down when the +light of their candle forbodes some malignant exhalation. + +The sea-ports, with which this country abounds more than any other, are +of no other use than to receive and take in such things as are edible, +which they have for their superfluous wool and hides: nor may the +inhabitants export anything that has the least relation to the palate. +You see nothing there but fruit-trees. They hate plains, limes, and +willows, as being idle and barren, and yielding nothing useful but their +shade. There are hops, pears, plums, and apples, in the hedge-rows, as +there is in all Ivronia; from whence the Lombards, and some counties in +the west of England, have learned their improvements. In ancient times, +Frugonia, or the Land of Frugality, took in this country as one of its +provinces; and histories tell us, that, in Saturn's time, the Frugonian +princes gave laws to all this part of the world, and had their palace +there; and that their country was called Fagonia, from the simplicity of +their diet, which consisted only in beech-mast. But that yoke has been +long ago shaken off; their manners are wholly changed, and, from the +universality of their food, they have obtained, in their own country +language, the title of Pamphagones. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +_The First Province of Pamphagonia._ + + +Friviandy, or Tight-bittia (that we may take the provinces in their +order), were it not for a temperament peculiar to the place, is rather +of the hottest to produce those who are properly called good +trencher-men. Its utmost point, which other geographers call the +Promontory of the Terra Australis, is of the same latitude as the most +southerly parts of Castile, and is about forty-two degrees distant from +the equator. The inhabitants have curled hair and dusky complexions, and +regard more the delicacy than the largeness and number of their dishes. +In this very promontory, which we shall call the black one from its +colour (for it is a very smoky region, partly from the frequent vapours +of the place, partly from its vicinity to the Terra del Fogo, which, by +the common consent of geographers, lies on the right hand of it, but +rather nearer than they have placed it), is the city Lucina, whose +buildings are lofty, but apt to be smoky and offensive to the smell; +from whence a colony went, perhaps, as far as the Indies, where it +remains to this day by the name of Cochin-China. + +Here is the famous temple of the great deity Omasius Gorgut, or +Gorbelly. It is a vast pile, and contains a thousand hearths, and as +many altars, which are constantly employed in the Rucal Festivals. In +the midst is a high pyramid, as lofty as the hand of man can erect it, +little inferior to those of Memphis. It is called the Cheminean Tower. +This, rising high, gives the signal of war to the adjoining countries: +for, as we by beacons lighted upon a high hill discover the danger of an +approaching enemy, so these, on the contrary, do the same by letting +their smoke cease and their fires go out: for, when the perpetual vapour +ceases to roll forth in thick and dark clouds of smoke, it is a token +that the Hambrians are drawing nearer, than whom there can be no enemy +more terrible to this nation. There are several smaller towns, that lie +under the dominion of this supreme city. Charbona is the largest +village, and, what is seldom seen elsewhere, lies all under ground. Upon +its barren soil arises another, though of less note, called Favillia. +After these lies Tenaille, a narrow town, and Batillû, a broad one, both +considerable. On the left are some subservient petty hamlets, as +Assadora, Marmitta, Culliera, as useful for the reception of strangers, +amongst which, that of Marmitta is watered by the river Livenza; which, +as is said of a fountain in the Peak of Derby, boils over twice in +four-and-twenty hours. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +_The Second Province of Pamphagonia._ + + +Next to this is the Golosinian district, the most pleasant part of +Pamphagonia, covered with dates, almonds, figs, olives, pomegranates, +oranges, citrons, and pistaches; through which run the smoothest of +streams, called the Oglium. Here is the beautiful city of Marzapane, +with noble turrets glittering with gold, but lying too open to the +enemy. Over it hang the Zucker hills, out of whose bowels they draw +something that is hard, white, and sparkling, but sweet as that moisture +which the ancients gathered out of the reeds which grew in Arabia and +the Indies. You shall find few people here, who are grown up, but what +have lost their teeth, and have stinking breaths. Near to this is the +little city Seplasium, which admits of no tradesmen but perfumers. It is +a town of great commerce with the people of Viraginia, especially the +Locanians, who use to change their looking-glass with them for oils and +pastils. The agreeableness of the place, and the bounty of the heavens, +is favourable to their art; for the whole track of land, at certain +seasons, is covered with aromatic comfits, that fall like hail-stones: +which Anathumiasis I take to be essentially the same as that aerial +honey which we often find upon our oaks, especially in the spring, and +that it differs only in thickness; for whereas that honey is sprinkled +in drops, the little globules are hardened by the intense cold of the +middle region, and rebound in falling. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +_Of the Third Province of Pamphagonia._ + + +In the fifty-fifth degree, we come into the plains of Lecania, and so +into the very heart of Pamphagonia, where the chief city we meet with is +Cibinium, which is washed with the acid streams of the river Assagion. +In the forum, or market-place, is the tomb (as I conjecture by the +footsteps of some letters now remaining) of Apicius, that famous Roman, +not very beautiful, but antique. It is engraved upon the shell of a +sea-crab; and it might happen, notwithstanding what Seneca says, that +this famous epicure, after having sought for larger shell-fish than the +coast of Gallia could supply him with, and then going in vain to Africa +to make a farther inquiry, might hear some rumour concerning this coast, +steer his course thither, and there die of a surfeit. But this I leave +to the critics. Here I shall only mention the most fertile fields of +Lardana and Ossulia. The delicious situation of Mortadella, the +pleasantest of places, had wonderfully delighted me, had it not been for +the salt-works which often approach too near it. There is an offensive +stinking town called Formagium, alias Butterboxia, and Mantica, a boggy +place near the confines of Ivronia. + +I hasten to the metropolis of the whole region, which, whether you +respect the uniformity of the building, the manners of the people, or +their way of living, their rules for behaviour, their law and justice, +will show as much as if I were to descend to particulars. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +_Of the Metropolis of Pamphagonia, and the Customs of the Inhabitants._ + + +There are but very few villages in this country, as well as in some +others; from whence a traveller may conjecture, that the country towns +are devoured by the cities, which are not so many in number as they are +large and populous; of which the mother and governess is called +Artocreopolis. The report goes, that in ancient times there were two +famous cities, Artopolis and Creatium, which had many and long contests +about the superiority: for so it happens to places, as well as men, that +increase in power; insomuch as the two most flourishing Universities in +the world (to both of which I bear the relation of a son, though I am +more peculiarly obliged to one of them for my education), +notwithstanding they are sisters, could not abstain from so ungrateful a +contention. + +Artopolis boasted of its antiquity, and that it had flourished in the +Saturnian age, when it had as yet no rival. Creatium set forth its own +splendour, pleasantness, and power. At last, a council being called, +Creatium got the preference by the universal votes of the assembly; for +such is the iniquity of the times, that though the head be covered with +grey hairs, yet nothing is allowed to the reverence of antiquity, when +encountered by a proud and upstart novelty. The other city is now so far +neglected, that the ruins or footsteps of its magnificence are scarce +remaining, any more than of Verulam, as is most elegantly set forth by +our noble poet Spenser in his verses on that subject; the latter +usurping the name of the other, as well as the other has now the double +title of Artocreopolis. The city is more extensive than beautiful: it is +fortified with a large and deep ditch of running water, which washes +almost all the streets, wherein are a thousand several ponds for fish; +upon which swim ducks, geese, swans, and all sorts of water-fowl, which +has been wisely imitated by the people of Augsburg. This ditch is called +Gruessa. There are two walls, whose materials were furnished by the +flesh-market; for they are made of bones, the larger serving for the +foundations, the lesser for the superstructure, whilst the smallest fill +up what is wanting in the middle; being all cemented with the whites of +eggs, by a wonderful artifice. The houses are not very beautiful, nor +built high after the manner of other cities; so that there is no need of +an Augustus to restrain the buildings to the height of seventy feet, as +was done at Rome; nor is there room for a Seneca or Juvenal to complain +of the multitude of their stairs and number of their stories. + +They have no regard for staircases; for indeed none of the citizens care +for them, partly from the trouble of getting up them (especially when, +as they often do, they have drunk heartily) as much as for the danger of +getting down again. Their houses are all covered with large blade-bones, +very neatly joined together. There are no free citizens admitted, but +such whose employment has more immediately some relation to the table. +Husbandmen, smiths, millers, and butchers, live in their colonies, who, +when they have a belly of an unwieldy bulk, are promoted to be +burgesses; to which degree none were anciently admitted but cooks, +bakers, victuallers, and the gravest senators, who are chosen here, as +in other places, not for their prudence, riches, or length of beard; but +for their measure, which they must come up to yearly if they will +pretend to bear any office in the public. As any one grows in +dimensions, he rises in honour; so that I have seen some who, from the +meanest and most contemptible village, have, for their merits, been +promoted to a more famous town, and at last obtained the senatorial +dignity in this most celebrated city: and yet, when by some disease (as +it often happens), or by age, they have grown leaner than they are +allowed to be by the statutes, have lost their honour, together with the +bulk of their carcass. Their streets were paved with polished marble; +which seemed strange amongst a people so incurious, both because the +workmanship was troublesome, and there might be danger in its being +slippery. But the true reason of it was, that they might not be forced +to lift their feet higher than ordinary by the inequality of the +pavement, and likewise that the chairs of the senators might the more +easily be pushed forward; for they never go on foot, or on horseback, +nor even in a coach, to the exchange, or their public feasts, because of +their weight; but they are moved about in great easy elbow-chairs, with +four wheels to them, and continue sitting so fixed, in the same posture, +snoring and flabbering till they are wheeled home again. + +At the four gates of the city, whose form is circular, there sit in +their turns as many senators, who are called Buscadores. These carefully +examine all who come in and go out, those that go out, lest they should +presume by chance to do it fasting, which they can easily judge of by +the extent of their bellies, and the matter being proved, they are fined +in a double supper: those that come in, to see what they bring with them +upon their return; for they must neither depart with empty stomachs, nor +come back with empty hands. Every month, according to the laws, which +they unwillingly transgress, there are stated feasts, at which all the +senators are obliged to be present, that after dinner (for no person can +give his vote before he has dined) they may deliberate concerning the +public affairs. The name of their common-hall is Pythanoscome. Every one +knows his own seat, and his conveniences and a couch to repose upon when +the heat of their wine and seasoned dainties incline them to it. Their +greatest delicacies are served up at the first course; for they think it +foolish not to eat the best things with the greatest appetite: nor do +they cut their boars, sheep, goats, and lambs into joints or quarters, +as commonly we do, but convey them whole to table, by the help of +machines, as I remember to have read in Petronius Arbiter. They are +fineable who rise before they have set six hours; for then the edge of +their stomach is blunted. They eat and drink so leisurely, for the same +reason as the famous Epicure of old wished that his neck were as long as +a crane's. They measure the seasonable time for their departure after +this method: they have a door to their town-house, which is wide enough +for the largest man to enter when he is fasting: through this the guests +pass; and when any one would depart, if he stops in this passage, he is +trusted to go out at another door; but if it be as easy as if he were +fasting, the master of the ceremonies makes him tarry till he comes to +be of a statutable magnitute: after which example, Willfrid's needle in +Belvior Castle was a pleasant trial of Roman Catholic sanctity. They +have gardens of many acres extent, but not like those of Adonis or +Alcinoüs; for nothing delightful is to be expected in them, neither +order, nor regularity of walk, nor grass-plots, nor variety of flowers +in the borders: but you will find all planted with cabbages, turnips, +garlick, and musk-melons, which were carried hence to Italy, and are in +quantity sufficient to feast an hundred Pythagoreans. + +There is a public college, or hospital, whither they are sent who have +got the dropsy, gout, or asthma, by their eating and drinking; and there +they are nourished at the public expense. As for such as have lost their +teeth by their luxury, or broken them by eating too greedily or +incautiously, they are provided for in the island of Sorbonia. All the +richer sort have several servants, in the nature of vassals, to +cultivate their gardens, and be employed in inferior offices, who have +their liberty when they can arrive at such a bulkiness. If any of the +grandees of the country die of a surfeit, he is given, as being all made +up of the most exquisite dainties, to be eaten up by his servants; and +this they do that nothing should be lost that is so delicate. The men +are thick and fat to a miracle; nor will any one salute another whose +chin does not come to the midst of his breast, and his paunch falls to +his knees. The women are not unlike them, and in shape resemble the +Italians, and have breasts like the Hottentots. They go almost naked, +having no regard to their garments. The magistrates and persons of +better figure have gowns made of the skins of such beasts as they have +eaten at one meal. All wear a knife, with a large spoon, hanging upon +their right arm. Before their breasts they wear a smooth skin, instead +of a napkin, to receive what falls out of their mouths, and to wipe them +upon occasion; which whether it be more black or greasy, is hard to +determine. + +They are of a very slow apprehension, and no way fit for any science; +but yet understand such arts as they have occasion for. Their schools +are public-houses, where they are educated in the sciences of eating, +drinking, and carving; over which, one Archisilenius, an exquisite +Epicure, was then provost, who, instead of grammar, read some fragments +of Apicius. Instead of a library, there is a public repository of +drinking-vessels, in which cups of all orders and sizes are disposed +into certain classes. Cups and dishes are instead of books. The younger +scholars have less, the elder have greater; one has a quart, the other a +pottle, the other a gallon: this has a hen, that a goose, a third a lamb +or a porker: nor have they any liberty, or recess, till the whole is +finished; and if by a seven years' stuffing they are no proficients in +fatness, are presently banished into the Fancetic Islands; nor are they +suffered long to stay there idle and without improvement. Hither +likewise are sent all physicians who prescribe a course of diet to any +person. When any one is sick, without recourse to Æsculapius, they make +him eat radish, and drink warm water; which, according to Celsus, will +purge and vomit him. Venison is that which they most delight in; but +they never take it in hunting, but by nets and gins. They look upon the +swine as the most profitable and best of all animals; whether it is for +the likeness of its manners, as being good for nothing but the table, or +else from its growing fat on the sudden with the worst of nutriment. It +may not seem credible, yet parsimony appears in the midst of their +profuseness: but then it is very ill placed, for it is in crumbs, bones, +and crusts. They do not so much as keep any dogs, cats, hawks, or +anything that eats flesh. If any person suffer meat to stink, he is +impaled; but venison and rabbits are to have the _haut-gout_: and then +their cheese is kept till it is overrun with little animals, which they +devour with mustard and sugar. This is an odd sort of custom, derived +from the Dutch. + +The country abounds with rivers, which ebb and flow according to their +digestion, and generally overflow at the beginning of January, and +towards the end of February, and do mischief to the neighbouring +country. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +_Of the Wars of the Pamphagonians._ + + +The Pamphagones have perpetual wars with the Hambrians, or the Fancetic +Islands, and the Frugonians. + + * * * * * + +_Cætera desunt._ + + +THE END. + + +PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/18638-0.zip b/18638-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f718fff --- /dev/null +++ b/18638-0.zip diff --git a/18638-8.txt b/18638-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..89bc14c --- /dev/null +++ b/18638-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8696 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ideal Commonwealths, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ideal Commonwealths + +Author: Various + +Editor: Henry Morley + +Release Date: June 20, 2006 [EBook #18638] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Graeme Mackreth and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS + + +PLUTARCH'S LYCURGUS + +MORE'S UTOPIA + +BACON'S NEW ATLANTIS + +CAMPANELLA'S CITY OF THE SUN + +AND A FRAGMENT OF + +HALL'S MUNDUS ALTER ET IDEM + + +_WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY HENRY MORLEY_ + +LL.D., PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON + +FIFTH EDITION + +LONDON +GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, LIMITED +BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL +GLASGOW, MANCHESTER, AND NEW YORK + +1890 + +MORLEY'S UNIVERSAL LIBRARY. + + +1. _Sheridan's Plays._ + +2. _Plays from Molière._ By English Dramatists. + +3. _Marlowe's Faustus_ and _Goethe's Faust._ + +4. _Chronicle of the Cid._ + +5. _Rabelais' Gargantua_ and the _Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel._ + +6. _Machiavelli's Prince._ + +7. _Bacon's Essays._ + +8. _Defoe's Journal of the Plague Year._ + +9. _Locke on Civil Government_ and _Filmer's "Patriarcha"._ + +10. _Butler's Analogy of Religion._ + +11. _Dryden's Virgil._ + +12. _Scott's Demonology and Witchcraft._ + +13. _Herrick's Hesperides._ + +14. _Coleridge's Table-Talk._ + +15. _Boccaccio's Decameron._ + +16. _Sterne's Tristram Shandy._ + +17. _Chapman's Homer's Iliad._ + +18. _Mediæval Tales._ + +19. _Voltaire's Candide_, and _Johnson's Rasselas._ + +20. _Jonson's Plays and Poems._ + +21. _Hobbes's Leviathan._ + +22. _Samuel Butler's Hudibras._ + +23. _Ideal Commonwealths._ + +24. _Cavendish's Life of Wolsey._ + +25 & 26. _Don Quixote._ + +27. _Burlesque Plays and Poems._ + +28. _Dante's Divine Comedy._ LONGFELLOW'S Translation. + +29. _Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield, Plays, and Poems._ + +30. _Fables and Proverbs from the Sanskrit. (Hitopadesa.)_ + +31. _Lamb's Essays of Elia._ + +32. _The History of Thomas Ellwood._ + +33. _Emerson's Essays, &c._ + +34. _Southey's Life of Nelson._ + +35. _De Quincey's Confession of an Opium-Eater, &c._ + +36. _Stories of Ireland._ By Miss EDGEWORTH. + +37. _Frere's Aristophanes: Acharnians, Knights, Birds._ + +38. _Burke's Speeches and Letters._ + +39. _Thomas à Kempis._ + +40. _Popular Songs of Ireland._ + +41. _Potter's Æschylus._ + +42. _Goethe's Faust: Part II._ ANSTER'S Translation. + +43. _Famous Pamphlets._ + +44. _Francklin's Sophocles._ + +45. _M.G. Lewis's Tales of Terror and Wonder._ + +46. _Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation._ + +47. _Drayton's Barons' Wars, Nymphidia, &c._ + +48. _Cobbett's Advice to Young Men._ + +49. _The Banquet of Dante._ + +50. _Walker's Original._ + +51. _Schiller's Poems and Ballads._ + +52. _Peele's Plays and Poems._ + +53. _Harrington's Oceana._ + +54. _Euripides: Alcestis and other Plays._ + +55. _Praed's Essays._ + +56. _Traditional Tales._ ALLAN CUNNINGHAM. + +57. _Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity. Books I.-IV._ + +58. _Euripides: The Bacchanals and other Plays._ + +59. _Izaak Walton's Lives._ + +60. _Aristotle's Politics._ + +61. _Euripides: Hecuba and other Plays._ + +62. _Rabelais--Sequel to Pantagruel._ + +63. _A Miscellany._ + +"Marvels of clear type and general neatness."--_Daily Telegraph._ + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Plato in his "Republic" argues that it is the aim of Individual Man as +of the State to be wise, brave and temperate. In a State, he says, there +are three orders, the Guardians, the Auxiliaries, the Producers. Wisdom +should be the special virtue of the Guardians; Courage of the +Auxiliaries; and Temperance of all. These three virtues belong +respectively to the Individual Man, Wisdom to his Rational part; Courage +to his Spirited; and Temperance to his Appetitive: while in the State as +in the Man it is Injustice that disturbs their harmony. + +Because the character of Man appears in the State unchanged, but in a +larger form, Plato represented Socrates as studying the ideal man +himself through an Ideal Commonwealth. + +In another of his dialogues, "Critias," of which we have only the +beginning, Socrates wishes that he could see how such a commonwealth +would work, if it were set moving. Critias undertakes to tell him. For +he has received tradition of events that happened more than nine +thousand years ago, when the Athenians themselves were such ideal +citizens. Critias has received this tradition, he says, from a +ninety-year-old grandfather, whose father, Dropides, was the friend of +Solon. Solon, lawgiver and poet, had heard it from the priests of the +goddess Neïth or Athene at Sais, and had begun to shape it into a heroic +poem. + +This was the tradition:--Nine thousand years before the time of Solon, +the goddess Athene, who was worshipped also in Sais, had given to her +Athenians a healthy climate, a fertile soil, and temperate people strong +in wisdom and courage. Their Republic was like that which Socrates +imagined, and it had to bear the shock of a great invasion by the people +of the vast island Atlantis. This island, larger than all Libya and Asia +put together, was once in the sea westward beyond the Atlantic +waves,--thus America was dreamed of long before it was discovered. +Atlantis had ten kings, descended from ten sons of Poseidon (Neptune), +who was the god magnificently worshipped by its people. Vast power and +dominion, that extended through all Libya as far as Egypt, and over a +part of Europe, caused the Atlantid kings to grow ambitious and unjust. +Then they entered the Mediterranean and fell upon Athens with enormous +force. But in the little band of citizens, temperate, brave, and wise, +there were forces of Reason able to resist and overcome brute strength. +Now, however, gone are the Atlantids, gone are the old virtues of +Athens. Earthquakes and deluges laid waste the world. The whole great +island of Atlantis, with its people and its wealth, sank to the bottom +of the ocean. The ideal warriors of Athens, in one day and night, were +swallowed by an earthquake, and were to be seen no more. + +Plato, a philosopher with the soul of a poet, died in the year 347 +before Christ. Plutarch was writing at the close of the first century +after Christ, and in his parallel Lives of Greeks and Romans, the most +famous of his many writings, he took occasion to paint an Ideal +Commonwealth as the conception of Lycurgus, the half mythical or all +mythical Solon of Sparta. To Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus, as well as to +Plato, Thomas More and others have been indebted for some part of the +shaping of their philosophic dreams. + +The discovery of the New World at the end of the fifteenth century +followed hard upon the diffusion of the new invention of printing, and +came at a time when the fall of Constantinople by scattering Greek +scholars, who became teachers in Italy, France and elsewhere, spread the +study of Greek, and caused Plato to live again. Little had been heard of +him through the Arabs, who cared little for his poetic method. But with +the revival of learning he had become a force in Europe, a strong aid to +the Reformers. + +Sir Thomas More's Utopia was written in the years 1515-16, when its +author's age was about thirty-seven. He was a young man of twenty when +Columbus first touched the continent named after the Florentine Amerigo +Vespucci, who made his voyages to it in the years 1499-1503. More wrote +his Utopia when imaginations of men were stirred by the sudden +enlargement of their conceptions of the world, and Amerigo Vespucci's +account of his voyages, first printed in 1507, was fresh in every +scholar's mind. He imagined a traveller, Raphael Hythloday--whose name +is from Greek words that mean "Knowing in Trifles"--who had sailed with +Vespucci on his three last voyages, but had not returned from the last +voyage until, after separation from his comrades, he had wandered into +some farther discovery of his own. Thus he had found, somewhere in those +parts, the island of Utopia. Its name is from Greek words meaning +Nowhere. More had gone on an embassy to Brussels with Cuthbert Tunstal +when he wrote his philosophical satire upon European, and more +particularly English, statecraft, in the form of an Ideal Commonwealth +described by Hythloday as he had found it in Utopia. It was printed at +Louvain in the latter part of the year 1516, under the editorship of +Erasmus, and that enlightened young secretary to the municipality of +Antwerp, Peter Giles, or Ægidius, who is introduced into the story. +"Utopia" was not printed in England in the reign of Henry VIII., and +could not be, for its satire was too direct to be misunderstood, even +when it mocked English policy with ironical praise for doing exactly +what it failed to do. More was a wit and a philosopher, but at the same +time so practical and earnest that Erasmus tells of a burgomaster at +Antwerp who fastened upon the parable of Utopia with such goodwill that +he learnt it by heart. And in 1517 Erasmus advised a correspondent to +send for Utopia, if he had not yet read it, and if he wished to see the +true source of all political evils. + +Francis Bacon's "New Atlantis," first written in Latin, was published in +1629, three years after its author's death. Bacon placed his Ideal +Commonwealth in those seas where a great Austral continent was even then +supposed to be, but had not been discovered. As the old Atlantis implied +a foreboding of the American continent, so the New Atlantis implied +foreboding of the Australian. Bacon in his philosophy sought through +experimental science the dominion of men over things, "for Nature is +only governed by obeying her." In his Ideal World of the New Atlantis, +Science is made the civilizer who binds man to man, and is his leader to +the love of God. + +Thomas Campanella was Bacon's contemporary, a man only seven years +younger; and an Italian who suffered for his ardour in the cause of +science. He was born in Calabria in 1568, and died in 1639. He entered +the Dominican order when a boy, but had a free and eager appetite for +knowledge. He urged, like Bacon, that Nature should be studied through +her own works, not through books; he attacked, like Bacon, the dead +faith in Aristotle, that instead of following his energetic spirit of +research, lapsed into blind idolatry. Campanella strenuously urged that +men should reform all sciences by following Nature and the books of God. +He had been stirring in this way for ten years, when there arose in +Calabria a conspiracy against the Spanish rule. Campanella, who was an +Italian patriot was seized and sent to Naples. The Spanish inquisition +joined in attack on him. He was accused of books he had not written and +of opinions he did not hold; he was seven times put to the question and +suffered, with firmness of mind, the most cruel tortures. The Pope +interceded in vain for him with the King of Spain. He suffered +imprisonment for twenty-seven years, during which time he wrote much, +and one piece of his prison work was his ideal of "The City of the Sun." + +Released at last from his prison, Campanella went to Rome, where he was +defended by Pope Urban VIII. against continued violence of attack. But +he was compelled at last to leave Rome, and made his escape as a servant +in the livery of the French ambassador. In Paris, Richelieu became +Campanella's friend; the King of France gave him a pension of three +thousand livres; the Sorbonne vouched for the orthodoxy of his writings. +He died in Paris, at the age of seventy-one, in the Convent of the +Dominicans. + +Of Campanella's "Civitas Solis," which has not hitherto been translated +into English, the translation here given, with one or two omissions of +detail which can well be spared, has been made for me by my old pupil +and friend, Mr. Thomas W. Halliday. + +In the works (published in 1776) of the witty Dr. William King, who +played much with the subject of cookery, is a fragment found among his +remaining papers, and given by his editors as an original piece in the +manner of Rabelais. It seems never to have been observed that this is +only a translation of that part of Joseph Hall's "Mundus Alter es Idem," +which deals with the kitchen side of life. The fragment will be found at +the end of this volume, preceded by a short description of the other +parts of Hall's World which is other than ours, and yet the same. + +H.M. + +_March 1885._ + + + + +PLUTARCH'S + +LIFE OF LYCURGUS. + + + + +LIFE OF LYCURGUS. + + +Of Lycurgus the lawgiver we have nothing to relate that is certain and +uncontroverted. For there are different accounts of his birth, his +travels, his death, and especially of the laws and form of government +which he established. But least of all are the times agreed upon in +which this great man lived. For some say he flourished at the same time +with Iphitus, and joined with him in settling the cessation of arms +during the Olympic games. Among these is Aristotle the philosopher, who +alleges for proof an Olympic quoit, on which was preserved the +inscription of Lycurgus's name. But others who, with Eratosthenes and +Apollodorus, compute the time by the succession of the Spartan kings, +place him much earlier than the first Olympiad. Timæus, however, +supposes that, as there were two Lycurguses in Sparta at different +times, the actions of both are ascribed to one, on account of his +particular renown; and that the more ancient of them lived not long +after Homer: nay, some say he had seen him. Xenophon too confirms the +opinion of his antiquity, when he makes him contemporary with the +Heraclidæ. It is true, the latest of the Lacedæmonian kings were of the +lineage of the Heraclidæ; but Xenophon there seems to speak of the first +and more immediate descendants of Hercules. As the history of those +times is thus involved, in relating the circumstances of Lycurgus's +life, we shall endeavour to select such as are least controverted, and +follow authors of the greatest credit. + +Simonides the poet, tells us, that Prytanis, not Eunomus, was father to +Lycurgus. But most writers give us the genealogy of Lycurgus and Eunomus +in a different manner; for, according to them, Sous was the son of +Patrocles, and grandson of Aristodemus, Eurytion the son of Sous, +Prytanis of Eurytion, and Eunomus of Prytanis; to this Eunomus was born +Polydectes, by a former wife, and by a second, named Dianassa, Lycurgus. +Eutychidas, however, says Lycurgus was the sixth from Patrocles, and the +eleventh from Hercules. The most distinguished of his ancestors was +Sous, under whom the Lacedæmonians made the Helotes their slaves, and +gained an extensive tract of land from the Arcadians. Of this Sous it is +related, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in a difficult post +where there was no water, he agreed to give up all his conquests, +provided that himself and all his army should drink of the neighbouring +spring. When these conditions were sworn to, he assembled his forces, +and offered his kingdom to the man that would forbear drinking; not one +of them, however, would deny himself, but they all drank. Then Sous went +down to the spring himself, and having only sprinkled his face in sight +of the enemy, he marched off, and still held the country, because all +had not drank. Yet, though he was highly honoured for this, the family +had not their name from him, but from his son, were called Eurytionidæ; +and this, because Eurytion seems to be the first who relaxed the +strictness of kingly government, inclining to the interest of the +people, and ingratiating himself with them. Upon this relaxation their +encroachments increased, and the succeeding kings, either becoming +odious, treating them with greater rigour, or else giving way through +weakness or in hopes of favour, for a long time anarchy and confusion +prevailed in Sparta; by which one of its kings, the father of Lycurgus, +lost his life. For while he was endeavouring to part some persons who +were concerned in a fray, he received a wound by a kitchen knife, of +which he died, leaving the kingdom to his eldest son Polydectes. + +But he too dying soon after, the general voice gave it for Lycurgus to +ascend the throne; and he actually did so, till it appeared that his +brother's widow was pregnant. As soon as he perceived this, he declared +that the kingdom belonged to her issue, provided it were male, and he +kept the administration in his hands only as his guardian. This he did +with the title of Prodicos, which the Lacedæmonians give to the +guardians of infant kings. Soon after, the queen made him a private +overture, that she would destroy her child, upon condition that he would +marry her when king of Sparta. Though he detested her wickedness, he +said nothing against the proposal, but pretending to approve it, charged +her not to take any drugs to procure an abortion, lest she should +endanger her own health or life; for he would take care that the child, +as soon as born, should be destroyed. Thus he artfully drew on the woman +to her full time, and, when he heard she was in labour, he sent persons +to attend and watch her delivery, with orders, if it were a girl, to +give it to the women, but if a boy, to bring it to him, in whatever +business he might be engaged. It happened that he was at supper with the +magistrates when she was delivered of a boy, and his servants, who were +present, carried the child to him. When he received it, he is reported +to have said to the company, "Spartans, see here your new-born king." He +then laid him down upon the chair of state, and named him Charilaus, +because of the joy and admiration of his magnanimity and justice +testified by all present. Thus the reign of Lycurgus lasted only eight +months. But the citizens had a great veneration for him on other +accounts, and there were more that paid him their attentions, and were +ready to execute his commands, out of regard to his virtues, than those +that obeyed him as a guardian to the king, and director of the +administration. There were not, however, wanting those that envied him, +and opposed his advancement, as too high for so young a man; +particularly the relations and friends of the queen-mother, who seemed +to have been treated with contempt. Her brother Leonidas, one day boldly +attacked him with virulent language, and scrupled not to tell him that +he was well assured he would soon be king; thus preparing suspicions, +and matter of accusation against Lycurgus, in case any accident should +befall the king. Insinuations of the same kind were likewise spread by +the queen-mother. Moved with this ill-treatment, and fearing some dark +design, he determined to get clear of all suspicion, by travelling into +other countries, till his nephew should be grown up, and have a son to +succeed him in the kingdom. + +He set sail, therefore, and landed in Crete. There having observed the +forms of government, and conversed with the most illustrious personages, +he was struck with admiration of some of their laws, and resolved at his +return to make use of them in Sparta. Some others he rejected. Among the +friends he gained in Crete was Thales, with whom he had interest enough +to persuade him to go and settle at Sparta. Thales was famed for his +wisdom and political abilities: he was withal a lyric poet, who under +colour of exercising his art, performed as great things as the most +excellent lawgivers. For his odes were so many persuasives to obedience +and unanimity, as by means of melody and numbers they had great grace +and power, they softened insensibly the manners of the audience, drew +them off from the animosities which then prevailed, and united them in +zeal for excellence and virtue. So that, in some measure, he prepared +the way for Lycurgus towards the instruction of the Spartans. From Crete +Lycurgus passed to Asia, desirous, as is said, to compare the Ionian +expense and luxury with the Cretan frugality and hard diet, so as to +judge what effect each had on their several manners and governments; +just as physicians compare bodies that are weak and sickly with the +healthy and robust. There also, probably, he met with Homer's poems, +which were preserved by the posterity of Cleophylus. Observing that many +moral sentences and much political knowledge were intermixed with his +stories, which had an irresistible charm, he collected them into one +body, and transcribed them with pleasure, in order to take them home +with him. For his glorious poetry was not yet fully known in Greece; +only some particular pieces were in a few hands, as they happened to be +dispersed. Lycurgus was the first that made them generally known. The +Egyptians likewise suppose that he visited them; and as of all their +institutions he was most pleased with their distinguishing the military +men from the rest of the people, he took the same method at Sparta, and, +by separating from these the mechanics and artificers, he rendered the +constitution more noble and more of a piece. This assertion of the +Egyptians is confirmed by some of the Greek writers. But we know of no +one, except Aristocrates, son of Hipparchus, and a Spartan, who has +affirmed that he went to Libya and Spain, and in his Indian excursions +conversed with the Gymnosophists. + +The Lacedæmonians found the want of Lycurgus when absent, and sent many +embassies to entreat him to return. For they perceived that their kings +had barely the title and outward appendages of royalty, but in nothing +else differed from the multitude; whereas Lycurgus had abilities from +nature to guide the measures of government, and powers of persuasion, +that drew the hearts of men to him. The kings, however, where consulted +about his return, and they hoped that in his presence they should +experience less insolence amongst the people. Returning then to a city +thus disposed, he immediately applied himself to alter the whole frame +of the constitution; sensible that a partial change, and the introducing +of some new laws, would be of no sort of advantage; but, as in the case +of a body diseased and full of bad humours, whose temperament is to be +corrected and new formed by medicines, it was necessary to begin a new +regimen. With these sentiments he went to Delphi, and when he had +offered and consulted the god, he returned with that celebrated oracle, +in which the priestess called him "Beloved of the gods, and rather a god +than a man." As to his request that he might enact good laws, she told +him, Apollo had heard his request, and promised that the constitution he +should establish would be the most excellent in the world. Thus +encouraged, he applied to the nobility, and desired them to put their +hands to the work; addressing himself privately at first to his friends, +and afterwards by degrees, trying the disposition of others, and +preparing them to concur in the business. When matters were ripe, he +ordered thirty of the principal citizens to appear armed in the +market-place by break of day, to strike terror into such as might desire +to oppose him. Hermippus has given us the names of twenty of the most +eminent of them; but he that had the greatest share in the whole +enterprise, and gave Lycurgus the best assistance in the establishing of +his laws, was called Arithmiades. Upon the first alarm, king Charilaus, +apprehending it to be a design against his person, took refuge in the +Chalcioicos. But he was soon satisfied, and accepted of their oath. Nay, +so far from being obstinate, he joined in the undertaking. Indeed, he +was so remarkable for the gentleness of his disposition, that Archelaus, +his partner in the throne, is reported to have said to some that were +praising the young king, "Yes, Charilaus is a good man to be sure, who +cannot find in his heart to punish the bad." Among the many new +institutions of Lycurgus, the first and most important was that of a +senate; which sharing, as Plato says, in the power of the kings, too +imperious and unrestrained before, and having equal authority with them, +was the means of keeping them within the bounds of moderation, and +highly contributed to the preservation of the state. For before it had +been veering and unsettled, sometimes inclining to arbitrary power, and +sometimes towards a pure democracy; but this establishment of a senate, +an intermediate body, like ballast, kept it in a just equilibrium, and +put it in a safe posture: the twenty-eight senators adhering to the +kings, whenever they saw the people too encroaching, and, on the other +hand, supporting the people, when the kings attempted to make themselves +absolute. This, according to Aristotle, was the number of senators fixed +upon, because two of the thirty associates of Lycurgus deserted the +business through fear. But Sphærus tells us there were only twenty-eight +at first entrusted with the design. Something, perhaps, there is in its +being a perfect number, formed of seven multiplied by four, and withal +the first number, after six, that is equal to all its parts. But I +rather think, just so many senators were created, that, together with +the two kings, the whole body might consist of thirty members. + +He had this institution so much at heart, that he obtained from Delphi +an oracle in its behalf, called _rhetra_, or the decree. This was +couched in very ancient and uncommon terms, which interpreted, ran thus: +"When you have built a temple to the Syllanian Jupiter, and the +Syllanian Minerva, divided the people into tribes and classes, and +established a senate of thirty persons, including the two kings, you +shall occasionally summon the people to an assembly between Babyce and +Cnacion, and they shall have the determining voice." Babyce and Cnacion +are now called Oenus. But Aristotle thinks, by Cnacion is meant the +river, and by Babyce the bridge. Between these they held their +assemblies, having neither halls, nor any kind of building for that +purpose. These things he thought of no advantage to their councils, but +rather a disservice; as they distracted the attention, and turned it +upon trifles, on observing the statues and pictures, the splendid roofs, +and every other theatrical ornament. The people thus assembled had no +right to propose any subject of debate, and were only authorized to +ratify or reject what might be proposed to them by the senate and the +kings. But because, in process of time, the people, by additions or +retrenchments, changed the terms, and perverted the sense of the +decrees, the kings Polydorus and Theopompus inserted in the _rhetra_ +this clause: "If the people attempt to corrupt any law, the senate and +chiefs shall retire:" that is, they shall dissolve the assembly, and +annul the alterations. And they found means to persuade the Spartans +that this too was ordered by Apollo; as we learn from these verses of +Tyrtæus: + + Ye sons of Sparta, who at Phoebus' shrine + Your humble vows prefer, attentive hear + The god's decision. O'er your beauteous lands + Two guardian kings, a senate, and the voice + Of the concurring people, lasting laws + Shall with joint power establish. + +Though the government was thus tempered by Lycurgus, yet soon after it +degenerated into an oligarchy, whose power was exercised with such +wantonness and violence, that it wanted indeed a bridle, as Plato +expresses it. This curb they found in the authority of the Ephori, about +a hundred and thirty years after Lycurgus. Elatus was the first invested +with this dignity, in the reign of Theopompus; who, when his wife +upbraided him, that he would leave the regal power to his children less +than he received it, replied, "Nay but greater, because more lasting." +And, in fact, the prerogative, so stripped of all extravagant +pretensions, no longer occasioned either envy or danger to its +possessors. By these means they escaped the miseries which befell the +Messenian and Argive kings, who would not in the least relax the +severity of their power in favour of the people. Indeed, from nothing +more does the wisdom and foresight of Lycurgus appear, than from the +disorderly governments, and the bad understanding that subsisted between +the kings and people of Messena and Argos, neighbouring states, and +related in blood to Sparta. For, as at first they were in all respects +equal to her, and possessed of a better country, and yet preserved no +lasting happiness, but, through the insolence of the kings and +disobedience of the people, were harassed with perpetual troubles, they +made it very evident that it was really a felicity more than human, a +blessing from heaven to the Spartans, to have a legislator who knew so +well how to frame and temper their government. But this was an event of +a later date. + +A second and bolder political enterprise of Lycurgus was a new division +of the lands. For he found a prodigious inequality, the city overcharged +with many indigent persons, who had no land, and the wealth centred in +the hands of a few. Determined, therefore, to root out the evils of +insolence, envy, avarice, and luxury, and those distempers of a state +still more inveterate and fatal, I mean poverty and riches, he persuaded +them to cancel all former divisions of land, and to make new ones, in +such a manner that they might be perfectly equal in their possessions +and way of living. Hence, if they were ambitious of distinction they +might seek it in virtue, as no other difference was left between them +but that which arises from the dishonour of base actions and the praise +of good ones. His proposal was put in practice. He made nine thousand +lots for the territory of Sparta, which he distributed among so many +citizens, and thirty thousand for the inhabitants of the rest of +Laconia. But some say he made only six thousand shares for the city, and +that Polydorus added three thousand afterwards; others, that Polydorus +doubled the number appointed by Lycurgus, which were only four thousand +five hundred. Each lot was capable of producing (one year with another) +seventy bushels of grain for each man, and twelve for each woman, +besides a quantity of wine and oil in proportion. Such a provision they +thought sufficient for health and a good habit of body, and they wanted +nothing more. A story goes of our legislator, that some time after +returning from a journey through the fields just reaped, and seeing the +shocks standing parallel and equal, he smiled, and said to some that +were by, "How like is Laconia to an estate newly divided among many +brothers!" + +After this, he attempted to divide also the movables, in order to take +away all appearance of inequality; but he soon perceived that they could +not bear to have their goods directly taken from them, and therefore +took another method, counterworking their avarice by a stratagem. First +he stopped the currency of the gold and silver coin, and ordered that +they should make use of iron money only, then to a great quantity and +weight of this he assigned but a small value; so that to lay up ten +_minæ_, a whole room was required, and to remove it, nothing less than a +yoke of oxen. When this became current, many kinds of injustice ceased +in Lacedæmon. Who would steal or take a bribe, who would defraud or rob, +when he could not conceal the booty; when he could neither be dignified +by the possession of it, nor if cut in pieces be served by its use? For +we are told that when hot, they quenched it in vinegar, to make it +brittle and unmalleable, and consequently unfit for any other service. +In the next place, he excluded unprofitable and superfluous arts: +indeed, if he had not done this, most of them would have fallen of +themselves, when the new money took place, as the manufactures could not +be disposed of. Their iron coin would not pass in the rest of Greece, +but was ridiculed and despised; so that the Spartans had no means of +purchasing any foreign or curious wares; nor did any merchant-ship +unlade in their harbours. There were not even to be found in all their +country either sophists, wandering fortune-tellers, keepers of infamous +houses, or dealers in gold and silver trinkets, because there was no +money. Thus luxury, losing by degrees the means that cherished and +supported it, died away of itself: even they who had great possessions, +had no advantage from them, since they could not be displayed in public, +but must lie useless, in unregarded repositories. Hence it was, that +excellent workmanship was shown in their useful and necessary furniture, +as beds, chairs, and tables; and the Lacedæmonian cup called _cothon_, +as Critias informs us, was highly valued, particularly in campaigns: for +the water, which must then of necessity be drank, though it would often +otherwise offend the sight, had its muddiness concealed by the colour of +the cup, and the thick part stopping at the shelving brim, it came +clearer to the lips. Of these improvements the lawgiver was the cause; +for the workmen having no more employment in matters of mere curiosity, +showed the excellence of their art in necessary things. + +Desirous to complete the conquest of luxury, and exterminate the love of +riches, he introduced a third institution, which was wisely enough and +ingeniously contrived. This was the use of public tables, where all were +to eat in common of the same meat, and such kinds of it as were +appointed by law. At the same time they were forbidden to eat at home, +upon expensive couches and tables, to call in the assistance of butchers +and cooks, or to fatten like voracious animals in private. For so not +only their manners would be corrupted, but their bodies disordered; +abandoned to all manner of sensuality and dissoluteness, they would +require long sleep, warm baths, and the same indulgence as in perpetual +sickness. To effect this was certainly very great; but it was greater +still, to secure riches from rapine and from envy, as Theophrastus +expresses it, or rather by their eating in common, and by the frugality +of their table, to take from riches their very being. For what use or +enjoyment of them, what peculiar display of magnificence could there be, +where the poor man went to the same refreshment with the rich? Hence the +observation, that it was only at Sparta where Plutus (according to the +proverb) was kept blind, and like an image, destitute of life or motion. +It must further be observed, that they had not the privilege to eat at +home, and so to come without appetite to the public repast: they made a +point of it to observe any one that did not eat and drink with them, and +to reproach him as an intemperate and effeminate person that was sick of +the common diet. + +The rich, therefore (we are told), were more offended with this +regulation than with any other, and, rising in a body, they loudly +expressed their indignation: nay, they proceeded so far as to assault +Lycurgus with stones, so that he was forced to fly from the assembly and +take refuge in a temple. Unhappily, however, before he reached it, a +young man named Alcander, hasty in his resentments, though not otherwise +ill-tempered, came up with him, and, upon his turning round, struck out +one of his eyes with a stick. Lycurgus then stopped short, and, without +giving way to passion, showed the people his eye beat out, and his face +streaming with blood. They were so struck with shame and sorrow at the +sight, that they surrendered Alcander to him, and conducted him home +with the utmost expressions of regret. Lycurgus thanked them for their +care of his person, and dismissed them all except Alcander. He took him +into his house, but showed no ill treatment either by word or action; +only ordering him to wait upon him, instead of his usual servants and +attendants. The youth, who was of an ingenuous disposition, without +murmuring, did as he was commanded. Living in this manner with Lycurgus, +and having an opportunity to observe the mildness and goodness of his +heart, his strict temperance and indefatigable industry, he told his +friends that Lycurgus was not that proud and severe man he might have +been taken for, but, above all others, gentle and engaging in his +behaviour. This, then, was the chastisement, and this punishment he +suffered, of a wild and headstrong young man to become a very modest and +prudent citizen. In memory of his misfortune, Lycurgus built a temple to +Minerva Optiletis, so called by him from a term which the Dorians use +for the eye. Yet Dioscorides, who wrote a treatise concerning the +Lacedæmonian government, and others, relate that his eye was hurt, but +not put out, and that he built the temple in gratitude to the goddess +for his cure. However, the Spartans never carried staves to their +assemblies afterwards. + +The public repasts were called by the Cretans Andria; but the +Lacedæmonians styled them Phiditia, either from their tendency to +friendship and mutual benevolence, _phiditia_ being used instead of +_philitia_; or else from their teaching frugality and parsimony, which +the word _pheido_ signifies. But it is not all impossible that the first +letter might by some means or other be added, and so _phiditia_ take +place of _editia_, which barely signifies eating. There were fifteen +persons to a table, or a few more or less. Each of them was obliged to +bring in monthly a bushel of meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of +cheese, two pounds and a half of figs, and a little money to buy flesh +and fish. If any of them happened to offer a sacrifice of first fruits, +or to kill venison, he sent a part of it to the public table: for after +a sacrifice or hunting, he was at liberty to sup at home: but the rest +were to appear at the usual place. For a long time this eating in common +was observed with great exactness: so that when king Agis returned from +a successful expedition against the Athenians, and from a desire to sup +with his wife, requested to have his portion at home, the Polemarchs +refused to send it: nay, when, through resentment, he neglected, the day +following, to offer the sacrifice usual on occasion of victory, they set +a fine upon him. Children also were introduced at these public tables, +as so many schools of sobriety. There they heard discourses concerning +government, and were instructed in the most liberal breeding. There they +were allowed to jest without scurrility, and were not to take it ill +when the raillery was returned. For it was reckoned worthy of a +Lacedæmonian to bear a jest: but if any one's patience failed, he had +only to desire them to be quiet, and they left off immediately. When +they first entered, the oldest man present pointed to the door, and +said, "Not a word spoken in this company goes out there." The admitting +of any man to a particular table was under the following regulation. +Each member of that small society took a little ball of soft bread in +his hand. This he was to drop, without saying a word, into a vessel +called _caddos_, which the waiter carried upon his head. In case he +approved of the candidate, he did it without altering the figure, if +not, he first pressed it flat in his hand; for a flatted ball was +considered as a negative. And if but one such was found, the person was +not admitted, as they thought it proper that the whole company should be +satisfied with each other. He who thus rejected, was said to have no +luck in the _caddos_. The dish that was in the highest esteem amongst +them was the black broth. The old men were so fond of it that they +ranged themselves on one side and eat it, leaving the meat to the young +people. It is related of a king of Pontus, that he purchased a +Lacedæmonian cook, for the sake of this broth. But when he came to taste +it he strongly expressed his dislike; and the cook made answer, "Sir, to +make this broth relish, it is necessary first to bathe in the Eurotas." +After they had drank moderately, they went home without lights. Indeed, +they were forbidden to walk with a light either on this or any other +occasion, that they might accustom themselves to march in the darkest +night boldly and resolutely. Such was the order of their public +repasts. + +Lycurgus left none of his laws in writing; it was ordered in one of the +_Rhetræ_ that none should be written. For what he thought most conducive +to the virtue and happiness of a city, was principles interwoven with +the manners and breeding of the people. These would remain immovable, as +founded in inclination, and be the strongest and most lasting tie; and +the habits which education produced in the youth, would answer in each +the purpose of a lawgiver. As for smaller matters, contracts about +property, and whatever occasionally varied, it was better not to reduce +these to a written form and unalterable method, but to suffer them to +change with the times, and to admit of additions or retrenchments at the +pleasure of persons so well educated. For he resolved the whole business +of legislation into the bringing up of youth. And this, as we have +observed, was the reason why one of his ordinances forbad them to have +any written laws. + +Another ordinance levelled against magnificence and expense, directed +that the ceilings of houses should be wrought with no tool but the axe +and the doors with nothing but the saw. For, as Epaminondas is reported +to have said afterwards, of his table, "Treason lurks not under such a +dinner," so Lycurgus perceived before him, that such a house admits of +no luxury and needless splendour. Indeed, no man could be so absurd as +to bring into a dwelling so homely and simple, bedsteads with silver +feet, purple coverlets, golden cups, and a train of expense that follows +these: but all would necessarily have the bed suitable to the room, the +coverlet of the bed and the rest of their utensils and furniture to +that. From this plain sort of dwellings, proceeded the question of +Leotychidas the elder to his host, when he supped at Corinth, and saw +the ceiling of the room very splendid and curiously wrought, "Whether +trees grew square in his country." + +A third ordinance of Lycurgus was, that they should not often make war +against the same enemy, lest, by being frequently put upon defending +themselves, they too should become able warriors in their turn. And this +they most blamed king Agesilaus for afterwards, that by frequent and +continued incursions into Boeotia, he taught the Thebans to make head +against the Lacedæmonians. This made Antalcidas say, when he saw him +wounded, "The Thebans pay you well for making them good soldiers who +neither were willing nor able to fight you before." These ordinances he +called _Rhetræ_, as if they had been oracles and decrees of the Deity +himself. + +As for the education of youth, which he looked upon as the greatest and +most glorious work of a lawgiver, he began with it at the very source, +taking into consideration their conception and birth, by regulating the +marriages. For he did not (as Aristotle says) desist from his attempt to +bring the women under sober rules. They had, indeed, assumed great +liberty and power on account of the frequent expeditions of their +husbands, during which they were left sole mistresses at home, and so +gained an undue deference and improper titles; but notwithstanding this +he took all possible care of them. He ordered the virgins to exercise +themselves in running, wrestling, and throwing quoits and darts; that +their bodies being strong and vigorous, the children afterwards produced +from them might be the same; and that, thus fortified by exercise, they +might the better support the pangs of child-birth, and be delivered with +safety. In order to take away the excessive tenderness and delicacy of +the sex, the consequence of a recluse life, he accustomed the virgins +occasionally to be seen naked as well as the young men, and to dance and +sing in their presence on certain festivals. There they sometimes +indulged in a little raillery upon those that had misbehaved themselves, +and sometimes they sung encomiums on such as deserved them, thus +exciting in the young men a useful emulation and love of glory. For he +who was praised for his bravery and celebrated among the virgins, went +away perfectly happy: while their satirical glances thrown out in sport, +were no less cutting than serious admonitions; especially as the kings +and senate went with the other citizens to see all that passed. As for +the virgins appearing naked, there was nothing disgraceful in it, +because everything was conducted with modesty, and without one indecent +word or action. Nay, it caused a simplicity of manners and an emulation +for the best habit of body; their ideas too were naturally enlarged, +while they were not excluded from their share of bravery and honour. +Hence they were furnished with sentiments and language, such as Gorgo +the wife of Leonidas is said to have made use of. When a woman of +another country said to her, "You of Lacedæmon are the only women in the +world that rule the men;" she answered, "We are the only women that +bring forth men." + +These public dances and other exercises of the young maidens naked, in +sight of the young men, were, moreover, incentives to marriage: and, to +use Plato's expression, drew them almost as necessarily by the +attractions of love, as a geometrical conclusion follows from the +premises. To encourage it still more, some marks of infamy were set upon +those that continued bachelors. For they were not permitted to see these +exercises of the naked virgins; and the magistrates commanded them to +march naked round the market-place in the winter, and to sing a song +composed against themselves, which expressed how justly they were +punished for their disobedience to the laws. They were also deprived of +that honour and respect which the younger people paid to the old; so +that nobody found fault with what was said to Dercyllidas, though an +eminent commander. It seems, when he came one day into company, a young +man, instead of rising up and giving place, told him, "You have no child +to give place to me, when I am old." + +In their marriages, the bridegroom carried off the bride by violence; +and she was never chosen in a tender age, but when she had arrived at +full maturity. Then the woman that had the direction of the wedding, cut +the bride's hair close to the skin, dressed her in man's clothes, laid +her upon a mattrass, and left her in the dark. The bridegroom, neither +oppressed with wine nor enervated with luxury, but perfectly sober, as +having always supped at the common table, went in privately, untied her +girdle, and carried her to another bed. Having stayed there a short +time, he modestly retired to his usual apartment, to sleep with the +other young men; and observed the same conduct afterwards, spending the +day with his companions, and reposing himself with them in the night, +nor even visiting his bride but with great caution and apprehensions of +being discovered by the rest of the family; the bride at the same time +exerted all her art to contrive convenient opportunities for their +private meetings. And this they did not for a short time only, but some +of them even had children before they had an interview with their wives +in the daytime. This kind of commerce not only exercised their +temperance and chastity, but kept their bodies fruitful, and the first +ardour of their love fresh and unabated; for as they were not satiated +like those that are always with their wives, there still was place for +unextinguished desire. When he had thus established a proper regard to +modesty and decorum with respect to marriage, he was equally studious to +drive from that state the vain and womanish passion of jealousy; by +making it quite as reputable to have children in common with persons of +merit, as to avoid all offensive freedom in their own behaviour to their +wives. He laughed at those who revenge with wars and bloodshed the +communication of a married woman's favours; and allowed, that if a man +in years should have a young wife, he might introduce to her some +handsome and honest young man, whom he most approved of, and when she +had a child of this generous race, bring it up as his own. On the other +hand, he allowed, that if a man of character should entertain a passion +for a married woman on account of her modesty and the beauty of her +children, he might treat with her husband for admission to her company, +that so planting in a beauty-bearing soil, he might produce excellent +children, the congenial offspring of excellent parents. For, in the +first place, Lycurgus considered children, not so much the property of +their parents as of the state; and therefore he would not have them +begot by ordinary persons, but by the best men in it. In the next place, +he observed the vanity and absurdity of other nations, where people +study to have their horses and dogs of the finest breed they can procure +either by interest or money; and yet keep their wives shut up, that they +may have children by none but themselves, though they may happen to be +doting, decrepit, or infirm. As if children, when sprung from a bad +stock, and consequently good for nothing, were no detriment to those +whom they belong to, and who have the trouble of bringing them up, nor +any advantage, when well descended and of a generous disposition. These +regulations tending to secure a healthy offspring, and consequently +beneficial to the state, were so far from encouraging that +licentiousness of the women which prevailed afterwards, that adultery +was not known amongst them. A saying, upon this subject of Geradas, an +ancient Spartan, is thus related. A stranger had asked him, "What +punishment their law appointed for adulterers?" He answered, "My friend, +there are no adulterers in our country." The other replied, "But what if +there should be one?" "Why then," says Geradas, "he must forfeit a bull +so large that he might drink of the Eurotas from the top of Mount +Taygetus." When the stranger expressed his surprise at this, and said, +"How can such a bull be found?" Geradas answered with a smile, "How can +an adulterer be found in Sparta?" This is the account we have of their +marriages. + +It was not left to the father to rear what children he pleased, but he +was obliged to carry the child to a place called Lesche, to be examined +by the most ancient men of the tribe, who were assembled there. If it +was strong and well-proportioned, they gave orders for its education, +and assigned it one of the nine thousand shares of land; but if it was +weakly and deformed, they ordered it to be thrown into the place called +Apothetæ, which is a deep cavern near the mountain Taygetus; concluding +that its life could be no advantage either to itself or to the public, +since nature had not given it at first any strength or goodness of +constitution. For the same reason the women did not wash their new-born +infants with water, but with wine, thus making some trial of their habit +of body; imagining that sickly and epileptic children sink and die under +the experiment, while healthy became more vigorous and hardy. Great care +and art was also exerted by the nurses; for, as they never swathed the +infants, their limbs had a freer turn, and their countenances a more +liberal air; besides, they used them to any sort of meat, to have no +terrors in the dark, nor to be afraid of being alone, and to leave all +ill humour and unmanly crying. Hence people of other countries purchased +Lacedæmonian nurses for their children; and Alcibiades the Athenian is +said to have been nursed by Amicla, a Spartan. But if he was fortunate +in a nurse, he was not so in a preceptor: for Zopyrus, appointed to that +office by Pericles, was, as Plato tells us, no better qualified than a +common slave. The Spartan children were not in that manner, under tutors +purchased or hired with money, nor were the parents at liberty to +educate them as they pleased: but as soon as they were seven years old, +Lycurgus ordered them to be enrolled in companies, where they were all +kept under the same order and discipline, and had their exercises and +recreations in common. He who showed the most conduct and courage +amongst them, was made captain of the company. The rest kept their eyes +upon him, obeyed his orders, and bore with patience the punishment he +inflicted: so that their whole education was an exercise of obedience. +The old men were present at their diversions, and often suggested some +occasion of dispute or quarrel, that they might observe with exactness +the spirit of each, and their firmness in battle. + +As for learning, they had just what was absolutely necessary. All the +rest of their education was calculated to make them subject to command, +to endure labour, to fight and conquer. They added, therefore, to their +discipline, as they advance in age; cutting their hair very close, +making them go barefoot, and play, for the most part, quite naked. At +twelve years of age, their under garment was taken away, and but one +upper one a year allowed them. Hence they were necessarily dirty in +their persons, and not indulged the great favour of baths, and oils, +except on some particular days of the year. They slept in companies, on +beds made of the tops of reeds, which they gathered with their own +hands, without knives, and brought from the banks of the Eurotas. In +winter they were permitted to add a little thistle-down, as that seemed +to have some warmth in it. + +At this age, the most distinguished amongst them became the favourite +companions of the elder; and the old men attended more constantly their +places of exercise, observing their trials of strength and wit, not +slightly and in a cursory manner, but as their fathers, guardians, and +governors: so that there was neither time nor place where persons were +wanting to instruct and chastise them. One of the best and ablest men of +the city was, moreover, appointed inspector of the youth: and he gave +the command of each company to the discreetest and most spirited of +those called Irens. An Iren was one that had been two years out of the +class of boys: a Melliren one of the oldest lads. This Iren, then, a +youth twenty years old, gives orders to those under his command in their +little battles, and has them to serve him at his house. He sends the +oldest of them to fetch wood, and the younger to gather pot-herbs: these +they steal where they can find them, either slily getting into gardens, +or else craftily and warily creeping to the common tables. But if any +one be caught, he is severely flogged for negligence or want of +dexterity. They steal, too, whatever victuals they possibly can, +ingeniously contriving to do it when persons are asleep, or keep but +indifferent watch. If they are discovered, they are punished not only +with whipping, but with hunger. Indeed, their supper is but slender at +all times, that, to fence against want, they may be forced to exercise +their courage and address. This is the first intention of their spare +diet: a subordinate one is, to make them grow tall. For when the animal +spirits are not too much oppressed by a great quantity of food, which +stretches itself out in breadth and thickness, they mount upwards by +their natural lightness, and the body easily and freely shoots up in +height. This also contributes to make them handsome; for thin and +slender habits yield more freely to nature, which then gives a fine +proportion to the limbs; whilst the heavy and gross resist her by their +weight. So women that take physic during their pregnancy, have slighter +children indeed, but of a finer and more delicate turn, because the +suppleness of the matter more readily obeys the plastic power. However, +these are speculations which we shall leave to others. + +The boys steal with so much caution, that one of them having conveyed a +young fox under his garment, suffered the creature to tear out his +bowels with his teeth and claws, choosing rather to die than to be +detected. Nor does this appear incredible, if we consider what their +young men can endure to this day; for we have seen many of them expire +under the lash at the altar of Diana Orthia. + +The Iren, reposing himself after supper, used to order one of the boys +to sing a song; to another he put some question which required a +judicious answer: for example, "Who was the best man in the city?" or +"What he thought of such an action?" This accustomed them from their +childhood to judge of the virtues, to enter into the affairs of their +countrymen. For if one of them was asked, "Who is a good citizen, or who +an infamous one," and hesitated in his answer, he was considered a boy +of slow parts, and of a soul that would not aspire to honour. The answer +was likewise to have a reason assigned for it, and proof conceived in +few words. He whose account of the matter was wrong, by way of +punishment had his thumb bit by the Iren. The old men and magistrates +often attended these little trials, to see whether the Iren exercised +his authority in a rational and proper manner. He was permitted, indeed, +to inflict the penalties; but when the boys were gone, he was to be +chastised himself, if he had punished them either with too much severity +or remissness. + +The adopters of favourites also shared both in the honour and disgrace +of their boys: and one of them is said to have been mulcted by the +magistrates, because the boy whom he had taken into his affections let +some ungenerous word or cry escape him as he was fighting. This love was +so honourable and in so much esteem, that the virgins too had their +lovers amongst the most virtuous matrons. A competition of affection +caused no misunderstanding, but rather a mutual friendship between those +that had fixed their regards upon the same youth, and an united +endeavour to make him as accomplished as possible. + +The boys were also taught to use sharp repartee, seasoned with humour, +and whatever they said was to be concise and pithy. For Lycurgus, as we +have observed, fixed but a small value on a considerable quantity of his +iron money; but, on the contrary, the worth of speech was to consist in +its being comprised in a few plain words, pregnant with a great deal of +sense: and he contrived that by long silence they might learn to be +sententious and acute in their replies. As debauchery often causes +weakness and sterility in the body, so the intemperance of the tongue +makes conversation empty and insipid. King Agis, therefore, when a +certain Athenian laughed at the Lacedæmonian short swords, and said, +"The jugglers would swallow them with ease upon the stage," answered in +his laconic way, "And yet we can reach our enemies' hearts with them." +Indeed, to me there seems to be something in this concise manner of +speaking which immediately reaches the object aimed at, and forcibly +strikes the mind of the hearer. Lycurgus himself was short and +sententious in his discourse, if we may judge by some of his answers +which are recorded; that, for instance, concerning the constitution. +When one advised him to establish a popular government in Lacedæmon, +"Go," said he, "and first make a trial of it in thy own family." That +again, concerning sacrifices to the Deity, when he was asked why he +appointed them so trifling and of so little value, "That we might never +be in want," said he, "of something to offer him." Once more, when they +inquired of him, what sort of martial exercises he allowed of, he +answered, "All, except those in which you stretch out your hands." +Several such like replies of his are said to be taken from the letters +which he wrote to his countrymen: as to their question, "How shall we +best guard against the invasion of an enemy?"--"By continuing poor, and +not desiring in your possessions to be one above another." And to the +question, whether they should enclose Sparta with walls, "That city is +well fortified, which has a wall of men instead of brick." Whether these +and some other letters ascribed to him are genuine or not, is no easy +matter to determine. However, that they hated long speeches, the +following apophthegms are a farther proof. King Leonidas said to one +who discoursed at an improper time about affairs of some concern, "My +friend, you should not talk so much to the purpose, of what it is not to +the purpose to talk of." Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, being asked +why his uncle had made so few laws, answered, "To men of few words, few +laws are sufficient." Some people finding fault with Hecatæus the +sophist, because, when admitted to one of the public repasts, he said +nothing all the time, Archidamidas replied, "He that knows how to speak, +knows also when to speak." + +The manner of their repartees, which, as I said, were seasoned with +humour, may be gathered from these instances. When a troublesome fellow +was pestering Demaratus with impertinent questions, and this in +particular several times repeated, "Who is the best man in Sparta?" He +answered, "He that is least like you." To some who were commending the +Eleans for managing the Olympic games with so much justice and +propriety, Agis said, "What great matter is it, if the Eleans do justice +once in five years?" When a stranger was professing his regard for +Theopompus, and saying that his own countrymen called him Philolacon (a +lover of the Lacedæmonians), the king answered him, "My good friend, it +were much better, if they called you Philopolites" (a lover of your own +countrymen). Plistonax, the son of Pausanias, replied to an orator of +Athens, who said the Lacedæmonians had no learning. "True, for we are +the only people of Greece that have learned no ill of you." To one who +asked what number of men there was in Sparta, Archidamidas said, "Enough +to keep bad men at a distance." + +Even when they indulged a vein of pleasantry, one might perceive that +they would not use one unnecessary word, nor let an expression escape +them that had not some sense worth attending to. For one being asked to +go and hear a person who imitated the nightingale to perfection, +answered, "I have heard the nightingale herself." Another said, upon +reading this epitaph, + + Victims of Mars, at Selinus they fell, + Who quench'd the rage of tyranny-- + +"And they deserved to fall, for, instead of _quenching_ it, they should +have let it _burn out_." A young man answered one that promised him some +game-cocks that would stand their death, "Give me those that will be the +death of others." Another seeing some people carried into the country in +litters, said, "May I never sit in any place where I cannot rise before +the aged!" This was the manner of their apophthegms: so that it has been +justly enough observed that the term _lakonizein_ (to act the +Lacedæmonian) is to be referred rather to the exercises of the mind, +than those of the body. + +Nor were poetry and music less cultivated among them, than a concise +dignity of expression. Their songs had a spirit, which could rouse the +soul, and impel it in an enthusiastic manner to action. The language was +plain and manly, the subject serious and moral. For they consisted +chiefly of the praises of heroes that had died for Sparta, or else of +expressions of detestation for such wretches as had declined the +glorious opportunity, and rather chose to drag on life in misery and +contempt. Nor did they forget to express an ambition for glory suitable +to their respective ages. Of this it may not be amiss to give an +instance. There were three choirs on their festivals, corresponding with +the three ages of man. The old men began, + + Once in battle bold we shone; + +the young men answered, + + Try us: our vigour is not gone; + +and the boys concluded, + + The palm remains for us alone. + +Indeed, if we consider with some attention such of the Lacedæmonian +poems as are still extant, and get into those airs which were played +upon the flute when they marched to battle, we must agree that Terpander +and Pindar have very fitly joined valour and music together. The former +thus speaks of Lacedæmon, + + There gleams the youth's bright falchion: there the muse + Lifts her sweet voice: there awful Justice opes + Her wide pavilion. + +And Pindar sings, + + There in grave council sits the sage; + There burns the youth's resistless rage + To hurl the quiv'ring lance; + The Muse with glory crowns their arms, + And Melody exerts her charms, + And Pleasure leads the dance. + +Thus we are informed, not only of their warlike turn, but their skill in +music. For as the Spartan poet says, + + To swell the bold notes of the lyre, + Becomes the warrior's lofty fire. + +And the king always offered sacrifice to the muses before a battle, +putting his troops in mind, I suppose, of their early education and of +the judgment that would be passed upon them; as well as that those +divinities might teach them to despite danger, while they performed some +exploit fit for them to celebrate. + +On these occasions they relaxed the severity of their discipline, +permitting their men to be curious in dressing their hair, and elegant +in their arms and apparel, while they expressed their alacrity, like +horses full of fire and neighing for the race. They let their hair, +therefore, grow from their youth, but took more particular care, when +they expected an action, to have it well combed and shining; remembering +a saying of Lycurgus, that "a large head of hair made the handsome more +graceful, and the ugly more terrible." The exercises, too, of the young +men, during the campaigns, were more moderate, their diet not so hard, +and their whole treatment more indulgent: so that they were the only +people in the world with whom military discipline wore, in time of war, +a gentler face than usual. When the army was drawn up, and the enemy +near, the king sacrificed a goat, and commanded them all to set garlands +upon their heads, and the musicians to play Castro's march, while +himself began the pæan, which was the signal to advance. It was at once +a solemn and dreadful sight to see them measuring their steps to the +sound of music, and without the least disorder in their ranks or tumult +of spirits, moving forward cheerfully and composedly, with harmony, to +battle. Neither fear nor rashness was likely to approve men so disposed, +possessed as they were of a firm presence of mind, with courage and +confidence of success, as under the conduct of heaven. When the king +advanced against the enemy, he had always with him some one that had +been crowned in the public games of Greece. And they tell us, that a +Lacedæmonian, when large sums were offered him on condition that he +would not enter the Olympic lists, refused them, having with much +difficulty thrown his antagonist, one put this question to him, +"Spartan, what will you get by this victory?" He answered with a smile, +"I shall have the honour to fight foremost in the ranks before my +prince." When they had routed the enemy, they continued the pursuit till +they were assured of the victory: after that they immediately desisted; +deeming it neither generous nor worthy of a Grecian to destroy those who +made no farther resistance. This was not only a proof of magnanimity, +but of great service to their cause. For when their adversaries found +that they killed such as stood it out, but spared the fugitives, they +concluded it was better to fly than to meet their fate upon the spot. + +Hippias the sophist tells us, that Lycurgus himself was a man of great +personal valour, and an experienced commander. Philostephanus also +ascribes to him the first division of cavalry into troops of fifty, who +were drawn up in a square body. But Demetrius the Phalerean says, that +he never had any military employment, and that there was the profoundest +peace imaginable when he established the constitution of Sparta. His +providing for a cessation of arms during the Olympic games is likewise a +mark of the humane and peaceable man. Some, however, acquaint us, and +among the rest Hermippus, that Lucurgus at first had no communication +with Iphitus; but coming that way, and happening to be a spectator, he +heard behind him a human voice (as he thought) which expressed some +wonder and displeasure that he did not put his countrymen upon resorting +to so great an assembly. He turned round immediately, to discover whence +the voice came, and as there was no man to be seen, concluded it was +from heaven. He joined Iphitus, therefore; and ordering, along with him, +the ceremonies of the festival, rendered it more magnificent and +lasting. + +The discipline of the Lacedæmonians continued after they were arrived at +years of maturity. For no man was at liberty to live as he pleased; the +city being like one great camp, where all had their stated allowance, +and knew their public charge, each man concluding that he was born, not +for himself, but for his country. Hence, if they had no particular +orders, they employed themselves in inspecting the boys, and teaching +them something useful, or in learning of those that were older than +themselves. One of the greatest privileges that Lycurgus procured his +countrymen, was the enjoyment of leisure, the consequence of his +forbidding them to exercise any mechanic trade. It was not worth their +while to take great pains to raise a fortune, since riches there were of +no account: and the Helotes, who tilled the ground, were answerable for +the produce above-mentioned. To this purpose we have a story of a +Lacedæmonian, who, happening to be at Athens while the court sat, was +informed of a man who was fined for idleness; and when the poor fellow +was returning home in great dejection, attended by his condoling +friends, he desired the company to show him the person that was +condemned for keeping up his dignity. So much beneath them they reckoned +all attention to mechanics arts, and all desire of riches! + +Lawsuits were banished from Lacedæmon with money. The Spartans knew +neither riches nor poverty, but possessed an equal competency, and had a +cheap and easy way of supplying their few wants. Hence, when they were +not engaged in war, their time was taken up with dancing, feasting, +hunting, or meeting to exercise, or converse. They went not to market +under thirty years of age, all their necessary concerns being managed by +their relations and adopters. Nor was it reckoned a credit to the old to +be seen sauntering in the market-place; it was deemed more suitable for +them to pass great part of the day in the schools of exercise, or places +of conversation. Their discourse seldom turned upon money, or business, +or trade, but upon the praise of the excellent, or the contempt of the +worthless; and the last was expressed with that pleasantry and humour, +which conveyed instruction and correction without seeming to intend it. +Nor was Lycurgus himself immoderately severe in his manner; but, as +Sosibius tells us, he dedicated a little statue to the god of laughter +in each hall. He considered facetiousness as a seasoning of their hard +exercise and diet, and therefore ordered it to take place on all proper +occasions, in their common entertainments and parties of pleasure. + +Upon the whole, he taught his citizens to think nothing more +disagreeable than to live by (or for) themselves. Like bees, they acted +with one impulse for the public good, and always assembled about their +prince. They were possessed with a thirst of honour, an enthusiasm +bordering upon insanity, and had not a wish but for their country. These +sentiments are confirmed by some of their aphorisms. When Pædaretus lost +his election for one of the "three hundred," he went away "rejoicing +that there were three hundred better men than himself found in the +city." Pisistratidas going with some others, ambassador to the king of +Persia's lieutenants, was asked whether they came with a public +commission, or on their own account, to which he answered, "If +successful, for the public; if unsuccessful, for ourselves." Agrileonis, +the mother of Brasidas, asking some Amphipolitans that waited upon her +at her house, whether Brasidas died honourably and as became a Spartan? +they greatly extolled his merit, and said there was not such a man left +in Sparta; whereupon she replied, "Say not so, my friends; for Brasidas +was indeed a man of honour, but Lacedæmon can boast of many better men +than he." + +The senate, as I said before, consisted at first of those that were +assistants to Lycurgus in his great enterprise. Afterwards, to fill up +any vacancy that might happen, he ordered the most worthy men to be +selected, of those that were full threescore years old. This was the +most respectable dispute in the world, and the contest was truly +glorious; for it was not who should be swiftest among the swift, or +strongest of the strong, but who was the wisest and best among the good +and wise. He who had the preference was to bear this mark of superior +excellence through life, this great authority, which put into his hands +the lives and honour of the citizens, and every other important affair. +The manner of the election was this: when the people were assembled, +some persons appointed for the purpose were shut up in a room near the +place; where they could neither see nor be seen, and only hear the +shouts of the constituents: for by them they decided this and most +other affairs. Each candidate walked silently through the assembly, one +after another according to lot. Those that were shut up had writing +tables, in which they set down in different columns the number and +loudness of the shouts, without knowing who they were for; only they +marked them as first, second, third, and so on, according to the number +of the competitors. He that had the most and loudest acclamations, was +declared duly elected. Then he was crowned with a garland, and went +round to give thanks to the gods: a number of young men followed, +striving which should extol him most, and the women celebrated his +virtues in their songs, and blessed his worthy life and conduct. Each of +his relations offered him a repast, and their address on the occasion +was, "Sparta honours you with this collation." When he had finished the +procession, he went to the common table, and lived as before. Only two +portions were set before him, one of which he carried away: and as all +the women related to him attended at the gates of the public hall, he +called her for whom he had the greatest esteem, and presented her with +the portion, saying at the same time, "That which I received as a mark +of honour, I give to you." Then she was conducted home with great +applause by the rest of the women. + +Lycurgus likewise made good regulations with respect to burials. In the +first place, to take away all superstition, he ordered the dead to be +buried in the city, and even permitted their monuments to be erected +near the temples; accustoming the youth to such sights from their +infancy, that they might have no uneasiness from them, nor any horror +for death, as if people were polluted with the touch of a dead body, or +with treading upon a grave. In the next place, he suffered nothing to be +buried with the corpse, except the red cloth and the olive leaves in +which it was wrapped. Nor would he suffer the relations to inscribe any +names upon the tombs, except of those men that fell in battle, or those +women who died in some sacred office. He fixed eleven days for the time +of mourning: on the twelfth they were to put an end to it, after +offering sacrifice to Ceres. No part of life was left vacant and +unimproved, but even with their necessary actions he interwove the +praise of virtue and the contempt of vice: and he so filled the city +with living examples, that it was next to impossible, for persons who +had these from their infancy before their eyes, not to be drawn and +formed to honour. + +For the same reason he would not permit all that desired to go abroad +and see other countries, lest they should contract foreign manners, gain +traces of a life of little discipline, and of a different form of +government. He forbid strangers too to resort to Sparta, who could not +assign a good reason for their coming; not, as Thucydides says, out of +fear they should imitate the constitution of that city, and make +improvements in virtue, but lest they should teach his own people some +evil. For along with foreigners come new subjects of discourse; new +discourse produces new opinions; and from these there necessarily spring +new passions and desires, which, like discords in music, would disturb +the established government. He, therefore, thought it more expedient for +the city to keep out of it corrupt customs and manners, than even to +prevent the introduction of a pestilence. + +Thus far, then, we can perceive no vestiges of a disregard to right and +wrong, which is the fault some people find with the laws of Lycurgus, +allowing them well enough calculated to produce valour, but not to +promote justice. Perhaps it was the Cryptia, as they called it, or +ambuscade, if that was really one of this lawgiver's institutions, as +Aristotle says it was, which gave Plato so bad an impression both of +Lycurgus and his laws. The governors of the youth ordered the shrewdest +of them from time to time to disperse themselves in the country, +provided only with daggers and some necessary provisions. In the daytime +they hid themselves, and rested in the most private places they could +find, but at night they sallied out into the roads, and killed all the +Helotes they could meet with. Nay, sometimes by day, they fell upon them +in the fields, and murdered the ablest and strongest of them. Thucydides +relates in his history of the Peloponnesian war, that the Spartans +selected such of them as were distinguished for their courage, to the +number of two thousand or more, declared them free, crowned them with +garlands, and conducted them to the temples of the gods; but soon after +they all disappeared; and no one could, either then or since, give +account in what manner they were destroyed. Aristotle particularly says, +that the Ephori, as soon as they were invested in their office, declared +war against the Helotes, that they might be massacred under pretence of +law. In other respects they treated them with great inhumanity: +sometimes they made them drink till they were intoxicated, and in that +condition led them into the public halls, to show the young men what +drunkenness was. They ordered them too to sing mean songs, and to dance +ridiculous dances, but not to meddle with any that were genteel and +graceful. Thus they tell us, that when the Thebans afterwards invaded +Laconia, and took a great number of the Helotes prisoners, they ordered +them to sing the odes of Terpander, Aleman, or Spendon the Lacedæmonian, +but they excused themselves, alleging that it was forbidden by their +masters. Those who say that a freeman in Sparta was most a freeman, and +a slave most a slave, seem well to have considered the difference of +states. But in my opinion, it was in after-times that these cruelties +took place among the Lacedæmonians, chiefly after the great earthquake, +when, as history informs us, the Helotes, joining the Messenians, +attacked them, did infinite damage to the country, and brought the city +to the greatest extremity. I can never ascribe to Lycurgus so +abominable an act as that of the ambuscade. I would judge in this case +by the mildness and justice which appeared in the rest of his conduct, +to which also the gods gave their sanction. + +When his principal institutions had taken root in the manners of the +people, and the government was come to such maturity as to be able to +support and preserve itself, then, as Plato says of the Deity, that he +rejoiced when he had created the world, and given it its first motion; +so Lycurgus was charmed with the beauty and greatness of his political +establishment, when he saw it exemplified in fact, and move on in due +order. He was next desirous to make it immortal, so far as human wisdom +could effect it, and to deliver it down unchanged to the latest times. +For this purpose he assembled all the people, and told them the +provisions he had already made for the state were indeed sufficient for +virtue and happiness, but the greatest and most important matter was +still behind, which he could not disclose to them till he had consulted +the oracle; that they must therefore inviolably observe his laws, +without altering anything in them, till he returned from Delphi; and +then he would acquaint them with the pleasure of Apollo. When they had +all promised to do so, and desired him to set forward, he took an oath +of the kings and senators, and afterwards of all the citizens, that they +would abide by the present establishment till Lycurgus came back. He +then took his journey to Delphi. + +When he arrived there, he offered sacrifice to the gods, and consulted +the oracle, whether his laws were sufficient to promote virtue, and +secure the happiness of the state. Apollo answered, that the laws were +excellent, and that the city which kept to the constitution he had +established, would be the most glorious in the world. This oracle +Lycurgus took down in writing, and sent it to Sparta. He then offered +another sacrifice, and embraced his friends and his son, determined +never to release his citizens from their oath, but voluntarily there to +put a period to his life; while he was yet of an age when life was not a +burden, when death was not desirable, and while he was not unhappy in +any one circumstance. He, therefore, destroyed himself by abstaining +from food, persuaded that the very death of lawgivers should have its +use, and their exit, so far from being insignificant, have its share of +virtue, and be considered as a great action. To him, indeed, whose +performances were so illustrious, the conclusion of life was the crown +of happiness, and his death was left guardian of those invaluable +blessings he had procured his countrymen through life, as they had taken +an oath not to depart from his establishment till his return. Nor was he +deceived in his expectations. Sparta continued superior to the rest of +Greece, both in its government at home and reputation abroad, so long as +it retained the institution of Lycurgus: and this it did during the +space of five hundred years, and the reign of fourteen successive kings, +down to Agis the son of Archidamus. As for the appointment of the +Ephori, it was so far from weakening the constitution, that it gave it +additional vigour, and though it seemed to be established in favour of +the people, it strengthened the aristocracy. + +But in the reign of Agis money found its way into Sparta, and with money +came its inseparable attendant--avarice. This was by means of Lysander; +who, though himself incapable of being corrupted by money, filled his +country with the love of it, and with luxury too. He brought both gold +and silver from the wars, and thereby broke through the laws of +Lycurgus. While these were in force, Sparta was not so much under the +political regulations of a commonwealth, as the strict rules of a +philosophic life; and as the poets feign of Hercules, that only with a +club and lion's skin he travelled over the world, clearing it of lawless +ruffians and cruel tyrants; so the Lacedæmonians with a piece of +parchment and coarse coat kept Greece in a voluntary obedience, +destroyed usurpation and tyranny in the states, put an end to wars, and +laid seditions asleep, very often without either shield or lance, and +only by sending one ambassador; to whose directions all parties +concerned immediately submitted. Thus bees, when their prince appears, +compose their quarrels and unite in one swarm. So much did justice and +good government prevail in that state, that I am surprised at those who +say the Lacedæmonians knew indeed how to obey, but not how to govern: +and on this occasion quote the saying of king Theopompus, who, when one +told him that Sparta was preserved by the good administration of its +kings, replied, "Nay, rather by the obedience of their subjects." It is +certain that people will not continue pliant to those who know not how +to command; but it is the part of a good governor to teach obedience. He +who knows how to lead well, is sure to be well followed: and as it is by +the art of horsemanship that a horse is made gentle and tractable, so it +is by the abilities of him that fills the throne that the people become +ductile and submissive. Such was the conduct of the Lacedæmonians, that +people did not only endure, but even desired to be their subjects. They +asked not of them either ships, money or troops, but only a Spartan +general. When they had received him, they treated him with the greatest +honour and respect; so Gylippus was revered by the Sicilians, Brasidas +by the Chalcidians, Lysander, Callicratidas, and Agesilaus by all the +people of Asia. These, and such as these, wherever they came, were +called moderators and reformers, both of the magistrates and people, and +Sparta itself was considered as a school of discipline, where the beauty +of life and political order were taught in the utmost perfection. Hence +Stratonicus seems facetiously enough to have said, that he would order +"the Athenians to have the conduct of mysteries and processions; the +Eleans to preside in games, as their particular province; and the +Lacedæmonians to be beaten, if the other did amiss." This was spoken in +jest: but Antisthenes, one of the scholars of Socrates, said (more +seriously) of the Thebans, when he saw them pluming themselves upon +their success at Leuctra, "They were just like so many school-boys +rejoicing that they had beaten their master." + +It was not, however, the principal design of Lycurgus that his city +should govern many others, but he considered its happiness like that of +a private man, as flowing from virtue and self-consistency: he therefore +so ordered and disposed it, that by the freedom and sobriety of its +inhabitants, and their having a sufficiency within themselves, its +continuance might be the more secure. Plato, Diogenes, Zeno, and other +writers upon government, have taken Lycurgus for their model: and these +have attained great praise, though they left only an idea of something +excellent. Yet he who, not in idea and in words, but in fact produced a +most inimitable form of government, and by showing a whole city of +philosophers, confounded those who imagine that the so much talked of +strictness of a philosophic life is impracticable; he, I say, stands in +the rank of glory far beyond the founders of all the other Grecian +states. Therefore Aristotle is of opinion, that the honours paid him in +Lacedæmon were far beneath his merit. Yet those honours were very great; +for he has a temple there, and they offer him a yearly sacrifice, as a +god. It is also said, that when his remains were brought home, his tomb +was struck with lightning: a seal of divinity which no other man, +however eminent, has had, except Euripides, who died and was buried at +Arethusa in Macedonia. This was matter of great satisfaction and triumph +to the friends of Euripides, that the same thing should befall him after +death, which had formerly happened to the most venerable of men, and the +most favoured of heaven. Some say, Lycurgus died at Cirrha; but +Apollothemis will have it, that he was brought to Elis and died there; +and Timæus and Aristoxenus write, that he ended his days in Crete; nay, +Aristoxenus adds, that the Cretans show his tomb at Pergamia, near the +high road. We are told, he left an only son named Antiorus: and as he +died without issue, the family was extinct. His friends and relations +observed his anniversary, which subsisted for many ages, and the days on +which they met for that purpose they called Lycurgidæ. Aristocrates, the +son of Hipparchus, relates, that the friends of Lycurgus, with whom he +sojourned, and at last died in Crete, burned his body, and, at his +request, threw his ashes into the sea. Thus he guarded against the +possibility of his remains being brought back to Sparta by the +Lacedæmonians, lest they should then think themselves released from +their oath, on the pretence that he was returned, and make innovations +in the government. This is what we had to say of Lycurgus. + + + + +SIR THOMAS MORE'S + +UTOPIA. + + + + +UTOPIA. + + + + +BOOK I. + + +Henry the Eighth, the unconquered King of England, a prince adorned with +all the virtues that become a great monarch, having some differences of +no small consequence with Charles the most serene prince of Castile, +sent me into Flanders, as his ambassador, for treating and composing +matters between them. I was colleague and companion to that incomparable +man Cuthbert Tonstal, whom the king with such universal applause lately +made Master of the Rolls; but of whom I will say nothing; not because I +fear that the testimony of a friend will be suspected, but rather +because his learning and virtues are too great for me to do them +justice, and so well known, that they need not my commendations unless I +would, according to the proverb, "Show the sun with a lanthorn." Those +that were appointed by the prince to treat with us met us at Bruges, +according to agreement; they were all worthy men. The Margrave of Bruges +was their head, and the chief man among them; but he that was esteemed +the wisest, and that spoke for the rest, was George Temse, the Provost +of Casselsee; both art and nature had concurred to make him eloquent: he +was very learned in the law; and as he had a great capacity, so by a +long practice in affairs he was very dextrous at unravelling them. +After we had several times met without coming to an agreement, they went +to Brussels for some days to know the prince's pleasure. And since our +business would admit it, I went to Antwerp. While I was there, among +many that visited me, there was one that was more acceptable to me than +any other, Peter Giles, born at Antwerp, who is a man of great honour, +and of a good rank in his town, though less than he deserves; for I do +not know if there be anywhere to be found a more learned and a better +bred young man: for as he is both a very worthy and a very knowing +person, so he is so civil to all men, so particularly kind to his +friends, and so full of candour and affection, that there is not perhaps +above one or two anywhere to be found that is in all respects so perfect +a friend. He is extraordinarily modest, there is no artifice in him; and +yet no man has more of a prudent simplicity: his conversation was so +pleasant and so innocently cheerful, that his company in a great measure +lessened any longings to go back to my country, and to my wife and +children, which an absence of four months had quickened very much. One +day as I was returning home from Mass at St. Mary's, which is the chief +church, and the most frequented of any in Antwerp, I saw him by accident +talking with a stranger, who seemed past the flower of his age; his face +was tanned, he had a long beard, and his cloak was hanging carelessly +about him, so that by his looks and habit I concluded he was a seaman. +As soon as Peter saw me, he came and saluted me; and as I was returning +his civility, he took me aside, and pointing to him with whom he had +been discoursing, he said, "Do you see that man? I was just thinking to +bring him to you." I answered, "He should have been very welcome on your +account." "And on his own too," replied he, "if you knew the man, for +there is none alive that can give so copious an account of unknown +nations and countries as he can do; which I know you very much desire." +Then said I, "I did not guess amiss, for at first sight I took him for +a seaman." "But you are much mistaken," said he, "for he has not sailed +as a seaman, but as a traveller, or rather a philosopher. This Raphael, +who from his family carries the name of Hythloday, is not ignorant of +the Latin tongue, but is eminently learned in the Greek, having applied +himself more particularly to that than to the former, because he had +given himself much to philosophy, in which he knew that the Romans have +left us nothing that is valuable, except what is to be found in Seneca +and Cicero. He is a Portuguese by birth, and was so desirous of seeing +the world, that he divided his estate among his brothers, run the same +hazard as Americus Vesputius, and bore a share in three of his four +voyages, that are now published; only he did not return with him in his +last, but obtained leave of him almost by force, that he might be one of +those twenty-four who were left at the farthest place at which they +touched, in their last voyage to New Castile. The leaving him thus did +not a little gratify one that was more fond of travelling than of +returning home, to be buried in his own country; for he used often to +say, that the way to heaven was the same from all places; and he that +had no grave, had the heaven still over him. Yet this disposition of +mind had cost him dear, if God had not been very gracious to him; for +after he, with five Castilians, had travelled over many countries, at +last, by strange good fortune, he got to Ceylon, and from thence to +Calicut, where he very happily found some Portuguese ships; and, beyond +all men's expectations, returned to his native country." When Peter had +said this to me, I thanked him for his kindness, in intending to give me +the acquaintance of a man whose conversation he knew would be so +acceptable; and upon that Raphael and I embraced each other. After those +civilities were past which are usual with strangers upon their first +meeting, we all went to my house, and entering into the garden, sat down +on a green bank, and entertained one another in discourse. He told us, +that when Vesputius had sailed away, he and his companions that stayed +behind in New Castile, by degrees insinuated themselves into the +affections of the people of the country, meeting often with them, and +treating them gently: and at last they not only lived among them without +danger, but conversed familiarly with them; and got so far into the +heart of a prince, whose name and country I have forgot, that he both +furnished them plentifully with all things necessary, and also with the +conveniences of travelling; both boats when they went by water, and +waggons when they travelled over land: he sent with them a very faithful +guide, who was to introduce and recommend them to such other princes as +they had a mind to see: and after many days' journey, they came to +towns, and cities, and to commonwealths, that were both happily governed +and well peopled. Under the equator, and as far on both sides of it as +the sun moves, there lay vast deserts that were parched with the +perpetual heat of the sun; the soil was withered, all things looked +dismally, and all places were either quite uninhabited, or abounded with +wild beasts and serpents, and some few men, that were neither less wild +nor less cruel than the beasts themselves. But as they went farther, a +new scene opened, all things grew milder, the air less burning, the soil +more verdant, and even the beasts were less wild: and at last there were +nations, towns, and cities, that had not only mutual commerce among +themselves, and with their neighbours, but traded both by sea and land, +to very remote countries. There they found the conveniences of seeing +many countries on all hands, for no ship went any voyage into which he +and his companions were not very welcome. The first vessels that they +saw were flat-bottomed, their sails were made of reeds and wicker woven +close together, only some were of leather; but afterwards they found +ships made with round keels, and canvas sails, and in all respects like +our ships; and the seamen understood both astronomy and navigation. He +got wonderfully into their favour, by showing them the use of the +needle, of which till then they were utterly ignorant. They sailed +before with great caution, and only in summer-time, but now they count +all seasons alike, trusting wholly to the loadstone, in which they are +perhaps more secure than safe; so that there is reason to fear that this +discovery, which was thought would prove so much to their advantage, may +by their imprudence become an occasion of much mischief to them. But it +were too long to dwell on all that he told us he had observed in every +place; it would be too great a digression from our present purpose: +whatever is necessary to be told, concerning those wise and prudent +institutions which he observed among civilized nations, may perhaps be +related by us on a more proper occasion. We asked him many questions +concerning all these things, to which he answered very willingly; only +we made no inquiries after monsters, than which nothing is more common; +for everywhere one may hear of ravenous dogs and wolves, and cruel +men-eaters; but it is not so easy to find states that are well and +wisely governed. + +As he told us of many things that were amiss in those new-discovered +countries, so he reckoned up not a few things from which patterns might +be taken for correcting the errors of these nations among whom we live; +of which an account may be given, as I have already promised, at some +other time; for at present I intend only to relate those particulars +that he told us of the manners and laws of the Utopians: but I will +begin with the occasion that led us to speak of that commonwealth. After +Raphael had discoursed with great judgment on the many errors that were +both among us and these nations; had treated of the wise institutions +both here and there, and had spoken as distinctly of the customs and +government of every nation through which he had passed, as if he had +spent his whole life in it; Peter being struck with admiration, said, "I +wonder, Raphael, how it comes that you enter into no king's service, for +I am sure there are none to whom you would not be very acceptable: for +your learning and knowledge, both of men and things, is such, that you +would not only entertain them very pleasantly, but be of great use to +them, by the examples you could set before them, and the advices you +could give them; and by this means you would both serve your own +interest, and be of great use to all your friends."--"As for my +friends," answered he, "I need not be much concerned, having already +done for them all that was incumbent on me; for when I was not only in +good health, but fresh and young, I distributed that among my kindred +and friends which other people do not part with till they are old and +sick; when they then unwillingly give that which they can enjoy no +longer themselves. I think my friends ought to rest contented with this, +and not to expect that for their sakes I should enslave myself to any +king whatsoever."--"Soft and fair," said Peter, "I do not mean that you +should be a slave to any king, but only that you should assist them, and +be useful to them."--"The change of the word," said he, "does not alter +the matter."--"But term it as you will," replied Peter, "I do not see +any other way in which you can be so useful, both in private to your +friends, and to the public, and by which you can make your own condition +happier."--"Happier!" answered Raphael, "is that to be compassed in a +way so abhorrent to my genius? Now I live as I will, to which I believe +few courtiers can pretend. And there are so many that court the favour +of great men, that there will be no great loss if they are not troubled +either with me or with others of my temper." Upon this, said I, "I +perceive, Raphael, that you neither desire wealth nor greatness; and +indeed I value and admire such a man much more than I do any of the +great men in the world. Yet I think you would do what would well become +so generous and philosophical a soul as yours is, if you would apply +your time and thoughts to public affairs, even though you may happen to +find it a little uneasy to yourself: and this you can never do with so +much advantage, as by being taken into the counsel of some great prince, +and putting him on noble and worthy actions, which I know you would do +if you were in such a post; for the springs both of good and evil flow +from the prince, over a whole nation, as from a lasting fountain. So +much learning as you have, even without practice in affairs, or so great +a practice as you have had, without any other learning, would render you +a very fit counsellor to any king whatsoever."--"You are doubly +mistaken," said he, "Mr. More, both in your opinion of me, and in the +judgment you make of things: for as I have not that capacity that you +fancy I have; so, if I had it, the public would not be one jot the +better, when I had sacrificed my quiet to it. For most princes apply +themselves more to affairs of war than to the useful arts of peace; and +in these I neither have any knowledge, nor do I much desire it: they are +generally more set on acquiring new kingdoms, right or wrong, than on +governing well those they possess. And among the ministers of princes, +there are none that are not so wise as to need no assistance, or at +least that do not think themselves so wise, that they imagine they need +none; and if they court any, it is only those for whom the prince has +much personal favour, whom by their fawnings and flatteries they +endeavour to fix to their own interests: and indeed Nature has so made +us, that we all love to be flattered, and to please ourselves with our +own notions. The old crow loves his young, and the ape her cubs. Now if +in such a Court, made up of persons who envy all others, and only admire +themselves, a person should but propose anything that he had either read +in history, or observed in his travels, the rest would think that the +reputation of their wisdom would sink, and that their interest would be +much depressed, if they could not run it down: and if all other things +failed, then they would fly to this, that such or such things pleased +our ancestors, and it were well for us if we could but match them. They +would set up their rest on such an answer, as a sufficient confutation +of all that could be said; as if it were a great misfortune, that any +should be found wiser than his ancestors; but though they willingly let +go all the good things that were among those of former ages, yet if +better things are proposed they cover themselves obstinately with this +excuse of reverence to past times. I have met with these proud, morose, +and absurd judgments of things in many places, particularly once in +England."--"Was you ever there?" said I.--"Yes, I was," answered he, +"and stayed some months there, not long after the rebellion in the west +was suppressed with a great slaughter of the poor people that were +engaged in it. + +"I was then much obliged to that reverend prelate, John Morton, +Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal, and Chancellor of England: a man," +said he, "Peter (for Mr. More knows well what he was), that was not less +venerable for his wisdom and virtues, than for the high character he +bore. He was of a middle stature, not broken with age; his looks begot +reverence rather than fear; his conversation was easy, but serious and +grave; he sometimes took pleasure to try the force of those that came as +suitors to him upon business, by speaking sharply, though decently to +them, and by that he discovered their spirit and presence of mind, with +which he was much delighted, when it did not grow up to impudence, as +bearing a great resemblance to his own temper; and he looked on such +persons as the fittest men for affairs. He spoke both gracefully and +weightily; he was eminently skilled in the law, had a vast +understanding, and a prodigious memory; and those excellent talents with +which Nature had furnished him, were improved by study and experience. +When I was in England the king depended much on his counsels, and the +government seemed to be chiefly supported by him; for from his youth he +had been all along practised in affairs; and having passed through many +traverses of fortune, he had with great cost acquired a vast stock of +wisdom, which is not soon lost when it is purchased so dear. One day +when I was dining with him there happened to be at table one of the +English lawyers, who took occasion to run out in a high commendation of +the severe execution of justice upon thieves, who, as he said, were then +hanged so fast, that there were sometimes twenty on one gibbet; and upon +that he said he could not wonder enough how it came to pass, that since +so few escaped, there were yet so many thieves left who were still +robbing in all places. Upon this, I who took the boldness to speak +freely before the Cardinal, said, there was no reason to wonder at the +matter, since this way of punishing thieves was neither just in itself +nor good for the public; for as the severity was too great, so the +remedy was not effectual; simple theft not being so great a crime that +it ought to cost a man his life, no punishment how severe soever being +able to restrain those from robbing who can find out no other way of +livelihood. 'In this,' said I, 'not only you in England, but a great +part of the world imitate some ill masters that are readier to chastise +their scholars than to teach them. There are dreadful punishments +enacted against thieves, but it were much better to make such good +provisions by which every man might be put in a method how to live, and +so be preserved from the fatal necessity of stealing and of dying for +it.'--'There has been care enough taken for that,' said he, 'there are +many handicrafts, and there is husbandry, by which they may make a shift +to live unless they have a greater mind to follow ill courses.'--'That +will not serve your turn,' said I, 'for many lose their limbs in civil +or foreign wars, as lately in the Cornish rebellion, and some time ago +in your wars with France, who being thus mutilated in the service of +their king and country, can no more follow their old trades, and are +too old to learn new ones: but since wars are only accidental things, +and have intervals, let us consider those things that fall out every +day. There is a great number of noblemen among you, that are themselves +as idle as drones, that subsist on other men's labour, on the labour of +their tenants, whom, to raise their revenues, they pare to the quick. +This indeed is the only instance of their frugality, for in all other +things they are prodigal, even to the beggaring of themselves: but +besides this, they carry about with them a great number of idle fellows, +who never learned any art by which they may gain their living; and +these, as soon as either their lord dies, or they themselves fall sick, +are turned out of doors; for your lords are readier to feed idle people, +than to take care of the sick; and often the heir is not able to keep +together so great a family as his predecessor did. Now when the stomachs +of those that are thus turned out of doors, grow keen, they rob no less +keenly; and what else can they do? for when, by wandering about, they +have worn out both their health and their clothes, and are tattered, and +look ghastly, men of quality will not entertain them, and poor men dare +not do it; knowing that one who has been bred up in idleness and +pleasure, and who was used to walk about with his sword and buckler, +despising all the neighbourhood with an insolent scorn, as far below +him, is not fit for the spade and mattock: nor will he serve a poor man +for so small a hire, and in so low a diet as he can afford to give him.' +To this he answered, 'This sort of men ought to be particularly +cherished, for in them consists the force of the armies for which we +have occasion; since their birth inspires them with a nobler sense of +honour, than is to be found among tradesmen or ploughmen.'--'You may as +well say,' replied I, 'that you must cherish thieves on the account of +wars, for you will never want the one, as long as you have the other; +and as robbers prove sometimes gallant soldiers, so soldiers often prove +brave robbers; so near an alliance there is between those two sorts of +life. But this bad custom, so common among you, of keeping many +servants, is not peculiar to this nation. In France there is yet a more +pestiferous sort of people, for the whole country is full of soldiers, +still kept up in time of peace; if such a state of a nation can be +called a peace: and these are kept in pay upon the same account that you +plead for those idle retainers about noblemen; this being a maxim of +those pretended statesmen that it is necessary for the public safety, to +have a good body of veteran soldiers ever in readiness. They think raw +men are not to be depended on, and they sometimes seek occasions for +making war, that they may train up their soldiers in the art of cutting +throats; or as Sallust observed, for keeping their hands in use, that +they may not grow dull by too long an intermission. But France has +learned to its cost, how dangerous it is to feed such beasts. The fate +of the Romans, Carthaginians, and Syrians, and many other nations and +cities, which were both overturned and quite ruined by those standing +armies, should make others wiser: and the folly of this maxim of the +French, appears plainly even from this, that their trained soldiers +often find your raw men prove too hard for them; of which I will not say +much, lest you may think I flatter the English. Every day's experience +shows, that the mechanics in the towns, or the clowns in the country, +are not afraid of fighting with those idle gentlemen, if they are not +disabled by some misfortune in their body, or dispirited by extreme +want, so that you need not fear that those well-shaped and strong men +(for it is only such that noblemen love to keep about them, till they +spoil them) who now grow feeble with ease, and are softened with their +effeminate manner of life, would be less fit for action if they were +well bred and well employed. And it seems very unreasonable, that for +the prospect of a war, which you need never have but when you please, +you should maintain so many idle men, as will always disturb you in +time of peace, which is ever to be more considered than war. But I do +not think that this necessity of stealing arises only from hence; there +is another cause of it more peculiar to England.'--'What is that?' said +the Cardinal.--'The increase of pasture,' said I, 'by which your sheep, +which are naturally mild, and easily kept in order, may be said now to +devour men, and unpeople, not only villages, but towns; for wherever it +is found that the sheep of any soil yield a softer and richer wool than +ordinary, there the nobility and gentry, and even those holy men the +abbots, not contented with the old rents which their farms yielded, nor +thinking it enough that they, living at their ease, do no good to the +public, resolve to do it hurt instead of good. They stop the course of +agriculture, destroying houses and towns, reserving only the churches, +and enclose grounds that they may lodge their sheep in them. As if +forests and parks had swallowed up too little of the land, those worthy +countrymen turn the best inhabited places in solitudes; for when an +insatiable wretch, who is a plague to his country, resolves to inclose +many thousand acres of ground, the owners, as well as tenants, are +turned out of their possessions, by tricks, or by main force, or being +wearied out with ill usage, they are forced to sell them. By which means +those miserable people, both men and women, married and unmarried, old +and young, with their poor but numerous families (since country business +requires many hands), are all forced to change their seats, not knowing +whither to go; and they must sell almost for nothing their household +stuff, which could not bring them much money, even though they might +stay for a buyer. When that little money is at an end, for it will be +soon spent; what is left for them to do, but either to steal and so to +be hanged (God knows how justly), or to go about and beg? And if they do +this, they are put in prison as idle vagabonds; while they would +willingly work, but can find none that will hire them; for there is no +more occasion for country labour, to which they have been bred, when +there is no arable ground left. One shepherd can look after a flock, +which will stock an extent of ground that would require many hands, if +it were to be ploughed and reaped. This likewise in many places raises +the price of corn. The price of wool is also so risen, that the poor +people who were wont to make cloth are no more able to buy it; and this +likewise makes many of them idle. For since the increase of pasture, God +has punished the avarice of the owners, by a rot among the sheep, which +has destroyed vast numbers of them; to us it might have seemed more just +had it fell on the owners themselves. But suppose the sheep should +increase ever so much, their price is not like to fall; since though +they cannot be called a monopoly, because they are not engrossed by one +person, yet they are in so few hands, and these are so rich, that as +they are not pressed to sell them sooner than they have a mind to it, so +they never do it till they have raised the price as high as possible. +And on the same account it is, that the other kinds of cattle are so +dear, because many villages being pulled down, and all country labour +being much neglected, there are none who make it their business to breed +them. The rich do not breed cattle as they do sheep, but buy them lean, +and at low prices; and after they have fattened them on their grounds, +sell them again at high rates. And I do not think that all the +inconveniences this will produce are yet observed; for as they sell the +cattle dear, so if they are consumed faster than the breeding countries +from which they are brought can afford them, then the stock must +decrease, and this must needs end in great scarcity; and by these means +this your island, which seemed as to this particular the happiest in the +world, will suffer much by the cursed avarice of a few persons; besides +this, the rising of corn makes all people lessen their families as much +as they can; and what can those who are dismissed by them do, but +either beg or rob? And to this last, a man of a great mind is much +sooner drawn than to the former. Luxury likewise breaks in apace upon +you, to set forward your poverty and misery; there is an excessive +vanity in apparel, and great cost in diet; and that not only in +noblemen's families, but even among tradesmen, among the farmers +themselves, and among all ranks of persons. You have also many infamous +houses, and besides those that are known, the taverns and alehouses are +no better; add to these, dice, cards, tables, foot-ball, tennis, and +quoits, in which money runs fast away; and those that are initiated into +them, must in the conclusion betake themselves to robbing for a supply. +Banish these plagues, and give orders that those who have dispeopled so +much soil, may either rebuild the villages they have pulled down, or let +out their grounds to such as will do it: restrain those engrossings of +the rich, that are as bad almost as monopolies; leave fewer occasions to +idleness; let agriculture be set up again, and the manufacture of the +wool be regulated, that so there may be work found for those companies +of idle people whom want forces to be thieves, or who now being idle +vagabonds, or useless servants, will certainly grow thieves at last. If +you do not find a remedy to these evils, it is a vain thing to boast of +your severity in punishing theft, which though it may have the +appearance of justice, yet in itself is neither just nor convenient. For +if you suffer your people to be ill educated, and their manners to be +corrupted from their infancy, and then punish them for those crimes to +which their first education disposed them, what else is to be concluded +from this, but that you first make thieves and then punish them?' + +"While I was talking thus, the counsellor who was present had prepared +an answer, and had resolved to resume all I had said, according to the +formality of a debate, in which things are generally repeated more +faithfully than they are answered; as if the chief trial to be made +were of men's memories. 'You have talked prettily for a stranger,' said +he, 'having heard of many things among us which you have not been able +to consider well; but I will make the whole matter plain to you, and +will first repeat in order all that you have said, then I will show how +much your ignorance of our affairs has misled you, and will in the last +place answer all your arguments. And that I may begin where I promised, +there were four things----' 'Hold your peace,' said the Cardinal, 'this +will take up too much time; therefore we will at present ease you of the +trouble of answering, and reserve it to our next meeting, which shall be +to-morrow, if Raphael's affairs and yours can admit of it. But, +Raphael,' said he to me, 'I would gladly know upon what reason it is +that you think theft ought not to be punished by death? Would you give +way to it? Or do you propose any other punishment that will be more +useful to the public? For since death does not restrain theft, if men +thought their lives would be safe, what fear or force could restrain ill +men? On the contrary, they would look on the mitigation of the +punishment as an invitation to commit more crimes.' I answered, 'It +seems to me a very unjust thing to take away a man's life for a little +money; for nothing in the world can be of equal value with a man's life: +and if it is said, that it is not for the money that one suffers, but +for his breaking the law, I must say, extreme justice is an extreme +injury; for we ought not to approve of these terrible laws that make the +smallest offences capital, nor of that opinion of the Stoics, that makes +all crimes equal, as if there were no difference to be made between the +killing a man and the taking his purse, between which, if we examine +things impartially, there is no likeness nor proportion. God has +commanded us not to kill, and shall we kill so easily for a little +money? But if one shall say, that by that law we are only forbid to kill +any, except when the laws of the land allow of it; upon the same +grounds, laws may be made in some cases to allow of adultery and +perjury: for God having taken from us the right of disposing, either of +our own or of other people's lives, if it is pretended that the mutual +consent of man in making laws can authorize man-slaughter in cases in +which God has given us no example, that it frees people from the +obligation of the divine law, and so makes murder a lawful action; what +is this, but to give a preference to human laws before the divine? And +if this is once admitted, by the same rule men may in all other things +put what restrictions they please upon the laws of God. If by the +Mosaical law, though it was rough and severe, as being a yoke laid on an +obstinate and servile nation, men were only fined, and not put to death +for theft, we cannot imagine that in this new law of mercy, in which God +treats us with the tenderness of a father, He has given us a greater +license to cruelty than He did to the Jews. Upon these reasons it is, +that I think putting thieves to death is not lawful; and it is plain and +obvious that it is absurd, and of ill consequence to the commonwealth, +that a thief and a murderer should be equally punished; for if a robber +sees that his danger is the same, if he is convicted of theft as if he +were guilty of murder, this will naturally incite him to kill the person +whom otherwise he would only have robbed, since if the punishment is the +same, there is more security, and less danger of discovery, when he that +can best make it is put out of the way; so that terrifying thieves too +much, provokes them to cruelty. + +"'But as to the question, what more convenient way of punishment can be +found? I think it is much more easier to find out that, than to invent +anything that is worse; why should we doubt but the way that was so long +in use among the old Romans, who understood so well the arts of +government, was very proper for their punishment? They condemned such as +they found guilty of great crimes, to work their whole lives in +quarries, or to dig in mines with chains about them. But the method that +I liked best, was that which I observed in my travels in Persia, among +the Polylerits, who are a considerable and well-governed people. They +pay a yearly tribute to the King of Persia; but in all other respects +they are a free nation, and governed by their own laws. They lie far +from the sea, and are environed with hills; and being contented with the +productions of their own country, which is very fruitful, they have +little commerce with any other nation; and as they, according to the +genius of their country, have no inclination to enlarge their borders; +so their mountains, and the pension they pay to the Persian, secure them +from all invasions. Thus they have no wars among them: they live rather +conveniently than with splendour, and may be rather called a happy +nation, than either eminent or famous; for I do not think that they are +known so much as by name to any but their next neighbours. Those that +are found guilty of theft among them, are bound to make restitution to +the owner, and not as it is in other places, to the prince, for they +reckon that the prince has no more right to the stolen goods than the +thief; but if that which was stolen is no more in being, then the goods +of the thieves are estimated, and restitution being made out of them, +the remainder is given to their wives and children: and they themselves +are condemned to serve in the public works, but are neither imprisoned, +nor chained, unless there happened to be some extraordinary +circumstances in their crimes. They go about loose and free, working for +the public. If they are idle or backward to work, they are whipped; but +if they work hard, they are well used and treated without any mark of +reproach, only the lists of them are called always at night, and then +they are shut up. They suffer no other uneasiness, but this of constant +labour; for as they work for the public, so they are well entertained +out of the public stock, which is done differently in different places. +In some places, whatever is bestowed on them, is raised by a charitable +contribution; and though this way may seem uncertain, yet so merciful +are the inclinations of that people, that they are plentifully supplied +by it; but in other places, public revenues are set aside for them; or +there is a constant tax of a poll-money raised for their maintenance. In +some places they are set to no public work, but every private man that +has occasion to hire workmen, goes to the market-places and hires them +of the public, a little lower than he would do a freeman: if they go +lazily about their task, he may quicken them with the whip. By this +means there is always some piece of work or other to be done by them; +and beside their livelihood, they earn somewhat still to the public. +They all wear a peculiar habit, of one certain colour, and their hair is +cropped a little above their ears, and a piece of one of their ears is +cut off. Their friends are allowed to give them either meat, drink, or +clothes, so they are of their proper colour; but it is death, both to +the giver and taker, if they give them money; nor is it less penal for +any freeman to take money from them, upon any account whatsoever: and it +is also death for any of these slaves (so they are called) to handle +arms. Those of every division of the country are distinguished by a +peculiar mark; which it is capital for them to lay aside, to go out of +their bounds, or to talk with a slave of another jurisdiction; and the +very attempt of an escape is no less penal than an escape itself; it is +death for any other slave to be accessory to it; and if a freeman +engages in it he is condemned to slavery. Those that discover it are +rewarded; if freemen, in money; and if slaves, with liberty, together +with a pardon for being accessory to it; that so they might find their +account, rather in repenting of their engaging in such a design, than in +persisting in it. + +"These are their laws and rules in relation to robbery; and it is +obvious that they are as advantageous as they are mild and gentle; +since vice is not only destroyed, and men preserved, but they treated in +such a manner as to make them see the necessity of being honest, and of +employing the rest of their lives in repairing the injuries they have +formerly done to society. Nor is there any hazard of their falling back +to their old customs: and so little do travellers apprehend mischief +from them, that they generally make use of them for guides, from one +jurisdiction to another; for there is nothing left them by which they +can rob, or be the better for it, since as they are disarmed, so the +very having of money is a sufficient conviction: and as they are +certainly punished if discovered, so they cannot hope to escape; for +their habit being in all the parts of it different from what is commonly +worn, they cannot fly away, unless they would go naked, and even then +their cropped ear would betray them. The only danger to be feared from +them, is their conspiring against the government: but those of one +division and neighbourhood can do nothing to any purpose, unless a +general conspiracy were laid amongst all the slaves of the several +jurisdictions, which cannot be done, since they cannot meet or talk +together; nor will any venture on a design where the concealment would +be so dangerous, and the discovery so profitable. None are quite +hopeless of recovering their freedom, since by their obedience and +patience, and by giving good grounds to believe that they will change +their manner of life for the future, they may expect at last to obtain +their liberty: and some are every year restored to it, upon the good +character that is given of them.--When I had related all this, I added, +that I did not see why such a method might not be followed with more +advantage, than could ever be expected from that severe justice which +the counsellor magnified so much. To this he answered, that it could +never take place in England, without endangering the whole nation. As he +said this, he shook his head, made some grimaces, and held his peace, +while all the company seemed of his opinion, except the Cardinal, who +said that it was not easy to form a judgment of its success, since it +was a method that never yet had been tried. 'But if,' said he, 'when the +sentence of death was passed upon a thief, the prince would reprieve him +for a while, and make the experiment upon him, denying him the privilege +of a sanctuary; and then if it had a good effect upon him, it might take +place; and if it did not succeed, the worst would be, to execute the +sentence on the condemned persons at last. And I do not see,' added he, +'why it would be either unjust, inconvenient, or at all dangerous, to +admit of such a delay: in my opinion, the vagabonds ought to be treated +in the same manner; against whom, though we have made many laws, yet we +have not been able to gain our end.' When the Cardinal had done, they +all commended the motion, though they had despised it when it came from +me; but more particularly commended what related to the vagabonds, +because it was his own observation. + +"I do not know whether it be worth while to tell what followed, for it +was very ridiculous; but I shall venture at it, for as it is not foreign +to this matter, so some good use may be made of it. There was a jester +standing by, that counterfeited the fool so naturally, that he seemed to +be really one. The jests which he offered were so cold and dull, that we +laughed more at him than at them; yet sometimes he said, as it were by +chance, things that were not unpleasant; so as to justify the old +proverb, 'That he who throws the dice often, will sometimes have a lucky +hit.' When one of the company had said, that I had taken care of the +thieves, and the Cardinal had taken care of the vagabonds, so that there +remained nothing but that some public provision might be made for the +poor, whom sickness or old age had disabled from labour. 'Leave that to +me,' said the fool, 'and I shall take care of them; for there is no +sort of people whose sight I abhor more, having been so often vexed +with them, and with their sad complaints; but as dolefully soever as +they have told their tale, they could never prevail so far as to draw +one penny from me: for either I had no mind to give them anything, or +when I had a mind to do it, I had nothing to give them: and they now +know me so well, that they will not lose their labour, but let me pass +without giving me any trouble, because they hope for nothing, no more in +faith than if I were a priest: but I would have a law made, for sending +all these beggars to monasteries, the men to the Benedictines to be made +lay-brothers, and the women to be nuns.' The Cardinal smiled, and +approved of it in jest; but the rest liked it in earnest. There was a +divine present, who though he was a grave morose man, yet he was so +pleased with this reflection that was made on the priests and the monks, +that he began to play with the fool, and said to him, 'This will not +deliver you from all beggars, except you take care of us friars.'--'That +is done already,' answered the fool, 'for the Cardinal has provided for +you, by what he proposed for restraining vagabonds, and setting them to +work, for I know no vagabonds like you.' This was well entertained by +the whole company, who looking at the Cardinal, perceived that he was +not ill pleased at it; only the friar himself was vexed, as may be +easily imagined, and fell into such a passion, that he could not forbear +railing at the fool, and calling him knave, slanderer, back-biter, and +son of perdition, and then cited some dreadful threatenings out of the +Scriptures against him. Now the jester thought he was in his element, +and laid about him freely. 'Good friar,' said he, 'be not angry, for it +is written, "In patience possess your soul."'--The friar answered (for I +shall give you his own words), 'I am not angry, you hangman; at least I +do not sin in it, for the Psalmist says, "Be ye angry, and sin +not."'--Upon this the Cardinal admonished him gently, and wished him to +govern his passions. 'No, my lord,' said he, 'I speak not but from a +good zeal, which I ought to have; for holy men have had a good zeal, as +it is said, "The zeal of thy house hath eaten me up;" and we sing in our +church, that those who mocked Elisha as he went up to the house of God, +felt the effects of his zeal; which that mocker, that rogue, that +scoundrel, will perhaps feel.'--'You do this perhaps with a good +intention,' said the Cardinal; 'but in my opinion, it were wiser in you, +and perhaps better for you, not to engage in so ridiculous a contest +with a fool.'--'No, my lord,' answered he, 'that were not wisely done; +for Solomon, the wisest of men, said, "Answer a fool according to his +folly;" which I now do, and show him the ditch into which he will fall, +if he is not aware of it; for if the many mockers of Elisha, who was but +one bald man, felt the effect of his zeal, what will become of one +mocker of so many friars, among whom there are so many bald men? We have +likewise a Bull, by which all that jeer us are excommunicated.'--When +the Cardinal saw that there was no end of this matter, he made a sign to +the fool to withdraw, turned the discourse another way; and soon after +rose from the table, and dismissing us, went to hear causes. + +"Thus, Mr. More, I have run out into a tedious story, of the length of +which I had been ashamed, if, as you earnestly begged it of me, I had +not observed you to hearken to it, as if you had no mind to lose any +part of it. I might have contracted it, but I resolved to give it you at +large, that you might observe how those that despised what I had +proposed, no sooner perceived that the Cardinal did not dislike it, but +presently approved of it, fawned so on him, and flattered him to such a +degree, that they in good earnest applauded those things that he only +liked in jest. And from hence you may gather, how little courtiers would +value either me or my counsels." + +To this I answered, "You have done me a great kindness in this +relation; for as everything has been related by you, both wisely and +pleasantly, so you have made me imagine that I was in my own country, +and grown young again, by recalling that good Cardinal to my thoughts, +in whose family I was bred from my childhood: and though you are upon +other accounts very dear to me, yet you are the dearer, because you +honour his memory so much; but after all this I cannot change my +opinion; for I still think that if you could overcome that aversion +which you have to the Courts of Princes, you might, by the advice which +it is in your power to give, do a great deal of good to mankind; and +this is the chief design that every good man ought to propose to himself +in living: for your friend Plato thinks that nations will be happy, when +either philosophers become kings, or kings become philosophers; it is no +wonder if we are so far from that happiness, while philosophers will not +think it their duty to assist kings with their councils."--"They are not +so base-minded," said he, "but that they would willingly do it; many of +them have already done it by their books, if those that are in power +would but hearken to their good advice. But Plato judged right, that +except kings themselves became philosophers, they who from their +childhood are corrupted with false notions, would never fall in entirely +with the councils of philosophers, and this he himself found to be true +in the person of Dionysius. + +"Do not you think, that if I were about any king, proposing good laws to +him, and endeavouring to root out all the cursed seeds of evil that I +found in him, I should either be turned out of his Court, or at least be +laughed at for my pains? For instance, what could it signify if I were +about the King of France, and were called into his cabinet-council, +where several wise men, in his hearing, were proposing many expedients; +as by what arts and practices Milan may be kept; and Naples, that had so +oft slipped out of their hands, recovered; how the Venetians, and after +them the rest of Italy, may be subdued; and then how Flanders, Brabant, +and all Burgundy, and some other kingdoms which he has swallowed already +in his designs, may be added to his empire. One proposes a league with +the Venetians, to be kept as long as he finds his account in it, and +that he ought to communicate councils with them, and give them some +share of the spoil, till his success makes him need or fear them less, +and then it will be easily taken out of their hands. Another proposes +the hiring the Germans, and the securing the Switzers by pensions. +Another proposes the gaining the Emperor by money, which is omnipotent +with him. Another proposes a peace with the King of Arragon, and in +order to cement it, the yielding up the King of Navarre's pretensions. +Another thinks the Prince of Castile is to be wrought on, by the hope of +an alliance; and that some of his courtiers are to be gained to the +French faction by pensions. The hardest point of all is what to do with +England: a treaty of peace is to be set on foot, and if their alliance +is not to be depended on, yet it is to be made as firm as possible; and +they are to be called friends, but suspected as enemies: therefore the +Scots are to be kept in readiness, to be let loose upon England on every +occasion: and some banished nobleman is to be supported underhand (for +by the league it cannot be done avowedly) who has a pretension to the +crown, by which means that suspected prince may be kept in awe. Now when +things are in so great a fermentation, and so many gallant men are +joining councils, how to carry on the war, if so mean a man as I should +stand up, and wish them to change all their councils, to let Italy +alone, and stay at home, since the kingdom of France was indeed greater +than could be well governed by one man; that therefore he ought not to +think of adding others to it: and if after this, I should propose to +them the resolutions of the Achorians, a people that lie on the +south-east of Utopia, who long ago engaged in war, in order to add to +the dominions of their prince another kingdom, to which he had some +pretensions by an ancient alliance. This they conquered, but found that +the trouble of keeping it was equal to that by which it was gained; that +the conquered people were always either in rebellion or exposed to +foreign invasions, while they were obliged to be incessantly at war, +either for or against them, and consequently could never disband their +army; that in the meantime they were oppressed with taxes, their money +went out of the kingdom, their blood was spilt for the glory of their +king, without procuring the least advantage to the people, who received +not the smallest benefit from it even in time of peace; and that their +manners being corrupted by a long war, robbery and murders everywhere +abounded, and their laws fell into contempt; while their king, +distracted with the care of two kingdoms, was the less able to apply his +mind to the interests of either. When they saw this, and that there +would be no end to these evils, they by joint councils made an humble +address to their king, desiring him to choose which of the two kingdoms +he had the greatest mind to keep, since he could not hold both; for they +were too great a people to be governed by a divided king, since no man +would willingly have a groom that should be in common between him and +another. Upon which the good prince was forced to quit his new kingdom +to one of his friends (who was not long after dethroned), and to be +contented with his old one. To this I would add, that after all those +warlike attempts, the vast confusions, and the consumption both of +treasure and of people that must follow them; perhaps upon some +misfortune, they might be forced to throw up all at last; therefore it +seemed much more eligible that the king should improve his ancient +kingdom all he could, and make it flourish as much as possible; that he +should love his people, and be beloved of them; that he should live +among them, govern them gently, and let other kingdoms alone, since that +which had fallen to his share was big enough, if not too big for him. +Pray how do you think would such a speech as this be heard?"--"I +confess," said I, "I think not very well." + +"But what," said he, "if I should sort with another kind of ministers, +whose chief contrivances and consultations were, by what art the +prince's treasures might be increased. Where one proposes raising the +value of specie when the king's debts are large, and lowering it when +his revenues were to come in, that so he might both pay much with a +little, and in a little receive a great deal: another proposes a +pretence of a war, that money might be raised in order to carry it on, +and that a peace be concluded as soon as that was done; and this with +such appearances of religion as might work on the people, and make them +impute it to the piety of their prince, and to his tenderness for the +lives of his subjects. A third offers some old musty laws, that have +been antiquated by a long disuse; and which, as they had been forgotten +by all the subjects, so they had been also broken by them; and proposes +the levying the penalties of these laws, that as it would bring in a +vast treasure, so there might be a very good pretence for it, since it +would look like the executing a law, and the doing of justice. A fourth +proposes the prohibiting of many things under severe penalties, +especially such as were against the interest of the people, and then the +dispensing with these prohibitions upon great compositions, to those who +might find their advantage in breaking them. This would serve two ends, +both of them acceptable to many; for as those whose avarice led them to +transgress would be severely fined, so the selling licenses dear would +look as if a prince were tender of his people, and would not easily, or +at low rates, dispense with anything that might be against the public +good. Another proposes that the judges must be made sure, that they may +declare always in favour of the prerogative, that they must be often +sent for to Court, that the king may hear them argue those points in +which he is concerned; since how unjust soever any of his pretensions +may be, yet still some one or other of them, either out of contradiction +to others, or the pride of singularity, or to make their court, would +find out some pretence or other to give the king a fair colour to carry +the point: for if the judges but differ in opinion, the clearest thing +in the world is made by that means disputable, and truth being once +brought in question, the king may then take advantage to expound the law +for his own profit; while the judges that stand out will be brought +over, either out of fear or modesty; and they being thus gained, all of +them may be sent to the bench to give sentence boldly, as the king would +have it: for fair pretences will never be wanting when sentence is to be +given in the prince's favour. It will either be said that equity lies of +his side, or some words in the law will be found sounding that way, or +some forced sense will be put on them; and when all other things fail, +the king's undoubted prerogative will be pretended, as that which is +above all law; and to which a religious judge ought to have a special +regard. Thus all consent to that maxim of Crassus, that a prince cannot +have treasure enough, since he must maintain his armies out of it: that +a king, even though he would, can do nothing unjustly; that all property +is in him, not excepting the very persons of his subjects: and that no +man has any other property, but that which the king out of his goodness +thinks fit to leave him. And they think it is the prince's interest, +that there be as little of this left as may be, as if it were his +advantage that his people should have neither riches nor liberty; since +these things make them less easy and less willing to submit to a cruel +and unjust government; whereas necessity and poverty blunts them, makes +them patient, beats them down, and breaks that height of spirit, that +might otherwise dispose them to rebel. Now what if after all these +propositions were made, I should rise up and assert, that such councils +were both unbecoming a king, and mischievous to him: and that not only +his honour but his safety consisted more in his people's wealth, than in +his own; if I should show that they choose a king for their own sake, +and not for his; that by his care and endeavours they may be both easy +and safe; and that therefore a prince ought to take more care of his +people's happiness than of his own, as a shepherd is to take more care +of his flock than of himself. It is also certain, that they are much +mistaken that think the poverty of a nation is a means of the public +safety. Who quarrel more than beggars? Who does more earnestly long for +a change, than he that is uneasy in his present circumstances? And who +run to create confusions with so desperate a boldness, as those who have +nothing to lose, hope to gain by them? If a king should fall under such +contempt or envy, that he could not keep his subjects in their duty, but +by oppression and ill usage, and by rendering them poor and miserable, +it were certainly better for him to quit his kingdom, than to retain it +by such methods, as makes him while he keeps the name of authority, lose +the majesty due to it. Nor is it so becoming the dignity of a king to +reign over beggars, as over rich and happy subjects. And therefore +Fabricius, a man of a noble and exalted temper, said, he would rather +govern rich men, than be rich himself; since for one man to abound in +wealth and pleasure, when all about him are mourning and groaning, is to +be a gaoler and not a king. He is an unskilful physician, that cannot +cure one disease without casting his patient into another: so he that +can find no other way for correcting the errors of his people, but by +taking from them the conveniences of life, shows that he knows not what +it is to govern a free nation. He himself ought rather to shake off his +sloth, or to lay down his pride; for the contempt or hatred that his +people have for him, takes its rise from the vices in himself. Let him +live upon what belongs to him, without wronging others, and accommodate +his expense to his revenue. Let him punish crimes, and by his wise +conduct let him endeavour to prevent them, rather than be severe when he +has suffered them to be too common: let him not rashly revive laws that +are abrogated by disuse, especially if they have been long forgotten, +and never wanted; and let him never take any penalty for the breach of +them, to which a judge would not give way in a private man, but would +look on him as a crafty and unjust person for pretending to it. To these +things I would add, that law among the Macarians, a people that lie not +far from Utopia, by which their king, on the day on which he begins to +reign, is tied by an oath confirmed by solemn sacrifices, never to have +at once above a thousand pounds of gold in his treasures, or so much +silver as is equal to that in value. This law, they tell us, was made by +an excellent king, who had more regard to the riches of his country than +to his own wealth; and therefore provided against the heaping up of so +much treasure, as might impoverish the people. He thought that moderate +sum might be sufficient for any accident; if either the king had +occasion for it against rebels, or the kingdom against the invasion of +an enemy; but that it was not enough to encourage a prince to invade +other men's rights, a circumstance that was the chief cause of his +making that law. He also thought that it was a good provision for that +free circulation of money, so necessary for the course of commerce and +exchange: and when a king must distribute all those extraordinary +accessions that increase treasure beyond the due pitch, it makes him +less disposed to oppress his subjects. Such a king as this will be the +terror of ill men, and will be beloved by all the good. + +"If, I say, I should talk of these or such like things, to men that had +taken their bias another way, how deaf would they be to all I could +say?"--"No doubt, very deaf," answered I; and no wonder, for one is +never to offer at propositions or advice that we are certain will not be +entertained. Discourses so much out of the road could not avail +anything, nor have any effect on men whose minds were prepossessed with +different sentiments. This philosophical way of speculation is not +unpleasant among friends in a free conversation, but there is no room +for it in the Courts of Princes where great affairs are carried on by +authority."--"That is what I was saying," replied he, "that there is no +room for philosophy in the Courts of Princes."--"Yes, there is," said I, +"but not for this speculative philosophy that makes everything to be +alike fitting at all times: but there is another philosophy that is more +pliable, that knows its proper scene, accommodates itself to it, and +teaches a man with propriety and decency to act that part which has +fallen to his share. If when one of Plautus's comedies is upon the stage +and a company of servants are acting their parts, you should come out in +the garb of a philosopher, and repeat out of 'Octavia' a discourse of +Seneca's to Nero, would it not be better for you to say nothing than by +mixing things of such different natures to make an impertinent +tragi-comedy? For you spoil and corrupt the play that is in hand when +you mix with it things of an opposite nature, even though they are much +better. Therefore go through with the play that is acting the best you +can, and do not confound it because another that is pleasanter comes +into your thoughts. It is even so in a commonwealth, and in the councils +of princes; if ill opinions cannot be quite rooted out, and you cannot +cure some received vice according to your wishes, you must not therefore +abandon the commonwealth, for the same reasons you should not forsake +the ship in a storm because you cannot command the winds. You are not +obliged to assault people with discourses that are out of their road, +when you see that their received notions must prevent your making an +impression upon them. You ought rather to cast about and to manage +things with all the dexterity in your power, so that if you are not +able to make them go well they may be as little ill as possible; for +except all men were good everything cannot be right, and that is a +blessing that I do not at present hope to see. According to your +arguments," answered he, "all that I could be able to do would be to +preserve myself from being mad while I endeavoured to cure the madness +of others; for if I speak truth, I must repeat what I have said to you; +and as for lying, whether a philosopher can do it or not, I cannot tell, +I am sure I cannot do it. But though these discourses may be uneasy and +ungrateful to them, I do not see why they should seem foolish or +extravagant: indeed if I should either propose such things as Plato has +contrived in his commonwealth, or as the Utopians practise in theirs, +though they might seem better, as certainly they are, yet they are so +different from our establishment, which is founded on property, there +being no such thing among them, that I could not expect that it would +have any effect on them; but such discourses as mine, which only call +past evils to mind and give warning of what may follow, have nothing in +them that is so absurd that they may not be used at any time, for they +can only be unpleasant to those who are resolved to run headlong the +contrary way; and if we must let alone everything as absurd or +extravagant which by reason of the wicked lives of many may seem +uncouth, we must, even among Christians, give over pressing the greatest +part of those things that Christ hath taught us, though He has commanded +us not to conceal them, but to proclaim on the house-tops that which He +taught in secret. The greatest parts of His precepts are more opposite +to the lives of the men of this age than any part of my discourse has +been; but the preachers seemed to have learned that craft to which you +advise me, for they observing that the world would not willingly suit +their lives to the rules that Christ has given, have fitted His doctrine +as if it had been a leaden rule, to their lives, that so some way or +other they might agree with one another. But I see no other effect of +this compliance except it be that men become more secure in their +wickedness by it. And this is all the success that I can have in a +Court, for I must always differ from the rest, and then I shall signify +nothing; or if I agree with them, I shall then only help forward their +madness. I do not comprehend what you mean by your casting about, or by +the bending and handling things so dexterously, that if they go not well +they may go as little ill as may be; for in Courts they will not bear +with a man's holding his peace or conniving at what others do. A man +must barefacedly approve of the worst counsels, and consent to the +blackest designs: so that he would pass for a spy, or possibly for a +traitor, that did but coldly approve of such wicked practices: and +therefore when a man is engaged in such a society, he will be so far +from being able to mend matters by his casting about, as you call it, +that he will find no occasions of doing any good: the ill company will +sooner corrupt him, than be the better for him: or if notwithstanding +all their ill company, he still remains steady and innocent, yet their +follies and knavery will be imputed to him; and by mixing counsels with +them, he must bear his share of all the blame that belongs wholly to +others. + +"It was no ill simile by which Plato set forth the unreasonableness of a +philosopher's meddling with government. If a man, says he, was to see a +great company run out every day into the rain, and take delight in being +wet; if he knew that it would be to no purpose for him to go and +persuade them to return to their houses, in order to avoid the storm, +and that all that could be expected by his going to speak to them would +be that he himself should be as wet as they, it would be best for him to +keep within doors; and since he had not influence enough to correct +other people's folly, to take care to preserve himself. + +"Though to speak plainly my real sentiments, I must freely own, that as +long as there is any property, and while money is the standard of all +other things, I cannot think that a nation can be governed either justly +or happily: not justly, because the best things will fall to the share +of the worst men; nor happily, because all things will be divided among +a few (and even these are not in all respects happy), the rest being +left to be absolutely miserable. Therefore when I reflect on the wise +and good constitution of the Utopians, among whom all things are so well +governed, and with so few laws; where virtue hath its due reward, and +yet there is such an equality, that every man lives in plenty; when I +compare with them so many other nations that are still making new laws, +and yet can never bring their constitution to a right regulation, where +notwithstanding every one has his property; yet all the laws that they +can invent have not the power either to obtain or preserve it, or even +to enable men certainly to distinguish what is their own from what is +another's; of which the many lawsuits that every day break out, and are +eternally depending, give too plain a demonstration; when, I say, I +balance all these things in my thoughts, I grow more favourable to +Plato, and do not wonder that he resolved not to make any laws for such +as would not submit to a community of all things: for so wise a man +could not but foresee that the setting all upon a level was the only way +to make a nation happy, which cannot be obtained so long as there is +property: for when every man draws to himself all that he can compass, +by one title or another, it must needs follow, that how plentiful soever +a nation may be, yet a few dividing the wealth of it among themselves, +the rest must fall into indigence. So that there will be two sorts of +people among them, who deserve that their fortunes should be +interchanged; the former useless, but wicked and ravenous; and the +latter, who by their constant industry serve the public more than +themselves, sincere and modest men. From whence I am persuaded, that +till property is taken away there can be no equitable or just +distribution of things, nor can the world be happily governed: for as +long as that is maintained, the greatest and the far best part of +mankind will be still oppressed with a load of cares and anxieties. I +confess without taking it quite away, those pressures that lie on a +great part of mankind may be made lighter; but they can never be quite +removed. For if laws were made to determine at how great an extent in +soil, and at how much money every man must stop, to limit the prince +that he might not grow too great, and to restrain the people that they +might not become too insolent, and that none might factiously aspire to +public employments; which ought neither to be sold, nor made burthensome +by a great expense; since otherwise those that serve in them would be +tempted to reimburse themselves by cheats and violence, and it would +become necessary to find out rich men for undergoing those employments +which ought rather to be trusted to the wise. These laws, I say, might +have such effects, as good diet and care might have on a sick man, whose +recovery is desperate: they might allay and mitigate the disease, but it +could never be quite healed, nor the body politic be brought again to a +good habit, as long as property remains; and it will fall out as in a +complication of diseases, that by applying a remedy to one sore, you +will provoke another; and that which removes the one ill symptom +produces others, while the strengthening one part of the body weakens +the rest."--"On the contrary," answered I, "it seems to me that men +cannot live conveniently, where all things are common: how can there be +any plenty, where every man will excuse himself from labour? For as the +hope of gain doth not excite him, so the confidence that he has in other +men's industry may make him slothful: if people come to be pinched with +want, and yet cannot dispose of anything as their own; what can follow +upon this but perpetual sedition and bloodshed, especially when the +reverence and authority due to magistrates falls to the ground? For I +cannot imagine how that can be kept up among those that are in all +things equal to one another."--"I do not wonder," said he, "that it +appears so to you, since you have no notion, or at least no right one, +of such a constitution: but if you had been in Utopia with me, and had +seen their laws and rules, as I did, for the space of five years, in +which I lived among them; and during which time I was so delighted with +them, that indeed I should never have left them, if it had not been to +make the discovery of that new world to the Europeans; you would then +confess that you had never seen a people so well constituted as +they,"--"You will not easily persuade me," said Peter, "that any nation +in that new world is better governed than those among us. For as our +understandings are not worse than theirs, so our government, if I +mistake not, being more ancient, a long practice has helped us to find +out many conveniences of life: and some happy chances have discovered +other things to us, which no man's understanding could ever have +invented."--"As for the antiquity, either of their government, or of +ours," said he, "you cannot pass a true judgment of it, unless you had +read their histories; for if they are to be believed, they had towns +among them before these parts were so much as inhabited. And as for +those discoveries, that have been either hit on by chance, or made by +ingenious men, these might have happened there as well as here. I do not +deny but we are more ingenious than they are, but they exceed us much in +industry and application. They knew little concerning us before our +arrival among them; they call us all by a general name of the nations +that lie beyond the Equinoctial Line; for their Chronicle mentions a +shipwreck that was made on their coast 1,200 years ago; and that some +Romans and Egyptians that were in the ship, getting safe ashore, spent +the rest of their days amongst them; and such was their ingenuity, that +from this single opportunity they drew the advantage of learning from +those unlooked-for guests, and acquired all the useful arts that were +then among the Romans, and which were known to these shipwrecked men: +and by the hints that they gave them, they themselves found out even +some of those arts which they could not fully explain; so happily did +they improve that accident, of having some of our people cast upon their +shore. But if such an accident has at any time brought any from thence +into Europe, we have been so far from improving it, that we do not so +much as remember it; as in after-times perhaps it will be forgot by our +people that I was ever there. For though they from one such accident +made themselves masters of all the good inventions that were among us; +yet I believe it would be long before we should learn or put in practice +any of the good institutions that are among them. And this is the true +cause of their being better governed, and living happier than we, though +we come not short of them in point of understanding or outward +advantages."--Upon this I said to him, "I earnestly beg you would +describe that island very particularly to us. Be not too short, but set +out in order all things relating to their soil, their rivers, their +towns, their people, their manners, constitution, laws, and, in a word, +all that you imagine we desire to know. And you may well imagine that we +desire to know everything concerning them, of which we are hitherto +ignorant."--"I will do it very willingly," said he, "for I have digested +the whole matter carefully; but it will take up some time,"--"Let us go +then," said I, "first and dine, and then we shall have leisure enough." +He consented. We went in and dined, and after dinner came back, and sat +down in the same place. I ordered my servants to take care that none +might come and interrupt us. And both Peter and I desired Raphael to be +as good as his word. When he saw that we were very intent upon it, he +paused a little to recollect himself, and began in this manner. + + + + +BOOK II. + + +The island of Utopia is in the middle two hundred miles broad, and holds +almost at the same breadth over a great part of it; but it grows +narrower towards both ends. Its figure is not unlike a crescent: between +its horns, the sea comes in eleven miles broad, and spreads itself into +a great bay, which is environed with land to the compass of about five +hundred miles, and is well secured from winds. In this bay there is no +great current, the whole coast is, as it were, one continued harbour, +which gives all that live in the island great convenience for mutual +commerce; but the entry into the bay, occasioned by rocks on the one +hand, and shallows on the other, is very dangerous. In the middle of it +there is one single rock which appears above water, and may therefore be +easily avoided, and on the top of it there is a tower in which a +garrison is kept, the other rocks lie under water, and are very +dangerous. The channel is known only to the natives, so that if any +stranger should enter into the bay, without one of their pilots, he +would run great danger of shipwreck; for even they themselves could not +pass it safe, if some marks that are on the coast did not direct their +way; and if these should be but a little shifted, any fleet that might +come against them, how great soever it were, would be certainly lost. On +the other side of the island there are likewise many harbours; and the +coast is so fortified, both by nature and art, that a small number of +men can hinder the descent of a great army. But they report (and there +remains good marks of it to make it credible) that this was no island at +first, but a part of the continent. Utopus that conquered it (whose name +it still carries, for Abraxa was its first name) brought the rude and +uncivilized inhabitants into such a good government, and to that measure +of politeness, that they now far excel all the rest of mankind; having +soon subdued them, he designed to separate them from the continent, and +to bring the sea quite round them. To accomplish this, he ordered a deep +channel to be dug fifteen miles long; and that the natives might not +think he treated them like slaves, he not only forced the inhabitants, +but also his own soldiers, to labour in carrying it on. As he set a vast +number of men to work, he beyond all men's expectations brought it to a +speedy conclusion. And his neighbours who at first laughed at the folly +of the undertaking, no sooner saw it brought to perfection, than they +were struck with admiration and terror. + +There are fifty-four cities in the island, all large and well built: the +manners, customs, and laws of which are the same, and they are all +contrived as near in the same manner as the ground on which they stand +will allow. The nearest lie at least twenty-four miles distance from one +another, and the most remote are not so far distant, but that a man can +go on foot in one day from it, to that which lies next it. Every city +sends three of their wisest senators once a year to Amaurot, to consult +about their common concerns; for that is chief town of the island, being +situated near the centre of it, so that it is the most convenient place +for their assemblies. The jurisdiction of every city extends at least +twenty miles: and where the towns lie wider, they have much more ground: +no town desires to enlarge its bounds, for the people consider +themselves rather as tenants than landlords. They have built over all +the country, farmhouses for husbandmen, which are well contrived, and +are furnished with all things necessary for country labour. Inhabitants +are sent by turns from the cities to dwell in them; no country family +has fewer than forty men and women in it, besides two slaves. There is a +master and a mistress set over every family; and over thirty families +there is a magistrate. Every year twenty of this family come back to the +town, after they have stayed two years in the country; and in their +room there are other twenty sent from the town, that they may learn +country work from those that have been already one year in the country, +as they must teach those that come to them the next from the town. By +this means such as dwell in those country farms are never ignorant of +agriculture, and so commit no errors, which might otherwise be fatal, +and bring them under a scarcity of corn. But though there is every year +such a shifting of the husbandmen, to prevent any man being forced +against his will to follow that hard course of life too long; yet many +among them take such pleasure in it, that they desire leave to continue +in it many years. These husbandmen till the ground, breed cattle, hew +wood, and convey it to the towns, either by land or water, as is most +convenient. They breed an infinite multitude of chickens in a very +curious manner; for the hens do not sit and hatch them, but vast number +of eggs are laid in a gentle and equal heat, in order to be hatched, and +they are no sooner out of the shell, and able to stir about, but they +seem to consider those that feed them as their mothers, and follow them +as other chickens do the hen that hatched them. They breed very few +horses, but those they have are full of mettle, and are kept only for +exercising their youth in the art of sitting and riding them; for they +do not put them to any work, either of ploughing or carriage, in which +they employ oxen; for though their horses are stronger, yet they find +oxen can hold out longer; and as they are not subject to so many +diseases, so they are kept upon a less charge, and with less trouble; +and even when they are so worn out, that they are no more fit for +labour, they are good meat at last. They sow no corn, but that which is +to be their bread; for they drink either wine, cyder, or perry, and +often water, sometimes boiled with honey or liquorice, with which they +abound; and though they know exactly how much corn will serve every +town, and all that tract of country which belongs to it, yet they sow +much more, and breed more cattle than are necessary for their +consumption; and they give that overplus of which they make no use to +their neighbours. When they want anything in the country which it does +not produce, they fetch that from the town, without carrying anything in +exchange for it. And the magistrates of the town take care to see it +given them; for they meet generally in the town once a month, upon a +festival day. When the time of harvest comes, the magistrates in the +country send to those in the towns, and let them know how many hands +they will need for reaping the harvest; and the number they call for +being sent to them, they commonly despatch it all in one day. + + +OF THEIR TOWNS, PARTICULARLY OF AMAUROT. + +He that knows one of their towns, knows them all, they are so like one +another, except where the situation makes some difference. I shall +therefore describe one of them; and none is so proper as Amaurot; for as +none is more eminent, all the rest yielding in precedence to this, +because it is the seat of their supreme council; so there was none of +them better known to me, I having lived five years altogether in it. + +It lies upon the side of a hill, or rather a rising ground: its figure +is almost square, for from the one side of it, which shoots up almost to +the top of the hill, it runs down in a descent for two miles to the +river Anider; but it is a little broader the other way that runs along +by the bank of that river. The Anider rises about eighty miles above +Amaurot in a small spring at first; but other brooks falling into it, of +which two are more considerable than the rest. As it runs by Amaurot, it +is grown half a mile broad; but it still grows larger and larger, till +after sixty miles course below it, it is lost in the ocean, between the +town and the sea, and for some miles above the town, it ebbs and flows +every six hours, with a strong current. The tide comes up for about +thirty miles so full, that there is nothing but salt water in the river, +the fresh water being driven back with its force; and above that, for +some miles, the water is brackish; but a little higher, as it runs by +the town, it is quite fresh; and when the tide ebbs, it continues fresh +all along to the sea. There is a bridge cast over the river, not of +timber, but of fair stone, consisting of many stately arches; it lies at +that part of the town which is farthest from the sea, so that ships +without any hindrance lie all along the side of the town. There is +likewise another river that runs by it, which though it is not great, +yet it runs pleasantly, for it rises out of the same hill on which the +town stands, and so runs down through it, and falls into the Anider. The +inhabitants have fortified the fountain-head of this river, which +springs a little without the towns; that so if they should happen to be +besieged, the enemy might not be able to stop or divert the course of +the water, nor poison it; from thence it is carried in earthen pipes to +the lower streets; and for those places of the town to which the water +of that small river cannot be conveyed, they have great cisterns for +receiving the rain-water, which supplies the want of the other. The town +is compassed with a high and thick wall, in which there are many towers +and forts; there is also a broad and deep dry ditch, set thick with +thorns, cast round three sides of the town, and the river is instead of +a ditch on the fourth side. The streets are very convenient for all +carriage, and are well sheltered from the winds. Their buildings are +good, and are so uniform, that a whole side of a street looks like one +house. The streets are twenty feet broad; there lie gardens behind all +their houses; these are large but enclosed with buildings, that on all +hands face the streets; so that every house has both a door to the +street, and a back door to the garden. Their doors have all two leaves, +which, as they are easily opened, so they shut of their own accord; and +there being no property among them, every man may freely enter into any +house whatsoever. At every ten years end they shift their houses by +lots. They cultivate their gardens with great care, so that they have +both vines, fruits, herbs, and flowers in them; and all is so well +ordered, and so finely kept, that I never saw gardens anywhere that were +both so fruitful and so beautiful as theirs. And this humour of ordering +their gardens so well, is not only kept up by the pleasure they find in +it, but also by an emulation between the inhabitants of the several +streets, who vie with each other; and there is indeed nothing belonging +to the whole town that is both more useful and more pleasant. So that he +who founded the town, seems to have taken care of nothing more than of +their gardens; for they say, the whole scheme of the town was designed +at first by Utopus, but he left all that belonged to the ornament and +improvement of it, to be added by those that should come after him, that +being too much for one man to bring to perfection. Their records, that +contain the history of their town and state, are preserved with an exact +care, and run backwards 1,760 years. From these it appears that their +houses were at first low and mean, like cottages, made of any sort of +timber, and were built with mud walls and thatched with straw. But now +their houses are three stories high: the fronts of them are faced either +with stone, plastering, or brick; and between the facings of their walls +they throw in their rubbish. Their roofs are flat, and on them they lay +a sort of plaster, which costs very little, and yet is so tempered that +it is not apt to take fire, and yet resists the weather more than lead. +They have great quantities of glass among them, with which they glaze +their windows. They use also in their windows a thin linen cloth, that +is so oiled or gummed that it both keeps out the wind and gives free +admission to the light. + + +OF THEIR MAGISTRATES. + +Thirty families choose every year a magistrate, who was anciently called +the Syphogrant, but is now called the Philarch; and over every ten +Syphogrants, with the families subject to them, there is another +magistrate, who was anciently called the Tranibor, but of late the +Archphilarch. All the Syphogrants, who are in number 200, choose the +Prince out of a list of four, who are named by the people of the four +divisions of the city; but they take an oath before they proceed to an +election, that they will choose him whom they think most fit for the +office. They give their voices secretly, so that it is not known for +whom every one gives his suffrage. The Prince is for life, unless he is +removed upon suspicion of some design to enslave the people. The +Tranibors are new chosen every year, but yet they are for the most part +continued. All their other magistrates are only annual. The Tranibors +meet every third day, and oftener if necessary, and consult with the +Prince, either concerning the affairs of the state in general, or such +private differences as may arise sometimes among the people; though that +falls out but seldom. There are always two Syphogrants called into the +council-chamber, and these are changed every day. It is a fundamental +rule of their government, that no conclusion can be made in anything +that relates to the public, till it has been first debated three several +days in their council. It is death for any to meet and consult +concerning the state, unless it be either in their ordinary council, or +in the assembly of the whole body of the people. + +These things have been so provided among them, that the Prince and the +Tranibors may not conspire together to change the government, and +enslave the people; and therefore when anything of great importance is +set on foot, it is sent to the Syphogrants; who after they have +communicated it to the families that belong to their divisions, and have +considered it among themselves, make report to the senate; and upon +great occasions, the matter is referred to the council of the whole +island. One rule observed in their council, is, never to debate a thing +on the same day in which it is first proposed; for that is always +referred to the next meeting, that so men may not rashly, and in the +heat of discourse, engage themselves too soon, which might bias them so +much, that instead of consulting the good of the public, they might +rather study to support their first opinions, and by a perverse and +preposterous sort of shame, hazard their country rather than endanger +their own reputation, or venture the being suspected to have wanted +foresight in the expedients that they at first proposed. And therefore +to prevent this, they take care that they may rather be deliberate than +sudden in their motions. + + +OF THEIR TRADES, AND MANNER OF LIFE. + +Agriculture is that which is so universally understood among them, that +no person, either man or woman, is ignorant of it; they are instructed +in it from their childhood, partly by what they learn at school, and +partly by practice; they being led out often into the fields, about the +town, where they not only see others at work, but are likewise exercised +in it themselves. Besides agriculture, which is so common to them all, +every man has some peculiar trade to which he applies himself, such as +the manufacture of wool, or flax, masonry, smith's work, or carpenter's +work; for there is no sort of trade that is in great esteem among them. +Throughout the island they wear the same sort of clothes without any +other distinction, except what is necessary to distinguish the two +sexes, and the married and unmarried. The fashion never alters; and as +it is neither disagreeable nor uneasy, so it is suited to the climate, +and calculated both for their summers and winters. Every family makes +their own clothes; but all among them, women as well men, learn one or +other of the trades formerly mentioned. Women, for the most part, deal +in wool and flax, which suit best with their weakness, leaving the ruder +trades to the men. The same trade generally passes down from father to +son, inclinations often following descent; but if any man's genius lies +another way, he is by adoption translated into a family that deals in +the trade to which he is inclined: and when that is to be done, care is +taken not only by his father, but by the magistrate, that he may be put +to a discreet and good man. And if after a person has learned one trade, +he desires to acquire another, that is also allowed, and is managed in +the same manner as the former. When he has learned both, he follows that +which he likes best, unless the public has more occasion for the other. + +The chief, and almost the only business of the Syphogrants, is to take +care that no man may live idle, but that every one may follow his trade +diligently: yet they do not wear themselves out with perpetual toil, +from morning to night, as if they were beasts of burden, which as it is +indeed a heavy slavery, so it is everywhere the common course of life +amongst all mechanics except the Utopians; but they dividing the day and +night into twenty-four hours, appoint six of these for work; three of +which are before dinner; and three after. They then sup, and at eight +o'clock, counting from noon, go to bed and sleep eight hours. The rest +of their time besides that taken up in work, eating and sleeping, is +left to every man's discretion; yet they are not to abuse that interval +to luxury and idleness, but must employ it in some proper exercise +according to their various inclinations, which is for the most part +reading. It is ordinary to have public lectures every morning before +daybreak; at which none are obliged to appear but those who are marked +out for literature; yet a great many, both men and women of all ranks, +go to hear lectures of one sort or other, according to their +inclinations. But if others, that are not made for contemplation, choose +rather to employ themselves at that time in their trades, as many of +them do, they are not hindered, but are rather commended, as men that +take care to serve their country. After supper, they spend an hour in +some diversion, in summer in their gardens, and in winter in the halls +where they eat; where they entertain each other, either with music or +discourse. They do not so much as know dice, or any such foolish and +mischievous games: they have, however, two sorts of games not unlike our +chess; the one is between several numbers, in which one number, as it +were, consumes another: the other resembles a battle between the virtues +and the vices, in which the enmity in the vices among themselves, and +their agreement against virtue, is not unpleasantly represented; +together with the special oppositions between the particular virtues and +vices; as also the methods by which vice either openly assaults or +secretly undermines virtue; and virtue on the other hand resists it. But +the time appointed for labour is to be narrowly examined, otherwise you +may imagine, that since there are only six hours appointed for work, +they may fall under a scarcity of necessary provisions. But it is so far +from being true, that this time is not sufficient for supplying them +with plenty of all things, either necessary or convenient; that it is +rather too much; and this you will easily apprehend, if you consider how +great a part of all other nations is quite idle. First, women generally +do little, who are the half of mankind; and if some few women are +diligent, their husbands are idle: then consider the great company of +idle priests, and of those that are called religious men; add to these +all rich men, chiefly those that have estates in land, who are called +noblemen and gentlemen, together with their families, made up of idle +persons, that are kept more for show than use; add to these, all those +strong and lusty beggars, that go about pretending some disease, in +excuse for their begging; and upon the whole account you will find that +the number of those by whose labours mankind is supplied, is much less +than you perhaps imagined. Then consider how few of those that work are +employed in labours that are of real service; for we who measure all +things by money, give rise to many trades that are both vain and +superfluous, and serve only to support riot and luxury. For if those who +work were employed only in such things as the conveniences of life +require, there would be such an abundance of them, that the prices of +them would so sink, that tradesmen could not be maintained by their +gains; if all those who labour about useless things, were set to more +profitable employments, and if all they that languish out their lives in +sloth and idleness, every one of whom consumes as much as any two of the +men that are at work, were forced to labour, you may easily imagine that +a small proportion of time would serve for doing all that is either +necessary, profitable, or pleasant to mankind, especially while pleasure +is kept within its due bounds. This appears very plainly in Utopia, for +there, in a great city, and in all the territory that lies round it, you +can scarce find five hundred, either men or women, by their age and +strength, are capable of labour, that are not engaged in it; even the +Syphogrants, though excused by the law, yet do not excuse themselves, +but work, that by their examples they may excite the industry of the +rest of the people. The like exemption is allowed to those, who being +recommended to the people by the priests, are by the secret suffrages of +the Syphogrants privileged from labour, that they may apply themselves +wholly to study; and if any of these fall short of those hopes that they +seemed at first to give, they are obliged to return to work. And +sometimes a mechanic, that so employs his leisure hours, as to make a +considerable advancement in learning, is eased from being a tradesman, +and ranked among their learned men. Out of these they choose their +ambassadors, their priests, their Tranibors, and the Prince himself; +anciently called their Barzenes, but is called of late their Ademus. + +And thus from the great numbers among them that are neither suffered to +be idle, nor to be employed in any fruitless labour, you may easily make +the estimate how much may be done in those few hours in which they are +obliged to labour. But besides all that has been already said, it is to +be considered that the needful arts among them are managed with less +labour than anywhere else. The building or the repairing of houses among +us employ many hands, because often a thriftless heir suffers a house +that his father built to fall into decay, so that his successor must, at +a great cost, repair that which he might have kept up with a small +charge: it frequently happens, that the same house which one person +built at a vast expense, is neglected by another, who thinks he has a +more delicate sense of the beauties of architecture; and he suffering it +to fall to ruin, builds another at no less charge. But among the +Utopians, all things are so regulated that men very seldom build upon a +new piece of ground; and are not only very quick in repairing their +houses, but show their foresight in preventing their decay: so that +their buildings are preserved very long, with but little labour; and +thus the builders to whom that care belongs are often without +employment, except the hewing of timber, and the squaring of stones, +that the materials may be in readiness for raising a building very +suddenly, when there is any occasion for it. As to their clothes, +observe how little work is spent in them: while they are at labour, they +are clothed with leather and skins, cast carelessly about them, which +will last seven years; and when they appear in public they put on an +upper garment, which hides the other; and these are all of one colour, +and that is the natural colour of the wool. As they need less woollen +cloth than is used anywhere else, so that which they make use of is much +less costly. They use linen cloth more; but that is prepared with less +labour, and they value cloth only by the whiteness of the linen, or the +cleanness of the wool, without much regard to the fineness of the +thread: while in other places, four or five upper garments of woollen +cloth, of different colours, and as many vests of silk, will scarce +serve one man; and while those that are nicer think ten too few, every +man there is content with one, which very often serves him two years. +Nor is there anything that can tempt a man to desire more; for if he had +them, he would neither be the warmer, nor would he make one jot the +better appearance for it. And thus, since they are all employed in some +useful labour, and since they content themselves with fewer things, it +falls out that there is a great abundance of all things among them: so +that it frequently happens, that for want of other work, vast numbers +are sent out to mend the highways. But when no public undertaking is to +be performed, the hours of working are lessened. The magistrates never +engage the people in unnecessary labour, since the chief end of the +constitution is to regulate labour by the necessities of the public, and +to allow all the people as much time as is necessary for the improvement +of their minds, in which they think the happiness of life consists. + + +OF THEIR TRAFFIC. + +But it is now time to explain to you the mutual intercourse of this +people, their commerce, and the rules by which all things are +distributed among them. + +As their cities are composed of families, so their families are made up +of those that are nearly related to one another. Their women, when they +grow up, are married out; but all the males, both children and +grandchildren, live still in the same house, in great obedience to their +common parent, unless age has weakened his understanding; and in that +case, he that is next to him in age comes in his room. But lest any city +should become either too great, or by any accident be dispeopled, +provision is made that none of their cities may contain above six +thousand families, besides those of the country round it. No family may +have less than ten, and more than sixteen persons in it; but there can +be no determined number for the children under age. This rule is easily +observed, by removing some of the children of a more fruitful couple to +any other family that does not abound so much in them. By the same rule, +they supply cities that do not increase so fast, from others that breed +faster; and if there is any increase over the whole island, then they +draw out a number of their citizens out of the several towns, and send +them over to the neighbouring continent; where, if they find that the +inhabitants have more soil than they can well cultivate, they fix a +colony, taking the inhabitants into their society, if they are willing +to live with them; and where they do that of their own accord, they +quickly enter into their method of life, and conform to their rules, and +this proves a happiness to both nations: for according to their +constitution, such care is taken of the soil, that it becomes fruitful +enough for both, though it might be otherwise too narrow and barren for +any one of them. But if the natives refuse to conform themselves to +their laws, they drive them out of those bounds which they mark out for +themselves, and use force if they resist. For they account it a very +just cause of war, for a nation to hinder others from possessing a part +of that soil, of which they make no use, but which is suffered to lie +idle and uncultivated; since every man has by the law of Nature a right +to such a waste portion of the earth as is necessary for his +subsistence. If an accident has so lessened the number of the +inhabitants of any of their towns, that it cannot be made up from the +other towns of the island, without diminishing them too much, which is +said to have fallen out but twice since they were first a people, when +great numbers were carried off by the plague; the loss is then supplied +by recalling as many as are wanted from their colonies; for they will +abandon these, rather than suffer the towns in the island to sink too +low. + +But to return to their manner of living in society, the oldest man of +every family, as has been already said, is its governor. Wives serve +their husbands, and children their parents, and always the younger +serves the elder. Every city is divided into four equal parts, and in +the middle of each there is a market-place: what is brought thither, and +manufactured by the several families, is carried from thence to houses +appointed for that purpose, in which all things of a sort are laid by +themselves; and thither every father goes and takes whatsoever he or his +family stand in need of, without either paying for it, or leaving +anything in exchange. There is no reason for giving a denial to any +person, since there is such plenty of everything among them; and there +is no danger of a man's asking for more than he needs; they have no +inducements to do this, since they are sure that they shall always be +supplied. It is the fear of want that makes any of the whole race of +animals either greedy or ravenous; but besides fear, there is in man a +pride that makes him fancy it a particular glory to excel others in pomp +and excess. But by the laws of the Utopians, there is no room for this. +Near these markets there are others for all sorts of provisions, where +there are not only herbs, fruits, and bread, but also fish, fowl, and +cattle. There are also, without their towns, places appointed near some +running water, for killing their beasts, and for washing away their +filth; which is done by their slaves: for they suffer none of their +citizens to kill their cattle, because they think that pity and +good-nature, which are among the best of those affections that are born +with us, are much impaired by the butchering of animals: nor do they +suffer anything that is foul or unclean to be brought within their +towns, lest the air should be infected by ill smells which might +prejudice their health. In every street there are great halls that lie +at an equal distance from each other, distinguished by particular names. +The Syphogrants dwell in those that are set over thirty families, +fifteen lying on one side of it, and as many on the other. In these +halls they all meet and have their repasts. The stewards of every one of +them come to the market-place at an appointed hour; and according to the +number of those that belong to the hall, they carry home provisions. But +they take more care of their sick than of any others: these are lodged +and provided for in public hospitals: they have belonging to every town +four hospitals, that are built without their walls, and are so large +that they may pass for little towns: by this means, if they had ever +such a number of sick persons, they could lodge them conveniently, and +at such a distance, that such of them as are sick of infectious diseases +may be kept so far from the rest that there can be no danger of +contagion. The hospitals are furnished and stored with all things that +are convenient for the ease and recovery of the sick; and those that are +put in them are looked after with such tender and watchful care, and are +so constantly attended by their skilful physicians, that as none is sent +to them against their will, so there is scarce one in a whole town that, +if he should fall ill, would not choose rather to go thither than lie +sick at home. + +After the steward of the hospitals has taken for the sick whatsoever the +physician prescribes, then the best things that are left in the market +are distributed equally among the halls, in proportion to their numbers, +only, in the first place, they serve the Prince, the chief priest, the +Tranibors, the ambassadors, and strangers, if there are any, which +indeed falls out but seldom, and for whom there are houses well +furnished, particularly appointed for their reception when they come +among them. At the hours of dinner and supper, the whole Syphogranty +being called together by sound of trumpet, they meet and eat together, +except only such as are in the hospitals, or lie sick at home. Yet after +the halls are served, no man is hindered to carry provisions home from +the market-place; for they know that none does that but for some good +reason; for though any that will may eat at home, yet none does it +willingly, since it is both ridiculous and foolish for any to give +themselves the trouble to make ready an ill dinner at home, when there +is a much more plentiful one made ready for him so near hand. All the +uneasy and sordid services about these halls are performed by their +slaves; but the dressing and cooking their meat, and the ordering their +tables, belong only to the women, all those of every family taking it by +turns. They sit at three or more tables, according to their number; the +men sit towards the wall, and the women sit on the other side, that if +any of them should be taken suddenly ill, which is no uncommon case +amongst women with child, she may, without disturbing the rest, rise and +go to the nurse's room, who are there with the sucking children; where +there is always clean water at hand, and cradles in which they may lay +the young children, if there is occasion for it, and a fire that they +may shift and dress them before it. Every child is nursed by its own +mother, if death or sickness does not intervene; and in that case the +Syphogrants' wives find out a nurse quickly, which is no hard matter; +for any one that can do it, offers herself cheerfully; for as they are +much inclined to that piece of mercy, so the child whom they nurse +considers the nurse as its mother. All the children under five years old +sit among the nurses, the rest of the younger sort of both sexes, till +they are fit for marriage, either serve those that sit at table; or if +they are not strong enough for that, stand by them in great silence, and +eat what is given them; nor have they any other formality of dining. In +the middle of the first table, which stands across the upper end of the +hall, sit the Syphogrant and his wife; for that is the chief and most +conspicuous place; next to him sit two of the most ancient, for there go +always four to a mess. If there is a temple within that Syphogranty, the +priest and his wife sit with the Syphogrant above all the rest: next +them there is a mixture of old and young, who are so placed, that as the +young are set near others, so they are mixed with the more ancient; +which they say was appointed on this account, that the gravity of the +old people, and the reverence that is due to them, might restrain the +younger from all indecent words and gestures. Dishes are not served up +to the whole table at first, but the best are first set before the old, +whose seats are distinguished from the young, and after them all the +rest are served alike. The old men distribute to the younger any curious +meats that happen to be set before them, if there is not such an +abundance of them that the whole company may be served alike. + +Thus old men are honoured with a particular respect; yet all the rest +fare as well as they. Both dinner and supper are begun with some lecture +of morality that is read to them; but it is so short, that it is not +tedious nor uneasy to them to hear it: from hence the old men take +occasion to entertain those about them, with some useful and pleasant +enlargements; but they do not engross the whole discourse so to +themselves, during their meals, that the younger may not put in for a +share: on the contrary, they engage them to talk, that so they may in +that free way of conversation find out the force of every one's spirit, +and observe his temper. They despatch their dinners quickly, but sit +long at supper; because they go to work after the one, and are to sleep +after the other, during which they think the stomach carries on the +concoction more vigorously. They never sup without music; and there is +always fruit served up after meat; while they are at table, some burn +perfumes, and sprinkle about fragrant ointments and sweet waters: in +short, they want nothing that may cheer up their spirits: they give +themselves a large allowance that way, and indulge themselves in all +such pleasures as are attended with no inconvenience. Thus do those that +are in the towns live together; but in the country, where they live at +great distance, every one eats at home, and no family wants any +necessary sort of provision, for it is from them that provisions are +sent unto those that live in the towns. + + +OF THE TRAVELLING OF THE UTOPIANS. + +If any man has a mind to visit his friends that live in some other town, +or desires to travel and see the rest of the country, he obtains leave +very easily from the Syphogrant and Tranibors, when there is no +particular occasion for him at home: such as travel, carry with them a +passport from the Prince, which both certifies the license that is +granted for travelling, and limits the time of their return. They are +furnished with a waggon and a slave, who drives the oxen, and looks +after them: but unless there are women in the company, the waggon is +sent back at the end of the journey as a needless encumbrance: while +they are on the road, they carry no provisions with them; yet they want +nothing, but are everywhere treated as if they were at home. If they +stay in any place longer than a night, every one follows his proper +occupation, and is very well used by those of his own trade: but if any +man goes out of the city to which he belongs, without leave, and is +found rambling without a passport, he is severely treated, he is +punished as a fugitive, and sent home disgracefully; and if he falls +again into the like fault, is condemned to slavery. If any man has a +mind to travel only over the precinct of his own city, he may freely do +it, with his father's permission and his wife's consent; but when he +comes into any of the country houses, if he expects to be entertained by +them, he must labour with them and conform to their rules: and if he +does this, he may freely go over the whole precinct; being thus as +useful to the city to which he belongs, as if he were still within it. +Thus you see that there are no idle persons among them, nor pretences of +excusing any from labour. There are no taverns, no alehouses nor stews +among them; nor any other occasions of corrupting each other, of getting +into corners, or forming themselves into parties: all men live in full +view, so that all are obliged, both to perform their ordinary task, and +to employ themselves well in their spare hours. And it is certain that a +people thus ordered must live in great abundance of all things; and +these being equally distributed among them, no man can want, or be +obliged to beg. + +In their great council at Amaurot, to which there are three sent from +every town once a year, they examine what towns abound in provisions, +and what are under any scarcity, that so the one may be furnished from +the other; and this is done freely, without any sort of exchange; for +according to their plenty or scarcity, they supply, or are supplied from +one another; so that indeed the whole island is, as it were, one family. +When they have thus taken care of their whole country, and laid up +stores for two years, which they do to prevent the ill consequences of +an unfavourable season, they order an exportation of the overplus, both +of corn, honey, wool, flax, wood, wax, tallow, leather, and cattle; +which they send out commonly in great quantities to other nations. They +order a seventh part of all these goods to be freely given to the poor +of the countries to which they send them, and sell the rest at moderate +rates. And by this exchange, they not only bring back those few things +that they need at home (for indeed they scarce need anything but iron), +but likewise a great deal of gold and silver; and by their driving this +trade so long, it is not to be imagined how vast a treasure they have +got among them: so that now they do not much care whether they sell off +their merchandise for money in hand, or upon trust. A great part of +their treasure is now in bonds; but in all their contracts no private +man stands bound, but the writing runs in the name of the town; and the +towns that owe them money, raise it from those private hands that owe it +to them, lay it up in their public chamber, or enjoy the profit of it +till the Utopians call for it; and they choose rather to let the +greatest part of it lie in their hands who make advantage by it, than to +call for it themselves: but if they see that any of their other +neighbours stand more in need of it, then they call it in and lend it to +them: whenever they are engaged in war, which is the only occasion in +which their treasure can be usefully employed, they make use of it +themselves. In great extremities or sudden accidents they employ it in +hiring foreign troops, whom they more willingly expose to danger than +their own people: they give them great pay, knowing well that this will +work even on their enemies, that it will engage them either to betray +their own side, or at least to desert it, and that it is the best means +of raising mutual jealousies among them: for this end they have an +incredible treasure; but they do not keep it as a treasure, but in such +a manner as I am almost afraid to tell, lest you think it so +extravagant, as to be hardly credible. This I have the more reason to +apprehend, because if I had not seen it myself, I could not have been +easily persuaded to have believed it upon any man's report. + +It is certain that all things appear incredible to us, in proportion as +they differ from own customs. But one who can judge aright, will not +wonder to find, that since their constitution differs so much from ours, +their value of gold and silver should be measured by a very different +standard; for since they have no use for money among themselves, but +keep it as a provision against events which seldom happen, and between +which there are generally long intervening intervals; they value it no +farther than it deserves, that is, in proportion to its use. So that it +is plain, they must prefer iron either to gold or silver: for men can no +more live without iron, than without fire or water; but Nature has +marked out no use for the other metals, so essential as not easily to be +dispensed with. The folly of men has enhanced the value of gold and +silver, because of their scarcity. Whereas, on the contrary, it is their +opinion that Nature, as an indulgent parent, has freely given us all the +best things in great abundance, such as water and earth, but has laid up +and hid from us the things that are vain and useless. + +If these metals were laid up in any tower in the kingdom, it would raise +a jealousy of the Prince and Senate, and give birth to that foolish +mistrust into which the people are apt to fall, a jealousy of their +intending to sacrifice the interest of the public to their own private +advantage. If they should work it into vessels, or any sort of plate, +they fear that the people might grow too fond of it, and so be unwilling +to let the plate be run down, if a war made it necessary to employ it in +paying their soldiers. To prevent all these inconveniences, they have +fallen upon an expedient, which as it agrees with their other policy, so +is it very different from ours, and will scarce gain belief among us, +who value gold so much, and lay it up so carefully. They eat and drink +out of vessels of earth, or glass, which make an agreeable appearance +though formed of brittle materials: while they make their chamber-pots +and close-stools of gold and silver; and that not only in their public +halls, but in their private houses: of the same metals they likewise +make chains and fetters for their slaves; to some of which, as a badge +of infamy, they hang an ear-ring of gold, and make others wear a chain +or a coronet of the same metal; and thus they take care, by all possible +means, to render gold and silver of no esteem. And from hence it is, +that while other nations part with their gold and silver, as unwillingly +as if one tore out their bowels, those of Utopia would look on their +giving in all they possess of those (metals, when there were any use for +them) but as the parting with a trifle, or as we would esteem the loss +of a penny. They find pearls on their coast; and diamonds and carbuncles +on their rocks; they do not look after them, but if they find them by +chance, they polish them, and with them they adorn their children, who +are delighted with them, and glory in them during their childhood; but +when they grow to years, and see that none but children use such +baubles, they of their own accord, without being bid by their parents, +lay them aside; and would be as much ashamed to use them afterwards, as +children among us, when they come to years, are of their puppets and +other toys. + +I never saw a clearer instance of the opposite impressions that +different customs make on people, than I observed in the ambassadors of +the Anemolians, who came to Amaurot when I was there. As they came to +treat of affairs of great consequence, the deputies from several towns +met together to wait for their coming. The ambassadors of the nations +that lie near Utopia, knowing their customs, and that fine clothes are +in no esteem among them, that silk is despised, and gold is a badge of +infamy, use to come very modestly clothed; but the Anemolians lying more +remote, and having had little commerce with them, understanding that +they were coarsely clothed, and all in the same manner, took it for +granted that they had none of those fine things among them of which they +made no use; and they being a vain-glorious rather than a wise people, +resolved to set themselves out with so much pomp, that they should look +like gods, and strike the eyes of the poor Utopians with their +splendour. Thus three ambassadors made their entry with an hundred +attendants, all clad in garments of different colours, and the greater +part in silk; the ambassadors themselves, who were of the nobility of +their country, were in cloth of gold, and adorned with massy chains, +ear-rings and rings of gold: their caps were covered with bracelets set +full of pearls and other gems: in a word, they were set out with all +those things that, among the Utopians, were either the badges of +slavery, the marks of infamy, or the playthings of children. It was not +unpleasant to see, on the one side, how they looked big, when they +compared their rich habits with the plain clothes of the Utopians, who +were come out in great numbers to see them make their entry: and, on the +other, to observe how much they were mistaken in the impression which +they hoped this pomp would have made on them. It appeared so ridiculous +a show to all that had never stirred out of their country, and had not +seen the customs of other nations, that though they paid some reverence +to those that were the most meanly clad, as if they had been the +ambassadors, yet when they saw the ambassadors themselves, so full of +gold and chains, they looked upon them as slaves, and forbore to treat +them with reverence. You might have seen the children, who were grown +big enough to despise their playthings, and who had thrown away their +jewels, call to their mothers, push them gently, and cry out, "See that +great fool that wears pearls and gems, as if he were yet a child." While +their mothers very innocently replied, "Hold your peace, this I believe +is one of the ambassador's fools." Others censured the fashion of their +chains, and observed that they were of no use; for they were too slight +to bind their slaves, who could easily break them; and besides hung so +loose about them, that they thought it easy to throw them away, and so +get from them. But after the ambassadors had stayed a day among them, +and saw so vast a quantity of gold in their houses, which was as much +despised by them as it was esteemed in other nations, and beheld more +gold and silver in the chains and fetters of one slave than all their +ornaments amounted to, their plumes fell, and they were ashamed of all +that glory for which they had formerly valued themselves, and +accordingly laid it aside; a resolution that they immediately took, when +on their engaging in some free discourse with the Utopians, they +discovered their sense of such things and their other customs. The +Utopians wonder how any man should be so much taken with the glaring +doubtful lustre of a jewel or a stone, that can look up to a star, or to +the sun himself; or how any should value himself because his cloth is +made of a finer thread: for how fine soever that thread may be, it was +once no better than the fleece of a sheep, and that sheep was a sheep +still for all its wearing it. They wonder much to hear that gold which +in itself is so useless a thing, should be everywhere so much esteemed, +that even men for whom it was made, and by whom it has its value, should +yet be thought of less value than this metal. That a man of lead, who +has no more sense than a log of wood, and is as bad as he is foolish, +should have many wise and good men to serve him, only because he has a +great heap of that metal; and that if it should happen that by some +accident or trick of law (which sometimes produces as great changes as +chance itself) all this wealth should pass from the master to the +meanest varlet of his whole family, he himself would very soon become +one of his servants, as if he were a thing that belonged to his wealth, +and so were bound to follow its fortune. But they much more admire and +detest the folly of those who when they see a rich man, though they +neither owe him anything, nor are in any sort dependent on his bounty, +yet merely because he is rich give him little less than divine honours; +even though they know him to be so covetous and base-minded, that +notwithstanding all his wealth, he will not part with one farthing of it +to them as long as he lives. + +These and such like notions has that people imbibed, partly from their +education, being bred in a country whose customs and laws are opposite +to all such foolish maxims, and partly from their learning and studies; +for though there are but few in any town that are so wholly excused from +labour as to give themselves entirely up to their studies, these being +only such persons as discover from their childhood an extraordinary +capacity and disposition for letters; yet their children, and a great +part of the nation, both men and women, are taught to spend those hours +in which they are not obliged to work in reading: and this they do +through the whole progress of life. They have all their learning in +their own tongue, which is both a copious and pleasant language, and in +which a man can fully express his mind. It runs over a great tract of +many countries, but it is not equally pure in all places. They had never +so much as heard of the names of any of those philosophers that are so +famous in these parts of the world, before we went among them; and yet +they had made the same discoveries as the Greeks, both in music, logic, +arithmetic, and geometry. But as they are almost in everything equal to +the ancient philosophers, so they far exceed our modern logicians; for +they have never yet fallen upon the barbarous niceties that our youth +are forced to learn in those trifling logical schools that are among us; +they are so far from minding chimeras, and fantastical images made in +the mind, that none of them could comprehend what we meant when we +talked to them of a man in the abstract, as common to all men in +particular (so that though we spoke of him as a thing that we could +point at with our fingers, yet none of them could perceive him), and yet +distinct from every one, as if he were some monstrous Colossus or +giant. Yet for all this ignorance of these empty notions, they knew +astronomy, and were perfectly acquainted with the motions of the +heavenly bodies, and have many instruments, well contrived and divided, +by which they very accurately compute the course and positions of the +sun, moon, and stars. But for the cheat, of divining by the stars by +their oppositions or conjunctions, it has not so much as entered into +their thoughts. They have a particular sagacity, founded upon much +observation, in judging of the weather, by which they know when they may +look for rain, wind, or other alterations in the air; but as to the +philosophy of these things, the causes of the saltness of the sea, of +its ebbing and flowing, and of the original and nature both of the +heavens and the earth; they dispute of them, partly as our ancient +philosophers have done, and partly upon some new hypothesis, in which, +as they differ from them, so they do not in all things agree among +themselves. + +As to moral philosophy, they have the same disputes among them as we +have here: they examine what are properly good both for the body and the +mind, and whether any outward thing can be called truly good, or if that +term belong only to the endowments of the soul. They inquire likewise +into the nature of virtue and pleasure; but their chief dispute is +concerning the happiness of a man, and wherein it consists? Whether in +some one thing, or in a great many? They seem, indeed, more inclinable +to that opinion that places, if not the whole, yet the chief part of a +man's happiness in pleasure; and, what may seem more strange, they make +use of arguments even from religion, notwithstanding its severity and +roughness, for the support of that opinion so indulgent to pleasure; for +they never dispute concerning happiness without fetching some arguments +from the principles of religion, as well as from natural reason, since +without the former they reckon that all our inquiries after happiness +must be but conjectural and defective. + +These are their religious principles, that the soul of man is immortal, +and that God of His goodness has designed that it should be happy; and +that He has therefore appointed rewards for good and virtuous actions, +and punishments for vice, to be distributed after this life. Though +these principles of religion are conveyed down among them by tradition, +they think that even reason itself determines a man to believe and +acknowledge them, and freely confess that if these were taken away no +man would be so insensible as not to seek after pleasure by all possible +means, lawful or unlawful; using only this caution, that a lesser +pleasure might not stand in the way of a greater, and that no pleasure +ought to be pursued that should draw a great deal of pain after it; for +they think it the maddest thing in the world to pursue virtue, that is a +sour and difficult thing; and not only to renounce the pleasures of +life, but willingly to undergo much pain and trouble, if a man has no +prospect of a reward. And what reward can there be for one that has +passed his whole life, not only without pleasure, but in pain, if there +is nothing to be expected after death? Yet they do not place happiness +in all sorts of pleasures, but only in those that in themselves are good +and honest. There is a party among them who place happiness in bare +virtue; others think that our natures are conducted by virtue to +happiness, as that which is the chief good of man. They define virtue +thus, that it is a living according to Nature, and think that we are +made by God for that end; they believe that a man then follows the +dictates of Nature when he pursues or avoids things according to the +direction of reason; they say that the first dictate of reason is the +kindling in us a love and reverence for the Divine Majesty, to whom we +owe both all that we have, and all that we can ever hope for. In the +next place, reason directs us to keep our minds as free from passion and +as cheerful as we can, and that we should consider ourselves as bound by +the ties of good-nature and humanity to use our utmost endeavours to +help forward the happiness of all other persons; for there never was any +man such a morose and severe pursuer of virtue, such an enemy to +pleasure, that though he set hard rules for men to undergo much pain, +many watchings, and other rigours, yet did not at the same time advise +them to do all they could, in order to relieve and ease the miserable, +and who did not represent gentleness and good-nature as amiable +dispositions. And from thence they infer that if a man ought to advance +the welfare and comfort of the rest of mankind, there being no virtue +more proper and peculiar to our nature, than to ease the miseries of +others, to free from trouble and anxiety, in furnishing them with the +comforts of life, in which pleasure consists, Nature much more +vigorously leads them to do all this for himself. A life of pleasure is +either a real evil, and in that case we ought not to assist others in +their pursuit of it, but on the contrary, to keep them from it all we +can, as from that which is most hurtful and deadly; or if it is a good +thing, so that we not only may, but ought to help others to it, why then +ought not a man to begin with himself? Since no man can be more bound to +look after the good of another than after his own; for Nature cannot +direct us to be good and kind to others, and yet at the same time to be +unmerciful and cruel to ourselves. Thus, as they define virtue to be +living according to Nature, so they imagine that Nature prompts all +people on to seek after pleasure, as the end of all they do. They also +observe that in order to our supporting the pleasures of life, Nature +inclines us to enter into society; for there is no man so much raised +above the rest of mankind as to be the only favourite of Nature, who, on +the contrary, seems to have placed on a level all those that belong to +the same species. Upon this they infer that no man ought to seek his own +conveniences so eagerly as to prejudice others; and therefore they think +that not only all agreements between private persons ought to be +observed; but likewise that all those laws ought to be kept, which +either a good prince has published in due form, or to which a people, +that is neither oppressed with tyranny nor circumvented by fraud, has +consented, for distributing those conveniences of life which afford us +all our pleasures. + +They think it is an evidence of true wisdom for a man to pursue his own +advantages, as far as the laws allow it. They account it piety to prefer +the public good to one's private concerns; but they think it unjust for +a man to seek for pleasure, by snatching another man's pleasures from +him. And on the contrary, they think it a sign of a gentle and good +soul, for a man to dispense with his own advantage for the good of +others; and that by this means a good man finds as much pleasure one +way, as he parts with another; for as he may expect the like from others +when he may come to need it, so if that should fail him, yet the sense +of a good action, and the reflections that he makes on the love and +gratitude of those whom he has so obliged, gives the mind more pleasure +than the body could have found in that from which it had restrained +itself. They are also persuaded that God will make up the loss of those +small pleasures, with a vast and endless joy, of which religion easily +convinces a good soul. + +Thus upon an inquiry into the whole matter, they reckon that all our +actions, and even all our virtues, terminate in pleasure, as in our +chief end and greatest happiness; and they call every motion or state, +either of body or mind, in which Nature teaches us to delight, a +pleasure. Thus they cautiously limit pleasure only to those appetites to +which Nature leads us; for they say that Nature leads us only to those +delights to which reason as well as sense carries us, and by which we +neither injure any other person, nor lose the possession of greater +pleasures, and of such as draw no troubles after them; but they look +upon those delights which men by a foolish, though common, mistake call +pleasure, as if they could change as easily the nature of things as the +use of words; as things that greatly obstruct their real happiness, +instead of advancing it, because they so entirely possess the minds of +those that are once captivated by them with a false notion of pleasure, +that there is no room left for pleasures of a truer or purer kind. + +There are many things that in themselves have nothing that is truly +delightful; on the contrary, they have a good deal of bitterness in +them; and yet from our perverse appetites after forbidden objects, are +not only ranked among the pleasures, but are made even the greatest +designs of life. Among those who pursue these sophisticated pleasures, +they reckon such as I mentioned before, who think themselves really the +better for having fine clothes; in which they think they are doubly +mistaken, both in the opinion that they have of their clothes, and in +that they have of themselves; for if you consider the use of clothes, +why should a fine thread be thought better than a coarse one? And yet +these men, as if they had some real advantages beyond others, and did +not owe them wholly to their mistakes, look big, seem to fancy +themselves to be more valuable, and imagine that a respect is due to +them for the sake of a rich garment, to which they would not have +pretended if they had been more meanly clothed; and even resent it as an +affront, if that respect is not paid them. It is also a great folly to +be taken with outward marks of respect, which signify nothing: for what +true or real pleasure can one man find in another's standing bare, or +making legs to him? Will the bending another man's knees give ease to +yours? And will the head's being bare cure the madness of yours? And yet +it is wonderful to see how this false notion of pleasure bewitches many +who delight themselves with the fancy of their nobility, and are pleased +with this conceit, that they are descended from ancestors, who have been +held for some successions rich, and who have had great possessions; for +this is all that makes nobility at present; yet they do not think +themselves a whit the less noble, though their immediate parents have +left none of this wealth to them, or though they themselves have +squandered it away. The Utopians have no better opinion of those who are +much taken with gems and precious stones, and who account it a degree of +happiness, next to a divine one, if they can purchase one that is very +extraordinary; especially if it be of that sort of stones that is then +in greatest request; for the same sort is not at all times universally +of the same value; nor will men buy it unless it be dismounted and taken +out of the gold; the jeweller is then made to give good security, and +required solemnly to swear that the stone is true, that by such an exact +caution a false one might not be bought instead of a true: though if you +were to examine it, your eye could find no difference between the +counterfeit and that which is true; so that they are all one to you as +much as if you were blind. Or can it be thought that they who heap up an +useless mass of wealth, not for any use that it is to bring them, but +merely to please themselves with the contemplation of it, enjoy any true +pleasure in it? The delight they find is only a false shadow of joy. +Those are no better whose error is somewhat different from the former, +and who hide it, out of their fear of losing it; for what other name can +fit the hiding it in the earth, or rather the restoring it to it again, +it being thus cut off from being useful, either to its owner or to the +rest of mankind? And yet the owner having hid it carefully, is glad, +because he thinks he is now sure of it. If it should be stole, the +owner, though he might live perhaps ten years after the theft, of which +he knew nothing, would find no difference between his having or losing +it; for both ways it was equally useless to him. + +Among those foolish pursuers of pleasure, they reckon all that delight +in hunting, in fowling, or gaming: of whose madness they have only +heard, for they have no such things among them. But they have asked us, +what sort of pleasure is it that men can find in throwing the dice? For +if there were any pleasure in it, they think the doing of it so often +should give one a surfeit of it: and what pleasure can one find in +hearing the barking and howling of dogs, which seem rather odious than +pleasant sounds? Nor can they comprehend the pleasure of seeing dogs run +after a hare, more than of seeing one dog run after another; for if the +seeing them run is that which gives the pleasure, you have the same +entertainment to the eye on both these occasions; since that is the same +in both cases: but if the pleasure lies in seeing the hare killed and +torn by the dogs, this ought rather to stir pity, that a weak, harmless +and fearful hare should be devoured by strong, fierce, and cruel dogs. +Therefore all this business of hunting is, among the Utopians, turned +over to their butchers; and those, as has been already said, are all +slaves; and they look on hunting as one of the basest parts of a +butcher's work: for they account it both more profitable and more decent +to kill those beasts that are more necessary and useful to mankind; +whereas the killing and tearing of so small and miserable an animal can +only attract the huntsman with a false show of pleasure, from which he +can reap but small advantage. They look on the desire of the bloodshed, +even of beasts, as a mark of a mind that is already corrupted with +cruelty, or that at least by the frequent returns of so brutal a +pleasure must degenerate into it. + +Thus, though the rabble of mankind look upon these, and on innumerable +other things of the same nature, as pleasures; the Utopians, on the +contrary, observing that there is nothing in them truly pleasant, +conclude that they are not to be reckoned among pleasures: for though +these things may create some tickling in the senses (which seems to be a +true notion of pleasure), yet they imagine that this does not arise +from the thing itself, but from a depraved custom, which may so vitiate +a man's taste, that bitter things may pass for sweet; as women with +child think pitch or tallow taste sweeter than honey; but as a man's +sense when corrupted, either by a disease or some ill habit, does not +change the nature of other things, so neither can it change the nature +of pleasure. + +They reckon up several sorts of pleasures, which they call true ones: +some belong to the body and others to the mind. The pleasures of the +mind lie in knowledge, and in that delight which the contemplation of +truth carries with it; to which they add the joyful reflections on a +well-spent life, and the assured hopes of a future happiness. They +divide the pleasures of the body into two sorts; the one is that which +gives our senses some real delight, and is performed, either by +recruiting nature, and supplying those parts which feed the internal +heat of life by eating and drinking; or when nature is eased of any +surcharge that oppresses it; when we are relieved from sudden pain, or +that which arises from satisfying the appetite which Nature has wisely +given to lead us to the propagation of the species. There is another +kind of pleasure that arises neither from our receiving what the body +requires, nor its being relieved when overcharged, and yet by a secret, +unseen virtue affects the senses, raises the passions, and strikes the +mind with generous impressions; this is the pleasure that arises from +music. Another kind of bodily pleasure is that which results from an +undisturbed and vigorous constitution of body, when life and active +spirits seem to actuate every part. This lively health, when entirely +free from all mixture of pain, of itself gives an inward pleasure, +independent of all external objects of delight; and though this pleasure +does not so powerfully affect us, nor act so strongly on the senses as +some of the others, yet it may be esteemed as the greatest of all +pleasures, and almost all the Utopians reckon it the foundation and +basis of all the other joys of life; since this alone makes the state +of life easy and desirable; and when this is wanting, a man is really +capable of no other pleasure. They look upon freedom from pain, if it +does not rise from perfect health, to be a state of stupidity rather +than of pleasure. This subject has been very narrowly canvassed among +them; and it has been debated whether a firm and entire health could be +called a pleasure or not? Some have thought that there was no pleasure +but what was excited by some sensible motion in the body. But this +opinion has been long ago excluded from among them, so that now they +almost universally agree that health is the greatest of all bodily +pleasures; and that as there is a pain in sickness, which is as opposite +in its nature to pleasure as sickness itself is to health; so they hold, +that health is accompanied with pleasure: and if any should say that +sickness is not really pain, but that it only carries pain along with +it, they look upon that as a fetch of subtilty, that does not much alter +the matter. It is all one, in their opinion, whether it be said that +health is in itself a pleasure, or that it begets a pleasure, as fire +gives heat; so it be granted, that all those whose health is entire have +a true pleasure in the enjoyment of it: and they reason thus--what is +the pleasure of eating, but that a man's health which had been weakened, +does, with the assistance of food, drive away hunger, and so recruiting +itself recovers its former vigour? And being thus refreshed, it finds a +pleasure in that conflict; and if the conflict is pleasure, the victory +must yet breed a greater pleasure, except we fancy that it becomes +stupid as soon as it has obtained that which it pursued, and so neither +knows nor rejoices in its own welfare. If it is said that health cannot +be felt, they absolutely deny it; for what man is in health that does +not perceive it when he is awake? Is there any man that is so dull and +stupid as not to acknowledge that he feels a delight in health? And what +is delight but another name for pleasure? + +But of all pleasures, they esteem those to be most valuable that lie in +the mind; the chief of which arises out of true virtue, and the witness +of a good conscience. They account health the chief pleasure that +belongs to the body; for they think that the pleasure of eating and +drinking, and all the other delights of sense, are only so far desirable +as they give or maintain health. But they are not pleasant in +themselves, otherwise than as they resist those impressions that our +natural infirmities are still making upon us: for as a wise man desires +rather to avoid diseases than to take physic; and to be freed from pain, +rather than to find ease by remedies; so it is more desirable not to +need this sort of pleasure, than to be obliged to indulge it. If any man +imagines that there is a real happiness in these enjoyments, he must +then confess that he would be the happiest of all men if he were to lead +his life in perpetual hunger, thirst, and itching, and by consequence in +perpetual eating, drinking, and scratching himself; which any one may +easily see would be not only a base, but a miserable state of a life. +These are indeed the lowest of pleasures, and the least pure; for we can +never relish them, but when they are mixed with the contrary pains. The +pain of hunger must give us the pleasure of eating; and here the pain +out-balances the pleasure; and as the pain is more vehement, so it lasts +much longer; for as it begins before the pleasure, so it does not cease +but with the pleasure that extinguishes it, and both expire together. +They think, therefore, none of those pleasures are to be valued any +further than as they are necessary; yet they rejoice in them, and with +due gratitude acknowledge the tenderness of the great Author of Nature, +who has planted in us appetites, by which those things that are +necessary for our preservation are likewise made pleasant to us. For how +miserable a thing would life be, if those daily diseases of hunger and +thirst were to be carried off by such bitter drugs as we must use for +those diseases that return seldomer upon us? And thus these pleasant as +well as proper gifts of Nature maintain the strength and the +sprightliness of our bodies. + +They also entertain themselves with the other delights let in at their +eyes, their ears, and their nostrils, as the pleasant relishes and +seasonings of life, which Nature seems to have marked out peculiarly for +man; since no other sort of animals contemplates the figure and beauty +of the universe; nor is delighted with smells, any farther than as they +distinguish meats by them; not do they apprehend the concords or +discords of sound; yet in all pleasures whatsoever they take care that a +lesser joy does not hinder a greater, and that pleasure may never breed +pain, which they think always follows dishonest pleasures. But they +think it madness for a man to wear out the beauty of his face, or the +force of his natural strength; to corrupt the sprightliness of his body +by sloth and laziness, or to waste it by fasting; that it is madness to +weaken the strength of his constitution, and reject the other delights +of life; unless by renouncing his own satisfaction, he can either serve +the public or promote the happiness of others, for which he expects a +greater recompense from God. So that they look on such a course of life +as the mark of a mind that is both cruel to itself, and ungrateful to +the Author of Nature, as if we would not be beholden to Him for His +favours, and therefore rejects all His blessings; as one who should +afflict himself for the empty shadow of virtue; or for no better end +than to render himself capable of bearing those misfortunes which +possibly will never happen. + +This is their notion of virtue and of pleasure; they think that no man's +reason can carry him to a truer idea of them, unless some discovery from +Heaven should inspire him with sublimer notions. I have not now the +leisure to examine whether they think right or wrong in this matter: nor +do I judge it necessary, for I have only undertaken to give you an +account of their constitution, but not to defend all their principles. I +am sure, that whatsoever may be said of their notions, there is not in +the whole world either a better people or a happier government: their +bodies are vigorous and lively; and though they are but of a middle +stature, and have neither the fruitfullest soil nor the purest air in +the world, yet they fortify themselves so well by their temperate course +of life, against the unhealthiness of their air, and by their industry +they so cultivate their soil, that there is nowhere to be seen a greater +increase both of corn and cattle, nor are there anywhere healthier men, +and freer from diseases: for one may there see reduced to practice, not +only all the art that the husbandman employs in manuring and improving +an ill soil, but whole woods plucked up by the roots, and in other +places new ones planted, where there were none before. Their principal +motive for this is the convenience of carriage, that their timber may be +either near their towns, or growing on the banks of the sea, or of some +rivers, so as to be floated to them; for it is a harder work to carry +wood at any distance over land, than corn. The people are industrious, +apt to learn, as well as cheerful and pleasant; and none can endure more +labour, when it is necessary; but except in that case they love their +ease. They are unwearied pursuers of knowledge; for when we had given +them some hints of the learning and discipline of the Greeks, concerning +whom we only instructed them (for we know that there was nothing among +the Romans, except their historians and their poets, that they would +value much), it was strange to see how eagerly they were set on learning +that language. We began to read a little of it to them, rather in +compliance with their importunity, than out of any hopes of their +reaping from it any great advantage. But after a very short trial, we +found they made such progress, that we saw our labour was like to be +more successful than we could have expected. They learned to write +their characters, and to pronounce their language so exactly, had so +quick an apprehension, they remembered it so faithfully, and became so +ready and correct in the use of it, that it would have looked like a +miracle if the greater part of those whom we taught had not been men +both of extraordinary capacity and of a fit age for instruction. They +were for the greatest part chosen from among their learned men, by their +chief council, though some studied it of their own accord. In three +years' time they became masters of the whole language, so that they read +the best of the Greek authors very exactly. I am indeed apt to think +that they learned that language the more easily, from its having some +relation to their own. I believe that they were a colony of the Greeks; +for though their language comes nearer the Persian, yet they retain many +names, both for their towns and magistrates, that are of Greek +derivation. I happened to carry a great many books with me, instead of +merchandise, when I sailed my fourth voyage; for I was so far from +thinking of soon coming back, that I rather thought never to have +returned at all, and I gave them all my books, among which were many of +Plato's and some of Aristotle's works. I had also Theophrastus on +Plants, which, to my great regret, was imperfect; for having laid it +carelessly by, while we were at sea, a monkey had seized upon it, and in +many places torn out the leaves. They have no books of grammar but +Lascares, for I did not carry Theodorus with me; nor have they any +dictionaries but Hesichius and Dioscorides. They esteem Plutarch highly, +and were much taken with Lucian's wit, and with his pleasant way of +writing. As for the poets, they have Aristophanes, Homer, Euripides, and +Sophocles of Aldus's edition; and for historians Thucydides, Herodotus +and Herodian. One of my companions, Thricius Apinatus, happened to carry +with him some of Hippocrates's works, and Galen's Microtechne, which +they hold in great estimation; for though there is no nation in the +world that needs physic so little as they do, yet there is not any that +honours it so much: they reckon the knowledge of it one of the +pleasantest and most profitable parts of philosophy, by which, as they +search into the secrets of Nature, so they not only find this study +highly agreeable, but think that such inquiries are very acceptable to +the Author of Nature; and imagine that as He, like the inventors of +curious engines amongst mankind, has exposed this great machine of the +universe to the view of the only creatures capable of contemplating it, +so an exact and curious observer, who admires His workmanship, is much +more acceptable to Him than one of the herd, who like a beast incapable +of reason, looks on this glorious scene with the eyes of a dull and +unconcerned spectator. + +The minds of the Utopians when fenced with a love for learning, are very +ingenious in discovering all such arts as are necessary to carry it to +perfection. Two things they owe to us, the manufacture of paper, and the +art of printing: yet they are not so entirely indebted to us for these +discoveries, but that a great part of the invention was their own. We +showed them some books printed by Aldus, we explained to them the way of +making paper, and the mystery of printing; but as we had never practised +these arts, we described them in a crude and superficial manner. They +seized the hints we gave them, and though at first they could not arrive +at perfection, yet by making many essays they at last found out and +corrected all their errors, and conquered every difficulty. Before this +they only wrote on parchment, on reeds, or on the barks of trees; but +now they have established the manufactures of paper, and set up +printing-presses, so that if they had but a good number of Greek authors +they would be quickly supplied with many copies of them: at present, +though they have no more than those I have mentioned, yet by several +impressions they have multiplied them into many thousands. If any man +was to go among them that had some extraordinary talent, or that by +much travelling had observed the customs of many nations (which made us +to be so well received), he would receive a hearty welcome; for they are +very desirous to know the state of the whole world. Very few go among +them on the account of traffic, for what can a man carry to them but +iron, or gold, or silver, which merchants desire rather to export than +import to a strange country: and as for their exportation, they think it +better to manage that themselves than to leave it to foreigners, for by +this means, as they understand the state of the neighbouring countries +better, so they keep up the art of navigation, which cannot be +maintained but by much practice. + + +OF THEIR SLAVES, AND OF THEIR MARRIAGES. + +They do not make slaves of prisoners of war, except those that are taken +in battle; nor of the sons of their slaves, nor of those of other +nations: the slaves among them are only such as are condemned to that +state of life for the commission of some crime, or, which is more +common, such as their merchants find condemned to die in those parts to +which they trade, whom they sometimes redeem at low rates; and in other +places have them for nothing. They are kept at perpetual labour, and are +always chained, but with this difference, that their own natives are +treated much worse than others; they are considered as more profligate +than the rest, and since they could not be restrained by the advantages +of so excellent an education, are judged worthy of harder usage. Another +sort of slaves are the poor of the neighbouring countries, who offer of +their own accord to come and serve them; they treat these better, and +use them in all other respects as well as their own countrymen, except +their imposing more labour upon them, which is no hard task to those +that have been accustomed to it; and if any of these have a mind to go +back to their own country, which indeed falls out but seldom, as they do +not force them to stay, so they do not send them away empty-handed. + +I have already told you with what care they look after their sick, so +that nothing is left undone that can contribute either to their ease or +health: and for those who are taken with fixed and incurable diseases, +they use all possible ways to cherish them, and to make their lives as +comfortable as possible. They visit them often, and take great pains to +make their time pass off easily: but when any is taken with a torturing +and lingering pain, so that there is no hope, either of recovery or +ease, the priests and magistrates come and exhort them, that since they +are now unable to go on with the business of life, are become a burden +to themselves and to all about them, and they have really outlived +themselves, they should no longer nourish such a rooted distemper, but +choose rather to die, since they cannot live but in much misery: being +assured, that if they thus deliver themselves from torture, or are +willing that others should do it, they shall be happy after death. Since +by their acting thus, they lose none of the pleasures, but only the +troubles of life; they think they behave not only reasonably, but in a +manner consistent with religion and piety; because they follow the +advice given them by their priests, who are the expounders of the will +of God. Such as are wrought on by these persuasions, either starve +themselves of their own accord, or take opium, and by that means die +without pain. But no man is forced on this way of ending his life; and +if they cannot be persuaded to it, this does not induce them to fail in +their attendance and care of them; but as they believe that a voluntary +death, when it is chosen upon such an authority, is very honourable, so +if any man takes away his own life, without the approbation of the +priests and the Senate, they give him none of the honours of a decent +funeral, but throw his body into a ditch. + +Their women are not married before eighteen, nor their men before +two-and-twenty, and if any of them run into forbidden embraces before +marriage they are severely punished, and the privilege of marriage is +denied them, unless they can obtain a special warrant from the Prince. +Such disorders cast a great reproach upon the master and mistress of the +family in which they happen, for it is supposed that they have failed in +their duty. The reason of punishing this so severely is, because they +think that if they were not strictly restrained from all vagrant +appetites, very few would engage in a state in which they venture the +quiet of their whole lives, by being confined to one person, and are +obliged to endure all the inconveniences with which it is accompanied. +In choosing their wives they use a method that would appear to us very +absurd and ridiculous, but it is constantly observed among them, and is +accounted perfectly consistent with wisdom. Before marriage some grave +matron presents the bride naked, whether she is a virgin or a widow, to +the bridegroom; and after that some grave man presents the bridegroom +naked to the bride. We indeed both laughed at this, and condemned it as +very indecent. But they, on the other hand, wondered at the folly of the +men of all other nations, who, if they are but to buy a horse of a small +value, are so cautious that they will see every part of him, and take +off both his saddle and all his other tackle, that there may be no +secret ulcer hid under any of them; and that yet in the choice of a +wife, on which depends the happiness or unhappiness of the rest of his +life, a man should venture upon trust, and only see about a +hand's-breadth of the face, all the rest of the body being covered, +under which there may lie hid what may be contagious, as well as +loathsome. All men are not so wise as to choose a woman only for her +good qualities; and even wise men consider the body as that which adds +not a little to the mind: and it is certain there may be some such +deformity covered with the clothes as may totally alienate a man from +his wife when it is too late to part with her. If such a thing is +discovered after marriage, a man has no remedy but patience. They +therefore think it is reasonable that there should be good provision +made against such mischievous frauds. + +There was so much the more reason for them to make a regulation in this +matter, because they are the only people of those parts that neither +allow of polygamy, nor of divorces, except in the case of adultery, or +insufferable perverseness; for in these cases the Senate dissolves the +marriage, and grants the injured person leave to marry again; but the +guilty are made infamous, and are never allowed the privilege of a +second marriage. None are suffered to put away their wives against their +wills, from any great calamity that may have fallen on their persons; +for they look on it as the height of cruelty and treachery to abandon +either of the married persons when they need most the tender care of +their comfort, and that chiefly in the case of old age, which as it +carries many diseases along with it, so it is a disease of itself. But +it frequently falls out that when a married couple do not well agree, +they by mutual consent separate, and find out other persons with whom +they hope they may live more happily. Yet this is not done without +obtaining leave of the Senate, which never admits of a divorce, but upon +a strict inquiry made, both by the senators and their wives, into the +grounds upon which it is desired; and even when they are satisfied +concerning the reasons of it, they go on but slowly, for they imagine +that too great easiness in granting leave for new marriages would very +much shake the kindness of married people. They punish severely those +that defile the marriage-bed. If both parties are married they are +divorced, and the injured persons may marry one another, or whom they +please; but the adulterer and the adulteress are condemned to slavery. +Yet if either of the injured persons cannot shake off the love of the +married person, they may live with them still in that state, but they +must follow them to that labour to which the slaves are condemned; and +sometimes the repentance of the condemned, together with the unshaken +kindness of the innocent and injured person, has prevailed so far with +the Prince that he has taken off the sentence; but those that relapse +after they are once pardoned are punished with death. + +Their law does not determine the punishment for other crimes; but that +is left to the Senate, to temper it according to the circumstances of +the fact. Husbands have power to correct their wives, and parents to +chastise their children, unless the fault is so great that a public +punishment is thought necessary for striking terror into others. For the +most part, slavery is the punishment even of the greatest crimes; for as +that is no less terrible to the criminals themselves than death, so they +think the preserving them in a state of servitude is more for the +interest of the commonwealth than killing them; since as their labour is +a greater benefit to the public than their death could be, so the sight +of their misery is a more lasting terror to other men than that which +would be given by their death. If their slaves rebel, and will not bear +their yoke, and submit to the labour that is enjoined them, they are +treated as wild beasts that cannot be kept in order, neither by a +prison, nor by their chains; and are at last put to death. But those who +bear their punishment patiently, and are so much wrought on by that +pressure that lies so hard on them that it appears they are really more +troubled for the crimes they have committed than for the miseries they +suffer, are not out of hope but that at last either the Prince will, by +his prerogative, or the people by their intercession, restore them again +to their liberty, or at least very much mitigate their slavery. He that +tempts a married woman to adultery, is no less severely punished than he +that commits it; for they believe that a deliberate design to commit a +crime, is equal to the fact itself: since its not taking effect does +not make the person that miscarried in his attempt at all the less +guilty. + +They take great pleasure in fools, and as it is thought a base and +unbecoming thing to use them ill, so they do not think it amiss for +people to divert themselves with their folly: and, in their opinion, +this is a great advantage to the fools themselves: for if men were so +sullen and severe as not at all to please themselves with their +ridiculous behaviour and foolish sayings, which is all that they can do +to recommend themselves to others, it could not be expected that they +would be so well provided for, nor so tenderly used as they must +otherwise be. If any man should reproach another for his being misshaped +or imperfect in any part of his body, it would not at all be thought a +reflection on the person so treated, but it would be accounted +scandalous in him that had upbraided another with what he could not +help. It is thought a sign of a sluggish and sordid mind not to preserve +carefully one's natural beauty; but it is likewise infamous among them +to use paint. They all see that no beauty recommends a wife so much to +her husband as the probity of her life, and her obedience: for as some +few are catched and held only by beauty, so all are attracted by the +other excellences which charm all the world. + +As they fright men from committing crimes by punishments, so they invite +them to the love of virtue by public honours: therefore they erect +statues to the memories of such worthy men as have deserved well of +their country, and set these in their market-places, both to perpetuate +the remembrance of their actions, and to be an incitement to their +posterity to follow their example. + +If any man aspires to any office, he is sure never to compass it: they +all live easily together, for none of the magistrates are either +insolent or cruel to the people: they affect rather to be called +fathers, and by being really so, they well deserve the name; and the +people pay them all the marks of honour the more freely, because none +are exacted from them. The Prince himself has no distinction, either of +garments, or of a crown; but is only distinguished by a sheaf of corn +carried before him; as the high priest is also known by his being +preceded by a person carrying a wax light. + +They have but few laws, and such is their constitution that they need +not many. They very much condemn other nations, whose laws, together +with the commentaries on them, swell up to so many volumes; for they +think it an unreasonable thing to oblige men to obey a body of laws that +are both of such a bulk, and so dark as not to be read and understood by +every one of the subjects. + +They have no lawyers among them, for they consider them as a sort of +people whose profession it is to disguise matters, and to wrest the +laws; and therefore they think it is much better that every man should +plead his own cause, and trust it to the judge, as in other places the +client trusts it to a counsellor. By this means they both cut off many +delays, and find out truth more certainly: for after the parties have +laid open the merits of the cause, without those artifices which lawyers +are apt to suggest, the judge examines the whole matter, and supports +the simplicity of such well-meaning persons, whom otherwise crafty men +would be sure to run down: and thus they avoid those evils which appear +very remarkably among all those nations that labour under a vast load of +laws. Every one of them is skilled in their law, for as it is a very +short study, so the plainest meaning of which words are capable is +always the sense of their laws. And they argue thus: all laws are +promulgated for this end, that every man may know his duty; and +therefore the plainest and most obvious sense of the words is that which +ought to be put upon them; since a more refined exposition cannot be +easily comprehended, and would only serve to make the laws become +useless to the greater part of mankind, and especially to those who need +most the direction of them: for it is all one, not to make a law at +all, or to couch it in such terms that without a quick apprehension, and +much study, a man cannot find out the true meaning of it; since the +generality of mankind are both so dull, and so much employed in their +several trades, that they have neither the leisure nor the capacity +requisite for such an inquiry. + +Some of their neighbours, who are masters of their own liberties, having +long ago, by the assistance of the Utopians, shaken off the yoke of +tyranny, and being much taken with those virtues which they observe +among them, have come to desire that they would send magistrates to +govern them; some changing them every year, and others every five years. +At the end of their government they bring them back to Utopia, with +great expressions of honour and esteem, and carry away others to govern +in their stead. In this they seem to have fallen upon a very good +expedient for their own happiness and safety; for since the good or ill +condition of a nation depends so much upon their magistrates, they could +not have made a better choice than by pitching on men whom no advantages +can bias; for wealth is of no use to them, since they must so soon go +back to their own country; and they being strangers among them, are not +engaged in any of their heats or animosities; and it is certain that +when public judicatories are swayed, either by avarice or partial +affections, there must follow a dissolution of justice, the chief sinew +of society. + +The Utopians call those nations that come and ask magistrates from them, +neighbours; but those to whom they have been of more particular service, +friends. And as all other nations are perpetually either making leagues +or breaking them, they never enter into an alliance with any state. They +think leagues are useless things, and believe that if the common ties of +humanity do not knit men together, the faith of promises will have no +great effect; and they are the more confirmed in this by what they see +among the nations round about them, who are no strict observers of +leagues and treaties. We know how religiously they are observed in +Europe, more particularly where the Christian doctrine is received, +among whom they are sacred and inviolable. Which is partly owing to the +justice and goodness of the princes themselves, and partly to the +reverence they pay to the popes; who as they are most religious +observers of their own promises, so they exhort all other princes to +perform theirs; and when fainter methods do not prevail, they compel +them to it by the severity of the pastoral censure, and think that it +would be the most indecent thing possible if men who are particularly +distinguished by the title of the faithful, should not religiously keep +the faith of their treaties. But in that new-found world, which is not +more distant from us in situation than the people are in their manners +and course of life, there is no trusting to leagues, even though they +were made with all the pomp of the most sacred ceremonies; on the +contrary, they are on this account the sooner broken, some slight +pretence being found in the words of the treaties, which are purposely +couched in such ambiguous terms that they can never be so strictly bound +but they will always find some loophole to escape at; and thus they +break both their leagues and their faith. And this is done with such +impudence, that those very men who value themselves on having suggested +these expedients to their princes, would with a haughty scorn declaim +against such craft, or to speak plainer, such fraud and deceit, if they +found private men make use of it in their bargains, and would readily +say that they deserved to be hanged. + +By this means it is, that all sort of justice passes in the world for a +low-spirited and vulgar virtue, far below the dignity of royal +greatness. Or at least, there are set up two sorts of justice; the one +is mean, and creeps on the ground, and therefore becomes none but the +lower part of mankind, and so must be kept in severely by many +restraints that it may not break out beyond the bounds that are set to +it. The other is the peculiar virtue of princes, which as it is more +majestic than that which becomes the rabble, so takes a freer compass; +and thus lawful and unlawful are only measured by pleasure and interest. +These practices of the princes that lie about Utopia, who make so little +account of their faith, seem to be the reasons that determine them to +engage in no confederacies; perhaps they would change their mind if they +lived among us; but yet though treaties were more religiously observed, +they would still dislike the custom of making them; since the world has +taken up a false maxim upon it, as if there were no tie of Nature +uniting one nation to another, only separated perhaps by a mountain or a +river, and that all were born in a state of hostility, and so might +lawfully do all that mischief to their neighbours against which there is +no provision made by treaties; and that when treaties are made, they do +not cut off the enmity, or restrain the license of preying upon each +other, if by the unskilfulness of wording them there are not effectual +provisoes made against them. They, on the other hand, judge that no man +is to be esteemed our enemy that has never injured us; and that the +partnership of the human nature is instead of a league. And that +kindness and good-nature unite men more effectually and with greater +strength than any agreements whatsoever; since thereby the engagements +of men's hearts become stronger than the bond and obligation of words. + + +OF THEIR MILITARY DISCIPLINE. + +They detest war as a very brutal thing; and which, to the reproach of +human nature, is more practised by men than by any sort of beasts. They, +in opposition to the sentiments of almost all other nations, think that +there is nothing more inglorious than that glory that is gained by war. +And therefore though they accustom themselves daily to military +exercises and the discipline of war, in which not only their men but +their women likewise are trained up, that in cases of necessity they may +not be quite useless; yet they do not rashly engage in war, unless it be +either to defend themselves, or their friends, from any unjust +aggressors; or out of good-nature or in compassion assist an oppressed +nation in shaking off the yoke of tyranny. They indeed help their +friends, not only in defensive, but also in offensive wars; but they +never do that unless they had been consulted before the breach was made, +and being satisfied with the grounds on which they went, they had found +that all demands of reparation were rejected, so that a war was +unavoidable. This they think to be not only just, when one neighbour +makes an inroad on another, by public order, and carry away the spoils; +but when the merchants of one country are oppressed in another, either +under pretence of some unjust laws, or by the perverse wresting of good +ones. This they count a juster cause of war than the other, because +those injuries are done under some colour of laws. This was the only +ground of that war in which they engaged with the Nephelogetes against +the Aleopolitanes, a little before our time; for the merchants of the +former having, as they thought, met with great injustice among the +latter, which, whether it was in itself right or wrong, drew on a +terrible war, in which many of their neighbours were engaged; and their +keenness in carrying it on being supported by their strength in +maintaining it, it not only shook some very flourishing states, and very +much afflicted others, but after a series of much mischief ended in the +entire conquest and slavery of the Aleopolitanes, who though before the +war they were in all respects much superior to the Nephelogetes, were +yet subdued; but though the Utopians had assisted them in the war, yet +they pretended to no share of the spoil. + +But though they so vigorously assist their friends in obtaining +reparation for the injuries they have received in affairs of this +nature, yet if any such frauds was committed against themselves, +provided no violence was done to their persons, they would only on their +being refused satisfaction forbear trading with such a people. This is +not because they consider their neighbours more than their own citizens; +but since their neighbours trade every one upon his own stock, fraud is +a more sensible injury to them than it is to the Utopians, among whom +the public in such a case only suffers. As they expect nothing in return +for the merchandises they export but that in which they so much abound, +and is of little use to them, the loss does not much affect them; they +think therefore it would be too severe to revenge a loss attended with +so little inconvenience either to their lives, or their subsistence, +with the death of many persons; but if any of their people is either +killed or wounded wrongfully, whether it be done by public authority or +only by private men, as soon as they hear of it they send ambassadors, +and demand that the guilty persons may be delivered up to them; and if +that is denied, they declare war; but if it be complied with, the +offenders are condemned either to death or slavery. + +They would be both troubled and ashamed of a bloody victory over their +enemies, and think it would be as foolish a purchase as to buy the most +valuable goods at too high a rate. And in no victory do they glory so +much as in that which is gained by dexterity and good conduct, without +bloodshed. In such cases they appoint public triumphs, and erect +trophies to the honour of those who have succeeded; for then do they +reckon that a man acts suitably to his nature when he conquers his enemy +in such a way as that no other creature but a man could be capable of, +and that is by the strength of his understanding. Bears, lions, boars, +wolves, and dogs, and all other animals employ their bodily force one +against another, in which as many of them are superior to men, both in +strength and fierceness, so they are all subdued by his reason and +understanding. + +The only design of the Utopians in war is to obtain that by force, which +if it had been granted them in time would have prevented the war; or if +that cannot be done, to take so severe a revenge on those that have +injured them that they may be terrified from doing the like for the time +to come. By these ends they measure all their designs, and manage them +so that it is visible that the appetite of fame or vain-glory does not +work so much on them as a just care of their own security. + +As soon as they declare war, they take care to have a great many +schedules, that are sealed with their common seal, affixed in the most +conspicuous places of their enemies' country. This is carried secretly, +and done in many places all at once. In these they promise great rewards +to such as shall kill the prince, and lesser in proportion to such as +shall kill any other persons, who are those on whom, next to the prince +himself, they cast the chief balance of the war. And they double the sum +to him that, instead of killing the person so marked out, shall take him +alive and put him in their hands. They offer not only indemnity, but +rewards, to such of the persons themselves that are so marked, if they +will act against their countrymen: by this means those that are named in +their schedules become not only distrustful of their fellow-citizens, +but are jealous of one another, and are much distracted by fear and +danger; for it has often fallen out that many of them, and even the +Prince himself, have been betrayed by those in whom they have trusted +most: for the rewards that the Utopians offer are so unmeasurably great, +that there is no sort of crime to which men cannot be drawn by them. +They consider the risk that those run who undertake such services, and +offer a recompense proportioned to the danger; not only a vast deal of +gold, but great revenues in lands, that lie among other nations that are +their friends, where they may go and enjoy them very securely; and they +observe the promises they make of this kind most religiously. They very +much approve of this way of corrupting their enemies, though it appears +to others to be base and cruel; but they look on it as a wise course, to +make an end of what would be otherwise a long war, without so much as +hazarding one battle to decide it. They think it likewise an act of +mercy and love to mankind to prevent the great slaughter of those that +must otherwise be killed in the progress of the war, both on their own +side and on that of their enemies, by the death of a few that are most +guilty; and that in so doing they are kind even to their enemies, and +pity them no less than their own people, as knowing that the greater +part of them do not engage in the war of their own accord, but are +driven into it by the passions of their prince. + +If this method does not succeed with them, then they sow seeds of +contention among their enemies, and animate the prince's brother, or +some of the nobility, to aspire to the crown. If they cannot disunite +them by domestic broils, then they engage their neighbours against them, +and make them set on foot some old pretensions, which are never wanting +to princes when they have occasion for them. These they plentifully +supply with money, though but very sparingly with any auxiliary troops: +for they are so tender of their own people, that they would not +willingly exchange one of them, even with the prince of their enemies' +country. + +But as they keep their gold and silver only for such an occasion, so +when that offers itself they easily part with it, since it would be no +inconvenience to them though they should reserve nothing of it to +themselves. For besides the wealth that they have among them at home, +they have a vast treasure abroad, many nations round about them being +deep in their debt: so that they hire soldiers from all places for +carrying on their wars, but chiefly from the Zapolets, who live five +hundred miles east of Utopia. They are a rude, wild, and fierce nation, +who delight in the woods and rocks, among which they were born and bred +up. They are hardened both against heat, cold and labour, and know +nothing of the delicacies of life. They do not apply themselves to +agriculture, nor do they care either for their houses or their clothes. +Cattle is all that they look after; and for the greatest part they live +either by hunting, or upon rapine; and are made, as it were, only for +war. They watch all opportunities of engaging in it, and very readily +embrace such as are offered them. Great numbers of them will frequently +go out, and offer themselves for a very low pay, to serve any that will +employ them: they know none of the arts of life, but those that lead to +the taking it away; they serve those that hire them, both with much +courage and great fidelity; but will not engage to serve for any +determined time, and agree upon such terms, that the next day they may +go over to the enemies of those whom they serve, if they offer them a +greater encouragement: and will perhaps return to them the day after +that, upon a higher advance of their pay. There are few wars in which +they make not a considerable part of the armies of both sides: so it +often falls out that they who are related, and were hired in the same +country, and so have lived long and familiarly together, forgetting both +their relations and former friendship, kill one another upon no other +consideration than that of being hired to it for a little money, by +princes of different interests; and such a regard have they for money, +that they are easily wrought on by the difference of one penny a day to +change sides. So entirely does their avarice influence them; and yet +this money, which they value so highly, is of little use to them; for +what they purchase thus with their blood, they quickly waste on luxury, +which among them is but of a poor and miserable form. + +This nation serves the Utopians against all people whatsoever, for they +pay higher than any other. The Utopians hold this for a maxim, that as +they seek out the best sort of men for their own use at home, so they +make use of this worst sort of men for the consumption of war, and +therefore they hire them with the offers of vast rewards, to expose +themselves to all sorts of hazards, out of which the greater part never +returns to claim their promises. Yet they make them good most +religiously to such as escape. This animates them to adventure again, +whenever there is occasion for it; for the Utopians are not at all +troubled how many of these happen to be killed, and reckon it a service +done to mankind if they could be a means to deliver the world from such +a lewd and vicious sort of people, that seem to have run together as to +the drain of human nature. Next to these they are served in their wars +with those upon whose account they undertake them, and with the +auxiliary troops of their other friends, to whom they join a few of +their own people, and send some men of eminent and approved virtue to +command in chief. There are two sent with him, who during his command +are but private men, but the first is to succeed him if he should happen +to be either killed or taken; and in case of the like misfortune to him, +the third comes in his place; and thus they provide against ill events, +that such accidents as may befall their generals may not endanger their +armies. When they draw out troops of their own people, they take such +out of every city as freely offer themselves, for none are forced to go +against their wills, since they think that if any man is pressed that +wants courage, he will not only act faintly, but by his cowardice +dishearten others. But if an invasion is made on their country they make +use of such men, if they have good bodies, though they are not brave; +and either put them aboard their ships or place them on the walls of +their towns, that being so posted they may find no opportunity of flying +away; and thus either shame, the heat of action, or the impossibility of +flying, bears down their cowardice; they often make a virtue of +necessity and behave themselves well, because nothing else is left them. +But as they force no man to go into any foreign war against his will, so +they do not hinder those women who are willing to go along with their +husbands; on the contrary, they encourage and praise them, and they +stand often next their husbands in the front of the army. They also +place together those who are related, parents and children, kindred, and +those that are mutually allied, near one another; that those whom Nature +has inspired with the greatest zeal for assisting one another, may be +the nearest and readiest to do it; and it is matter of great reproach if +husband or wife survive one another, or if a child survives his parents, +and therefore when they come to be engaged in action they continue to +fight to the last man, if their enemies stand before them. And as they +use all prudent methods to avoid the endangering their own men, and if +it is possible let all the action and danger fall upon the troops that +they hire, so if it becomes necessary for themselves to engage, they +then charge with as much courage as they avoided it before with +prudence: nor is it a fierce charge at first, but it increases by +degrees; and as they continue in action, they grow more obstinate and +press harder upon the enemy, insomuch that they will much sooner die +than give ground; for the certainty that their children will be well +looked after when they are dead, frees them from all that anxiety +concerning them which often masters men of great courage; and thus they +are animated by a noble and invincible resolution. Their skill in +military affairs increases their courage; and the wise sentiments which, +according to the laws of their country are instilled into them in their +education, give additional vigour to their minds: for as they do not +undervalue life so as prodigally to throw it away, they are not so +indecently fond of it as to preserve it by base and unbecoming methods. +In the greatest heat of action, the bravest of their youth, who have +devoted themselves to that service, single out the general of their +enemies, set on him either openly or by ambuscade, pursue him +everywhere, and when spent and wearied out, are relieved by others, who +never give over the pursuit; either attacking him with close weapons +when they can get near him, or with those which wound at a distance, +when others get in between them; so that unless he secures himself by +flight, they seldom fail at last to kill or to take him prisoner. When +they have obtained a victory, they kill as few as possible, and are much +more bent on taking many prisoners than on killing those that fly before +them; nor do they ever let their men so loose in the pursuit of their +enemies, as not to retain an entire body still in order; so that if they +have been forced to engage the last of their battalions before they +could gain the day, they will rather let their enemies all escape than +pursue them, when their own army is in disorder; remembering well what +has often fallen out to themselves, that when the main body of their +army has been quite defeated and broken, when their enemies imagining +the victory obtained, have let themselves loose into an irregular +pursuit, a few of them that lay for a reserve, waiting a fit +opportunity, have fallen on them in their chase, and when straggling in +disorder and apprehensive of no danger, but counting the day their own, +have turned the whole action, and wresting out of their hands a victory +that seemed certain and undoubted, while the vanquished have suddenly +become victorious. + +It is hard to tell whether they are more dexterous in laying or avoiding +ambushes. They sometimes seem to fly when it is far from their thoughts; +and when they intend to give ground, they do it so that it is very hard +to find out their design. If they see they are ill posted, or are like +to be overpowered by numbers, they then either march off in the night +with great silence, or by some stratagem delude their enemies: if they +retire in the daytime, they do it in such order, that it is no less +dangerous to fall upon them in a retreat than in a march. They fortify +their camps with a deep and large trench, and throw up the earth that is +dug out of it for a wall; nor do they employ only their slaves in this, +but the whole army works at it, except those that are then upon the +guard; so that when so many hands are at work, a great line and a strong +fortification is finished in so short a time that it is scarce credible. +Their armour is very strong for defence, and yet is not so heavy as to +make them uneasy in their marches; they can even swim with it. All that +are trained up to war, practise swimming. Both horse and foot make great +use of arrows, and are very expert. They have no swords, but fight with +a pole-axe that is both sharp and heavy, by which they thrust or strike +down an enemy. They are very good at finding out warlike machines, and +disguise them so well, that the enemy does not perceive them till he +feels the use of them; so that he cannot prepare such a defence as would +render them useless; the chief consideration had in the making them, is +that they may be easily carried and managed. + +If they agree to a truce, they observe it so religiously that no +provocations will make them break it. They never lay their enemies' +country waste, nor burn their corn, and even in their marches they take +all possible care that neither horse nor foot may tread it down, for +they do not know but that they may have use for it themselves. They hurt +no man whom they find disarmed, unless he is a spy. When a town is +surrendered to them, they take it into their protection: and when they +carry a place by storm, they never plunder it, but put those only to the +sword that opposed the rendering of it up, and make the rest of the +garrison slaves, but for the other inhabitants, they do them no hurt; +and if any of them had advised a surrender, they give them good rewards +out of the estates of those that they condemn, and distribute the rest +among their auxiliary troops, but they themselves take no share of the +spoil. + +When a war is ended, they do not oblige their friends to reimburse their +expenses; but they obtain them of the conquered, either in money, which +they keep for the next occasion, or in lands, out of which a constant +revenue is to be paid them; by many increases, the revenue which they +draw out from several countries on such occasions, is now risen to above +700,000 ducats a year. They send some of their own people to receive +these revenues, who have orders to live magnificently, and like princes, +by which means they consume much of it upon the place; and either bring +over the rest to Utopia, or lend it to that nation in which it lies. +This they most commonly do, unless some great occasion, which falls out +but very seldom, should oblige them to call for it all. It is out of +these lands that they assign rewards to such as they encourage to +adventure on desperate attempts. If any prince that engages in war with +them is making preparations for invading their country, they prevent +him, and make his country the seat of the war; for they do not willingly +suffer any war to break in upon their island; and if that should happen, +they would only defend themselves by their own people, but would not +call for auxiliary troops to their assistance. + + +OF THE RELIGIONS OF THE UTOPIANS. + +There are several sorts of religions, not only in different parts of the +island, but even in every town; some worshipping the sun, others the +moon, or one of the planets; some worship such men as have been eminent +in former times for virtue, or glory, not only as ordinary deities, but +as the supreme God: yet the greater and wiser sort of them worship none +of these, but adore one eternal, invisible, infinite, and +incomprehensible Deity; as a Being that is far above all our +apprehensions, that is spread over the whole universe, not by His bulk, +but by His power and virtue; Him they call the Father of All, and +acknowledge that the beginnings, the increase, the progress, the +vicissitudes, and the end of all things come only from Him; nor do they +offer divine honours to any but to Him alone. And indeed, though they +differ concerning other things, yet all agree in this, that they think +there is one supreme Being that made and governs the world, whom they +call in the language of their country Mithras. They differ in this, that +one thinks the God whom he worships is this supreme Being, and another +thinks that his idol is that God; but they all agree in one principle, +that whoever is this supreme Being, He is also that great Essence to +whose glory and majesty all honours are ascribed by the consent of all +nations. + +By degrees, they fall off from the various superstitions that are among +them, and grow up to that one religion that is the best and most in +request; and there is no doubt to be made but that all the others had +vanished long ago, if some of those who advised them to lay aside their +superstitions had not met with some unhappy accident, which being +considered as inflicted by Heaven, made them afraid that the God whose +worship had like to have been abandoned, had interposed, and revenged +themselves on those who despised their authority. + +After they had heard from us an account of the doctrine, the course of +life, and the miracles of Christ, and of the wonderful constancy of so +many martyrs, whose blood, so willingly offered up by them, was the +chief occasion of spreading their religion over a vast number of +nations; it is not to be imagined how inclined they were to receive it. +I shall not determine whether this proceeded from any secret inspiration +of God, or whether it was because it seemed so favourable to that +community of goods, which is an opinion so particular as well as so dear +to them; since they perceived that Christ and His followers lived by +that rule, and that it was still kept up in some communities among the +sincerest sort of Christians. From whichsoever of these motives it might +be, true it is that many of them came over to our religion, and were +initiated into it by baptism. But as two of our number were dead, so +none of the four that survived were in priest's orders; we therefore +could only baptize them; so that to our great regret they could not +partake of the other sacraments, that can only be administered by +priests; but they are instructed concerning them, and long most +vehemently for them. They have had great disputes among themselves, +whether one chosen by them to be a priest would not be thereby qualified +to do all the things that belong to that character, even though he had +no authority derived from the Pope; and they seemed to be resolved to +choose some for that employment, but they had not done it when I left +them. + +Those among them that have not received our religion, do not fright any +from it, and use none ill that goes over to it; so that all the while I +was there, one man was only punished on this occasion. He being newly +baptized, did, notwithstanding all that we could say to the contrary, +dispute publicly concerning the Christian religion with more zeal than +discretion; and with so much heat, that he not only preferred our +worship to theirs, but condemned all their rites as profane; and cried +out against all that adhered to them, as impious and sacrilegious +persons, that were to be damned to everlasting burnings. Upon his having +frequently preached in this manner, he was seized, and after trial he +was condemned to banishment, not for having disparaged their religion, +but for his inflaming the people to sedition: for this is one of their +most ancient laws, that no man ought to be punished for his religion. At +the first constitution of their government, Utopus having understood +that before his coming among them the old inhabitants had been engaged +in great quarrels concerning religion, by which they were so divided +among themselves, that he found it an easy thing to conquer them, since +instead of uniting their forces against him, every different party in +religion fought by themselves; after he had subdued them, he made a law +that every man might be of what religion he pleased, and might endeavour +to draw others to it by the force of argument, and by amicable and +modest ways, but without bitterness against those of other opinions; but +that he ought to use no other force but that of persuasion, and was +neither to mix with it reproaches nor violence; and such as did +otherwise were to be condemned to banishment or slavery. + +This law was made by Utopus, not only for preserving the public peace, +which he saw suffered much by daily contentions and irreconcilable +heats, but because he thought the interest of religion itself required +it. He judged it not fit to determine anything rashly, and seemed to +doubt whether those different forms of religion might not all come from +God, who might inspire men in a different manner, and be pleased with +this variety; he therefore thought it indecent and foolish for any man +to threaten and terrify another to make him believe what did not appear +to him to be true. And supposing that only one religion was really true, +and the rest false, he imagined that the native force of truth would at +last break forth and shine bright, if supported only by the strength of +argument, and attended to with a gentle and unprejudiced mind; while, on +the other hand, if such debates were carried on with violence and +tumults, as the most wicked are always the most obstinate, so the best +and most holy religion might be choked with superstition, as corn is +with briars and thorns; he therefore left men wholly to their liberty, +that they might be free to believe as they should see cause; only he +made a solemn and severe law against such as should so far degenerate +from the dignity of human nature as to think that our souls died with +our bodies, or that the world was governed by chance, without a wise +overruling Providence: for they all formerly believed that there was a +state of rewards and punishments to the good and bad after this life; +and they now look on those that think otherwise as scarce fit to be +counted men, since they degrade so noble a being as the soul, and reckon +it no better than a beast's: thus they are far from looking on such men +as fit for human society, or to be citizens of a well-ordered +commonwealth; since a man of such principles must needs, as oft as he +dares do it, despise all their laws and customs: for there is no doubt +to be made that a man who is afraid of nothing but the law, and +apprehends nothing after death, will not scruple to break through all +the laws of his country, either by fraud or force, when by this means he +may satisfy his appetites. They never raise any that hold these maxims, +either to honours or offices, nor employ them in any public trust, but +despise them, as men of base and sordid minds: yet they do not punish +them, because they lay this down as a maxim that a man cannot make +himself believe anything he pleases; nor do they drive any to dissemble +their thoughts by threatenings, so that men are not tempted to lie or +disguise their opinions; which being a sort of fraud, is abhorred by the +Utopians. They take care indeed to prevent their disputing in defence of +these opinions, especially before the common people; but they suffer, +and even encourage them to dispute concerning them in private with their +priests and other grave men, being confident that they will be cured of +those mad opinions by having reason laid before them. There are many +among them that run far to the other extreme, though it is neither +thought an ill nor unreasonable opinion, and therefore is not at all +discouraged. They think that the souls of beasts are immortal, though +far inferior to the dignity of the human soul, and not capable of so +great a happiness. They are almost all of them very firmly persuaded +that good men will be infinitely happy in another state; so that though +they are compassionate to all that are sick, yet they lament no man's +death, except they see him loth to depart with life; for they look on +this as a very ill presage, as if the soul, conscious to itself of +guilt, and quite hopeless, was afraid to leave the body, from some +secret hints of approaching misery. They think that such a man's +appearance before God cannot be acceptable to Him, who, being called on, +does not go out cheerfully, but is backward and unwilling, and is, as it +were, dragged to it. They are struck with horror when they see any die +in this manner, and carry them out in silence and with sorrow, and +praying God that He would be merciful to the errors of the departed +soul, they lay the body in the ground; but when any die cheerfully, and +full of hope, they do not mourn for them, but sing hymns when they carry +out their bodies, and commending their souls very earnestly to God: +their whole behaviour is then rather grave than sad, they burn the body, +and set up a pillar where the pile was made, with an inscription to the +honour of the deceased. When they come from the funeral, they discourse +of his good life and worthy actions, but speak of nothing oftener and +with more pleasure than of his serenity at the hour of death. They think +such respect paid to the memory of good men is both the greatest +incitement to engage others to follow their example, and the most +acceptable worship that can be offered them; for they believe that +though by the imperfection of human sight they are invisible to us, yet +they are present among us, and hear those discourses that pass +concerning themselves. They believe it inconsistent, with the happiness +of departed souls not to be at liberty to be where they will, and do +not imagine them capable of the ingratitude of not desiring to see +those friends with whom they lived on earth in the strictest bonds of +love and kindness: besides they are persuaded that good men after death +have these affections and all other good dispositions increased rather +than diminished, and therefore conclude that they are still among the +living, and observe all they say or do. From hence they engage in all +their affairs with the greater confidence of success, as trusting to +their protection; while this opinion of the presence of their ancestors +is a restraint that prevents their engaging in ill designs. + +They despise and laugh at auguries, and the other vain and superstitious +ways of divination, so much observed among other nations; but have great +reverence for such miracles as cannot flow from any of the powers of +Nature, and look on them as effects and indications of the presence of +the supreme Being, of which they say many instances have occurred among +them; and that sometimes their public prayers, which upon great and +dangerous occasions they have solemnly put up to God, with assured +confidence of being heard, have been answered in a miraculous manner. + +They think the contemplating God in His works, and the adoring Him for +them, is a very acceptable piece of worship to Him. + +There are many among them, that upon a motive of religion neglect +learning, and apply themselves to no sort of study; nor do they allow +themselves any leisure time, but are perpetually employed, believing +that by the good things that a man does he secures to himself that +happiness that comes after death. Some of these visit the sick; others +mend highways, cleanse ditches, repair bridges, or dig turf, gravel, or +stones. Others fell and cleave timber, and bring wood, corn, and other +necessaries on carts into their towns. Nor do these only serve the +public, but they serve even private men, more than the slaves +themselves do; for if there is anywhere a rough, hard, and sordid piece +of work to be done, from which many are frightened by the labour and +loathsomeness of it, if not the despair of accomplishing it, they +cheerfully, and of their own accord, take that to their share; and by +that means, as they ease others very much, so they afflict themselves, +and spend their whole life in hard labour; and yet they do not value +themselves upon this, nor lessen other people's credit to raise their +own; but by their stooping to such servile employments, they are so far +from being despised, that they are so much the more esteemed by the +whole nation. + +Of these there are two sorts; some live unmarried and chaste, and +abstain from eating any sort of flesh; and thus weaning themselves from +all the pleasures of the present life, which they account hurtful, they +pursue, even by the hardest and painfullest methods possible, that +blessedness which they hope for hereafter; and the nearer they approach +to it, they are the more cheerful and earnest in their endeavours after +it. Another sort of them is less willing to put themselves to much toil, +and therefore prefer a married state to a single one; and as they do not +deny themselves the pleasure of it, so they think the begetting of +children is a debt which they owe to human nature and to their country; +nor do they avoid any pleasure that does not hinder labour, and +therefore eat flesh so much the more willingly, as they find that by +this means they are the more able to work; the Utopians look upon these +as the wiser sect, but they esteem the others as the most holy. They +would indeed laugh at any man, who from the principles of reason would +prefer an unmarried state to a married, or a life of labour to an easy +life; but they reverence and admire such as do it from the motives of +religion. There is nothing in which they are more cautious than in +giving their opinion positively concerning any sort of religion. The men +that lead those severe lives are called in the language of their +country Brutheskas, which answers to those we call religious orders. + +Their priests are men of eminent piety, and therefore they are but few, +for there are only thirteen in every town, one for every temple; but +when they go to war, seven of these go out with their forces, and seven +others are chosen to supply their room in their absence; but these enter +again upon their employment when they return; and those who served in +their absence attend upon the high-priest, till vacancies fall by death; +for there is one set over all the rest. They are chosen by the people as +the other magistrates are, by suffrages given in secret, for preventing +of factions; and when they are chosen they are consecrated by the +college of priests. The care of all sacred things, the worship of God, +and an inspection into the manners of the people, are committed to them. +It is a reproach to a man to be sent for by any of them, or for them to +speak to him in secret, for that always gives some suspicion. All that +is incumbent on them is only to exhort and admonish the people; for the +power of correcting and punishing ill men belongs wholly to the Prince +and to the other magistrates. The severest thing that the priest does, +is the excluding those that are desperately wicked from joining in their +worship. There is not any sort of punishment more dreaded by them than +this, for as it loads them with infamy, so it fills them with secret +horrors, such is their reverence to their religion; nor will their +bodies be long exempted from their share of trouble; for if they do not +very quickly satisfy the priests of the truth of their repentance, they +are seized on by the Senate, and punished for their impiety. The +education of youth belongs to the priests, yet they do not take so much +care of instructing them in letters as in forming their minds and +manners aright; they use all possible methods to infuse very early into +the tender and flexible minds of children such opinions as are both good +in themselves and will be useful to their country. For when deep +impressions of these things are made at that age, they follow men +through the whole course of their lives, and conduce much to preserve +the peace of the government, which suffers by nothing more than by vices +that rise out of ill opinions. The wives of their priests are the most +extraordinary women of the whole country; sometimes the women themselves +are made priests, though that falls out but seldom, nor are any but +ancient widows chosen into that order. + +None of the magistrates have greater honour paid them than is paid the +priests; and if they should happen to commit any crime, they would not +be questioned for it. Their punishment is left to God, and to their own +consciences; for they do not think it lawful to lay hands on any man, +how wicked soever he is, that has been in a peculiar manner dedicated to +God; nor do they find any great inconvenience in this, both because they +have so few priests, and because these are chosen with much caution, so +that it must be a very unusual thing to find one who merely out of +regard to his virtue, and for his being esteemed a singularly good man, +was raised up to so great a dignity, degenerate into corruption and +vice. And if such a thing should fall out, for man is a changeable +creature, yet there being few priests, and these having no authority but +what rises out of the respect that is paid them, nothing of great +consequence to the public can proceed from the indemnity that the +priests enjoy. + +They have indeed very few of them, lest greater numbers sharing in the +same honour might make the dignity of that order which they esteem so +highly to sink in its reputation. They also think it difficult to find +out many of such an exalted pitch of goodness, as to be equal to that +dignity which demands the exercise of more than ordinary virtues. Nor +are the priests in greater veneration among them than they are among +their neighbouring nations, as you may imagine by that which I think +gives occasion for it. + +When the Utopians engage in battle, the priests who accompany them to +the war, apparelled in their sacred vestments, kneel down during the +action, in a place not far from the field; and lifting up their hands to +heaven, pray, first for peace, and then for victory to their own side, +and particularly that it may be gained without the effusion of much +blood on either side; and when the victory turns to their side, they run +in among their own men to restrain their fury; and if any of their +enemies see them, or call to them, they are preserved by that means; and +such as can come so near them as to touch their garments, have not only +their lives, but their fortunes secured to them; it is upon this account +that all the nations roundabout consider them so much, and treat them +with such reverence, that they have been often no less able to preserve +their own people from the fury of their enemies, than to save their +enemies from their rage; for it has sometimes fallen out, that when +their armies have been in disorder, and forced to fly, so that their +enemies were running upon the slaughter and spoil, the priests by +interposing have separated them from one another, and stopped the +effusion of more blood; so that by their mediation a peace has been +concluded on very reasonable terms; nor is there any nation about them +so fierce, cruel, or barbarous as not to look upon their persons as +sacred and inviolable. + +The first and the last day of the month, and of the year, is a festival. +They measure their months by the course of the moon, and their years by +the course of the sun. The first days are called in their language the +Cynemernes, and the last the Trapemernes; which answers in our language +to the festival that begins, or ends the season. + +They have magnificent temples, that are not only nobly built, but +extremely spacious; which is the more necessary, as they have so few of +them; they are a little dark within, which proceeds not from any error +in the architecture, but is done with design; for their priests think +that too much light dissipates the thoughts, and that a more moderate +degree of it both recollects the mind and raises devotion. Though there +are many different forms of religion among them, yet all these, how +various soever, agree in the main point, which is the worshipping the +Divine Essence; and therefore there is nothing to be seen or heard in +their temples in which the several persuasions among them may not agree; +for every sect performs those rites that are peculiar to it, in their +private houses, nor is there anything in the public worship that +contradicts the particular ways of those different sects. There are no +images for God in their temples, so that every one may represent Him to +his thoughts, according to the way of his religion; nor do they call +this one God by any other name but that of Mithras, which is the common +name by which they all express the Divine Essence, whatsoever otherwise +they think it to be; nor are there any prayers among them but such as +every one of them may use without prejudice to his own opinion. + +They meet in their temples on the evening of the festival that concludes +a season: and not having yet broke their fast, they thank God for their +good success during that year or month, which is then at an end; and the +next day being that which begins the new season, they meet early in +their temples, to pray for the happy progress of all their affairs +during that period upon which they then enter. In the festival which +concludes the period, before they go to the temple, both wives and +children fall on their knees before their husbands or parents, and +confess everything in which they have either erred or failed in their +duty, and beg pardon for it. Thus all little discontents in families are +removed, that they may offer up their devotions with a pure and serene +mind; for they hold it a great impiety to enter upon them with disturbed +thoughts, or with a consciousness of their bearing hatred or anger in +their hearts to any person whatsoever; and think that they should become +liable to severe punishments if they presumed to offer sacrifices +without cleansing their hearts, and reconciling all their differences. +In the temples, the two sexes are separated, the men go to the right +hand, and the women to the left; and the males and females all place +themselves before the head and master or mistress of that family to +which they belong; so that those who have the government of them at home +may see their deportment in public; and they intermingle them so, that +the younger and the older may be set by one another; for if the younger +sort were all set together, they would perhaps trifle away that time too +much in which they ought to beget in themselves that religious dread of +the supreme Being, which is the greatest and almost the only incitement +to virtue. + +They offer up no living creature in sacrifice, nor do they think it +suitable to the divine Being, from whose bounty it is that these +creatures have derived their lives, to take pleasure in their deaths, or +the offering up their blood. They burn incense and other sweet odours, +and have a great number of wax lights during their worship; not out of +any imagination that such oblations can add anything to the divine +Nature, which even prayers cannot do; but as it is a harmless and pure +way of worshipping God, so they think those sweet savours and lights, +together with some other ceremonies, by a secret and unaccountable +virtue, elevate men's souls, and inflame them with greater energy and +cheerfulness during the divine worship. + +All the people appear in the temples in white garments, but the priest's +vestments are parti-coloured, and both the work and colours are +wonderful. They are made of no rich materials, for they are neither +embroidered nor set with precious stones, but are composed of the plumes +of several birds, laid together with so much art and so neatly, that the +true value of them is far beyond the costliest materials. They say that +in the ordering and placing those plumes some dark mysteries are +represented, which pass down among their priests in a secret tradition +concerning them; and that they are as hieroglyphics, putting them in +mind of the blessings that they have received from God, and of their +duties both to Him and to their neighbours. As soon as the priest +appears in those ornaments, they all fall prostrate on the ground, with +so much reverence and so deep a silence that such as look on cannot but +be struck with it, as if it were the effect of the appearance of a +Deity. After they have been for some time in this posture, they all +stand up, upon a sign given by the priest, and sing hymns to the honour +of God, some musical instruments playing all the while. These are quite +of another form than those used among us: but as many of them are much +sweeter than ours, so others are made use of by us. Yet in one thing +they very much exceed us; all their music, both vocal and instrumental, +is adapted to imitate and express the passions, and is so happily suited +to every occasion, that whether the subject of the hymn be cheerful or +formed to soothe or trouble the mind, or to express grief or remorse, +the music takes the impression of whatever is represented, affects and +kindles the passions, and works the sentiments deep into the hearts of +the hearers. When this is done, both priests and people offer up very +solemn prayers to God in a set form of words; and these are so composed, +that whatsoever is pronounced by the whole assembly may be likewise +applied by every man in particular to his own condition; in these they +acknowledge God to be the author and governor of the world, and the +fountain of all the good they receive, and therefore offer up to Him +their thanksgiving; and in particular bless Him for His goodness in +ordering it so, that they are born under the happiest government in the +world, and are of a religion which they hope is the truest of all +others: but if they are mistaken, and if there is either a better +government or a religion more acceptable to God, they implore His +goodness to let them know it, vowing that they resolve to follow Him +whithersoever He leads them. But if their government is the best, and +their religion the truest, then they pray that He may fortify them in +it, and bring all the world both to the same rules of life, and to the +same opinions concerning himself; unless, according to the +unsearchableness of His mind, He is pleased with a variety of religions. +Then they pray that God may give them an easy passage at last to +himself; not presuming to set limits to Him, how early or late it should +be; but if it may be wished for, without derogating from His supreme +authority, they desire to be quickly delivered, and to be taken to +himself, though by the most terrible kind of death, rather than to be +detained long from seeing Him by the most prosperous course of life. +When this prayer is ended, they all fall down again upon the ground, and +after a little while they rise up, go home to dinner, and spend the rest +of the day in diversion or military exercises. + +Thus have I described to you, as particularly as I could, the +constitution of that commonwealth, which I do not only think the best in +the world, but indeed the only commonwealth that truly deserves that +name. In all other places it is visible, that while people talk of a +commonwealth, every man only seeks his own wealth; but there, where no +man has any property, all men zealously pursue the good of the public: +and, indeed, it is no wonder to see men act so differently; for in other +commonwealths, every man knows that unless he provides for himself, how +flourishing soever the commonwealth may be, he must die of hunger; so +that he sees the necessity of preferring his own concerns to the public; +but in Utopia, where every man has a right to everything, they all know +that if care is taken to keep the public stores full, no private man can +want anything; for among them there is no unequal distribution, so that +no man is poor, none in necessity; and though no man has anything, yet +they are all rich; for what can make a man so rich as to lead a serene +and cheerful life, free from anxieties; neither apprehending want +himself, nor vexed with the endless complaints of his wife? He is not +afraid of the misery of his children, nor is he contriving how to raise +a portion for his daughters, but is secure in this, that both he and his +wife, his children and grandchildren, to as many generations as he can +fancy, will all live both plentifully and happily; since among them +there is no less care taken of those who were once engaged in labour, +but grow afterwards unable to follow it, than there is elsewhere of +these that continue still employed. I would gladly hear any man compare +the justice that is among them with that of all other nations; among +whom, may I perish, if I see anything that looks either like justice or +equity: for what justice is there in this, that a nobleman, a goldsmith, +a banker, or any other man, that either does nothing at all, or at best +is employed in things that are of no use to the public, should live in +great luxury and splendour, upon what is so ill acquired; and a mean +man, a carter, a smith, or a ploughman, that works harder even than the +beasts themselves, and is employed in labours so necessary, that no +commonwealth could hold out a year without them, can only earn so poor a +livelihood, and must lead so miserable a life, that the condition of the +beasts is much better than theirs? For as the beasts do not work so +constantly, so they feed almost as well, and with more pleasure; and +have no anxiety about what is to come, whilst these men are depressed by +a barren and fruitless employment, and tormented with the apprehensions +of want in their old age; since that which they get by their daily +labour does but maintain them at present, and is consumed as fast as it +comes in, there is no overplus left to lay up for old age. + +Is not that government both unjust and ungrateful, that is so prodigal +of its favours to those that are called gentlemen, or goldsmiths, or +such others who are idle, or live either by flattery, or by contriving +the arts of vain pleasure; and on the other hand, takes no care of those +of a meaner sort, such as ploughmen, colliers, and smiths, without whom +it could not subsist? But after the public has reaped all the advantage +of their service, and they come to be oppressed with age, sickness, and +want, all their labours and the good they have done is forgotten; and +all the recompense given them is that they are left to die in great +misery. The richer sort are often endeavouring to bring the hire of +labourers lower, not only by their fraudulent practices, but by the laws +which they procure to be made to that effect; so that though it is a +thing most unjust in itself, to give such small rewards to those who +deserve so well of the public, yet they have given those hardships the +name and colour of justice, by procuring laws to be made for regulating +them. + +Therefore I must say that, as I hope for mercy, I can have no other +notion of all the other governments that I see or know, than that they +are a conspiracy of the rich, who on pretence of managing the public +only pursue their private ends, and devise all the ways and arts they +can find out; first, that they may, without danger, preserve all that +they have so ill acquired, and then that they may engage the poor to +toil and labour for them at as low rates as possible, and oppress them +as much as they please. And if they can but prevail to get these +contrivances established by the show of public authority, which is +considered as the representative of the whole people, then they are +accounted laws. Yet these wicked men after they have, by a most +insatiable covetousness, divided that among themselves with which all +the rest might have been well supplied, are far from that happiness that +is enjoyed among the Utopians: for the use as well as the desire of +money being extinguished, much anxiety and great occasions of mischief +is cut off with it. And who does not see that the frauds, thefts, +robberies, quarrels, tumults, contentions, seditions, murders, +treacheries, and witchcrafts, which are indeed rather punished than +restrained by the severities of law, would all fall off, if money were +not any more valued by the world? Men's fears, solicitudes, cares, +labours, and watchings, would all perish in the same moment with the +value of money: even poverty itself, for the relief of which money seems +most necessary, would fall. But, in order to the apprehending this +aright, take one instance. + +Consider any year that has been so unfruitful that many thousands have +died of hunger; and yet if at the end of that year a survey was made of +the granaries of all the rich men that have hoarded up the corn, it +would be found that there was enough among them to have prevented all +that consumption of men that perished in misery; and that if it had been +distributed among them, none would have felt the terrible effects of +that scarcity; so easy a thing would it be to supply all the necessities +of life, if that blessed thing called money, which is pretended to be +invented for procuring them, was not really the only thing that +obstructed their being procured! + +I do not doubt but rich men are sensible of this, and that they well +know how much a greater happiness it is to want nothing necessary than +to abound in many superfluities, and to be rescued out of so much misery +than to abound with so much wealth; and I cannot think but the sense of +every man's interest, added to the authority of Christ's commands, who +as He was infinitely wise, knew what was best, and was not less good in +discovering it to us, would have drawn all the world over to the laws of +the Utopians, if pride, that plague of human nature, that source of so +much misery, did not hinder it; for this vice does not measure happiness +so much by its own conveniences as by the miseries of others; and would +not be satisfied with being thought a goddess, if none were left that +were miserable, over whom she might insult. Pride thinks its own +happiness shines the brighter by comparing it with the misfortunes of +other persons; that by displaying its own wealth, they may feel their +poverty the more sensibly. This is that infernal serpent that creeps +into the breasts of mortals, and possesses them too much to be easily +drawn out; and therefore I am glad that the Utopians have fallen upon +this form of government, in which I wish that all the world could be so +wise as to imitate them; for they have indeed laid down such a scheme +and foundation of policy, that as men live happily under it, so it is +like to be of great continuance; for they having rooted out of the minds +of their people all the seeds both of ambition and faction, there is no +danger of any commotion at home; which alone has been the ruin of many +states, that seemed otherwise to be well secured; but as long as they +live in peace at home, and are governed by such good laws, the envy of +all their neighbouring princes, who have often though in vain attempted +their ruin, will never be able to put their state into any commotion or +disorder. + + * * * * * + +When Raphael had thus made an end of speaking, though many things +occurred to me, both concerning the manners and laws of that people, +that seemed very absurd, as well as their way of making war, as in their +notions of religion and divine matters; together with several other +particulars, but chiefly what seemed the foundation of all the rest, +their living in common, without the use of money, by which all nobility, +magnificence, splendour, and majesty, which, according to the common +opinion, are the true ornaments of a nation, would be quite taken away; +yet since I perceived that Raphael was weary, and was not sure whether +he could easily bear contradiction, remembering that he had taken notice +of some who seemed to think they were bound in honour to support the +credit of their own wisdom, by finding out something to censure in all +other men's inventions, besides their own; I only commended their +constitution, and the account he had given of it in general; and so +taking him by the hand, carried him to supper, and told him I would find +out some other time for examining this subject more particularly, and +for discoursing more copiously upon it; and indeed I shall be glad to +embrace an opportunity of doing it. In the meanwhile, though it must be +confessed that he is both a very learned man, and a person who has +obtained a great knowledge of the world, I cannot perfectly agree to +everything he has related; however, there are many things in the +Commonwealth of Utopia that I rather wish, than hope, to see followed in +our governments. + + + + +BACON'S + +NEW ATLANTIS. + + + + +NEW ATLANTIS. + + +We sailed from Peru, where we had continued by the space of one whole +year, for China and Japan, by the South Sea, taking with us victuals for +twelve months; and had good winds from the east, though soft and weak, +for five months' space and more. But then the wind came about, and +settled in the west for many days, so as we could make little or no way, +and were sometimes in purpose to turn back. But then again there arose +strong and great winds from the south, with a point east; which carried +us up, for all that we could do, towards the north: by which time our +victuals failed us, though we had made good spare of them. So that +finding ourselves, in the midst of the greatest wilderness of waters in +the world, without victual, we gave ourselves for lost men, and prepared +for death. Yet we did lift up our hearts and voices to God above, who +showeth His wonders in the deep; beseeching Him of his mercy, that as in +the beginning He discovered the face of the deep, and brought forth dry +land, so He would now discover land to us, that we might not perish. And +it came to pass, that the next day about evening we saw within a kenning +before us, towards the north, as it were thick clouds, which did put us +in some hope of land: knowing how that part of the South Sea was utterly +unknown: and might have islands or continents, that hitherto were not +come to light. Wherefore we bent out course thither, where we saw the +appearance of land, all that night: and in the dawning of next day, we +might plainly discern that it was a land flat to our sight, and full of +boscage, which made it show the more dark. And after an hour and a +half's sailing, we entered into a good haven, being the port of a fair +city. Not great indeed, but well built, and that gave a pleasant view +from the sea. And we thinking every minute long till we were on land, +came close to the shore and offered to land. But straightways we saw +divers of the people, with bastons in their hands, as it were forbidding +us to land: yet without any cries or fierceness, but only as warning us +off, by signs that they made. Whereupon being not a little discomfited, +we were advising with ourselves what we should do. During which time +there made forth to us a small boat, with about eight persons in it, +whereof one of them had in his hand a tipstaff of a yellow cane, tipped +at both ends with blue, who made aboard our ship, without any show of +distrust at all. And when he saw one of our number present himself +somewhat afore the rest, he drew forth a little scroll of parchment +(somewhat yellower than our parchment, and shining like the leaves of +writing tables, but otherwise soft and flexible), and delivered it to +our foremost man. In which scroll were written in ancient Hebrew, and in +ancient Greek, and in good Latin of the school, and in Spanish these +words: "Land ye not, none of you, and provide to be gone from this coast +within sixteen days, except you have further time given you; meanwhile, +if you want fresh water, or victual, or help for your sick, or that your +ship needeth repair, write down your wants, and you shall have that +which belongeth to mercy." This scroll was signed with a stamp of +cherubim's wings, not spread, but hanging downwards; and by them a +cross. This being delivered, the officer returned, and left only a +servant with us to receive our answer. Consulting hereupon amongst +ourselves, we were much perplexed. The denial of landing, and hasty +warning us away, troubled us much: on the other side, to find that the +people had languages, and were so full of humanity, did comfort us not a +little. And above all, the sign of the cross to that instrument, was to +us a great rejoicing, and as it were a certain presage of good. Our +answer was in the Spanish tongue, "That for our ship, it was well; for +we had rather met with calms and contrary winds, than any tempests. For +our sick, they were many, and in very ill case; so that if they were not +permitted to land, they ran in danger of their lives." Our other wants +we set down in particular, adding, "That we had some little store of +merchandise, which if it pleased them to deal for, it might supply our +wants, without being chargeable unto them." We offered some reward in +pistolets unto the servant, and a piece of crimson velvet to be +presented to the officer; but the servant took them not, nor would +scarce look upon them; and so left us, and went back in another little +boat which was sent for him. + +About three hours after we had despatched our answer there came towards +us a person (as it seemed) of a place. He had on him a gown with wide +sleeves, of a kind of water chamolet, of an excellent azure colour, far +more glossy than ours: his under apparel was green, and so was his hat, +being in the form of a turban, daintily made, and not so huge as the +Turkish turbans; and the locks of his hair came down below the brims of +it. A reverend man was he to behold. He came in a boat, gilt in some +part of it, with four persons more only in that boat; and was followed +by another boat, wherein were some twenty. When he was come within a +flight-shot of our ship, signs were made to us that we should send forth +some to meet him upon the water, which we presently did in our +ship-boat, sending the principal man amongst us save one, and four of +our number with him. When we were come within six yards of their boat, +they called to us to stay, and not to approach farther, which we did. +And thereupon the man, whom I before described, stood up, and with a +loud voice in Spanish, asked, "Are ye Christians?" We answered, "We +were;" fearing the less, because of the cross we had seen in the +subscription. At which answer the said person lift up his right hand +towards heaven, and drew it softly to his mouth (which is the gesture +they use, when they thank God), and then said: "If ye will swear, all of +you, by the merits of the Saviour, that ye are no pirates; nor have shed +blood, lawfully nor unlawfully, within forty days past; you may have +license to come on land." We said, "We were all ready to take that +oath." Whereupon one of those that were with him, being (as it seemed) a +notary, made an entry of this act. Which done, another of the attendants +of the great person, which was with him in the same boat, after his lord +had spoken a little to him, said aloud: "My lord would have you know, +that it is not of pride, or greatness, that he cometh not aboard your +ship: but for that, in your answer, you declare that you have many sick +amongst you, he was warned by the conservator of health of the city that +he should keep a distance." We bowed ourselves towards him, and +answered: "We were his humble servants; and accounted for great honour +and singular humanity towards us, that which was already done: but hoped +well, that the nature of the sickness of our men was not infectious." So +he returned; and a while after came the notary to us aboard our ship; +holding in his hand a fruit of that country, like an orange, but of +colour between orange-tawny and scarlet: which cast a most excellent +odour. He used it (as it seemed) for a preservative against infection. +He gave us our oath, "By the name of Jesus, and His merits:" and after +told us, that the next day by six of the clock in the morning, we should +be sent to, and brought to the strangers' house (so he called it), where +we should be accommodated of things, both for our whole and for our +sick. So he left us; and when we offered him some pistolets, he +smiling, said, "He must not be twice paid for one labour:" meaning (as I +take it) that he had salary sufficient of the state for his service. For +(as I after learned) they call an officer that taketh rewards +twice-paid. + +The next morning early, there came to us the same officer that came to +us at first with his cane, and told us: "He came to conduct us to the +strangers' house: and that he had prevented the hour, because we might +have the whole day before us for our business. For (said he) if you will +follow my advice, there shall first go with me some few of you, and see +the place, and how it may be made convenient for you: and then you may +send for your sick, and the rest of your number, which ye will bring on +land." We thanked him, and said, "That his care which he took of +desolate strangers, God would reward." And so six of us went on land +with him; and when we were on land, he went before us, and turned to us, +and said, "He was but our servant, and our guide." He led us through +three fair streets; and all the way we went there were gathered some +people on both sides, standing in a row; but in so civil a fashion, as +if it had been, not to wonder at us, but to welcome us; and divers of +them, as we passed by them, put their arms a little abroad, which is +their gesture when they bid any welcome. The strangers' house is a fair +and spacious house, built of brick, of somewhat a bluer colour than our +brick; and with handsome windows, some of glass, some of a kind of +cambric oiled. He brought us first into a fair parlour above stairs, and +then asked us, "What number of persons we were? and how many sick?" We +answered, "We were in all (sick and whole) one and fifty persons, +whereof our sick were seventeen." He desired us to have patience a +little, and to stay till he came back to us, which was about an hour +after; and then he led us to see the chambers which were provided for +us, being in number nineteen. They having cast it (as it seemeth) that +four of those chambers, which were better than the rest, might receive +four of the principal men of our company; and lodge them alone by +themselves; and the other fifteen chambers were to lodge us, two and two +together. The chambers were handsome and cheerful chambers, and +furnished civilly. Then he led us to a long gallery, like a dorture, +where he showed us all along the one side (for the other side was but +wall and window) seventeen cells, very neat ones, having partitions of +cedar wood. Which gallery and cells, being in all forty (many more than +we needed), were instituted as an infirmary for sick persons. And he +told us withal, that as any of our sick waxed well, he might be removed +from his cell to a chamber: for which purpose there were set forth ten +spare chambers, besides the number we spake of before. This done, he +brought us back to the parlour, and lifting up his cane a little (as +they do when they give any charge or command), said to us, "Ye are to +know that the custom of the land requireth, that after this day and +to-morrow (which we give you for removing your people from your ship), +you are to keep within doors for three days. But let it not trouble you, +nor do not think yourselves restrained, but rather left to your rest and +ease. You shall want nothing; and there are six of our people appointed +to attend you for any business you may have abroad." We gave him thanks +with all affection and respect, and said, "God surely is manifested in +this land." We offered him also twenty pistolets; but he smiled, and +only said: "What? Twice paid!" And so he left us. Soon after our dinner +was served in; which was right good viands, both for bread and meat: +better than any collegiate diet that I have known in Europe. We had also +drink of three sorts, all wholesome and good; wine of the grape; a drink +of grain, such as is with us our ale, but more clear; and a kind of +cider made of a fruit of that country; a wonderful pleasing and +refreshing drink. Besides, there were brought in to us great store of +those scarlet oranges for our sick; which (they said) were an assured +remedy for sickness taken at sea. There was given us also a box of small +grey or whitish pills, which they wished our sick should take, one of +the pills every night before sleep; which (they said) would hasten their +recovery. The next day, after that our trouble of carriage and removing +of our men and goods out of our ship was somewhat settled and quiet, I +thought good to call our company together, and when they were assembled, +said unto them, "My dear friends, let us know ourselves, and how it +standeth with us. We are men cast on land, as Jonas was out of the +whale's belly, when we were as buried in the deep; and now we are on +land, we are but between death and life, for we are beyond both the old +world and the new; and whether ever we shall see Europe, God only +knoweth. It is a kind of miracle hath brought us hither, and it must be +little less that shall bring us hence. Therefore in regard of our +deliverance past, and our danger present and to come, let us look up to +God, and every man reform his own ways. Besides we are come here amongst +a Christian people, full of piety and humanity. Let us not bring that +confusion of face upon ourselves, as to show our vices or unworthiness +before them. Yet there is more, for they have by commandment (though in +form of courtesy) cloistered us within these walls for three days; who +knoweth whether it be not to take some taste of our manners and +conditions? And if they find them bad, to banish us straightways; if +good, to give us further time. For these men that they have given us for +attendance, may withal have an eye upon us. Therefore, for God's love, +and as we love the weal of our souls and bodies, let us so behave +ourselves, as we may be at peace with God, and may find grace in the +eyes of this people." Our company with one voice thanked me for my good +admonition, and promised me to live soberly and civilly, and without +giving any the least occasion of offence. So we spent our three days +joyfully, and without care, in expectation what would be done with us +when they were expired. During which time, we had every hour joy of the +amendment of our sick, who thought themselves cast into some divine pool +of healing, they mended so kindly and so fast. + +The morrow after our three days were past, there came to us a new man, +that we had not seen before, clothed in blue as the former was, save +that his turban was white with a small red cross on the top. He had also +a tippet of fine linen. At his coming in, he did bend to us a little, +and put his arms abroad. We of our parts saluted him in a very lowly and +submissive manner; as looking that from him we should receive sentence +of life or death. He desired to speak with some few of us. Whereupon six +of us only stayed, and the rest avoided the room. He said, "I am by +office governor of this house of strangers, and by vocation I am a +Christian priest; and therefore am come to you, to offer you my service, +both as strangers, and chiefly as Christians. Some things I may tell +you, which I think you will not be unwilling to hear. The state hath +given you license to stay on land for the space of six weeks: and let it +not trouble you, if your occasions ask further time, for the law in this +point is not precise; and I do not doubt, but myself shall be able to +obtain for you such further time as shall be convenient. Ye shall also +understand, that the strangers' house is at this time rich, and much +aforehand; for it hath laid up revenue these thirty-seven years: for so +long it is since any stranger arrived in this part; and therefore take +ye no care; the state will defray you all the time you stay. Neither +shall you stay one day the less for that. As for any merchandise you +have brought, ye shall be well used, and have your return, either in +merchandise or in gold and silver: for to us it is all one. And if you +have any other request to make, hide it not; for ye shall find we will +not make your countenance to fall by the answer ye shall receive. Only +this I must tell you, that none of you must go above a karan (that is +with them a mile and a half) from the walls of the city, without special +leave." We answered, after we had looked a while upon one another, +admiring this gracious and parent-like usage, that we could not tell +what to say, for we wanted words to express our thanks; and his noble +free offers left us nothing to ask. It seemed to us, that we had before +us a picture of our salvation in heaven; for we that were a while since +in the jaws of death, were now brought into a place where we found +nothing but consolations. For the commandment laid upon us, we would not +fail to obey it, though it was impossible but our hearts should be +inflamed to tread further upon this happy and holy ground. We added, +that our tongues should first cleave to the roofs of our mouths, ere we +should forget, either this reverend person, or this whole nation, in our +prayers. We also most humbly besought him to accept of us as his true +servants, by as just a right as ever men on earth were bounden; laying +and presenting both our persons and all we had at his feet. He said, he +was a priest, and looked lot a priest's reward; which was our brotherly +love, and the good of our souls and bodies. So he went from us, not +without tears of tenderness in his eyes, and left us also confused with +joy and kindness, saying amongst ourselves, that we were come into a +land of angels, which did appear to us daily, and prevent us with +comforts, which we thought not of, much less expected. + +The next day, about ten of the clock, the governor came to us again, and +after salutations, said familiarly, that he was come to visit us; and +called for a chair, and sat him down; and we being some ten of us (the +rest were of the meaner sort, or else gone abroad), sat down with him; +and when we were set, he began thus: "We of this island of Bensalem +(for so they called it in their language) have this: that by means of +our solitary situation, and of the laws of secrecy, which we have for +our travellers, and our rare admission of strangers; we know well most +part of the habitable world, and are ourselves unknown. Therefore +because he that knoweth least is fittest to ask questions, it is more +reason, for the entertainment of the time, that ye ask me questions, +than that I ask you." We answered, that we humbly thanked him, that he +would give us leave so to do. And that we conceived by the taste we had +already, that there was no worldly thing on earth more worthy to be +known than the state of that happy land. But above all (we said) since +that we were met from the several ends of the world, and hoped assuredly +that we should meet one day in the kingdom of heaven (for that we were +both parts Christians), we desired to know (in respect that land was so +remote, and so divided by vast and unknown seas from the land where our +Saviour walked on earth) who was the apostle of that nation, and how it +was converted to the faith? It appeared in his face, that he took great +contentment in this our question; he said, "Ye knit my heart to you, by +asking this question in the first place: for it showeth that you first +seek the kingdom of heaven: and I shall gladly, and briefly, satisfy +your demand. + +"About twenty years after the ascension of our Saviour it came to pass, +that there was seen by the people of Renfusa (a city upon the eastern +coast of our island, within sight, the night was cloudy and calm), as it +might be some mile in the sea, a great pillar of light; not sharp, but +in form of a column, or cylinder, rising from the sea, a great way up +towards heaven; and on the top of it was seen a large cross of light, +more bright and resplendent than the body of the pillar. Upon which so +strange a spectacle, the people of the city gathered apace together upon +the sands, to wonder; and so after put themselves into a number of +small boats to go nearer to this marvellous sight. But when the boats +were come within about sixty yards of the pillar, they found themselves +all bound, and could go no further, yet so as they might move to go +about, but might not approach nearer; so as the boats stood all as in a +theatre, beholding this light, as an heavenly sign. It so fell out, that +there was in one of the boats one of the wise men of the Society of +Salomon's House; which house or college, my good brethren, is the very +eye of this kingdom, who having a while attentively and devoutly viewed +and contemplated this pillar and cross, fell down upon his face; and +then raised himself upon his knees, and lifting up his hands to heaven, +made his prayers in this manner: + +"'Lord God of heaven and earth; thou hast vouchsafed of thy grace, to +those of our order to know thy works of creation, and true secrets of +them; and to discern (as far as appertaineth to the generations of men) +between divine miracles, works of Nature, works of art and impostures, +and illusions of all sorts. I do here acknowledge and testify before +this people, that the thing we now see before our eyes, is thy finger, +and a true miracle. And forasmuch as we learn in our books, that thou +never workest miracles, but to a divine and excellent end (for the laws +of Nature are thine own laws, and thou exceedest them not but upon great +cause), we most humbly beseech thee to prosper this great sign, and to +give us the interpretation and use of it in mercy; which thou dost in +some part secretly promise, by sending it unto us.' + +"When he had made his prayer, he presently found the boat he was in +movable and unbound; whereas all the rest remained still fast; and +taking that for an assurance of leave to approach, he caused the boat to +be softly and with silence rowed towards the pillar; but ere he came +near it, the pillar and cross of light broke up, and cast itself abroad, +as it were into a firmament of many stars, which also vanished soon +after; and there was nothing left to be seen but a small ark, or chest +of cedar, dry and not wet at all with water, though it swam; and in the +fore-end of it, which was towards him, grew a small green branch of +palm; and when the wise man had taken it with all reverence into his +boat, it opened of itself, and there were found in it a book and a +letter, both written in fine parchment, and wrapped in sindons of linen. +The book contained all the canonical books of the Old and New Testament, +according as you have them (for we know well what the churches with you +receive), and the Apocalypse itself; and some other books of the New +Testament, which were not at that time written, were nevertheless in the +book. And for the letter, it was in these words: + +"'I Bartholomew, a servant of the Highest, and apostle of Jesus Christ, +was warned by an angel that appeared to me in a vision of glory, that I +should commit this ark to the floods of the sea. Therefore I do testify +and declare unto that people where God shall ordain this ark to come to +land, that in the same day is come unto them salvation and peace, and +goodwill from the Father, and from the Lord Jesus.' + +"There was also in both these writings, as well the book as the letter, +wrought a great miracle, conform to that of the apostles, in the +original gift of tongues. For there being at that time, in this land, +Hebrews, Persians, and Indians, besides the natives, every one read upon +the book and letter, as if they had been written in his own language. +And thus was this land saved from infidelity (as the remain of the old +world was from water) by an ark, through the apostolical and miraculous +evangelism of St. Bartholomew." And here he paused, and a messenger +came, and called him forth from us. So this was all that passed in that +conference. + +The next day, the same governor came again to us, immediately after +dinner, and excused himself, saying, "That the day before he was called +from us somewhat abruptly, but now he would make us amends, and spend +time with us, if we held his company and conference agreeable." We +answered, that we held it so agreeable and pleasing to us, as we forgot +both dangers past, and fears to come, for the time we heard him speak; +and that we thought an hour spent with him was worth years of our former +life. He bowed himself a little to us, and after we were set again, he +said, "Well, the questions are on your part." One of our number said, +after a little pause, that there was a matter we were no less desirous +to know than fearful to ask, lest we might presume too far. But +encouraged by his rare humanity towards us (that could scarce think +ourselves strangers, being his vowed and professed servants), we would +take the hardness to propound it; humbly beseeching him, if he thought +it not fit to be answered, that he would pardon it, though he rejected +it. We said, we well observed those his words, which he formerly spake, +that this happy island, where we now stood, was known to few, and yet +knew most of the nations of the world, which we found to be true, +considering they had the languages of Europe, and knew much of our state +and business; and yet we in Europe (notwithstanding all the remote +discoveries and navigations of this last age) never heard any of the +least inkling or glimpse of this island. This we found wonderful +strange; for that all nations have interknowledge one of another, either +by voyage into foreign parts, or by strangers that come to them; and +though the traveller into a foreign country doth commonly know more by +the eye than he that stayeth at home can by relation of the traveller; +yet both ways suffice to make a mutual knowledge, in some degree, on +both parts. But for this island, we never heard tell of any ship of +theirs, that had been seen to arrive upon any shore of Europe; no, nor +of either the East or West Indies, nor yet of any ship of any other +part of the world, that had made return for them. And yet the marvel +rested not in this. For the situation of it (as his lordship said) in +the secret conclave of such a vast sea might cause it. But then, that +they should have knowledge of the languages, books, affairs, of those +that lie such a distance from them, it was a thing we could not tell +what to make of; for that it seemed to us a condition and propriety of +divine powers and beings, to be hidden and unseen to others, and yet to +have others open, and as in a light to them. At this speech the governor +gave a gracious smile and said, that we did well to ask pardon for this +question we now asked, for that it imported, as if we thought this land +a land of magicians, that sent forth spirits of the air into all parts, +to bring them news and intelligence of other countries. It was answered +by us all, in all possible humbleness, but yet with a countenance taking +knowledge, that we knew that he spake it but merrily. That we were apt +enough to think, there was somewhat supernatural in this island, but yet +rather as angelical than magical. But to let his lordship know truly +what it was that made us tender and doubtful to ask this question, it +was not any such conceit, but because we remembered he had given a touch +in his former speech, that this land had laws of secrecy touching +strangers. To this he said, "You remember it aright; and therefore in +that I shall say to you, I must reserve some particulars, which it is +not lawful for me to reveal, but there will be enough left to give you +satisfaction. + +"You shall understand (that which perhaps you will scarce think +credible) that about three thousand years ago, or somewhat more, the +navigation of the world (especially for remote voyages) was greater than +at this day. Do not think with yourselves, that I know not how much it +is increased with you, within these threescore years; I know it well, +and yet I say, greater then than now; whether it was, that the example +of the ark, that saved the remnant of men from the universal deluge, +gave men confidence to adventure upon the waters, or what it was; but +such is the truth. The Phoenicians, and especially the Tyrians, had +great fleets; so had the Carthaginians their colony, which is yet +farther west. Toward the east the shipping of Egypt, and of Palestine, +was likewise great. China also, and the great Atlantis (that you call +America), which have now but junks and canoes, abounded then in tall +ships. This island (as appeareth by faithful registers of those times) +had then fifteen hundred strong ships, of great content. Of all this +there is with you sparing memory, or none; but we have large knowledge +thereof. + +"At that time, this land was known and frequented by the ships and +vessels of all the nations before named. And (as it cometh to pass) they +had many times men of other countries, that were no sailors, that came +with them; as Persians, Chaldeans, Arabians, so as almost all nations of +might and fame resorted hither; of whom we have some stirps and little +tribes with us at this day. And for our own ships, they went sundry +voyages, as well to your straits, which you call the Pillars of +Hercules, as to other parts in the Atlantic and Mediterranean Seas; as +to Paguin (which is the same with Cambalaine) and Quinzy, upon the +Oriental Seas, as far as to the borders of the East Tartary. + +"At the same time, and an age after or more, the inhabitants of the +great Atlantis did flourish. For though the narration and description +which is made by a great man with you, that the descendants of Neptune +planted there, and of the magnificent temple, palace, city and hill; and +the manifold streams of goodly navigable rivers, which as so many chains +environed the same site and temple; and the several degrees of ascent, +whereby men did climb up to the same, as if it had been a Scala Coeli; +be all poetical and fabulous; yet so much is true, that the said country +of Atlantis, as well that of Peru, then called Coya, as that of Mexico, +then named Tyrambel, were mighty and proud kingdoms, in arms, shipping, +and riches; so mighty, as at one time, or at least within the space of +ten years, they both made two great expeditions; they of Tyrambel +through the Atlantic to the Mediterranean Sea; and they of Coya, through +the South Sea upon this our island; and for the former of these, which +was into Europe, the same author amongst you, as it seemeth, had some +relation from the Egyptian priest, whom he citeth. For assuredly, such a +thing there was. But whether it were the ancient Athenians that had the +glory of the repulse and resistance of those forces, I can say nothing; +but certain it is there never came back either ship or man from that +voyage. Neither had the other voyage of those of Coya upon us had better +fortune, if they had not met with enemies of greater clemency. For the +king of this island, by name Altabin, a wise man and a great warrior, +knowing well both his own strength and that of his enemies, handled the +matter so, as he cut off their land forces from their ships, and +entoiled both their navy and their camp with a greater power than +theirs, both by sea and land; and compelled them to render themselves +without striking a stroke; and after they were at his mercy, contenting +himself only with their oath, that they should no more bear arms against +him, dismissed them all in safety. But the divine revenge overtook not +long after those proud enterprises. For within less than the space of +one hundred years the Great Atlantis was utterly lost and destroyed; not +by a great earthquake, as your man saith, for that whole tract is little +subject to earthquakes, but by a particular deluge, or inundation; those +countries having at this day far greater rivers, and far higher +mountains to pour down waters, than any part of the old world. But it is +true that the same inundation was not deep, not past forty foot, in most +places, from the ground, so that although it destroyed man and beast +generally, yet some few wild inhabitants of the wood escaped. Birds also +were saved by flying to the high trees and woods. For as for men, +although they had buildings in many places higher than the depth of the +water, yet that inundation, though it were shallow, had a long +continuance, whereby they of the vale that were not drowned perished for +want of food, and other things necessary. So as marvel you not at the +thin population of America, nor at the rudeness and ignorance of the +people; for you must account your inhabitants of America as a young +people, younger a thousand years at the least than the rest of the +world, for that there was so much time between the universal flood and +their particular inundation. For the poor remnant of human seed which +remained in their mountains, peopled the country again slowly, by little +and little, and being simple and a savage people (not like Noah and his +sons, which was the chief family of the earth), they were not able to +leave letters, arts, and civility to their posterity; and having +likewise in their mountainous habitations been used, in respect of the +extreme cold of those regions, to clothe themselves with the skins of +tigers, bears, and great hairy goats, that they have in those parts; +when after they came down into the valley, and found the intolerable +heats which are there, and knew no means of lighter apparel, they were +forced to begin the custom of going naked, which continueth at this day. +Only they take great pride and delight in the feathers of birds, and +this also they took from those their ancestors of the mountains, who +were invited unto it, by the infinite flight of birds, that came up to +the high grounds, while the waters stood below. So you see, by this main +accident of time, we lost our traffic with the Americans, with whom of +all others, in regard they lay nearest to us, we had most commerce. As +for the other parts of the world, it is most manifest that in the ages +following (whether it were in respect of wars, or by a natural +revolution of time) navigation did everywhere greatly decay, and +specially far voyages (the rather by the use of galleys, and such +vessels as could hardly brook the ocean) were altogether left and +omitted. So then, that part of intercourse which could be from other +nations, to sail to us, you see how it hath long since ceased; except it +were by some rare accident, as this of yours. But now of the cessation +of that other part of intercourse, which might be by our sailing to +other nations, I must yield you some other cause. For I cannot say, if I +shall say truly, but our shipping, for number, strength, mariners, +pilots, and all things that appertain to navigation, is as great as +ever; and therefore why we should sit at home, I shall now give you an +account by itself; and it will draw nearer, to give you satisfaction, to +your principal question. + +"There reigned in this island, about 1,900 years ago, a king, whose +memory of all others we most adore; not superstitiously, but as a divine +instrument, though a mortal man: his name was Salomona; and we esteem +him as the lawgiver of our nation. This king had a large heart, +inscrutable for good; and was wholly bent to make his kingdom and people +happy. He therefore taking into consideration how sufficient and +substantive this land was, to maintain itself without any aid at all of +the foreigner; being 5,000 miles in circuit, and of rare fertility of +soil, in the greatest part thereof; and finding also the shipping of +this country might be plentifully set on work, both by fishing and by +transportations from port to port, and likewise by sailing unto some +small islands that are not far from us, and are under the crown and laws +of this state; and recalling into his memory the happy and flourishing +estate wherein this land then was, so as it might be a thousand ways +altered to the worse, but scarce any one way to the better; though +nothing wanted to his noble and heroical intentions, but only (as far as +human foresight might reach) to give perpetuity to that which was in +his time so happily established, therefore amongst his other fundamental +laws of this kingdom he did ordain the interdicts and prohibitions which +we have touching entrance of strangers; which at that time (though it +was after the calamity of America) was frequent; doubting novelties and +commixture of manners. It is true, the like law against the admission of +strangers without license is an ancient law in the kingdom of China, and +yet continued in use. But there it is a poor thing; and hath made them a +curious, ignorant, fearful foolish nation. But our lawgiver made his law +of another temper. For first, he hath preserved all points of humanity, +in taking order and making provision for the relief of strangers +distressed; whereof you have tasted." At which speech (as reason was) we +all rose up, and bowed ourselves. He went on: "That king also still +desiring to join humanity and policy together; and thinking it against +humanity, to detain strangers here against their wills; and against +policy, that they should return, and discover their knowledge of this +estate, he took this course; he did ordain, that of the strangers that +should be permitted to land, as many at all times might depart as many +as would; but as many as would stay, should have very good conditions, +and means to live from the state. Wherein he saw so far, that now in so +many ages since the prohibition, we have memory not of one ship that +ever returned, and but of thirteen persons only, at several times, that +chose to return in our bottoms. What those few that returned may have +reported abroad, I know not. But you must think, whatsoever they have +said, could be taken where they came but for a dream. Now for our +travelling from hence into parts abroad, our lawgiver thought fit +altogether to restrain it. So is it not in China. For the Chinese sail +where they will, or can; which showeth, that their law of keeping out +strangers is a law of pusillanimity and fear. But this restraint of ours +hath one only exception, which is admirable; preserving the good which +cometh by communicating with strangers, and avoiding the hurt: and I +will now open it to you. And here I shall seem a little to digress, but +you will by-and-by find it pertinent. Ye shall understand, my dear +friends, that amongst the excellent acts of that king, one above all +hath the pre-eminence. It was the erection and institution of an order, +or society, which we call Salomon's House; the noblest foundation, as we +think, that ever was upon the earth, and the lantern of this kingdom. It +is dedicated to the study of the works and creatures of God. Some think +it beareth the founder's name a little corrupted, as if it should be +Solomon's House. But the records write it as it is spoken. So as I take +it to be denominate of the king of the Hebrews, which is famous with +you, and no strangers to us; for we have some parts of his works which +with you are lost; namely, that natural history which he wrote of all +plants, from the cedar of Libanus to the moss that groweth out of the +wall; and of all things that have life and motion. This maketh me think +that our king finding himself to symbolize, in many things, with that +king of the Hebrews, which lived many years before him, honoured him +with the title of this foundation. And I am the rather induced to be of +this opinion, for that I find in ancient records, this order or society +is sometimes called Solomon's House, and sometimes the College of the +Six Days' Works; whereby I am satisfied that our excellent king had +learned from the Hebrews that God had created the world, and all that +therein is, within six days: and therefore he instituted that house, for +the finding out of the true nature of all things, whereby God might have +the more glory in the workmanship of them, and men the more fruit in +their use of them, did give it also that second name. But now to come to +our present purpose. When the king had forbidden to all his people +navigation into any part that was not under his crown, he made +nevertheless this ordinance; that every twelve years there should be +set forth out of this kingdom, two ships, appointed to several voyages; +that in either of these ships there should be a mission of three of the +fellows or brethren of Salomon's House, whose errand was only to give us +knowledge of the affairs and state of those countries to which they were +designed; and especially of the sciences, arts, manufactures, and +inventions of all the world; and withal to bring unto us books, +instruments, and patterns in every kind: that the ships, after they had +landed the brethren, should return; and that the brethren should stay +abroad till the new mission, the ships are not otherwise fraught than +with store of victuals, and good quantity of treasure to remain with the +brethren, for the buying of such things, and rewarding of such persons, +as they should think fit. Now for me to tell you how the vulgar sort of +mariners are contained from being discovered at land, and how they that +must be put on shore for any time, colour themselves under the names of +other nations, and to what places these voyages have been designed; and +what places of rendezvous are appointed for the new missions, and the +like circumstances of the practice, I may not do it, neither is it much +to your desire. But thus you see we maintain a trade, not for gold, +silver, or jewels, nor for silks, nor for spices, nor any other +commodity of matter; but only for God's first creature, which was light; +to have light, I say, of the growth of all parts of the world." And when +he had said this, he was silent, and so were we all; for indeed we were +all astonished to hear so strange things so probably told. And he +perceiving that we were willing to say somewhat, but had it not ready, +in great courtesy took us off, and descended to ask us questions of our +voyage and fortunes, and in the end concluded that we might do well to +think with ourselves, what time of stay we would demand of the state, +and bade us not to scant ourselves; for he would procure such time as we +desired. Whereupon we all rose up and presented ourselves to kiss the +skirt of his tippet, but he would not suffer us, and so took his leave. +But when it came once amongst our people, that the state used to offer +conditions to strangers that would stay, we had work enough to get any +of our men to look to our ship, and to keep them from going presently to +the governor, to crave conditions; but with much ado we restrained them, +till we might agree what course to take. + +We took ourselves now for freemen, seeing there was no danger of our +utter perdition, and lived most joyfully, going abroad and seeing what +was to be seen in the city and places adjacent, within our tedder; and +obtaining acquaintance with many of the city, not of the meanest +quality, at whose hands we found such humanity, and such a freedom and +desire to take strangers, as it were, into their bosom, as was enough to +make us forget all that was dear to us in our own countries; and +continually we met with many things, right worthy of observation and +relation; as indeed, if there be a mirror in the world, worthy to hold +men's eyes, it is that country. One day there were two of our company +bidden to a feast of the family, as they call it; a most natural, pious, +and reverend custom it is, showing that nation to be compounded of all +goodness. This is the manner of it; it is granted to any man that shall +live to see thirty persons descended of his body, alive together, and +all above three years old, to make this feast, which is done at the cost +of the state. The father of the family, whom they call the Tirsan, two +days before the feast, taketh to him three of such friends as he liketh +to choose, and is assisted also by the governor of the city or place +where the feast is celebrated, and all the persons of the family, of +both sexes, are summoned to attend him. These two days the Tirsan +sitteth in consultation, concerning the good estate of the family. +There, if there be any discord or suits between any of the family, they +are compounded and appeased. There, if any of the family be distressed +or decayed, order is taken for their relief, and competent means to +live. There, if any be subject to vice, or take ill courses, they are +reproved and censured. So likewise direction is given touching +marriages, and the courses of life which any of them should take, with +divers other the like orders and advices. The governor assisteth to the +end, to put in execution, by his public authority, the decrees and +orders of the Tirsan, if they should be disobeyed, though that seldom +needeth; such reverence and obedience they give to the order of Nature. +The Tirsan doth also then ever choose one man from amongst his sons, to +live in house with him; who is called ever after the Son of the Vine. +The reason will hereafter appear. On the feast day, the father or Tirsan +cometh forth after divine service into a large room where the feast is +celebrated; which room hath an half-pace at the upper end. Against the +wall, in the middle of the half-pace, is a chair placed for him, with a +table and carpet before it. Over the chair is a state, made round or +oval, and it is of ivy; an ivy somewhat whiter than ours, like the leaf +of a silver asp, but more shining; for it is green all winter. And the +state is curiously wrought with silver and silk of divers colours, +broiding or binding in the ivy; and is ever of the work of some of the +daughters of the family; and veiled over at the top, with a fine net of +silk and silver. But the substance of it is true ivy; whereof after it +is taken down, the friends of the family are desirous to have some leaf +or sprig to keep. The Tirsan cometh forth with all his generation or +lineage, the males before him, and the females following him; and if +there be a mother, from whose body the whole lineage is descended, there +is a traverse placed in a loft above on the right hand of the chair, +with a privy door, and a carved window of glass, leaded with gold and +blue; where she sitteth, but is not seen. When the Tirsan is come forth, +he sitteth down in the chair; and all the lineage place themselves +against the wall, both at his back, and upon the return of the +half-pace, in order of their years, without difference of sex, and stand +upon their feet. When he is set, the room being always full of company, +but well kept and without disorder, after some pause there cometh in +from the lower end of the room a Taratan (which is as much as an +herald), and on either side of him two young lads: whereof one carrieth +a scroll of their shining yellow parchment, and the other a cluster of +grapes of gold, with a long foot or stalk. The herald and children are +clothed with mantles of sea-water green satin; but the herald's mantle +is streamed with gold, and hath a train. Then the herald with three +curtsies, or rather inclinations, cometh up as far as the half-pace, and +there first taketh into his hand the scroll. This scroll is the king's +charter, containing gift of revenue, and many privileges, exemptions, +and points of honour, granted to the father of the family; and it is +ever styled and directed, "To such an one, our well-beloved friend and +creditor," which is a title proper only to this case. For they say, the +king is debtor to no man, but for propagation of his subjects; the seal +set to the king's charter is the king's image, embossed or moulded in +gold; and though such charters be expedited of course, and as of right, +yet they are varied by discretion, according to the number and dignity +of the family. This charter the herald readeth aloud; and while it is +read, the father or Tirsan standeth up, supported by two of his sons, +such as he chooseth. Then the herald mounteth the half-pace, and +delivereth the charter into his hand: and with that there is an +acclamation, by all that are present, in their language, which is thus +much, "Happy are the people of Bensalem." Then the herald taketh into +his hand from the other child the cluster of grapes, which is of gold; +both the stalk, and the grapes. But the grapes are daintily enamelled; +and if the males of the family be the greater number, the grapes are +enamelled purple, with a little sun set on the top; if the females, then +they are enamelled into a greenish yellow, with a crescent on the top. +The grapes are in number as many as there are descendants of the family. +This golden cluster the herald delivereth also to the Tirsan; who +presently delivereth it over to that son that he had formerly chosen, to +be in house with him: who beareth it before his father, as an ensign of +honour, when he goeth in public ever after; and is thereupon called the +Son of the Vine. After this ceremony ended the father or Tirsan +retireth; and after some time cometh forth again to dinner, where he +sitteth alone under the state, as before; and none of his descendants +sit with him, of what degree or dignity so ever, except he hap to be of +Salomon's House. He is served only by his own children, such as are +male; who perform unto him all service of the table upon the knee, and +the women only stand about him, leaning against the wall. The room below +his half-pace hath tables on the sides for the guests that are bidden; +who are served with great and comely order; and towards the end of +dinner (which in the greatest feasts with them lasteth never above an +hour and a half) there is an hymn sung, varied according to the +invention of him that composeth it (for they have excellent poesy), but +the subject of it is always the praises of Adam, and Noah, and Abraham; +whereof the former two peopled the world, and the last was the father of +the faithful: concluding ever with a thanksgiving for the nativity of +our Saviour, in whose birth the births of all are only blessed. Dinner +being done, the Tirsan retireth again; and having withdrawn himself +alone into a place, where he maketh some private prayers, he cometh +forth the third time, to give the blessing; with all his descendants, +who stand about him as at the first. Then he calleth them forth by one +and by one, by name as he pleaseth, though seldom the order of age be +inverted. The person that is called (the table being before removed) +kneeleth down before the chair, and the father layeth his hand upon his +head, or her head, and giveth the blessing in these words: "Son of +Bensalem (or daughter of Bensalem), thy father saith it; the man by whom +thou hast breath and life speaketh the word; the blessing of the +everlasting Father, the Prince of Peace, and the Holy Dove be upon thee, +and make the days of thy pilgrimage good and many." This he saith to +every of them; and that done, if there be any of his sons of eminent +merit and virtue, so they be not above two, he calleth for them again, +and saith, laying his arm over their shoulders, they standing: "Sons, it +is well you are born, give God the praise, and persevere to the end." +And withal delivereth to either of them a jewel, made in the figure of +an ear of wheat, which they ever after wear in the front of their +turban, or hat; this done, they fall to music and dances, and other +recreations, after their manner, for the rest of the day. This is the +full order of that feast. + +By that time six or seven days were spent, I was fallen into straight +acquaintance with a merchant of that city, whose name was Joabin. He was +a Jew and circumcised; for they have some few stirps of Jews yet +remaining among them, whom they leave to their own religion. Which they +may the better do, because they are of a far differing disposition from +the Jews in other parts. For whereas they hate the name of Christ, and +have a secret inbred rancour against the people amongst whom they live; +these, contrariwise, give unto our Saviour many high attributes, and +love the nation of Bensalem extremely. Surely this man of whom I speak +would ever acknowledge that Christ was born of a Virgin; and that He was +more than a man; and he would tell how God made Him ruler of the +seraphims, which guard His throne; and they call Him also the Milken +Way, and the Eliah of the Messiah, and many other high names, which +though they be inferior to His divine majesty, yet they are far from the +language of other Jews. And for the country of Bensalem, this man would +make no end of commending it, being desirous by tradition among the Jews +there to have it believed that the people thereof were of the +generations of Abraham, by another son, whom they call Nachoran; and +that Moses by a secret cabala ordained the laws of Bensalem which they +now use; and that when the Messias should come, and sit in His throne at +Hierusalem, the King of Bensalem should sit at His feet, whereas other +kings should keep a great distance. But yet setting aside these Jewish +dreams, the man was a wise man and learned, and of great policy, and +excellently seen in the laws and customs of that nation. Amongst other +discourses one day I told him, I was much affected with the relation I +had from some of the company of their custom in holding the feast of the +family, for that, methought, I had never heard of a solemnity wherein +Nature did so much preside. And because propagation of families +proceedeth from the nuptial copulation, I desired to know of him what +laws and customs they had concerning marriage, and whether they kept +marriage well, and whether they were tied to one wife? For that where +population is so much affected, and such as with them it seemed to be, +there is commonly permission of plurality of wives. To this he said: +"You have reason for to commend that excellent institution of the feast +of the family; and indeed we have experience, that those families that +are partakers of the blessings of that feast, do flourish and prosper +ever after, in an extraordinary manner. But hear me now, and I will tell +you what I know. You shall understand that there is not under the +heavens so chaste a nation as this of Bensalem, nor so free from all +pollution or foulness. It is the virgin of the world; I remember, I have +read in one of your European books, of an holy hermit amongst you, that +desired to see the spirit of fornication, and there appeared to him a +little foul ugly Ethiope; but if he had desired to see the spirit of +chastity of Bensalem, it would have appeared to him in the likeness of a +fair beautiful cherubim. For there is nothing, amongst mortal men, more +fair and admirable than the chaste minds of this people. Know, +therefore, that with them there are no stews, no dissolute houses, no +courtezans, nor anything of that kind. Nay, they wonder, with +detestation, at you in Europe, which permit such things. They say ye +have put marriage out of office; for marriage is ordained a remedy for +unlawful concupiscence; and natural concupiscence seemeth as a spur to +marriage. But when men have at hand a remedy, more agreeable to their +corrupt will, marriage is almost expulsed. And therefore there are with +you seen infinite men that marry not, but choose rather a libertine and +impure single life, than to be yoked in marriage; and many that do +marry, marry late, when the prime and strength of their years is past. +And when they do marry, what is marriage to them but a very bargain; +wherein is sought alliance, or portion, or reputation, with some desire +(almost indifferent) of issue; and not the faithful nuptial union of man +and wife, that was first instituted. Neither is it possible, that those +that have cast away so basely so much of their strength, should greatly +esteem children (being of the same matter) as chaste men do. So likewise +during marriage is the case much amended, as it ought to be if those +things were tolerated only for necessity; no, but they remain still as a +very affront to marriage. The haunting of those dissolute places, or +resort to courtezans, are no more punished in married men than in +bachelors. And the depraved custom of change, and the delight in +meretricious embracements (where sin is turned into art), maketh +marriage a dull thing, and a kind of imposition or tax. They hear you +defend these things, as done to avoid greater evils; as advoutries, +deflowering of virgins, unnatural lust, and the like. But they say, this +is a preposterous wisdom; and they call it Lot's offer, who to save his +guests from abusing, offered his daughters; nay, they say further, that +there is little gained in this; for that the same vices and appetites do +still remain and abound, unlawful lust being like a furnace, that if you +stop the flames altogether it will quench, but if you give it any vent +it will rage; as for masculine love, they have no touch of it; and yet +there are not so faithful and inviolate friendships in the world again +as are there, and to speak generally (as I said before) I have not read +of any such chastity in any people as theirs. And their usual saying is +that whosoever is unchaste cannot reverence himself; and they say that +the reverence of a man's self, is, next religion, the chiefest bridle of +all vices." And when he had said this the good Jew paused a little; +whereupon I, far more willing to hear him speak on than to speak myself; +yet thinking it decent that upon his pause of speech I should not be +altogether silent, said only this; that I would say to him, as the widow +of Sarepta said to Elias: "that he was come to bring to memory our +sins;" and that I confess the righteousness of Bensalem was greater than +the righteousness of Europe. At which speech he bowed his head, and went +on this manner: "They have also many wise and excellent laws, touching +marriage. They allow no polygamy. They have ordained that none do +intermarry, or contract, until a month be past from their first +interview. Marriage without consent of parents they do not make void, +but they mulct it in the inheritors; for the children of such marriages +are not admitted to inherit above a third part of their parents' +inheritance. I have read in a book of one of your men, of a feigned +commonwealth, where the married couple are permitted, before they +contract, to see one another naked. This they dislike; for they think it +a scorn to give a refusal after so familiar knowledge; but because of +many hidden defects in men and women's bodies, they have a more civil +way; for they have near every town a couple of pools (which they call +Adam and Eve's pools), where it is permitted to one of the friends of +the man, and another of the friends of the woman, to see them severally +bathe naked." + +And as we were thus in conference, there came one that seemed to be a +messenger, in a rich huke, that spake with the Jew; whereupon he turned +to me, and said, "You will pardon me, for I am commanded away in haste." +The next morning he came to me again, joyful as it seemed, and said, +"There is word come to the governor of the city, that one of the fathers +of Salomon's House will be here this day seven-night; we have seen none +of them this dozen years. His coming is in state; but the cause of his +coming is secret. I will provide you and your fellows of a good standing +to see his entry." I thanked him, and told him I was most glad of the +news. The day being come he made his entry. He was a man of middle +stature and age, comely of person, and had an aspect as if he pitied +men. He was clothed in a robe of fine black cloth with wide sleeves, and +a cape: his under garment was of excellent white linen down to the foot, +girt with a girdle of the same; and a sindon or tippet of the same about +his neck. He had gloves that were curious, and set with stone; and shoes +of peach-coloured velvet. His neck was bare to the shoulders. His hat +was like a helmet, or Spanish montero; and his locks curled below it +decently; they were of colour brown. His beard was cut round and of the +same colour with his hair, somewhat lighter. He was carried in a rich +chariot, without wheels, litter-wise, with two horses at either end, +richly trapped in blue velvet embroidered; and two footmen on each side +in the like attire. The chariot was all of cedar, gilt and adorned with +crystal; save that the fore-end had panels of sapphires, set in borders +of gold, and the hinder-end the like of emeralds of the Peru colour. +There was also a sun of gold, radiant upon the top, in the midst; and on +the top before a small cherub of gold, with wings displayed. The chariot +was covered with cloth of gold tissued upon blue. He had before him +fifty attendants, young men all, in white satin loose coats up to the +mid-leg, and stockings of white silk; and shoes of blue velvet; and hats +of blue velvet, with fine plumes of divers colours, set round like +hat-bands. Next before the chariot went two men, bare-headed, in linen +garments down to the foot, girt, and shoes of blue velvet, who carried +the one a crosier, the other a pastoral staff like a sheep-hook; neither +of them of metal, but the crosier of balm-wood, the pastoral staff of +cedar. Horsemen he had none, neither before nor behind his chariot; as +it seemeth, to avoid all tumult and trouble. Behind his chariot went all +the officers and principals of the companies of the city. He sat alone, +upon cushions, of a kind of excellent plush, blue; and under his foot +curious carpets of silk of divers colours, like the Persian, but far +finer. He held up his bare hand, as he went, as blessing the people, but +in silence. The street was wonderfully well kept; so that there was +never any army had their men stand in better battle-array than the +people stood. The windows likewise were not crowded, but every one stood +in them, as if they had been placed. When the show was passed, the Jew +said to me, "I shall not be able to attend you as I would, in regard of +some charge the city hath laid upon me for the entertaining of this +great person." Three days after the Jew came to me again, and said, "Ye +are happy men; for the father of Salomon's House taketh knowledge of +your being here, and commanded me to tell you, that he will admit all +your company to his presence, and have private conference with one of +you, that ye shall choose; and for this hath appointed the next day +after to-morrow. And because he meaneth to give you his blessing, he +hath appointed it in the forenoon." We came at our day and hour, and I +was chosen by my fellows for the private access. We found him in a fair +chamber, richly hanged, and carpeted under foot, without any degrees to +the state; he was set upon a low throne richly adorned, and a rich cloth +of state over his head of blue satin embroidered. He was alone, save +that he had two pages of honour, on either hand one, finely attired in +white. His under garments were the like that we saw him wear in the +chariot; but instead of his gown, he had on him a mantle with a cape, of +the same fine black, fastened about him. When we came in, as we were +taught, we bowed low at our first entrance; and when we were come near +his chair, he stood up, holding forth his hand ungloved, and in posture +of blessing; and we every one of us stooped down, and kissed the end of +his tippet. That done, the rest departed, and I remained. Then he warned +the pages forth of the room, and caused me to sit down beside him, and +spake to me thus in the Spanish tongue: + +"God bless thee, my son; I will give thee the greatest jewel I have. For +I will impart unto thee, for the love of God and men, a relation of the +true state of Salomon's House. Son, to make you know the true state of +Salomon's House, I will keep this order. First, I will set forth unto +you the end of our foundation. Secondly, the preparations and +instruments we have for our works. Thirdly, the several employments and +functions whereto our fellows are assigned. And fourthly, the ordinances +and rites which we observe. + +"The end of our foundation is the knowledge of causes, and secret +motions of things; and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire, to +the effecting of all things possible. + +"The preparations and instruments are these. We have large and deep +caves of several depths; the deepest are sunk 600 fathoms; and some of +them are digged and made under great hills and mountains; so that if you +reckon together the depth of the hill, and the depth of the cave, they +are, some of them, above three miles deep. For we find that the depth of +an hill, and the depth of a cave from the flat, is the same thing; both +remote alike from the sun and heaven's beams, and from the open air. +These caves we call the lower region. And we use them for all +coagulations, indurations, refrigerations, and conservations of bodies. +We use them likewise for the imitation of natural mines and the +producing also of new artificial metals, by compositions and materials +which we use and lay there for many years. We use them also sometimes +(which may seem strange) for curing of some diseases, and for +prolongation of life, in some hermits that choose to live there, well +accommodated of all things necessary, and indeed live very long; by whom +also we learn many things. + +"We have burials in several earths, where we put divers cements, as the +Chinese do their porcelain. But we have them in greater variety, and +some of them more fine. We also have great variety of composts and +soils, for the making of the earth fruitful. + +"We have high towers, the highest about half a mile in height, and some +of them likewise set upon high mountains, so that the vantage of the +hill with the tower, is in the highest of them three miles at least. And +these places we call the upper region, account the air between the high +places and the low, as a middle region. We use these towers, according +to their several heights and situations, for insulation, refrigeration, +conservation, and for the view of divers meteors--as winds, rain, snow, +hail; and some of the fiery meteors also. And upon them, in some places, +are dwellings of hermits, whom we visit sometimes, and instruct what to +observe. + +"We have great lakes, both salt and fresh, whereof we have use for the +fish and fowl. We use them also for burials of some natural bodies, for +we find a difference in things buried in earth, or in air below the +earth, and things buried in water. We have also pools, of which some do +strain fresh water out of salt, and others by art do turn fresh water +into salt. We have also some rocks in the midst of the sea, and some +bays upon the shore for some works, wherein is required the air and +vapour of the sea. We have likewise violent streams and cataracts, which +serve us for many motions; and likewise engines for multiplying and +enforcing of winds to set also on divers motions. + +"We have also a number of artificial wells and fountains, made in +imitation of the natural sources and baths, as tincted upon vitriol, +sulphur, steel, brass, lead, nitre, and other minerals; and again, we +have little wells for infusions of many things, where the waters take +the virtue quicker and better than in vessels or basins. And amongst +them we have a water, which we call water of Paradise, being by that we +do it made very sovereign for health and prolongation of life. + +"We have also great and spacious houses, where we imitate and +demonstrate meteors--as snow, hail, rain, some artificial rains of +bodies, and not of water, thunders, lightnings; also generations of +bodies in air--as frogs, flies, and divers others. + +"We have also certain chambers, which we call chambers of health, where +we qualify the air as we think good and proper for the cure of divers +diseases, and preservation of health. + +"We have also fair and large baths, of several mixtures, for the cure of +diseases, and the restoring of man's body from arefaction; and others +for the confirming of it in strength of sinews, vital parts, and the +very juice and substance of the body. + +"We have also large and various orchards and gardens, wherein we do not +so much respect beauty as variety of ground and soil, proper for divers +trees and herbs, and some very spacious, where trees and berries are +set, whereof we make divers kinds of drinks, besides the vineyards. In +these we practise likewise all conclusions of grafting, and inoculating, +as well of wild-trees as fruit-trees, which produceth many effects. And +we make by art, in the same orchards and gardens, trees and flowers, to +come earlier or later than their seasons, and to come up and bear more +speedily than by their natural course they do. We make them also by art +greater much than their nature; and their fruit greater and sweeter, and +of differing taste, smell, colour, and figure, from their nature. And +many of them we so order, as that they become of medicinal use. + +"We have also means to make divers plants rise by mixtures of earths +without seeds, and likewise to make divers new plants, differing from +the vulgar, and to make one tree or plant turn into another. + +"We have also parks, and enclosures of all sorts, of beasts and birds; +which we use not only for view or rareness, but likewise for dissections +and trials, that thereby may take light what may be wrought upon the +body of man. Wherein we find many strange effects: as continuing life in +them, though divers parts, which you account vital, be perished and +taken forth; resuscitating of some that seem dead in appearance, and the +like. We try also all poisons, and other medicines upon them, as well of +chirurgery as physic. By art likewise we make them greater or smaller +than their kind is, and contrariwise dwarf them and stay their growth; +we make them more fruitful and bearing than their kind is, and +contrariwise barren and not generative. Also we make them differ in +colour, shape, activity, many ways. We find means to make commixtures +and copulations of divers kinds, which have produced many new kinds, and +them not barren, as the general opinion is. We make a number of kinds of +serpents, worms, flies, fishes of putrefaction, whereof some are +advanced (in effect) to be perfect creatures, like beasts or birds, and +have sexes, and do propagate. Neither do we this by chance, but we know +beforehand of what matter and commixture, what kind of those creatures +will arise. + +"We have also particular pools where we make trials upon fishes, as we +have said before of beasts and birds. + +"We have also places for breed and generation of those kinds of worms +and flies which are of special use; such as are with you your silkworms +and bees. + +"I will not hold you long with recounting of our brew-houses, +bake-houses, and kitchens, where are made divers drinks, breads, and +meats, rare and of special effects. Wines we have of grapes, and drinks +of other juice, of fruits, of grains, and of roots, and of mixtures with +honey, sugar, manna, and fruits dried and decocted; also of the tears or +wounding of trees, and of the pulp of canes. And these drinks are of +several ages, some to the age or last of forty years. We have drinks +also brewed with several herbs, and roots, and spices; yea, with several +fleshes, and white-meats; whereof some of the drinks are such as they +are in effect meat and drink both, so that divers, especially in age, do +desire to live with them with little or no meat or bread. And above all +we strive to have drinks of extreme thin parts, to insinuate into the +body, and yet without all biting, sharpness, or fretting; insomuch as +some of them put upon the back of your hand, will with a little stay +pass through to the palm, and yet taste mild to the mouth. We have also +waters, which we ripen in that fashion, as they become nourishing, so +that they are indeed excellent drinks, and many will use no other. Bread +we have of several grains, roots, and kernels; yea, and some of flesh, +and fish, dried; with divers kinds of leavings and seasonings; so that +some do extremely move appetites, some do nourish so, as divers do live +of them, without any other meat, who live very long. So for meats, we +have some of them so beaten, and made tender, and mortified, yet without +all corrupting, as a weak heat of the stomach will turn them into good +chilus, as well as a strong heat would meat otherwise prepared. We have +some meats also and bread, and drinks, which taken by men, enable them +to fast long after; and some other, that used make the very flesh of +men's bodies sensibly more hard and tough, and their strength far +greater than otherwise it would be. + +"We have dispensatories or shops of medicines; wherein you may easily +think, if we have such variety of plants, and living creatures, more +than you have in Europe (for we know what you have), the simples, drugs, +and ingredients of medicines, must likewise be in so much the greater +variety. We have them likewise of divers ages, and long fermentations. +And for their preparations, we have not only all manner of exquisite +distillations, and separations, and especially by gentle heats, and +percolations through divers strainers, yea, and substances; but also +exact forms of composition, whereby they incorporate almost as they were +natural simples. + +"We have also divers mechanical arts, which you have not; and stuffs +made by them, as papers, linen, silks, tissues, dainty works of feathers +of wonderful lustre, excellent dyes, and many others, and shops likewise +as well for such as are not brought into vulgar use amongst us, as for +those that are. For you must know, that of the things before recited, +many of them are grown into use throughout the kingdom, but yet, if they +did flow from our invention, we have of them also for patterns and +principals. + +"We have also furnaces of great diversities, and that keep great +diversity of heats; fierce and quick, strong and constant, soft and +mild, blown, quiet, dry, moist, and the like. But above all we have +heats, in imitation of the sun's and heavenly bodies' heats, that pass +divers inequalities, and as it were orbs, progresses, and returns +whereby we produce admirable effects. Besides, we have heats of dungs, +and of bellies and maws of living creatures and of their bloods and +bodies, and of hays and herbs laid up moist, of lime unquenched, and +such like. Instruments also which generate heat only by motion. And +farther, places for strong insulations; and again, places under the +earth, which by nature or art yield heat. These divers heats we use, as +the nature of the operation which we intend requireth. + +"We have also perspective-houses, where we make demonstrations of all +lights and radiations, and of all colours; and out of things uncoloured +and transparent, we can represent unto you all several colours, not in +rainbows, as it is in gems and prisms, but of themselves single. We +represent also all multiplications of light, which we carry to great +distance, and make so sharp, as to discern small points and lines. Also +all colourations of light: all delusions and deceits of the sight, in +figures, magnitudes, motions, colours; all demonstrations of shadows. We +find also divers means, yet unknown to you, of producing of light, +originally from divers bodies. We procure means of seeing objects afar +off, as in the heaven and remote places; and represent things near as +afar off, and things afar off as near; making feigned distances. We have +also helps for the sight far above spectacles and glasses in use; we +have also glasses and means to see small and minute bodies, perfectly +and distinctly; as the shapes and colours of small flies and worms, +grains, and flaws in gems, which cannot otherwise be seen, observations +in urine and blood not otherwise to be seen. We make artificial +rainbows, halos, and circles about light. We represent also all manner +of reflections, refractions, and multiplications of visual beams of +objects. + +"We have also precious stones, of all kinds, many of them of great +beauty and to you unknown; crystals likewise, and glasses of divers +kind; and amongst them some of metals vitrificated, and other materials, +besides those of which you make glass. Also a number of fossils, and +imperfect minerals, which you have not. Likewise loadstones of +prodigious virtue: and other rare stones, both natural and artificial. + +"We have also sound-houses, where we practise and demonstrate all sounds +and their generation. We have harmony which you have not, of +quarter-sounds and lesser slides of sounds. Divers instruments of music +likewise to you unknown, some sweeter than any you have; with bells and +rings that are dainty and sweet. We represent small sounds as great and +deep, likewise great sounds, extenuate and sharp; we make divers +tremblings and warblings of sounds, which in their original are entire. +We represent and imitate all articulate sounds and letters, and the +voices and notes of beasts and birds. We have certain helps, which set +to the ear do further the hearing greatly; we have also divers strange +and artificial echoes, reflecting the voice many times, and as it were +tossing it; and some that give back the voice louder than it came, some +shriller and some deeper; yea, some rendering the voice, differing in +the letters or articulate sound from that they receive. We have all +means to convey sounds in trunks and pipes, in strange lines and +distances. + +"We have also perfume-houses, wherewith we join also practices of taste. +We multiply smells which may seem strange: we imitate smells, making all +smells to breathe out of other mixtures than those that give them. We +make divers imitations of taste likewise, so that they will deceive any +man's taste. And in this house we contain also a confiture-house, where +we make all sweetmeats, dry and moist, and divers pleasant wines, milks, +broths, and salads, far in greater variety than you have. + +"We have also engine-houses, where are prepared engines and instruments +for all sorts of motions. There we imitate and practise to make swifter +motions than any you have, either out of your muskets or any engine that +you have; and to make them and multiply them more easily and with small +force, by wheels and other means, and to make them stronger and more +violent than yours are, exceeding your greatest cannons and basilisks. +We represent also ordnance and instruments of war and engines of all +kinds; and likewise new mixtures and compositions of gunpowder, +wild-fires burning in water and unquenchable, also fire-works of all +variety, both for pleasure and use. We imitate also flights of birds; we +have some degrees of flying in the air. We have ships and boats for +going under water and brooking of seas, also swimming-girdles and +supporters. We have divers curious clocks and other like motions of +return, and some perpetual motions. We imitate also motions of living +creatures by images of men, beasts, birds, fishes, and serpents; we have +also a great number of other various motions, strange for equality, +fineness and subtilty. + +"We have also a mathematical-house, where are represented all +instruments, as well of geometry as astronomy, exquisitely made. + +"We have also houses of deceits of the senses, where we represent all +manner of feats of juggling, false apparitions, impostures and +illusions, and their fallacies. And surely you will easily believe that +we, that have so many things truly natural which induce admiration, +could in a world of particulars deceive the senses if we would disguise +those things, and labour to make them more miraculous. But we do hate +all impostures and lies, insomuch as we have severely forbidden it to +all our fellows, under pain of ignominy and fines, that they do not show +any natural work or thing adorned or swelling, but only pure as it is, +and without all affectation of strangeness. + +"These are, my son, the riches of Salomon's House. + +"For the several employments and offices of our fellows, we have twelve +that sail into foreign countries under the names of other nations (for +our own we conceal), who bring us the books and abstracts, and patterns +of experiments of all other parts. These we call merchants of light. + +"We have three that collect the experiments which are in all books. +These we call deprepators. + +"We have three that collect the experiments of all mechanical arts, and +also of liberal sciences, and also of practices which are not brought +into arts. These we call mystery-men. + +"We have three that try new experiments. + +"Such as themselves think good. These we call pioneers or miners. + +"We have three that draw the experiments of the former four into titles +and tables, to give the better light for the drawing of observations and +axioms out of them. These we call compilers. We have three that bend +themselves, looking into the experiments of their fellows, and cast +about how to draw out of them things of use and practice for man's life +and knowledge, as well for works as for plain demonstration of causes, +means of natural divinations, and the easy and clear discovery of the +virtues and parts of bodies. These we call dowry-men or benefactors. + +"Then after divers meetings and consults of our whole number, to +consider of the former labours and collections, we have three that take +care out of them to direct new experiments, of a higher light, more +penetrating into Nature than the former. These we call lamps. + +"We have three others that do execute the experiment so directed, and +report them. These we call inoculators. + +"Lastly, we have three that raise the former discoveries by experiments +into greater observations, axioms, and aphorisms. These we call +interpreters of Nature. + +"We have also, as you must think, novices and apprentices, that the +succession of the former employed men do not fail; besides a great +number of servants and attendants, men and women. And this we do also: +we have consultations, which of the inventions and experiences which we +have discovered shall be published, and which not: and take all an oath +of secrecy for the concealing of those which we think fit to keep +secret: though some of those we do reveal sometime to the state, and +some not. + +"For our ordinances and rites, we have two very long and fair galleries: +in one of these we place patterns and samples of all manner of the more +rare and excellent inventions: in the other we place the statues of all +principal inventors. There we have the statue of your Columbus, that +discovered the West Indies: also the inventor of ships: your Monk that +was the inventor of ordnance and of gunpowder: the inventor of music: +the inventor of letters: the inventor of printing: the inventor of +observations of astronomy: the inventor of works in metal: the inventor +of glass: the inventor of silk of the worm: the inventor of wine: the +inventor of corn and bread: the inventor of sugars; and all these by +more certain tradition than you have. Then we have divers inventors of +our own, of excellent works; which since you have not seen, it were too +long to make descriptions of them; and besides, in the right +understanding of those descriptions you might easily err. For upon every +invention of value we erect a statue to the inventor, and give him a +liberal and honourable reward. These statues are some of brass, some of +marble and touchstone, some of cedar and other special woods gilt and +adorned; some of iron, some of silver, some of gold. + +"We have certain hymns and services, which we say daily, of laud and +thanks to God for His marvellous works. And forms of prayers, imploring +His aid and blessing for the illumination of our labours; and turning +them into good and holy uses. + +"Lastly, we have circuits or visits, of divers principal cities of the +kingdom; where as it cometh to pass we do publish such new profitable +inventions as we think good. And we do also declare natural divinations +of diseases, plagues, swarms of hurtful creatures, scarcity, tempest, +earthquakes, great inundations, comets, temperature of the year, and +divers other things; and we give counsel thereupon, what the people +shall do for the prevention and remedy of them." + +And when he had said this, he stood up; and I, as I had been taught, +knelt down; and he laid his right hand upon my head, and said, "God +bless thee, my son, and God bless this relation which I have made. I +give thee leave to publish it, for the good of other nations; for we +here are in God's bosom, a land unknown." And so he left me; having +assigned a value of about two thousand ducats for a bounty to me and my +fellows. For they give great largesses, where they come, upon all +occasions. + + +THE REST WAS NOT PERFECTED. + + + + +CAMPANELLA'S + +CITY OF THE SUN. + + + + +THE CITY OF THE SUN. + +_A Poetical Dialogue between a Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitallers +and a Genoese Sea-captain, his guest._ + +_G.M._ Prithee, now, tell me what happened to you during that voyage? + +_Capt._ I have already told you how I wandered over the whole earth. In +the course of my journeying I came to Taprobane, and was compelled to go +ashore at a place, where through fear of the inhabitants I remained in a +wood. When I stepped out of this I found myself on a large plain +immediately under the equator. + +_G.M._ And what befell you here? + +_Capt._ I came upon a large crowd of men and armed women, many of whom +did not understand our language, and they conducted me forthwith to the +City of the Sun. + +_G.M._ Tell me after what plan this city is built and how it is +governed? + +_Capt._ The greater part of the city is built upon a high hill, which +rises from an extensive plain, but several of its circles extend for +some distance beyond the base of the hill, which is of such a size that +the diameter of the city is upwards of two miles, so that its +circumference becomes about seven. On account of the humped shape of the +mountain, however, the diameter of the city is really more than if it +were built on a plain. + +It is divided into seven rings or huge circles named from the seven +planets, and the way from one to the other of these is by four streets +and through four gates, that look towards the four points of the +compass. Furthermore, it is so built that if the first circle were +stormed, it would of necessity entail a double amount of energy to storm +the second; still more to storm the third; and in each succeeding case +the strength and energy would have to be doubled; so that he who wishes +to capture that city must, as it were, storm it seven times. For my own +part, however, I think that not even the first wall could be occupied, +so thick are the earthworks and so well fortified is it with +breastworks, towers, guns and ditches. + +When I had been taken through the northern gate (which is shut with an +iron door so wrought that it can be raised and let down, and locked in +easily and strongly, its projections running into the grooves of the +thick posts by a marvellous device), I saw a level space seventy +paces[1] wide between the first and second walls. From hence can be seen +large palaces all joined to the wall of the second circuit, in such a +manner as to appear all one palace. Arches run on a level with the +middle height of the palaces, and are continued round the whole ring. +There are galleries for promenading upon these arches, which are +supported from beneath by thick and well-shaped columns, enclosing +arcades like peristyles, or cloisters of an abbey. + +[Footnote 1: A pace was 1-9/25 yards, 1,000 paces making a mile.] + +But the palaces have no entrances from below, except on the inner or +concave partition, from which one enters directly to the lower parts of +the building. The higher parts, however, are reached by flights of +marble steps, which lead to galleries for promenading on the inside +similar to those on the outside. From these one enters the higher rooms, +which are very beautiful, and have windows on the concave and convex +partitions. These rooms are divided from one another by richly +decorated walls. The convex or outer wall of the ring is about eight +spans thick; the concave, three; the intermediate walls are one, or +perhaps one and a half. Leaving this circle one gets to the second +plain, which is nearly three paces narrower than the first. Then the +first wall of the second ring is seen adorned above and below with +similar galleries for walking, and there is on the inside of it another +interior wall enclosing palaces. It has also similar peristyles +supported by columns in the lower part, but above are excellent +pictures, round the ways into the upper houses. And so on afterwards +through similar spaces and double walls, enclosing palaces, and adorned +with galleries for walking, extending along their outer side, and +supported by columns, till the last circuit is reached, the way being +still over a level plain. + +But when the two gates, that is to say, those of the outmost and the +inmost walls, have been passed, one mounts by means of steps so formed +that an ascent is scarcely discernible, since it proceeds in a slanting +direction, and the steps succeed one another at almost imperceptible +heights. On the top of the hill is a rather spacious plain, and in the +midst of this there rises a temple built with wondrous art. + +_G.M._ Tell on, I pray you! Tell on! I am dying to hear more. + +_Capt._ The temple is built in the form of a circle; it is not girt with +walls, but stands upon thick columns, beautifully grouped. A very large +dome, built with great care in the centre or pole, contains another +small vault as it were rising out of it, and in this is a spiracle, +which is right over the altar. There is but one altar in the middle of +the temple, and this is hedged round by columns. The temple itself is on +a space of more than three hundred and fifty paces. Without it, arches +measuring about eight paces extend from the heads of the columns +outwards, whence other columns rise about three paces from the thick, +strong and erect wall. Between these and the former columns there are +galleries for walking, with beautiful pavements, and in the recess of +the wall, which is adorned with numerous large doors, there are +immovable seats, placed as it were between the inside columns, +supporting the temple. Portable chairs are not wanting, many and well +adorned. Nothing is seen over the altar but a large globe, upon which +the heavenly bodies are painted, and another globe upon which there is a +representation of the earth. Furthermore, in the vault of the dome there +can be discerned representations of all the stars of heaven from the +first to the sixth magnitude, with their proper names and power to +influence terrestrial things marked in three little verses for each. +There are the poles and greater and lesser circles according to the +right latitude of the place, but these are not perfect because there is +no wall below. They seem, too, to be made in their relation to the +globes on the altar. The pavement of the temple is bright with precious +stones. Its seven golden lamps hang always burning, and these bear the +names of the seven planets. + +At the top of the building several small and beautiful cells surround +the small dome, and behind the level space above the bands or arches of +the exterior and interior columns there are many cells, both small and +large, where the priests and religious officers dwell to the number of +forty-nine. + +A revolving flag projects from the smaller dome, and this shows in what +quarter the wind is. The flag is marked with figures up to thirty-six, +and the priests know what sort of year the different kinds of winds +bring and what will be the changes of weather on land and sea. +Furthermore, under the flag a book is always kept written with letters +of gold. + +_G.M._ I pray you, worthy hero, explain to me their whole system of +government; for I am anxious to hear it. + +_Capt._ The great ruler among them is a priest whom they call by the +name HOH, though we should call him Metaphysic. He is head over all, in +temporal and spiritual matters, and all business and lawsuits are +settled by him, as the supreme authority. Three princes of equal +power--viz., Pon, Sin and Mor--assist him, and these in our tongue we +should call POWER, WISDOM and LOVE. To POWER belongs the care of all +matters relating to war and peace. He attends to the military arts, and, +next to Hoh, he is ruler in every affair of a warlike nature. He governs +the military magistrates and the soldiers, and has the management of the +munitions, the fortifications, the storming of places, the implements of +war, the armories, the smiths and workmen connected with matters of this +sort. + +But WISDOM is the ruler of the liberal arts, of mechanics, of all +sciences with their magistrates and doctors, and of the discipline of +the schools. As many doctors as there are, are under his control. There +is one doctor who is called Astrologus; a second, Cosmographus; a third, +Arithmeticus; a fourth, Geometra; a fifth, Historiographus; a sixth, +Poeta; a seventh, Logicus; an eighth, Rhetor; a ninth, Grammaticus; a +tenth, Medicus; an eleventh, Physiologus; a twelfth, Politicus; a +thirteenth, Moralis. They have but one book, which they call Wisdom, and +in it all the sciences are written with conciseness and marvellous +fluency of expression. This they read to the people after the custom of +the Pythagoreans. It is Wisdom who causes the exterior and interior, the +higher and lower walls of the city to be adorned with the finest +pictures, and to have all the sciences painted upon them in an admirable +manner. On the walls of the temple and on the dome, which is let down +when the priest gives an address, lest the sounds of his voice, being +scattered, should fly away from his audience, there are pictures of +stars in their different magnitudes, with the powers and motions of +each, expressed separately in three little verses. + +On the interior wall of the first circuit all the mathematical figures +are conspicuously painted--figures more in number than Archimedes or +Euclid discovered, marked symmetrically, and with the explanation of +them neatly written and contained each in a little verse. There are +definitions and propositions, &c. &c. On the exterior convex wall is +first an immense drawing of the whole earth, given at one view. +Following upon this, there are tablets setting forth for every separate +country the customs both public and private, the laws, the origins and +the power of the inhabitants; and the alphabets the different people use +can be seen above that of the City of the Sun. + +On the inside of the second circuit, that is to say of the second ring +of buildings, paintings of all kinds of precious and common stones, of +minerals and metals, are seen; and a little piece of the metal itself is +also there with an apposite explanation in two small verses for each +metal or stone. On the outside are marked all the seas, rivers, lakes +and streams which are on the face of the earth; as are also the wines +and the oils and the different liquids, with the sources from which the +last are extracted, their qualities and strength. There are also vessels +built into the wall above the arches, and these are full of liquids from +one to three hundred years old, which cure all diseases. Hail and snow, +storms and thunder, and whatever else takes place in the air, are +represented with suitable figures and little verses. The inhabitants +even have the art of representing in stone all the phenomena of the air, +such as the wind, rain, thunder, the rainbow, &c. + +On the interior of the third circuit all the different families of trees +and herbs are depicted, and there is a live specimen of each plant in +earthenware vessels placed upon the outer partition of the arches. With +the specimens there are explanations as to where they were first found, +what are their powers and natures, and resemblances to celestial things +and to metals: to parts of the human body and to things in the sea, and +also as to their uses in medicine, &c. On the exterior wall are all the +races of fish, found in rivers, lakes and seas, and their habits and +values, and ways of breeding, training and living, the purposes for +which they exist in the world, and their uses to man. Further, their +resemblances to celestial and terrestrial things, produced both by +nature and art, are so given that I was astonished when I saw a fish +which was like a bishop, one like a chain, another like a garment, a +fourth like a nail, a fifth like a star, and others like images of those +things existing among us, the relation in each case being completely +manifest. There are sea-urchins to be seen, and the purple shell-fish +and mussels; and whatever the watery world possesses worthy of being +known is there fully shown in marvellous characters of painting and +drawing. + +On the fourth interior wall all the different kinds of birds are +painted, with their natures, sizes, customs, colours, manner of living, +&c.; and the only real phoenix is possessed by the inhabitants of this +city. On the exterior are shown all the races of creeping animals, +serpents, dragons and worms; the insects, the flies, gnats, beetles, +&c., in their different states, strength, venoms and uses, and a great +deal more than you or I can think of. + +On the fifth interior they have all the larger animals of the earth, as +many in number as would astonish you. We indeed know not the thousandth +part of them, for on the exterior wall also a great many of immense size +are also portrayed. To be sure, of horses alone, how great a number of +breeds there is and how beautiful are the forms there cleverly +displayed! + +On the sixth interior are painted all the mechanical arts, with the +several instruments for each and their manner of use among different +nations. Alongside the dignity of such is placed, and their several +inventors are named. But on the exterior all the inventors in science, +in warfare, and in law are represented. There I saw Moses, Osiris, +Jupiter, Mercury, Lycurgus, Pompilius, Pythagoras, Zamolxis, Solon, +Charondas, Phoroneus, with very many others. They even have Mahomet, +whom nevertheless they hate as a false and sordid legislator. In the +most dignified position I saw a representation of Jesus Christ and of +the twelve Apostles, whom they consider very worthy and hold to be +great. Of the representations of men, I perceived Cæsar, Alexander, +Pyrrhus and Hannibal in the highest place; and other very renowned +heroes in peace and war, especially Roman heroes, were painted in lower +positions, under the galleries. And when I asked with astonishment +whence they had obtained our history, they told me that among them there +was a knowledge of all languages, and that by perseverance they +continually send explorers and ambassadors over the whole earth, who +learn thoroughly the customs, forces, rule and histories of the nations, +bad and good alike. These they apply all to their own republic, and with +this they are well pleased. I learnt that cannon and typography were +invented by the Chinese before we knew of them. There are magistrates, +who announce the meaning of the pictures, and boys are accustomed to +learn all the sciences, without toil and as if for pleasure; but in the +way of history only until they are ten years old. + +LOVE is foremost in attending to the charge of the race. He sees that +men and women are so joined together, that they bring forth the best +offspring. Indeed, they laugh at us who exhibit a studious care for our +breed of horses and dogs, but neglect the breeding of human beings. Thus +the education of the children is under his rule. So also is the medicine +that is sold, the sowing and collecting of fruits of the earth and of +trees, agriculture, pasturage, the preparations for the months, the +cooking arrangements, and whatever has any reference to food, clothing, +and the intercourse of the sexes. Love himself is ruler, but there are +many male and female magistrates dedicated to these arts. + +Metaphysic then with these three rulers manage all the above-named +matters, and even by himself alone nothing is done; all business is +discharged by the four together, but in whatever Metaphysic inclines to +the rest are sure to agree. + +_G.M._ Tell me, please, of the magistrates, their services and duties, +of the education and mode of living, whether the government is a +monarchy, a republic, or an aristocracy. + +_Capt._ This race of men came there from India, flying from the sword of +the Magi, a race of plunderers and tyrants who laid waste their country, +and they determined to lead a philosophic life in fellowship with one +another. Although the community of wives is not instituted among the +other inhabitants of their province, among them it is in use after this +manner. All things are common with them, and their dispensation is by +the authority of the magistrates. Arts and honours and pleasures are +common, and are held in such a manner that no one can appropriate +anything to himself. + +They say that all private property is acquired and improved for the +reason that each one of us by himself has his own home and wife and +children. From this self-love springs. For when we raise a son to riches +and dignities, and leave an heir to much wealth, we become either ready +to grasp at the property of the state, if in any case fear should be +removed from the power which belongs to riches and rank; or avaricious, +crafty, and hypocritical, if any one is of slender purse, little +strength, and mean ancestry. But when we have taken away self-love, +there remains only love for the state. + +_G.M._ Under such circumstances no one will be willing to labour, while +he expects others to work, on the fruit of whose labours he can live, as +Aristotle argues against Plato. + +_Capt._ I do not know how to deal with that argument, but I declare to +you that they burn with so great a love for their fatherland, as I could +scarcely have believed possible; and indeed with much more than the +histories tell us belonged to the Romans, who fell willingly for their +country, inasmuch as they have to a greater extent surrendered their +private property. I think truly that the friars and monks and clergy of +our country, if they were not weakened by love for their kindred and +friends, or by the ambition to rise to higher dignities, would be less +fond of property, and more imbued with a spirit of charity towards all, +as it was in the time of the Apostles, and is now in a great many cases. + +_G.M._ St. Augustine may say that, but I say that among this race of +men, friendship is worth nothing; since they have not the chance of +conferring mutual benefits on one another. + +_Capt._ Nay, indeed. For it is worth the trouble to see that no one can +receive gifts from another. Whatever is necessary they have, they +receive it from the community, and the magistrate takes care that no one +receives more than he deserves. Yet nothing necessary is denied to any +one. Friendship is recognized among them in war, in infirmity, in the +art contests, by which means they aid one another mutually by teaching. +Sometimes they improve themselves mutually with praises, with +conversation, with actions and out of the things they need. All those of +the same age call one another brothers. They call all over twenty-two +years of age, fathers; those who are less than twenty-two are named +sons. Moreover, the magistrates govern well, so that no one in the +fraternity can do injury to another. + +_G.M._ And how? + +_Capt._ As many names of virtues as there are amongst us, so many +magistrates there are among them. There is a magistrate who is named +Magnanimity, another Fortitude, a third Chastity, a fourth Liberality, a +fifth Criminal and Civil Justice, a sixth Comfort, a seventh Truth, an +eighth Kindness, a tenth Gratitude, an eleventh Cheerfulness, a twelfth +Exercise, a thirteenth Sobriety, &c. They are elected to duties of that +kind, each one to that duty for excellence in which he is known from +boyhood to be most suitable. Wherefore among them neither robbery nor +clever murders, nor lewdness, incest, adultery, or other crimes of +which we accuse one another, can be found. They accuse themselves of +ingratitude and malignity when any one denies a lawful satisfaction to +another, of indolence, of sadness, of anger, of scurrility, of slander, +and of lying, which curseful thing they thoroughly hate. Accused persons +undergoing punishment are deprived of the common table, and other +honours, until the judge thinks that they agree with their correction. + +_G.M._ Tell me the manner in which the magistrates are chosen. + +_Capt._ You would not rightly understand this, unless you first learnt +their manner of living. That you may know then, men and women wear the +same kind of garment, suited for war. The women wear the toga below the +knee, but the men above. And both sexes are instructed in all the arts +together. When this has been done as a start, and before their third +year, the boys learn the language and the alphabet on the walls by +walking round them. They have four leaders, and four elders, the first +to direct them, the second to teach them, and these are men approved +beyond all others. After some time they exercise themselves with +gymnastics, running, quoits, and other games, by means of which all +their muscles are strengthened alike. Their feet are always bare, and so +are their heads as far as the seventh ring. Afterwards they lead them to +the offices of the trades, such as shoemaking, cooking, metal-working, +carpentry, painting, &c. In order to find out the bent of the genius of +each one, after their seventh year, when they have already gone through +the mathematics on the walls, they take them to the readings of all the +sciences; there are four lectures at each reading, and in the course of +four hours the four in their order explain everything. + +For some take physical exercise or busy themselves with public services +or functions, others apply themselves to reading. Leaving these studies +all are devoted to the more abstruse subjects, to mathematics, to +medicine, and to other sciences. There is continual debate and studied +argument amongst them, and after a time they become magistrates of those +sciences or mechanical arts in which they are the most proficient; for +every one follows the opinion of his leader and judge, and goes out to +the plains to the works of the field, and for the purpose of becoming +acquainted with the pasturage of the dumb animals. And they consider him +the more noble and renowned who has dedicated himself to the study of +the most arts and knows how to practise them wisely. Wherefore they +laugh at us in that we consider our workmen ignoble, and hold those to +be noble who have mastered no pursuit; but live in ease, and are so many +slaves given over to their own pleasure and lasciviousness; and thus as +it were from a school of vices so many idle and wicked fellows go forth +for the ruin of the state. + +The rest of the officials, however, are chosen by the four chiefs, Hoh, +Pon, Sin and Mor, and by the teachers of that art over which they are +fit to preside. And these teachers know well who is most suited for +rule. Certain men are proposed by the magistrates in council, they +themselves not seeking to become candidates, and he opposes who knows +anything against those brought forward for election, or if not, speaks +in favour of them. But no one attains to the dignity of Hoh except him +who knows the histories of the nations, and their customs and sacrifices +and laws, and their form of government, whether a republic or a +monarchy. He must also know the names of the lawgivers and the inventors +in science, and the laws and the history of the earth and the heavenly +bodies. They think it also necessary that he should understand all the +mechanical arts, the physical sciences, astrology and mathematics. +(Nearly every two days they teach our mechanical art. They are not +allowed to overwork themselves, but frequent practice and the paintings +render learning easy to them. Not too much care is given to the +cultivation of languages, as they have a goodly number of interpreters +who are grammarians in the state.) But beyond everything else it is +necessary that Hoh should understand metaphysics and theology; that he +should know thoroughly the derivations, foundations and demonstrations +of all the arts and sciences; the likeness and difference of things; +necessity, fate, and the harmonies of the universe; power, wisdom, and +the love of things and of God; the stages of life and its symbols; +everything relating to the heavens, the earth and the sea; and the ideas +of God, as much as mortal man can know of Him. He must also be well read +in the Prophets and in astrology. And thus they know long beforehand who +will be Hoh. He is not chosen to so great a dignity unless he has +attained his thirty-fifth year. And this office is perpetual, because it +is not known who may be too wise for it or who too skilled in ruling. + +_G.M._ Who indeed can be so wise? If even any one has a knowledge of the +sciences it seems that he must be unskilled in ruling. + +_Capt._ This very question I asked them and they replied thus: "We, +indeed, are more certain that such a very learned man has the knowledge +of governing, than you who place ignorant persons in authority, and +consider them suitable merely because they have sprung from rulers or +have been chosen by a powerful faction. But our Hoh, a man really the +most capable to rule, is for all that never cruel nor wicked, nor a +tyrant, inasmuch as he possesses so much wisdom. This, moreover, is not +unknown to you, that the same argument cannot apply among you, when you +consider that man the most learned who knows most of grammar, or logic, +or of Aristotle or any other author. For such knowledge as this of yours +much servile labour and memory work is required, so that a man is +rendered unskilful; since he has contemplated nothing but the words of +books and has given his mind with useless result to the consideration of +the dead signs of things. Hence he knows not in what way God rules the +universe, nor the ways and customs of Nature and the nations. Wherefore +he is not equal to our HOH. For that one cannot know so many arts and +sciences thoroughly, who is not esteemed for skilled ingenuity, very apt +at all things, and therefore at ruling especially. This also is plain to +us that he who knows only one science, does not really know either that +or the others, and he who is suited for only one science and has +gathered his knowledge from books, is unlearned and unskilled. But this +is not the case with intellects prompt and expert in every branch of +knowledge and suitable for the consideration of natural objects, as it +is necessary that our HOH should be. Besides in our state the sciences +are taught with a facility (as you have seen) by which more scholars are +turned out by us in one year than by you in ten, or even fifteen. Make +trial, I pray you, of these boys." In this matter I was struck with +astonishment at their truthful discourse and at the trial of their boys, +who did not understand my language well. Indeed it is necessary that +three of them should be skilled in our tongue, three in Arabic, three in +Polish, and three in each of the other languages, and no recreation is +allowed them unless they become more learned. For that they go out to +the plain for the sake of running about and hurling arrows and lances, +and of firing harquebuses, and for the sake of hunting the wild animals +and getting a knowledge of plants and stones, and agriculture and +pasturage; sometimes the band of boys does one thing, sometimes another. + +They do not consider it necessary that the three rulers assisting HOH +should know other than the arts having reference to their rule, and so +they have only a historical knowledge of the arts which are common to +all. But their own they know well, to which certainly one is dedicated +more than another. Thus POWER is the most learned in the equestrian art, +in marshalling the army, in marking out of camps, in the manufacture of +every kind of weapon and of warlike machines, in planning stratagems, +and in every affair of a military nature. And for these reasons, they +consider it necessary that these chiefs should have been philosophers, +historians, politicians, and physicists. Concerning the other two +triumvirs, understand remarks similar to those I have made about POWER. + +_G.M._ I really wish that you would recount all their public duties, and +would distinguish between them, and also that you would tell clearly how +they are all taught in common. + +_Capt._ They have dwellings in common and dormitories, and couches and +other necessaries. But at the end of every six months they are separated +by the masters. Some shall sleep in this ring, some in another; some in +the first apartment, and some in the second; and these apartments are +marked by means of the alphabet on the lintel. There are occupations, +mechanical and theoretical, common to both men and women, with this +difference, that the occupations which require more hard work, and +walking a long distance, are practised by men, such as ploughing, +sowing, gathering the fruits, working at the threshing-floor, and +perchance at the vintage. But it is customary to choose women for +milking the cows, and for making cheese. In like manner, they go to the +gardens near to the outskirts of the city both for collecting the plants +and for cultivating them. In fact, all sedentary and stationary pursuits +are practised by the women, such as weaving, spinning, sewing, cutting +the hair, shaving, dispensing medicines, and making all kinds of +garments. They are, however, excluded from working in wood and the +manufacture of arms. If a woman is fit to paint, she is not prevented +from doing so; nevertheless, music is given over to the women alone, +because they please the more, and of a truth to boys also. But the women +have not the practice of the drum and the horn. + +And they prepare their feasts and arrange the tables in the following +manner. It is the peculiar work of the boys and girls under twenty to +wait at the tables. In every ring there are the suitable kitchens, +barns, and stores of utensils for eating and drinking, and over every +department an old man and an old woman preside. These two have at once +the command of those who serve, and the power of chastising, or causing +to be chastised, those who are negligent or disobedient; and they also +examine and mark each one, both male and female, who excels in his or +her duties. + +All the young people wait upon the older ones who have passed the age of +forty, and in the evening when they go to sleep the master and mistress +command that those should be sent to work in the morning, upon whom in +succession the duty falls, one or two to separate apartments. The young +people, however, wait upon one another, and that alas! with some +unwillingness. They have first and second tables, and on both sides +there are seats. On one side sit the women, on the other the men; and as +in the refectories of the monks, there is no noise. While they are +eating a young man reads a book from a platform, intoning distinctly and +sonorously, and often the magistrates question them upon the more +important parts of the reading. And truly it is pleasant to observe in +what manner these young people, so beautiful and clothed in garments so +suitable, attend to them, and to see at the same time so many friends, +brothers, sons, fathers and mothers all in their turn living together +with so much honesty, propriety and love. So each one is given a napkin, +a plate, fish, and a dish of food. It is the duty of the medical +officers to tell the cooks what repasts shall be prepared on each day, +and what food for the old, what for the young, and what for the sick. +The magistrates receive the full-grown and fatter portion, and they from +their share always distribute something to the boys at the table who +have shown themselves more studious in the morning at the lectures and +debates concerning wisdom and arms. And this is held to be one of the +most distinguished honours. For six days they ordain to sing with music +at table. Only a few, however, sing; or there is one voice accompanying +the lute and one for each other instrument. And when all alike in +service join their hands, nothing is found to be wanting. The old men +placed at the head of the cooking business and of the refectories of the +servants praise the cleanliness of the streets, the houses, the vessels, +the garments, the workshops and the warehouses. + +They wear white undergarments to which adheres a covering, which is at +once coat and legging, without wrinkles. The borders of the fastenings +are furnished with globular buttons, extended round and caught up here +and there by chains. The coverings of the legs descend to the shoes and +are continued even to the heels. Then they cover the feet with large +socks, or as it were half-buskins fastened by buckles, over which they +wear a half-boot, and besides, as I have already said, they are clothed +with a toga. And so aptly fitting are the garments, that when the toga +is destroyed, the different parts of the whole body are straight-way +discerned, no part being concealed. They change their clothes for +different ones four times in the year, that is when the sun enters +respectively the constellations Aries, Cancer, Libra and Capricorn, and +according to the circumstances and necessity as decided by the officer +of health. The keepers of clothes for the different rings are wont to +distribute them, and it is marvellous that they have at the same time as +many garments as there is need for, some heavy and some slight, +according to the weather. They all use white clothing, and this is +washed in each month with lye or soap, as are also the workshops of the +lower trades, the kitchens, the pantries, the barns, the store-houses, +the armories, the refectories and the baths. Moreover, the clothes are +washed at the pillars of the peristyles, and the water is brought down +by means of canals which are continued as sewers. In every street of the +different rings there are suitable fountains, which send forth their +water by means of canals, the water being drawn up from nearly the +bottom of the mountain by the sole movement of a cleverly contrived +handle. There is water in fountains and in cisterns, whither the +rain-water collected from the roofs of the houses is brought through +pipes full of sand. They wash their bodies often, according as the +doctor and master command. All the mechanical arts are practised under +the peristyles, but the speculative are carried on above in the walking +galleries and ramparts where are the more splendid paintings, but the +more sacred ones are taught in the temple. In the halls and wings of the +rings there are solar time-pieces and bells, and hands by which the +hours and seasons are marked off. + +_G.M._ Tell me about their children. + +_Capt._ When their women have brought forth children, they suckle and +rear them in temples set apart for all. They give milk for two years or +more as the physician orders. After that time the weaned child is given +into the charge of the mistresses, if it is a female, and to the +masters, if it is a male. And then with other young children they are +pleasantly instructed in the alphabet, and in the knowledge of the +pictures, and in running, walking and wrestling; also in the historical +drawings, and in languages; and they are adorned with a suitable garment +of different colours. After their sixth year they are taught natural +science, and then the mechanical sciences. The men who are weak in +intellect are sent to farms, and when they have become more proficient +some of them are received into the state. And those of the same age and +born under the same constellation are especially like one another in +strength and in appearance, and hence arises much lasting concord in the +state, these men honouring one another with mutual love and help. Names +are given to them by Metaphysicus, and that not by chance but +designedly, and according to each one's peculiarity, as was the custom +among the ancient Romans. Wherefore one is called Beautiful (_Pulcher_), +another the Big-nosed (_Naso_), another the Fat-legged (_Cranipes_) +another Crooked (_Torvus_) another Lean (_Macer_) and so on. But when +they have become very skilled in their professions and done any great +deed in war or in time of peace, a cognomen from art is given to them, +such as Beautiful, the great painter (_Pulcher_, _Pictor Magnus_), the +golden one (_Aureus_) the excellent one (_Excellens_) or the strong +(_Strenuus_); or from their deeds, such as Naso the Brave (_Nason +Fortis_) or the cunning, or the great, or very great conqueror; or from +the enemy any one has overcome, Africanus, Asiaticus, Etruscus; or if +any one has overcome Manfred or Tortelius, he is called Macer Manfred or +Tortelius, and so on. All these cognomens are added by the higher +magistrates, and very often with a crown suitable to the deed or art, +and with the flourish of music. For gold and silver is reckoned of +little value among them except as material for their vessels and +ornaments, which are common to all. + +_G.M._ Tell me, I pray you, is there no jealousy among them or +disappointment to that one who has not been elected to a magistracy, or +to any other dignity to which he aspires? + +_Capt._ Certainly not. For no one wants either necessaries or luxuries. +Moreover, the race is managed for the good of the commonwealth and not +of private individuals, and the magistrates must be obeyed. They deny +what we hold--viz., that it is natural to man to recognize his offspring +and to educate them, and to use his wife and house and children as his +own. For they say that children are bred for the preservation of the +species and not for individual pleasure, as St. Thomas also asserts. +Therefore the breeding of children has reference to the commonwealth and +not to individuals, except in so far as they are constituents of the +commonwealth. And since individuals for the most part bring forth +children wrongly and educate them wrongly, they consider that they +remove destruction from the state, and therefore, for this reason, with +most sacred fear, they commit the education of the children, who as it +were are the element of the republic, to the care of magistrates; for +the safety of the community is not that of a few. And thus they +distribute male and female breeders of the best natures according to +philosophical rules. Plato thinks that this distribution ought to be +made by lot, lest some men seeing that they are kept away from the +beautiful women, should rise up with anger and hatred against the +magistrates; and he thinks further that those who do not deserve +cohabitation with the more beautiful women, should be deceived whilst +the lots are being led out of the city by the magistrates, so that at +all times the women who are suitable should fall to their lot, not those +whom they desire. This shrewdness, however, is not necessary among the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun. For with them deformity is unknown. +When the women are exercised they get a clear complexion, and become +strong of limb, tall and agile, and with them beauty consists in +tallness and strength. Therefore, if any woman dyes her face, so that it +may become beautiful, or uses high-heeled boots so that she may appear +tall, or garments with trains to cover her wooden shoes, she is +condemned to capital punishment. But if the women should even desire +them, they have no facility for doing these things. For who indeed would +give them this facility? Further, they assert that among us abuses of +this kind arise from the leisure and sloth of women. By these means they +lose their colour and have pale complexions, and become feeble and +small. For this reason they are without proper complexions, use high +sandals, and become beautiful not from strength, but from slothful +tenderness. And thus they ruin their own tempers and natures, and +consequently those of their offspring. Furthermore, if at any time a man +is taken captive with ardent love for a certain woman, the two are +allowed to converse and joke together, and to give one another garlands +of flowers or leaves, and to make verses. But if the race is endangered, +by no means is further union between them permitted. Moreover, the love +born of eager desire is not known among them; only that born of +friendship. + +Domestic affairs and partnerships are of little account, because, +excepting the sign of honour, each one receives what he is in need of. +To the heroes and heroines of the republic, it is customary to give the +pleasing gifts of honour, beautiful wreaths, sweet food or splendid +clothes, while they are feasting. In the daytime all use white garments +within the city, but at night or outside the city they use red garments +either of wool or silk. They hate black as they do dung, and therefore +they dislike the Japanese, who are fond of black. Pride they consider +the most execrable vice, and one who acts proudly is chastised with the +most ruthless correction. Wherefore no one thinks it lowering to wait at +table or to work in the kitchen or fields. All work they call +discipline, and thus they say that it is honourable to go on foot, to do +any act of nature, to see with the eye, and to speak with the tongue; +and when there is need, they distinguish philosophically between tears +and spittle. + +Every man who, when he is told off to work, does his duty, is considered +very honourable. It is not the custom to keep slaves. For they are +enough, and more than enough, for themselves. But with us, alas! it is +not so. In Naples there exists seventy thousand souls, and out of these +scarcely ten or fifteen thousand do any work, and they are always lean +from overwork and are getting weaker every day. The rest become a prey +to idleness, avarice, ill-health, lasciviousness, usury and other vices, +and contaminate and corrupt very many families by holding them in +servitude for their own use, by keeping them in poverty and slavishness, +and by imparting to them their own vices. Therefore public slavery ruins +them; useful works, in the field, in military service and in arts, +except those which are debasing, are not cultivated, the few who do +practise them doing so with much aversion. But in the City of the Sun, +while duty and work is distributed among all, it only falls to each one +to work for about four hours every day. The remaining hours are spent in +learning joyously, in debating, in reading, in reciting, in writing, in +walking, in exercising the mind and body, and with play. They allow no +game which is played while sitting, neither the single die nor dice, nor +chess, nor others like these. But they play with the ball, with the +sack, with the hoop, with wrestling, with hurling at the stake. They +say, moreover, that grinding poverty renders men worthless, cunning, +sulky, thievish, insidious, vagabonds, liars, false witnesses, &c.; and +that wealth makes them insolent, proud, ignorant, traitors, assumers of +what they know not, deceivers, boasters, wanting in affection, +slanderers, &c. But with them all the rich and poor together make up the +community. They are rich because they want nothing, poor because they +possess nothing; and consequently they are not slaves to circumstances, +but circumstances serve them. And on this point they strongly recommend +the religion of the Christians, and especially the life of the Apostles. + +_G.M._ This seems excellent and sacred, but the community of women is a +thing too difficult to attain. The holy Roman Clement says that wives +ought to be common in accordance with the apostolic institution, and +praises Plato and Socrates, who thus teach, but the Glossary interprets +this community with regard to obedience. And Tertullian agrees with the +Glossary, that the first Christians had everything in common except +wives. + +_Capt._ These things I know little of. But this I saw among the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun that they did not make this +exception. And they defend themselves by the opinion of Socrates, of +Cato, of Plato, and of St. Clement but, as you say, they misunderstand +the opinions of these thinkers. And the inhabitants of the solar city +ascribe this to their want of education, since they are by no means +learned in philosophy. Nevertheless, they send abroad to discover the +customs of nations, and the best of these they always adopt. Practice +makes the women suitable for war and other duties. Thus they agree with +Plato, in whom I have read these same things. The reasoning of our +Cajetan does not convince me, and least of all that of Aristotle. This +thing, however, existing among them is excellent and worthy of +imitation--viz., that no physical defect renders a man incapable of +being serviceable except the decrepitude of old age, since even the +deformed are useful for consultation. The lame serve as guards, watching +with the eyes which they possess. The blind card wool with their hands, +separating the down from the hairs, with which latter they stuff the +couches and sofas; those who are without the use of eyes and hands give +the use of their ears or their voice for the convenience of the state, +and if one has only one sense, he uses it in the farms. And these +cripples are well treated, and some become spies, telling the officers +of the state what they have heard. + +_G.M._ Tell me now, I pray you, of their military affairs. Then you may +explain their arts, ways of life and sciences, and lastly their +religion. + +_Capt._ The triumvir, Power, has under him all the magistrates of arms, +of artillery, of cavalry, of foot-soldiers, of architects, and of +strategists, and the masters and many of the most excellent workmen obey +the magistrates, the men of each art paying allegiance to their +respective chiefs. Moreover, Power is at the head of all the professors +of gymnastics, who teach military exercise, and who are prudent +generals, advanced in age. By these the boys are trained after their +twelfth year. Before this age, however, they have been accustomed to +wrestling, running, throwing the weight and other minor exercises, under +inferior masters. But at twelve they are taught how to strike at the +enemy, at horses and elephants, to handle the spear, the sword, the +arrow and the sling; to manage the horse; to advance and to retreat; to +remain in order of battle; to help a comrade in arms; to anticipate the +enemy by cunning; and to conquer. + +The women also are taught these arts under their own magistrates and +mistresses, so that they may be able if need be to render assistance to +the males in battles near the city. They are taught to watch the +fortifications lest at some time a hasty attack should suddenly be made. +In this respect they praise the Spartans and Amazons. The women know +well also how to let fly fiery balls, and how to make them from lead; +how to throw stones from pinnacles and to go in the way of an attack. +They are accustomed also to give up wine unmixed altogether, and that +one is punished most severely who shows any fear. + +The inhabitants of the City of the Sun do not fear death, because they +all believe that the soul is immortal, and that when it has left the +body it is associated with other spirits, wicked or good, according to +the merits of this present life. Although they are partly followers of +Bramah and Pythagoras, they do not believe in the transmigration of +souls, except in some cases, by a distinct decree of God. They do not +abstain from injuring an enemy of the republic and of religion, who is +unworthy of pity. During the second month the army is reviewed, and +every day there is practice of arms, either in the cavalry plain or +within the walls. Nor are they ever without lectures on the science of +war. They take care that the accounts of Moses, of Joshua, of David, of +Judas Maccabeus, of Cæsar, of Alexander, of Scipio, of Hannibal, and +other great soldiers should be read. And then each one gives his own +opinion as to whether these generals acted well or ill, usefully or +honourably, and then the teacher answers and says who are right. + +_G.M._ With whom do they wage war, and for what reasons, since they are +so prosperous? + +_Capt._ Wars might never occur, nevertheless they are exercised in +military tactics and in hunting, lest perchance they should become +effeminate and unprepared for any emergency. Besides there are four +kingdoms in the island, which are very envious of their prosperity, for +this reason that the people desire to live after the manner of the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun, and to be under their rule rather +than that of their own kings. Wherefore the state often makes war upon +these because, being neighbours, they are usurpers and live impiously, +since they have not an object of worship and do not observe the religion +of other nations or of the Brahmins. And other nations of India, to +which formerly they were subject, rise up as it were in rebellion, as +also do the Taprobanese, whom they wanted to join them at first. The +warriors of the City of the Sun, however, are always the victors. As +soon as they suffered from insult or disgrace or plunder, or when their +allies have been harassed, or a people have been oppressed by a tyrant +of the state (for they are always the advocates of liberty), they go +immediately to the council for deliberation. After they have knelt in +the presence of God that He might inspire their consultation, they +proceed to examine the merits of the business, and thus war is decided +on. Immediately after a priest, whom they call Forensic, is sent away. +He demands from the enemy the restitution of the plunder, asks that the +allies should be freed from oppression, or that the tyrant should be +deposed. If they deny these things war is declared by invoking the +vengeance of God--the God of Sabaoth--for destruction of those who +maintain an unjust cause. But if the enemy refuse to reply, the priest +gives him the space of one hour for his answer, if he is a king, but +three if it is a republic, so that they cannot escape giving a response. +And in this manner is war undertaken against the insolent enemies of +natural rights and of religion. When war has been declared, the deputy +of Power performs everything, but Power, like the Roman dictator, plans +and wills everything, so that hurtful tardiness may be avoided. And when +anything of great moment arises he consults Hoh and Wisdom and Love. + +Before this, however, the occasion of war and the justice of making an +expedition is declared by a herald in the great council. All from twenty +years and upwards are admitted to this council, and thus the necessaries +are agreed upon. All kinds of weapons stand in the armories, and these +they use often in sham fights. The exterior walls of each ring are full +of guns prepared by their labours, and they have other engines for +hurling which are called cannons, and which they take into battle upon +mules and asses and carriages. When they have arrived in an open plain +they enclose in the middle the provisions, engines of war, chariots, +ladders and machines and all fight courageously. Then each one returns +to the standards, and the enemy thinking that they are giving and +preparing to flee, are deceived and relax their order: then the warriors +of the City of the Sun, wheeling into wings and columns on each side, +regain their breath and strength, and ordering the artillery to +discharge their bullets they resume the fight against a disorganized +host. And they observe many ruses of this kind. They overcome all +mortals with their stratagems and engines. Their camp is fortified after +the manner of the Romans. They pitch their tents and fortify with wall +and ditch with wonderful quickness. The masters of works, of engines and +hurling machines, stand ready, and the soldiers understand the use of +the spade and the axe. + +Five, eight, or ten leaders learned in the order of battle and in +strategy consult together concerning the business of war, and command +their bands after consultation. It is their wont to take out with them +a body of boys, armed and on horses, so that they may learn to fight, +just as the whelps of lions and wolves are accustomed to blood. And +these in time of danger betake themselves to a place of safety, along +with many armed women. After the battle the women and boys soothe and +relieve the pain of the warriors, and wait upon them and encourage them +with embraces and pleasant words. How wonderful a help is this! For the +soldiers, in order that they may acquit themselves as sturdy men in the +eyes of their wives and offspring, endure hardships, and so love makes +them conquerors. He who in the fight first scales the enemy's walls +receives after the battle a crown of grass, as a token of honour, and at +the presentation the women and boys applaud loudly; that one who affords +aid to an ally gets a civic crown of oak-leaves; he who kills a tyrant +dedicates his arms in the temple and receives from Hoh the cognomen of +his deed, and other warriors obtain other kinds of crowns. Every +horse-soldier carries a spear and two strongly tempered pistols, narrow +at the mouth, hanging from his saddle. And to get the barrels of their +pistols narrow they pierce the metal which they intend to convert into +arms. Further, every cavalry soldier has a sword and a dagger. But the +rest, who form the light-armed troops, carry a metal cudgel. For if the +foe cannot pierce their metal for pistols and cannot make swords, they +attack him with clubs, shatter and overthrow him. Two chains of six +spans length hang from the club, and at the end of these are iron balls, +and when these aimed at the enemy they surround his neck and drag him to +the ground; and in order that they may be able to use the club more +easily, they do not hold the reins with their hands, but use them by +means of the feet. If perchance the reins are interchanged above the +trappings of the saddle, the ends are fastened to the stirrups with +buckles and not to the feet. And the stirrups have an arrangement for +swift movement of the bridle, so that they draw in or let out the rein +with marvellous celerity. With the right foot they turn the horse to the +left and with the left to the right. This secret, moreover, is not known +to the Tartars. For, although they govern the reins with their feet, +they are ignorant nevertheless of turning them and drawing them in and +letting them out by means of the block of the stirrups. The light-armed +cavalry with them are the first to engage in battle, then the men +forming the phalanx with their spears, then the archers for whose +services a great price is paid, and who are accustomed to fight in lines +crossing one another as the threads of cloth, some rushing forward in +their turn and others receding. They have a band of lancers +strengthening the line of battle, but they make trial of the swords only +at the end. + +After the battle they celebrate the military triumphs after the manner +of the Romans, and even in a more magnificent way. Prayers by the way of +thank-offerings are made to God, and then the general presents himself +in the temple, and the deeds, good and bad, are related by the poet or +historian, who according to custom was with the expedition. And the +greatest chief, Hoh, crowns the general with laurel and distributes +little gifts and honours to all the valorous soldiers, who are for some +days free from public duties. But this exemption from work is by no +means pleasing to them, since they know not what it is to be at leisure, +and so they help their companions. On the other hand, they who have been +conquered through their own fault, or have lost the victory, are blamed; +and they who were the first to take to flight are in no way worthy to +escape death, unless when the whole army asks their lives, and each one +takes upon himself a part of their punishment. But this indulgence is +rarely granted, except when there are good reasons favouring it. But he +who did not bear help to an ally or friend is beaten with rods. That one +who did not obey orders is given to the beasts, in an enclosure, to be +devoured, and a staff is put in his hand, and if he should conquer the +lions and the bears that are there, which is almost impossible, he is +received into favour again. The conquered states or those willingly +delivered up to them, forthwith have all things in common, and receive a +garrison and magistrates from the City of the Sun, and by degrees they +are accustomed to the ways of the city, the mistress of all, to which +they even send their sons to be taught without contributing anything for +expense. + +It would be too great trouble to tell you about the spies and their +master, and about the guards and laws and ceremonies, both within and +without the state, which you can of yourself imagine. Since from +childhood they are chosen according to their inclination and the star +under which they were born, therefore each one working according to his +natural propensity does his duty well and pleasantly, because naturally. +The same things I may say concerning strategy and the other functions. + +There are guards in the city by day and by night, and they are placed at +the four gates, and outside the walls of the seventh ring, above the +breastworks and towers and inside mounds. These places are guarded in +the day by women, in the night by men. And lest the guard should become +weary of watching, and in case of a surprise, they change them every +three hours, as is the custom with our soldiers. At sunset, when the +drum and symphonia sound, the armed guards are distributed. Cavalry and +infantry make use of hunting as the symbol of war, and practise games +and hold festivities in the plains. Then the music strikes up, and +freely they pardon the offences and faults of the enemy, and after the +victories they are kind to them, if it has been decreed that they should +destroy the walls of the enemy's city and take their lives. All these +things are done on the same day as the victory, and afterwards they +never cease to load the conquered with favours, for they say that there +ought to be no fighting, except when the conquerors give up the +conquered, not when they kill them. If there is a dispute among them +concerning injury or any other matter (for they themselves scarcely ever +contend except in matters of honour), the chief and his magistrates +chastise the accused one secretly, if he has done harm in deeds after he +has been first angry. If they wait until the time of the battle for the +verbal decision, they must give vent to their anger against the enemy, +and he who in battle shows the most daring deeds is considered to have +defended the better and truer cause in the struggle, and the other +yields, and they are punished justly. Nevertheless, they are not allowed +to come to single combat, since right is maintained by the tribunal, and +because the unjust cause is often apparent when the more just succumbs, +and he who professes to be the better man shows this in public fight. + +_G.M._ This is worth while, so that factions should not be cherished for +the harm of the fatherland, and so that civil wars might not occur, for +by means of these a tyrant often arises, as the examples of Rome and +Athens show. Now, I pray you, tell me of their works and matter +connected therewith. + +_Capt._ I believe that you have already heard about their military +affairs and about their agricultural and pastoral life, and in what way +these are common to them, and how they honour with the first grade of +nobility whoever is considered, to have a knowledge of these. They who +are skilful in more arts than these they consider still nobler, and they +set that one apart for teaching the art in which he is most skilful. The +occupations which require the most labour, such as working in metals and +building, are the most praiseworthy amongst them. No one declines to go +to these occupations, for the reason that from the beginning their +propensities are well known, and among them, on account of the +distribution of labour, no one does work harmful to him, but only that +which is necessary for him. The occupations entailing less labour belong +to the women. All of them are expected to know how to swim, and for this +reason ponds are dug outside the walls of the city and within them near +to the fountains. + +Commerce is of little use to them, but they know the value of money, and +they count for the use of their ambassadors and explorers, so that with +it they may have the means of living. They receive merchants into their +states from the different countries of the world, and these buy the +superfluous goods of the city. The people of the City of the Sun refuse +to take money, but in importing they accept in exchange those things of +which they are in need, and sometimes they buy with money; and the young +people in the City of the Sun are much amused when they see that for a +small price they receive so many things in exchange. The old men, +however, do not laugh. They are unwilling that the state should be +corrupted by the vicious customs of slaves and foreigners. Therefore +they do business at the gates, and sell those whom they have taken in +war or keep them for digging ditches and other hard work without the +city, and for this reason they always send four bands of soldiers to +take care of the fields, and with them there are the labourers. They go +out of the four gates from which roads with walls on both sides of them +lead to the sea, so that goods might easily be carried over them and +foreigners might not meet with difficulty on their way. + +To strangers they are kind and polite; they keep them for three days at +the public expense; after they have first washed their feet, they show +them their city and its customs, and they honour them with a seat at the +council and public table, and there are men whose duty it is to take +care of and guard the guests. But if strangers should wish to become +citizens of their state, they try them first for a month on a farm, and +for another month in the city, then they decide concerning them, and +admit them with certain ceremonies and oaths. + +Agriculture is much followed among them; there is not a span of earth +without cultivation, and they observe the winds and propitious stars. +With the exception of a few left in the city all go out armed, and with +flags and drums and trumpets sounding, to the fields, for the purposes +of ploughing, sowing, digging, hoeing, reaping, gathering fruit and +grapes; and they set in order everything, and do their work in a very +few hours and with much care. They use waggons fitted with sails which +are borne along by the wind even when it is contrary, by the marvellous +contrivance of wheels within wheels. + +And when there is no wind a beast draws along a huge cart, which is a +grand sight. + +The guardians of the land move about in the meantime, armed and always +in their proper turn. They do not use dung and filth for manuring the +fields, thinking that the fruit contracts something of their rottenness, +and when eaten gives a short and poor subsistence, as women who are +beautiful with rouge and from want of exercise bring forth feeble +offspring. Wherefore they do not as it were paint the earth, but dig it +up well and use secret remedies, so that fruit is borne quickly and +multiplies, and is not destroyed. They have a book for this work, which +they call the Georgics. As much of the land as is necessary is +cultivated, and the rest is used for the pasturage of cattle. + +The excellent occupation of breeding and rearing horses, oxen, sheep, +dogs and all kinds of domestic and tame animals, is in the highest +esteem among them as it was in the time of Abraham. And the animals are +led so to pair that they may be able to breed well. + +Fine pictures of oxen, horses, sheep, and other animals are placed +before them. They do not turn out horses with mares to feed, but at the +proper time they bring them together in an enclosure of the stables in +their fields. And this is done when they observe that the constellation +Archer is in favourable conjunction with Mars and Jupiter. For the oxen +they observe the Bull, for the sheep the Ram, and so on in accordance +with art. Under the Pleiades they keep a drove of hens and ducks and +geese, which are driven out by the women to feed near the city. The +women only do this when it is a pleasure to them. There are also places +enclosed, where they make cheese, butter, and milk-food. They also keep +capons, fruit and other things, and for all these matters there is a +book which they call the Bucolics. They have an abundance of all things, +since every one likes to be industrious, their labours being slight and +profitable. They are docile, and that one among them who is head of the +rest in duties of this kind they call king. For they say that this is +the proper name of the leaders, and it does not belong to ignorant +persons. It is wonderful to see how men and women march together +collectively, and always in obedience to the voice of the king. Nor do +they regard him with loathing as we do, for they know that although he +is greater than themselves, he is for all that their father and brother. +They keep groves and woods for wild animals, and they often hunt. + +The science of navigation is considered very dignified by them, and they +possess rafts and triremes, which go over the waters without rowers or +the force of the wind, but by a marvellous contrivance. And other +vessels they have which are moved by the winds. They have a correct +knowledge of the stars, and of the ebb and flow of the tide. They +navigate for the sake of becoming acquainted with nations and different +countries and things. They injure nobody, and they do not put up with +injury, and they never go to battle unless when provoked. They assert +that the whole earth will in time come to live in accordance with their +customs, and consequently they always find out whether there be a +nation whose manner of living is better and more approved than the rest. +They admire the Christian institutions and look for a realisation of the +apostolic life in vogue among themselves and in us. There are treaties +between them and the Chinese, and many other nations, both insular and +continental, such as Siam and Calicut, which they are only just able to +explore. Furthermore, they have artificial fires, battles on sea and +land, and many strategic secrets. Therefore they are nearly always +victorious. + +_G.M._ Now it would be very pleasant to learn with what foods and drinks +they are nourished, and in what way and for how long they live. + +_Capt._ Their food consists of flesh, butter, honey, cheese, garden +herbs, and vegetables of various kinds. They were unwilling at first to +slay animals, because it seemed cruel; but thinking afterwards that it +was also cruel to destroy herbs which have a share of sensitive feeling, +they saw that they would perish from hunger unless they did an +unjustifiable action for the sake of justifiable ones, and so now they +all eat meat. Nevertheless, they do not kill willingly useful animals, +such as oxen and horses. They observe the difference between useful and +harmful foods, and for this they employ the science of medicine. They +always change their food. First they eat flesh, then fish, then +afterwards they go back to flesh, and nature is never incommoded or +weakened. The old people use the more digestible kind of food, and take +three meals a day, eating only a little. But the general community eat +twice, and the boys four times, that they might satisfy nature. The +length of their lives is generally one hundred years, but often they +reach two hundred. + +As regards drinking, they are extremely moderate. Wine is never given to +young people until they are ten years old, unless the state of their +health demands it. After their tenth year they take it diluted with +water, and so do the women, but the old men of fifty and upwards use +little or no water. They eat the most healthy things, according to the +time of the year. + +They think nothing harmful which is brought forth by God, except when +there has been abuse by taking too much. And therefore in the summer +they feed on fruits, because they are moist and juicy and cool, and +counteract the heat and dryness. In the winter they feed on dry +articles, and in the autumn they eat grapes, since they are given by God +to remove melancholy and sadness; and they also make use of scents to a +great degree. In the morning, when they have all risen they comb their +hair and wash their faces and hands with cold water. Then they chew +thyme or rock parsley or fennel, or rub their hands with these plants. +The old men make incense, and with their faces to the east repeat the +short prayer which Jesus Christ taught us. After this they go to wait +upon the old men, some go to the dance, and others to the duties of the +state. Later on they meet at the early lectures, then in the temple, +then for bodily exercise. Then for a little while they sit down to rest, +and at length they go to dinner. + +Among them there is never gout in the hands or feet, no catarrh, nor +sciatica, nor grievous colics, nor flatulency, nor hard breathing. For +these diseases are caused by indigestion and flatulency, and by +frugality and exercise they remove every humour and spasm. Wherefore it +is unseemly in the extreme to be seen vomiting or spitting, since they +say that this is a sign either of little exercise or of ignoble sloth, +or of drunkenness or gluttony. They suffer rather from swellings or from +the dry spasm, which they relieve with plenty of good and juicy food. +They heal fevers with pleasant baths and with milk-food, and with a +pleasant habitation in the country and by gradual exercise. Unclean +diseases cannot be prevalent with them because they often clean their +bodies by bathing in wine, and soothe them with aromatic oil, and by +the sweat of exercise they diffuse the poisonous vapour which corrupts +the blood and the marrow. They do suffer a little from consumption, +because they cannot perspire at the breast, but they never have asthma, +for the humid nature of which a heavy man is required. They cure hot +fevers with cold potations of water, but slight ones with sweet smells, +with cheese-bread or sleep, with music or dancing. Tertiary fevers are +cured by bleeding, by rhubarb or by a similar drawing remedy, or by +water soaked in the roots of plants, with purgative and sharp-tasting +qualities. But it is rarely that they take purgative medicines. Fevers +occurring every fourth day are cured easily by suddenly startling the +unprepared patients, and by means of herbs producing effects opposite to +the humours of this fever. All these secrets they told me in opposition +to their own wishes. They take more diligent pains to cure the lasting +fevers, which they fear more, and they strive to counteract these by the +observation of stars and of plants, and by prayers to God. Fevers +recurring every fifth, sixth, eighth or more days, you never find +whenever heavy humours are wanting. + +They use baths, and moreover they have warm ones according to the Roman +custom, and they make use also of olive oil. They have found out, too, a +great many secret cures for the preservation of cleanliness and health. +And in other ways they labour to cure the epilepsy, with which they are +often troubled. + +_G.M._ A sign this disease is of wonderful cleverness, for from it +Hercules, Scotus, Socrates, Callimachus, and Mahomet have suffered. + +_Capt._ They cure by means of prayers to heaven, by strengthening the +head, by acids, by planned gymnastics, and with fat cheese-bread +sprinkled with the flour of wheaten corn. They are very skilled in +making dishes, and in them they put spice, honey, butter and many highly +strengthening spices, and they temper their richness with acids, so that +they never vomit. They do not drink ice-cold drinks nor artificial hot +drinks, as the Chinese do; for they are not without aid against the +humours of the body, on account of the help they get from the natural +heat of the water; but they strengthen it with crushed garlic, with +vinegar, with wild thyme, with mint, and with basil, in the summer or in +time of special heaviness. They know also a secret for renovating life +after about the seventieth year, and for ridding it of affliction, and +this they do by a pleasing and indeed wonderful art. + +_G.M._ Thus far you have said nothing concerning their sciences and +magistrates. + +_Capt._ Undoubtedly I have. But since you are so curious I will add +more. Both when it is new moon and full moon they call a council after a +sacrifice. To this all from twenty years upwards are admitted, and each +one is asked separately to say what is wanting in the state, and which +of the magistrates have discharged their duties rightly and which +wrongly. Then after eight days all the magistrates assemble, to wit, Hoh +first, and with him Power, Wisdom and Love. Each one of the three last +has three magistrates under him, making in all thirteen, and they +consider the affairs of the arts pertaining to each one of them; Power, +of war; Wisdom, of the sciences; Love, of food, clothing, education and +breeding. The masters of all the bands, who are captains of tens, of +fifties, of hundreds, also assemble, the women first and then the men. +They argue about those things which are for the welfare of the state, +and they choose the magistrates from among those who have already been +named in the great council. In this manner they assemble daily, Hoh and +his three princes, and they correct, confirm and execute the matters +passing to them, as decisions in the elections; other necessary +questions they provide of themselves. They do not use lots unless when +they are altogether doubtful how to decide. The eight magistrates under +Hoh, Power, Wisdom and Love are changed according to the wish of the +people, but the first four are never changed, unless they, taking +counsel with themselves, give up the dignity of one to another, whom +among them they know to be wiser, more renowned, and more nearly +perfect. And then they are obedient and honourable, since they yield +willingly to the wiser man and are taught by him. This, however, rarely +happens. The principals of the sciences, except Metaphysics, who is Hoh +himself, and is as it were the architect of all science, having rule +over all, are attached to Wisdom. Hoh is ashamed to be ignorant of any +possible thing. Under Wisdom therefore is Grammar, Logic, Physics, +Medicine, Astrology, Astronomy, Geometry, Cosmography, Music, +Perspective, Arithmetic, Poetry, Rhetoric, Painting, Sculpture. Under +the triumvir Love are Breeding, Agriculture, Education, Medicine, +Clothing, Pasturage, Coining. + +_G.M._ What about their judges? + +_Capt._ This is the point I was just thinking of explaining. Everyone is +judged by the first master of his trade, and thus all the head +artificers are judges. They punish with exile, with flogging, with +blame, with deprivation of the common table, with exclusion from the +church and from the company of women. When there is a case in which +great injury has been done, it is punished with death, and they repay an +eye with an eye, a nose for a nose, a tooth for a tooth, and so on, +according to the law of retaliation. If the offence is wilful the +council decides. When there is strife and it takes place undesignedly, +the sentence is mitigated; nevertheless, not by the judge but by the +triumvirate, from whom even it may be referred to Hoh, not on account of +justice but of mercy, for Hoh is able to pardon. They have no prisons, +except one tower for shutting up rebellious enemies, and there is no +written statement of a case, which we commonly call a lawsuit. But the +accusation and witnesses are produced in the presence of the judge and +Power; the accused person makes his defence, and he is immediately +acquitted or condemned by the judge; and if he appeals to the +triumvirate, on the following day he is acquitted of condemned. On the +third day he is dismissed through the mercy and clemency of Hoh, or +receives the inviolable rigour of his sentence. An accused person is +reconciled to his accuser and to his witnesses, as it were, with the +medicine of his complaint, that is, with embracing and kissing. No one +is killed or stoned unless by the hands of the people, the accuser and +the witnesses beginning first. For they have no executioners and +lictors, lest the state should sink into ruin. The choice of death is +given to the rest of the people, who enclose the lifeless remains in +little bags and burn them by the application of fire, while exhorters +are present for the purpose of advising concerning a good death. +Nevertheless, the whole nation laments and beseeches God that His anger +may be appeased, being in grief that it should as it were have to cut +off a rotten member of the state. Certain officers talk to and convince +the accused man by means of arguments until he himself acquiesces in the +sentence of death passed upon him, or else he does not die. But if a +crime has been committed against the liberty of the republic, or against +God, or against the supreme magistrates, there is immediate censure +without pity. These only are punished with death. He who is about to die +is compelled to state in the presence of the people and with religious +scrupulousness the reasons for which he does not deserve death, and also +the sins of the others who ought to die instead of him, and further the +mistakes of the magistrates. If, moreover, it should seem right to the +person thus asserting, he must say why the accused ones are deserving of +less punishment than he. And if by his arguments he gains the victory he +is sent into exile, and appeases the state by means of prayers and +sacrifices and good life ensuing. They do not torture those named by the +accused person, but they warn them. Sins of frailty and ignorance are +punished only with blaming, and with compulsory continuation as +learners under the law and discipline of those sciences or arts against +which they have sinned. And all these things they have mutually among +themselves, since they seem to be in very truth members of the same +body, and one of another. + +This further I would have you know, that if a transgressor, without +waiting to be accused, goes of his own accord before a magistrate, +accusing himself and seeking to make amends, that one is liberated from +the punishment of a secret crime, and since he has not been accused of +such a crime, his punishment is changed into another. They take special +care that no one should invent slander, and if this should happen they +meet the offence with the punishment of retaliation. Since they always +walk about and work in crowds, five witnesses are required for the +conviction of a transgressor. If the case is otherwise, after having +threatened him, he is released after he has sworn an oath as the warrant +of good conduct. Or if he is accused a second or third time, his +increased punishment rests on the testimony of three or two witnesses. +They have but few laws, and these short and plain, and written upon a +flat table, and hanging to the doors of the temple, that is between the +columns. And on single columns can be seen the essences of things +described in the very terse style of Metaphysics--viz., the essences of +God, of the angels, of the world, of the stars, of man, of fate, of +virtue, all done with great wisdom. The definitions of all the virtues +are also delineated here, and here is the tribunal, where the judges of +all the virtues have their seat. The definition of a certain virtue is +written under that column where the judges for the aforesaid virtue sit, +and when a judge gives judgment he sits and speaks thus: O son, thou +hast sinned against this sacred definition of beneficence, or of +magnanimity, or of another virtue, as the case may be. And after +discussion the judge legally condemns him to the punishment for the +crime of which he is accused--viz., for injury for despondency, for +pride, for ingratitude, for sloth, &c. But the sentences are certain and +true correctives, savouring more of clemency than of actual punishment. + +_G.M._ Now you ought to tell me about their priests, their sacrifices, +their religion, and their belief. + +_Capt._ The chief priest is Hoh, and it is the duty of all the superior +magistrates to pardon sins. Therefore the whole state by secret +confession, which we also use, tell their sins to the magistrates, who +at once purge their souls and teach those that are inimical to the +people. Then the sacred magistrates themselves confess their own +sinfulness to the three supreme chiefs, and together they confess the +faults of one another, though no special one is named, and they confess +especially the heavier faults and those harmful to the state. At length +the triumvirs confess their sinfulness to Hoh himself, who forthwith +recognizes the kinds of sins that are harmful to the state, and succours +with timely remedies. Then he offers sacrifices and prayers to God. And +before this he confesses the sins of the whole people, in the presence +of God, and publicly in the temple, above the altar, as often as it had +been necessary that the fault should be corrected. Nevertheless, no +transgressor is spoken of by his name. In this manner he absolves the +people by advising them that they should beware of sins of the aforesaid +kind. Afterwards he offers sacrifice to God, that He should pardon the +state and absolve it of its sins, and to teach and defend it. Once in +every year the chief priests of each separate subordinate state confess +their sins in the presence of Hoh. Thus he is not ignorant of the +wrong-doings of the provinces, and forthwith he removes them with all +human and heavenly remedies. + +Sacrifice is conducted after the following manner: Hoh asks the people +which one among them wishes to give himself as a sacrifice to God for +the sake of his fellows. He is then placed upon the fourth table, with +ceremonies and the offering up of prayers: the table is hung up in a +wonderful manner by means of four ropes passing through four cords +attached to firm pulley-blocks in the small dome of the temple. This +done they cry to the God of mercy, that He may accept the offering, not +of a beast as among the heathen, but of a human being. Then Hoh orders +the ropes to be drawn and the sacrifice is pulled up above to the centre +of the small dome, and there it dedicates itself with the most fervent +supplications. Food is given to it through a window by the priests, who +live around the dome, but it is allowed a very little to eat, until it +has atoned for the sins of the state. There with prayer and fasting he +cries to the God of heaven that He might accept its willing offering. +And after twenty or thirty days, the anger of God being appeased, the +sacrifice becomes a priest, or sometimes, though rarely, returns below +by means of the outer way for the priests. Ever after this man is +treated with great benevolence and much honour, for the reason that he +offered himself unto death for the sake of his country. But God does not +require death. The priests above twenty-four years of age offer praises +from their places in the top of the temple. This they do in the middle +of the night, at noon, in the morning and in the evening, to wit, four +times a day they sing their chants in the presence of God. It is also +their work to observe the stars and to note with the astrolabe their +motions and influences upon human things, and to find out their powers. +Thus they know in what part of the earth any change has been or will be, +and at what time it has taken place, and they send to find whether the +matter be as they have it. They make a note of predictions, true and +false, so that they may be able from experience to predict most +correctly. The priests, moreover, determine the hours for breeding and +the days for sowing, reaping, and gathering the vintage, and are as it +were the ambassadors and intercessors and connection between God and +man. And it is from among them mostly that Hoh is elected. They write +very learned treatises and search into the sciences. Below they never +descend, unless for their dinner and supper, so that the essence of +their heads do not descend to the stomachs and liver. Only very seldom, +and that as a cure for the ills of solitude, do they have converse with +women. On certain days Hoh goes up to them and deliberates with them +concerning the matters which he has lately investigated for the benefit +of the state and all the nations of the world. + +In the temple beneath one priest always stands near the altar praying +for the people, and at the end of every hour another succeeds him, just +as we are accustomed in solemn prayer to change every fourth hour. And +this method of supplication they call perpetual prayer. After a meal +they return thanks to God. Then they sing the deeds of the Christian, +Jewish, and Gentile heroes, and of those of all other nations, and this +is very delightful to them. Forsooth, no one is envious of another. They +sing a hymn to Love, one to Wisdom, and one each to all the other +virtues, and this they do under the direction of the ruler of each +virtue. Each one takes the woman he loves most, and they dance for +exercise with propriety and stateliness under the peristyles. The women +wear their long hair all twisted together and collected into one knot on +the crown of the head, but in rolling it they leave one curl. The men, +however, have one curl only and the rest of their hair around the head +is shaven off. Further, they wear a slight covering, and above this a +round hat a little larger than the size of their head. In the fields +they use caps, but at home each one wears a biretto white, red, or +another colour according to his trade or occupation. Moreover, the +magistrates use grander and more imposing-looking coverings for the +head. + +They hold great festivities when the sun enters the four cardinal points +of the heavens, that is, when he enters Cancer, Libra, Capricorn, and +Aries. On these occasions they have very learned, splendid, and as it +were comic performances. They celebrate also every full and every new +moon with a festival, as also they do the anniversaries of the founding +of the city, and of the days when they have won victories or done any +other great achievement. The celebrations take place with the music of +female voices, with the noise of trumpets and drums, and the firing of +salutations. The poets sing the praises of the most renowned leaders and +the victories. Nevertheless, if any of them should deceive even by +disparaging a foreign hero, he is punished. No one can exercise the +function of a poet who invents that which is not true, and a license +like this they think to be a pest of our world, for the reason that it +puts a premium upon virtue and often assigns it to unworthy persons, +either from fear or flattery, or ambition or avarice. For the praise of +no one is a statue erected until after his death; but whilst he is +alive, who has found out new arts and very useful secrets, or who has +rendered great service to the state either at home or on the +battle-field, his name is written in the book of heroes. They do not +bury dead bodies, but burn them, so that a plague may not arise from +them, and so that they may be converted into fire, a very noble and +powerful thing, which has its coming from the sun and returns to it. And +for the above reasons no chance is given for idolatry. The statues and +pictures of the heroes, however, are there, and the splendid women set +apart to become mothers often look at them. Prayers are made from the +state to the four horizontal corners of the world. In the morning to the +rising sun, then to the setting sun, then to the south, and lastly to +the north; and in the contrary order in the evening, first to the +setting sun, to the rising sun, to the north, and at length to the +south. They repeat but one prayer, which asks for health of body and of +mind, and happiness for themselves and all people, and they conclude it +with the petition "As it seems best to God." The public prayer for all +is long, and it is poured forth to heaven. For this reason the altar is +round and is divided crosswise by ways at right angles to one another. +By these ways Hoh enters after he has repeated the four prayers, and he +prays looking up to heaven. And then a great mystery is seen by them. +The priestly vestments are of a beauty and meaning like to those of +Aaron. They resemble Nature and they surpass Art. + +They divide the seasons according to the revolution of the sun, and not +of the stars, and they observe yearly by how much time the one precedes +the other. They hold that the sun approaches nearer and nearer, and +therefore by ever-lessening circles reaches the tropics and the equator +every year a little sooner. They measure months by the course of the +moon, years by that of the sun. They praise Ptolemy, admire Copernicus, +but place Aristarchus and Philolaus before him. They take great pains in +endeavouring to understand the construction of the world, and whether or +not it will perish, and at what time. They believe that the true oracle +of Jesus Christ is by the signs in the sun, in the moon, and in the +stars, which signs do not thus appear to many of us foolish ones. +Therefore they wait for the renewing of the age, and perchance for its +end. They say that it is very doubtful whether the world was made from +nothing, or from the ruins of other worlds, or from chaos, but they +certainly think that it was made, and did not exist from eternity. +Therefore they disbelieve in Aristotle, whom they consider a logician +and not a philosopher. From analogies, they can draw many arguments +against the eternity of the world. The sun and the stars they, so to +speak, regard as the living representatives and signs of God, as the +temples and holy living altars, and they honour but do not worship them. +Beyond all other things they venerate the sun, but they consider no +created thing worthy the adoration of worship. This they give to God +alone, and thus they serve Him, that they may not come into the power of +a tyrant and fall into misery by undergoing punishment by creatures of +revenge. They contemplate and know God under the image of the Sun, and +they call it the sign of God, His face and living image, by means of +which light, heat, life, and the making of all things good and bad +proceeds. Therefore they have built an altar like to the Sun in shape, +and the priests praise God in the sun and in the stars, as it were His +altars, and in the heavens, His temple as it were; and they pray to good +angels, who are, so to speak, the intercessors living in the stars, +their strong abodes. For God long since set signs of their beauty in +heaven, and of His glory in the Sun. They say there is but one heaven, +and that the planets move and rise of themselves when they approach the +sun or are in conjunction with it. + +They assert two principles of the physics of things below, namely, that +the Sun is the father, and the Earth the mother; the air is an impure +part of the heavens; all fire is derived from the sun. The sea is the +sweat of earth, or the fluid of earth combusted, and fused within its +bowels; but is the bond of union between air and earth, as the blood is +of the spirit and flesh of animals. The world is a great animal, and we +live within it as worms live within us. Therefore we do not belong to +the system of stars, sun, and earth, but to God only; for in respect to +them which seek only to amplify themselves, we are born and live by +chance; but in respect to God, whose instruments we are, we are formed +by prescience and design, and for a high end. Therefore we are bound to +no Father but God, and receive all things from Him. They hold as beyond +question the immortality of souls, and that these associate with good +angels after death, or with bad angels, according as they have likened +themselves in this life to either. For all things seek their like. They +differ little from us as to places of reward and punishment. They are in +doubt whether there are other worlds beyond ours, and account it +madness to say there is nothing. Nonentity is incompatible with the +infinite entity of God. They lay down two principles of metaphysics, +entity which is the highest God, and nothingness which is the defect of +entity. Evil and sin come of the propensity to nothingness; the sin +having its cause not efficient, but in deficiency. Deficiency is, they +say, of power, wisdom or will. Sin they place in the last of these +three, because he who knows and has the power to do good is bound also +to have the will, for will arises out of them. They worship God in +Trinity, saying God is the supreme Power, whence proceeds the highest +Wisdom, which is the same with God, and from these comes Love, which is +both Power and Wisdom; but they do not distinguish persons by name, as +in our Christian law, which has not been revealed to them. This +religion, when its abuses have been removed, will be the future mistress +of the world, as great theologians teach and hope. Therefore Spain found +the New World (though its first discoverer, Columbus, greatest of +heroes, was a Genoese), that all nations should be gathered under one +law. We know not what we do, but God knows, whose instruments we are. +They sought new regions for lust of gold and riches, but God works to a +higher end. The sun strives to burn up the earth, not to produce plants +and men, but God guides the battle to great issues. His the praise, to +Him the glory! + +_G.M._ Oh, if you knew what our astrologers say of the coming age, and +of our age, that has in it more history within a hundred years than all +the world had in four thousand years before! Of the wonderful invention +of printing and guns, and the use of the magnet, and how it all comes of +Mercury, Mars, the Moon, and the Scorpion! + +_Capt._ Ah, well! God gives all in His good time. They astrologize too +much. + + + + +A FRAGMENT OF + +JOSEPH HALL'S + +MUNDUS ALTER ET IDEM + +(_THE OTHER-AND SAME WORLD_) + +TRANSLATED BY + +DR. WILLIAM KING. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY SKETCH. + + +Joseph Hall was born at Bristow Park, by Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in the year +1574, and educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In 1597 he published +three books, and in 1598 three more books, of Satires, "_Virgidemiarum_, +Six Bookes." These satires, with others published about the same time by +Marlowe and Marston, were burnt by order of Whitgift, Archbishop of +Canterbury, who had no relish for that kind of writing. Nine years +later, in the year 1607, at the age of thirty-two, Hall published the +satire now to be described. He was a witty and an earnest man, who rose +to honour in the Church, became successively Bishop of Exeter and of +Norwich; as Bishop of Norwich was in controversy with John Milton on +Church Discipline; suffered patiently imprisonment and persecution from +the Puritans; and closed an honourable life of more than fourscore years +in 1656. He has been called by some the Christian Seneca. + +His early work, the "Mundus Alter et Idem," represents an ideal world +divided into regions answering to man's chief weaknesses or vices. He +gave with it a map of its Crapulia, Latronia, &c., fully peopled, with a +neighbouring land in which there are no signs of settlement, _Terra +Sancta, ignota etiam adhuc_, the Holy Land, even yet unknown. + +Joseph Hall's new world is also figured as an Austral Continent. They +are good travellers, he says, who tell what they have seen in known +lands, but he is a better who not only travels but is himself the maker +of the lands he travels through. He chose his day, and went aboard the +good ship Phantasy, quitted harbour, sailed away, reached in two years +the Fortunate Isles, and, leaving the shores of Africa behind him, came +in sight of the black headland of Crapulia. + +Here Introduction ends and Travel begins with the part partly translated +by Dr. King: Crapulia, named from Crapula, is the Land of Inebriate +Excess, and its two provinces, Pamphagonia and Yvronia, mean by their +names the provinces of Omnivorous Gluttony and Drunkenness. Dr. King has +translated six chapters, and begun the seventh, which is upon the wars +of the Pamphagonians, to which they march forth armed with spits and +two-pronged forks and heavy ribs of beef. In their free city, Ucalegon, +built near the borders of Moronia, the citizens live happy as monks. +They are so well shut in by high rocks that they can laugh at enemies, +and through a hollow in the rocks with softest pace creeps the river +Oysivius (the Idle). There is only one way up, their rocks for the +inhabitants, and that is not by zigzag steps, but by a rope and basket. +Birds wholly peculiar to the place supply food by being themselves +eatable, and by the great multitude of their eggs, and by the loads of +fish they bring into their nests to feed their young. The citizens make +to themselves also beds of the soft feathers of these birds. This valley +yields to the people of Ucalegon everything except what they don't care +for. They are free, therefore, to sup, sleep, rise, dine, and lie down. + +Husbandry, as among the old Egyptians, consists chiefly in feeding pigs, +for the husbandmen wait on the rich. One, with a gentle touch, opens the +richer man's eyes when he wakes; another fans him with a flapper while +he eats; another puts bits into his mouth when it opens. There are two +cities under Ucalegon, Livona and Roncara (Snort and Snore), which have +like privileges, except that here the inhabitants are almost always +asleep, and fatten wonderfully. + +These are among the laws of Crapulia:--It is a crime to drink alone. +Whoever has defrauded Nature by fasting four hours after sleep shall be +compelled to sup. When the mouth is full it is enough to answer +questions by holding out a finger. What cook soever shall treat food so +that it cannot be eaten, shall be tied to a stake beside which is hung +meat half raw or half burnt, and shall remain so tied until somebody +comes who will eat that meat. + +No coin of metal is current in Crapulia, but they make payment in kind. +Thus two sparrows are one starling, two starlings are one fieldfare, two +fieldfares one hen, two hens one goose, two geese one lamb, two lambs +one kid, two kids one goat, two goats one cow, and so forth. + +The next chapter is on the Religion of the Crapulians. They hate Jove +because his thunder turns the wine sour and he spoils ripe fruit by +raining on it. Their God is Time, who eats everything. + +But I hasten, says the traveller, to the palace of the Grand Duke, +whither I was happily led by my genius. The first Duke must have been as +large as the man two of whose teeth were dug up at Cambridge, each as +big as a man's head. On his tomb is an inscription. "I Omasius, Duke of +Fagonia, Lord, Victor, Prince and God lie here. No man shall say I +starved, shall pass by fasting, or salute me sober. Let him be my heir +who can, my subject who will, my enemy who dares. Farewell and Fatten." + +After a description of the Island of Hunger, the traveller passes from +Pamphagonia to Yvronia, the other province of Crapulia. + +These are among the laws of Yvronia:--A cup must be either full or +empty. Whoever takes or returns a cup half empty shall be guilty of +_lèse societé_. The sober man who hurts a drunkard, shall be cut off +from wine for ever: if he kill a drunkard, he shall die by thirst. To +walk from supper in a right line shall be criminal. He who adds water to +wine shall be degraded to the table of the dogs. + +Yvronia having been described in seven chapters, the traveller in this +Other-and-Same World passes on to Viraginia, the land of the Viragoes. +This is Gynia Nova, miswritten New Guinea. The chief of its many +provinces is Linguadocia, in which Garrula is one of the famous cities. +In Viraginia the traveller was at once made prisoner, but permitted to +see the land after he had subscribed to certain articles, as, That in +word or deed he would work no ill to the nobler sex; That he would never +interpose a word when a woman was speaking; That wherever he might be he +would concede domestic rule to the woman; That he would never deny to a +wife any ornament of dress she looked at. + +As to its form of government, the state seemed to be a democracy, in +which all governed and none obeyed. They settled affairs at public +meetings, in which all spoke and none listened; and they had a perpetual +Parliament. + +The men in Viraginia are subject to the women. When a wife leaves her +house for any reason, she places the care of her husband under any other +woman of the household until she returns. A husband who survives his +wife, is married at once to his wife's maid, or goes into bondage to the +nearest mother of a family, because it is not permitted that any man +shall become master in his own house. + +The women sit while the men serve, sleep when the men are roused to get +up, scold them when they complain, and beat them. That day is worthy to +be marked with a white stone to which men can say good-bye with a whole +skin. + +Contrary to the custom with us, the women in Viraginia cut their hair +and let their nails grow. Some of them also practise with profit the +gymnastic art, so that they can make beautiful use of teeth, nails, and +heels. A nobler and more cleanly polished place is not to be seen than +Viraginia, where everything is washed, cooked and cared for by the men, +and there is nothing unbecoming but the garments of the men themselves. + +The next land to be visited was Moronia, Foolsland, the vastest, the +most uncultivated and the most populous of all these countries. To the +east is Variana or Moronia Mobilis, to the north is Moronia Aspera, to +the south Moronia Felix, and to the west Moronia Pia. The people are, +nearly all of them, tall and fat, with palish hair, prominent lips, and +very thick ears. In midwinter they go with their chests open, and the +rest of the body lightly clothed, that the warmth may enter the more +readily, and the cold go out of them; but in summer they put on thick +overcoats and cloaks, and all the clothes they have, to shut out the +heat. They shave their heads, either because they remember that they +were born bald, or to allay the heat of the brain, or because the hair +comes between the brain and heaven, and checks the freedom of the mind +in going heavenward. + +Provinces, towns and people of Moronia having been visited and fully +described, the traveller through this Other-and-Same World then proceeds +to describe Lavernia, the Land of Thieves and Cheats, who obtain great +part of their plunder from Moronia. In this land the Larcinians require +much attention. And at the end of all, adds Joseph Hall, "These men, +these manners, these cities I have seen, have marvelled at, have laughed +at, and at last, broken by the toils of so great a journey, have +returned to my own land. PEREGRINUS, QUONDAM ACADEMICUS." + +Dr. William King was born in the year 1663, son of Ezekiel King, a +gentleman of London. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ +Church, Oxford. He early inherited a fair estate, took his Master of +Arts degree in 1688, and began his career as writer with a refutation of +attacks upon Wiclif in the "History of Heresy," by M. Varillas. He then +chose law for a profession, in 1692 graduated as LL.D., and was admitted +an Advocate at Doctor's Commons. He kept a light heart and a lighter +purse than beseemed one of his fraternity, publishing playful satires, +at times showing an earnest mind under his mirth. In or soon after the +year 1702 Dr. King went to Ireland as judge of the High Court of +Admiralty, sole Commissioner of the Prizes, Vicar-General to the Lord +Primate, and Keeper of the Records in Birmingham's Tower, in which +office he was succeeded in 1708 by Joseph Addison. Dr. King, who had not +increased his credit for a love of work, returned to London about that +time, and following his own way of mirth began publishing "Useful +Transactions in Philosophy and other sorts of learning." In 1709 he +published the best of his playful poems, "The Art of Cookery, in +imitation of Horace's Art of Poetry; with some letters to Dr. Lister and +others, occasioned principally by the Title of a Book published by the +Doctor, being the works of Apicius Coelius concerning the Soups and +Sauces of the Ancients." When he came across Joseph Hall's satire, he +found it so much to his mind that he began to translate as follows:-- + +H.M. + + + + +CRAPULIA. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +_The Situation of the Country._ + + +Crapulia is a very fair and large territory, which on the north is +bounded with the Æthiopic Ocean, on the east with Laconia and Viraginia, +on the south by Moronia Felix, and westward with the Tryphonian Fens. It +lies in that part of the universe where is bred the monstrous bird +called Ruc, that for its prey will bear off an elephant in its talons; +and is described by the modern geographers. + +The soil is too fruitful, and the heavens too serene; so that I have +looked upon them with a silent envy, not without pity, when I considered +they were blessings so little deserved by the inhabitants. It lies in +seventy-four degrees of longitude, and sixty degrees of latitude, and +eleven degrees distant from the Cape of Good Hope; and lies, as it were, +opposite to the whole coast of Africa. It is commonly divided into two +provinces, Pamphagonia and Ivronia, the former of which is of the same +length and breadth as Great Britain (which I hope will not be taken as +any reflection), the other is equal to the High and Low Dutch Lands. +Both obey the same prince, are governed by the same laws, and differ +very little in their habit or their manners. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +_Pamphagonia; or, Glutton's Paradise._ + + +Pamphagonia is of a triangular figure, like that of ancient Egypt, or +the Greek letter delta, [Greek: delta]. It is mountainous, inclosed +with very high hills; its soil is of the richest, so that birds which +come thither to feed, if they tarry but three months, grow so very fat +and weighty, that they cannot fly back again over the mountains, but +suffer themselves to be taken up in the hand, and are as delicious as +the ortolan or the beccaficos of the Italians. And it is no wonder to +them who know that geese in Scotland are generated from leaves fallen +into the water, and believe the testimony of one of our ambassadors, +that in the north-east parts of the world lambs grow upon stalks like +cabbages and eat up the grass all around about them, to find the same +sort of provisions in this country. Besides, the fish upon that coast +are in such plenty, and so voracious (whether they conform themselves +to the genius of the place and people, or presage to themselves the +honour of so magnificent a sepulchre as was given to Nero's turbot), +that, as soon as the hook is cast in, they press to it as the ghosts +in Lucian did to Charon's boat, and cling to the iron as miners do to +a rope that is let down when the light of their candle forbodes some +malignant exhalation. + +The sea-ports, with which this country abounds more than any other, are +of no other use than to receive and take in such things as are edible, +which they have for their superfluous wool and hides: nor may the +inhabitants export anything that has the least relation to the palate. +You see nothing there but fruit-trees. They hate plains, limes, and +willows, as being idle and barren, and yielding nothing useful but their +shade. There are hops, pears, plums, and apples, in the hedge-rows, as +there is in all Ivronia; from whence the Lombards, and some counties in +the west of England, have learned their improvements. In ancient times, +Frugonia, or the Land of Frugality, took in this country as one of its +provinces; and histories tell us, that, in Saturn's time, the Frugonian +princes gave laws to all this part of the world, and had their palace +there; and that their country was called Fagonia, from the simplicity of +their diet, which consisted only in beech-mast. But that yoke has been +long ago shaken off; their manners are wholly changed, and, from the +universality of their food, they have obtained, in their own country +language, the title of Pamphagones. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +_The First Province of Pamphagonia._ + + +Friviandy, or Tight-bittia (that we may take the provinces in their +order), were it not for a temperament peculiar to the place, is rather +of the hottest to produce those who are properly called good +trencher-men. Its utmost point, which other geographers call the +Promontory of the Terra Australis, is of the same latitude as the most +southerly parts of Castile, and is about forty-two degrees distant from +the equator. The inhabitants have curled hair and dusky complexions, and +regard more the delicacy than the largeness and number of their dishes. +In this very promontory, which we shall call the black one from its +colour (for it is a very smoky region, partly from the frequent vapours +of the place, partly from its vicinity to the Terra del Fogo, which, by +the common consent of geographers, lies on the right hand of it, but +rather nearer than they have placed it), is the city Lucina, whose +buildings are lofty, but apt to be smoky and offensive to the smell; +from whence a colony went, perhaps, as far as the Indies, where it +remains to this day by the name of Cochin-China. + +Here is the famous temple of the great deity Omasius Gorgut, or +Gorbelly. It is a vast pile, and contains a thousand hearths, and as +many altars, which are constantly employed in the Rucal Festivals. In +the midst is a high pyramid, as lofty as the hand of man can erect it, +little inferior to those of Memphis. It is called the Cheminean Tower. +This, rising high, gives the signal of war to the adjoining countries: +for, as we by beacons lighted upon a high hill discover the danger of an +approaching enemy, so these, on the contrary, do the same by letting +their smoke cease and their fires go out: for, when the perpetual vapour +ceases to roll forth in thick and dark clouds of smoke, it is a token +that the Hambrians are drawing nearer, than whom there can be no enemy +more terrible to this nation. There are several smaller towns, that lie +under the dominion of this supreme city. Charbona is the largest +village, and, what is seldom seen elsewhere, lies all under ground. Upon +its barren soil arises another, though of less note, called Favillia. +After these lies Tenaille, a narrow town, and Batillû, a broad one, both +considerable. On the left are some subservient petty hamlets, as +Assadora, Marmitta, Culliera, as useful for the reception of strangers, +amongst which, that of Marmitta is watered by the river Livenza; which, +as is said of a fountain in the Peak of Derby, boils over twice in +four-and-twenty hours. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +_The Second Province of Pamphagonia._ + + +Next to this is the Golosinian district, the most pleasant part of +Pamphagonia, covered with dates, almonds, figs, olives, pomegranates, +oranges, citrons, and pistaches; through which run the smoothest of +streams, called the Oglium. Here is the beautiful city of Marzapane, +with noble turrets glittering with gold, but lying too open to the +enemy. Over it hang the Zucker hills, out of whose bowels they draw +something that is hard, white, and sparkling, but sweet as that moisture +which the ancients gathered out of the reeds which grew in Arabia and +the Indies. You shall find few people here, who are grown up, but what +have lost their teeth, and have stinking breaths. Near to this is the +little city Seplasium, which admits of no tradesmen but perfumers. It is +a town of great commerce with the people of Viraginia, especially the +Locanians, who use to change their looking-glass with them for oils and +pastils. The agreeableness of the place, and the bounty of the heavens, +is favourable to their art; for the whole track of land, at certain +seasons, is covered with aromatic comfits, that fall like hail-stones: +which Anathumiasis I take to be essentially the same as that aerial +honey which we often find upon our oaks, especially in the spring, and +that it differs only in thickness; for whereas that honey is sprinkled +in drops, the little globules are hardened by the intense cold of the +middle region, and rebound in falling. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +_Of the Third Province of Pamphagonia._ + + +In the fifty-fifth degree, we come into the plains of Lecania, and so +into the very heart of Pamphagonia, where the chief city we meet with is +Cibinium, which is washed with the acid streams of the river Assagion. +In the forum, or market-place, is the tomb (as I conjecture by the +footsteps of some letters now remaining) of Apicius, that famous Roman, +not very beautiful, but antique. It is engraved upon the shell of a +sea-crab; and it might happen, notwithstanding what Seneca says, that +this famous epicure, after having sought for larger shell-fish than the +coast of Gallia could supply him with, and then going in vain to Africa +to make a farther inquiry, might hear some rumour concerning this coast, +steer his course thither, and there die of a surfeit. But this I leave +to the critics. Here I shall only mention the most fertile fields of +Lardana and Ossulia. The delicious situation of Mortadella, the +pleasantest of places, had wonderfully delighted me, had it not been for +the salt-works which often approach too near it. There is an offensive +stinking town called Formagium, alias Butterboxia, and Mantica, a boggy +place near the confines of Ivronia. + +I hasten to the metropolis of the whole region, which, whether you +respect the uniformity of the building, the manners of the people, or +their way of living, their rules for behaviour, their law and justice, +will show as much as if I were to descend to particulars. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +_Of the Metropolis of Pamphagonia, and the Customs of the Inhabitants._ + + +There are but very few villages in this country, as well as in some +others; from whence a traveller may conjecture, that the country towns +are devoured by the cities, which are not so many in number as they are +large and populous; of which the mother and governess is called +Artocreopolis. The report goes, that in ancient times there were two +famous cities, Artopolis and Creatium, which had many and long contests +about the superiority: for so it happens to places, as well as men, that +increase in power; insomuch as the two most flourishing Universities in +the world (to both of which I bear the relation of a son, though I am +more peculiarly obliged to one of them for my education), +notwithstanding they are sisters, could not abstain from so ungrateful a +contention. + +Artopolis boasted of its antiquity, and that it had flourished in the +Saturnian age, when it had as yet no rival. Creatium set forth its own +splendour, pleasantness, and power. At last, a council being called, +Creatium got the preference by the universal votes of the assembly; for +such is the iniquity of the times, that though the head be covered with +grey hairs, yet nothing is allowed to the reverence of antiquity, when +encountered by a proud and upstart novelty. The other city is now so far +neglected, that the ruins or footsteps of its magnificence are scarce +remaining, any more than of Verulam, as is most elegantly set forth by +our noble poet Spenser in his verses on that subject; the latter +usurping the name of the other, as well as the other has now the double +title of Artocreopolis. The city is more extensive than beautiful: it is +fortified with a large and deep ditch of running water, which washes +almost all the streets, wherein are a thousand several ponds for fish; +upon which swim ducks, geese, swans, and all sorts of water-fowl, which +has been wisely imitated by the people of Augsburg. This ditch is called +Gruessa. There are two walls, whose materials were furnished by the +flesh-market; for they are made of bones, the larger serving for the +foundations, the lesser for the superstructure, whilst the smallest fill +up what is wanting in the middle; being all cemented with the whites of +eggs, by a wonderful artifice. The houses are not very beautiful, nor +built high after the manner of other cities; so that there is no need of +an Augustus to restrain the buildings to the height of seventy feet, as +was done at Rome; nor is there room for a Seneca or Juvenal to complain +of the multitude of their stairs and number of their stories. + +They have no regard for staircases; for indeed none of the citizens care +for them, partly from the trouble of getting up them (especially when, +as they often do, they have drunk heartily) as much as for the danger of +getting down again. Their houses are all covered with large blade-bones, +very neatly joined together. There are no free citizens admitted, but +such whose employment has more immediately some relation to the table. +Husbandmen, smiths, millers, and butchers, live in their colonies, who, +when they have a belly of an unwieldy bulk, are promoted to be +burgesses; to which degree none were anciently admitted but cooks, +bakers, victuallers, and the gravest senators, who are chosen here, as +in other places, not for their prudence, riches, or length of beard; but +for their measure, which they must come up to yearly if they will +pretend to bear any office in the public. As any one grows in +dimensions, he rises in honour; so that I have seen some who, from the +meanest and most contemptible village, have, for their merits, been +promoted to a more famous town, and at last obtained the senatorial +dignity in this most celebrated city: and yet, when by some disease (as +it often happens), or by age, they have grown leaner than they are +allowed to be by the statutes, have lost their honour, together with the +bulk of their carcass. Their streets were paved with polished marble; +which seemed strange amongst a people so incurious, both because the +workmanship was troublesome, and there might be danger in its being +slippery. But the true reason of it was, that they might not be forced +to lift their feet higher than ordinary by the inequality of the +pavement, and likewise that the chairs of the senators might the more +easily be pushed forward; for they never go on foot, or on horseback, +nor even in a coach, to the exchange, or their public feasts, because of +their weight; but they are moved about in great easy elbow-chairs, with +four wheels to them, and continue sitting so fixed, in the same posture, +snoring and flabbering till they are wheeled home again. + +At the four gates of the city, whose form is circular, there sit in +their turns as many senators, who are called Buscadores. These carefully +examine all who come in and go out, those that go out, lest they should +presume by chance to do it fasting, which they can easily judge of by +the extent of their bellies, and the matter being proved, they are fined +in a double supper: those that come in, to see what they bring with them +upon their return; for they must neither depart with empty stomachs, nor +come back with empty hands. Every month, according to the laws, which +they unwillingly transgress, there are stated feasts, at which all the +senators are obliged to be present, that after dinner (for no person can +give his vote before he has dined) they may deliberate concerning the +public affairs. The name of their common-hall is Pythanoscome. Every one +knows his own seat, and his conveniences and a couch to repose upon when +the heat of their wine and seasoned dainties incline them to it. Their +greatest delicacies are served up at the first course; for they think it +foolish not to eat the best things with the greatest appetite: nor do +they cut their boars, sheep, goats, and lambs into joints or quarters, +as commonly we do, but convey them whole to table, by the help of +machines, as I remember to have read in Petronius Arbiter. They are +fineable who rise before they have set six hours; for then the edge of +their stomach is blunted. They eat and drink so leisurely, for the same +reason as the famous Epicure of old wished that his neck were as long as +a crane's. They measure the seasonable time for their departure after +this method: they have a door to their town-house, which is wide enough +for the largest man to enter when he is fasting: through this the guests +pass; and when any one would depart, if he stops in this passage, he is +trusted to go out at another door; but if it be as easy as if he were +fasting, the master of the ceremonies makes him tarry till he comes to +be of a statutable magnitute: after which example, Willfrid's needle in +Belvior Castle was a pleasant trial of Roman Catholic sanctity. They +have gardens of many acres extent, but not like those of Adonis or +Alcinoüs; for nothing delightful is to be expected in them, neither +order, nor regularity of walk, nor grass-plots, nor variety of flowers +in the borders: but you will find all planted with cabbages, turnips, +garlick, and musk-melons, which were carried hence to Italy, and are in +quantity sufficient to feast an hundred Pythagoreans. + +There is a public college, or hospital, whither they are sent who have +got the dropsy, gout, or asthma, by their eating and drinking; and there +they are nourished at the public expense. As for such as have lost their +teeth by their luxury, or broken them by eating too greedily or +incautiously, they are provided for in the island of Sorbonia. All the +richer sort have several servants, in the nature of vassals, to +cultivate their gardens, and be employed in inferior offices, who have +their liberty when they can arrive at such a bulkiness. If any of the +grandees of the country die of a surfeit, he is given, as being all made +up of the most exquisite dainties, to be eaten up by his servants; and +this they do that nothing should be lost that is so delicate. The men +are thick and fat to a miracle; nor will any one salute another whose +chin does not come to the midst of his breast, and his paunch falls to +his knees. The women are not unlike them, and in shape resemble the +Italians, and have breasts like the Hottentots. They go almost naked, +having no regard to their garments. The magistrates and persons of +better figure have gowns made of the skins of such beasts as they have +eaten at one meal. All wear a knife, with a large spoon, hanging upon +their right arm. Before their breasts they wear a smooth skin, instead +of a napkin, to receive what falls out of their mouths, and to wipe them +upon occasion; which whether it be more black or greasy, is hard to +determine. + +They are of a very slow apprehension, and no way fit for any science; +but yet understand such arts as they have occasion for. Their schools +are public-houses, where they are educated in the sciences of eating, +drinking, and carving; over which, one Archisilenius, an exquisite +Epicure, was then provost, who, instead of grammar, read some fragments +of Apicius. Instead of a library, there is a public repository of +drinking-vessels, in which cups of all orders and sizes are disposed +into certain classes. Cups and dishes are instead of books. The younger +scholars have less, the elder have greater; one has a quart, the other a +pottle, the other a gallon: this has a hen, that a goose, a third a lamb +or a porker: nor have they any liberty, or recess, till the whole is +finished; and if by a seven years' stuffing they are no proficients in +fatness, are presently banished into the Fancetic Islands; nor are they +suffered long to stay there idle and without improvement. Hither +likewise are sent all physicians who prescribe a course of diet to any +person. When any one is sick, without recourse to Æsculapius, they make +him eat radish, and drink warm water; which, according to Celsus, will +purge and vomit him. Venison is that which they most delight in; but +they never take it in hunting, but by nets and gins. They look upon the +swine as the most profitable and best of all animals; whether it is for +the likeness of its manners, as being good for nothing but the table, or +else from its growing fat on the sudden with the worst of nutriment. It +may not seem credible, yet parsimony appears in the midst of their +profuseness: but then it is very ill placed, for it is in crumbs, bones, +and crusts. They do not so much as keep any dogs, cats, hawks, or +anything that eats flesh. If any person suffer meat to stink, he is +impaled; but venison and rabbits are to have the _haut-gout_: and then +their cheese is kept till it is overrun with little animals, which they +devour with mustard and sugar. This is an odd sort of custom, derived +from the Dutch. + +The country abounds with rivers, which ebb and flow according to their +digestion, and generally overflow at the beginning of January, and +towards the end of February, and do mischief to the neighbouring +country. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +_Of the Wars of the Pamphagonians._ + + +The Pamphagones have perpetual wars with the Hambrians, or the Fancetic +Islands, and the Frugonians. + + * * * * * + +_Cætera desunt._ + + +THE END. + + +PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ideal Commonwealths + +Author: Various + +Editor: Henry Morley + +Release Date: June 20, 2006 [EBook #18638] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Graeme Mackreth and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS</h1> + + +<h4><a href="#PLUTARCHS">PLUTARCH'S LYCURGUS</a></h4> + +<h4><a href="#SIR_THOMAS_MORES">MORE'S UTOPIA</a></h4> + +<h4><a href="#BACONS">BACON'S NEW ATLANTIS</a></h4> + +<h4><a href="#CAMPANELLAS">CAMPANELLA'S CITY OF THE SUN</a></h4> + +<h5>AND A FRAGMENT OF</h5> + +<h4><a href="#A_FRAGMENT_OF">HALL'S MUNDUS ALTER ET IDEM</a></h4> + + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 5em;"><i>WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY HENRY MORLEY</i></p> + +<p class="center"><small>LL.D., PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE AT<br /> UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON</small></p> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 7em;"><small>FIFTH EDITION</small></p> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 5em;"><small> +LONDON<br /> +GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br /> +BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL<br /> +GLASGOW, MANCHESTER, AND NEW YORK<br /></small> +</p> + +<p class="center"><small> 1890</small></p> + +<p class="center"><b>MORLEY'S UNIVERSAL LIBRARY.</b></p> + + +<p> +1. <i>Sheridan's Plays.</i> +<br /> +2. <i>Plays from Molière.</i> By English Dramatists. +<br /> +3. <i>Marlowe's Faustus</i> and <i>Goethe's Faust.</i> +<br /> +4. <i>Chronicle of the Cid.</i> +<br /> +5. <i>Rabelais' Gargantua</i> and the <i>Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel.</i> +<br /> +6. <i>Machiavelli's Prince.</i> +<br /> +7. <i>Bacon's Essays.</i> +<br /> +8. <i>Defoe's Journal of the Plague Year.</i> +<br /> +9. <i>Locke on Civil Government</i> and <i>Filmer's "Patriarcha".</i> +<br /> +10. <i>Butler's Analogy of Religion.</i> +<br /> +11. <i>Dryden's Virgil.</i> +<br /> +12. <i>Scott's Demonology and Witchcraft.</i> +<br /> +13. <i>Herrick's Hesperides.</i> +<br /> +14. <i>Coleridge's Table-Talk.</i> +<br /> +15. <i>Boccaccio's Decameron.</i> +<br /> +16. <i>Sterne's Tristram Shandy.</i> +<br /> +17. <i>Chapman's Homer's Iliad.</i> +<br /> +18. <i>Mediæval Tales.</i> +<br /> +19. <i>Voltaire's Candide</i>, and <i>Johnson's Rasselas.</i> +<br /> +20. <i>Jonson's Plays and Poems.</i> +<br /> +21. <i>Hobbes's Leviathan.</i> +<br /> +22. <i>Samuel Butler's Hudibras.</i> +<br /> +23. <i>Ideal Commonwealths.</i> +<br /> +24. <i>Cavendish's Life of Wolsey.</i> +<br /> +25 & 26. <i>Don Quixote.</i> +<br /> +27. <i>Burlesque Plays and Poems.</i> +<br /> +28. <i>Dante's Divine Comedy.</i> <span class="smcap">Longfellow's</span> Translation. +<br /> +29. <i>Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield, Plays, and Poems.</i> +<br /> +30. <i>Fables and Proverbs from the Sanskrit. (Hitopadesa.)</i> +<br /> +31. <i>Lamb's Essays of Elia.</i> +<br /> +32. <i>The History of Thomas Ellwood.</i> +<br /> +33. <i>Emerson's Essays, &c.</i> +<br /> +34. <i>Southey's Life of Nelson.</i> +<br /> +35. <i>De Quincey's Confession of an Opium-Eater, &c.</i> +<br /> +36. <i>Stories of Ireland.</i> By Miss <span class="smcap">Edgeworth</span>. +<br /> +37. <i>Frere's Aristophanes: Acharnians, Knights, Birds.</i> +<br /> +38. <i>Burke's Speeches and Letters.</i> +<br /> +39. <i>Thomas à Kempis.</i> +<br /> +40. <i>Popular Songs of Ireland.</i> +<br /> +41. <i>Potter's Æschylus.</i> +<br /> +42. <i>Goethe's Faust: Part II.</i> <span class="smcap">Anster's</span> Translation. +<br /> +43. <i>Famous Pamphlets.</i> +<br /> +44. <i>Francklin's Sophocles.</i> +<br /> +45. <i>M.G. Lewis's Tales of Terror and Wonder.</i> +<br /> +46. <i>Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation.</i> +<br /> +47. <i>Drayton's Barons' Wars, Nymphidia, &c.</i> +<br /> +48. <i>Cobbett's Advice to Young Men.</i> +<br /> +49. <i>The Banquet of Dante.</i> +<br /> +50. <i>Walker's Original.</i> +<br /> +51. <i>Schiller's Poems and Ballads.</i> +<br /> +52. <i>Peele's Plays and Poems.</i> +<br /> +53. <i>Harrington's Oceana.</i> +<br /> +54. <i>Euripides: Alcestis and other Plays.</i> +<br /> +55. <i>Praed's Essays.</i> +<br /> +56. <i>Traditional Tales.</i> <span class="smcap">Allan Cunningham.</span> +<br /> +57. <i>Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity. Books I.-IV.</i> +<br /> +58. <i>Euripides: The Bacchanals and other Plays.</i> +<br /> +59. <i>Izaak Walton's Lives.</i> +<br /> +60. <i>Aristotle's Politics.</i> +<br /> +61. <i>Euripides: Hecuba and other Plays.</i> +<br /> +62. <i>Rabelais—Sequel to Pantagruel.</i> +<br /> +63. <i>A Miscellany.</i> +</p> + +<p>"Marvels of clear type and general neatness."—<i>Daily Telegraph.</i></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h4>INTRODUCTION.</h4> + + +<p>Plato in his "Republic" argues that it is the aim of Individual Man as +of the State to be wise, brave and temperate. In a State, he says, there +are three orders, the Guardians, the Auxiliaries, the Producers. Wisdom +should be the special virtue of the Guardians; Courage of the +Auxiliaries; and Temperance of all. These three virtues belong +respectively to the Individual Man, Wisdom to his Rational part; Courage +to his Spirited; and Temperance to his Appetitive: while in the State as +in the Man it is Injustice that disturbs their harmony.</p> + +<p>Because the character of Man appears in the State unchanged, but in a +larger form, Plato represented Socrates as studying the ideal man +himself through an Ideal Commonwealth.</p> + +<p>In another of his dialogues, "Critias," of which we have only the +beginning, Socrates wishes that he could see how such a commonwealth +would work, if it were set moving. Critias undertakes to tell him. For +he has received tradition of events that happened more than nine +thousand years ago, when the Athenians themselves were such ideal +citizens. Critias has received this tradition, he says, from a +ninety-year-old grandfather, whose father, Dropides, was the friend of +Solon. Solon, lawgiver and poet, had heard it from the priests of the +goddess Neïth or Athene at Sais, and had begun to shape it into a heroic +poem.</p> + +<p>This was the tradition:—Nine thousand years before the time of Solon, +the goddess Athene, who was worshipped also in Sais, had given to her +Athenians a healthy climate, a fertile soil, and temperate people strong +in wisdom and courage. Their Republic was like that which Socrates +imagined, and it had to bear the shock of a great invasion by the people +of the vast island Atlantis. This island, larger than all Libya and Asia +put together, was once in the sea westward beyond the Atlantic +waves,—thus America was dreamed of long before it was discovered. +Atlantis had ten kings, descended from ten sons of Poseidon (Neptune), +who was the god magnificently worshipped by its people. Vast power and +dominion, that extended through all Libya as far as Egypt, and over a +part of Europe, caused the Atlantid kings to grow ambitious and unjust. +Then they entered the Mediterranean and fell upon Athens with enormous +force. But in the little band of citizens, temperate, brave, and wise, +there were forces of Reason able to resist and overcome brute strength. +Now, however, gone are the Atlantids, gone are the old virtues of +Athens. Earthquakes and deluges laid waste the world. The whole great +island of Atlantis, with its people and its wealth, sank to the bottom +of the ocean. The ideal warriors of Athens, in one day and night, were +swallowed by an earthquake, and were to be seen no more.</p> + +<p>Plato, a philosopher with the soul of a poet, died in the year 347 +before Christ. Plutarch was writing at the close of the first century +after Christ, and in his parallel Lives of Greeks and Romans, the most +famous of his many writings, he took occasion to paint an Ideal +Commonwealth as the conception of Lycurgus, the half mythical or all +mythical Solon of Sparta. To Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus, as well as to +Plato, Thomas More and others have been indebted for some part of the +shaping of their philosophic dreams.</p> + +<p>The discovery of the New World at the end of the fifteenth century +followed hard upon the diffusion of the new invention of printing, and +came at a time when the fall of Constantinople by scattering Greek +scholars, who became teachers in Italy, France and elsewhere, spread the +study of Greek, and caused Plato to live again. Little had been heard of +him through the Arabs, who cared little for his poetic method. But with +the revival of learning he had become a force in Europe, a strong aid to +the Reformers.</p> + +<p>Sir Thomas More's Utopia was written in the years 1515-16, when its +author's age was about thirty-seven. He was a young man of twenty when +Columbus first touched the continent named after the Florentine Amerigo +Vespucci, who made his voyages to it in the years 1499-1503. More wrote +his Utopia when imaginations of men were stirred by the sudden +enlargement of their conceptions of the world, and Amerigo Vespucci's +account of his voyages, first printed in 1507, was fresh in every +scholar's mind. He imagined a traveller, Raphael Hythloday—whose name +is from Greek words that mean "Knowing in Trifles"—who had sailed with +Vespucci on his three last voyages, but had not returned from the last +voyage until, after separation from his comrades, he had wandered into +some farther discovery of his own. Thus he had found, somewhere in those +parts, the island of Utopia. Its name is from Greek words meaning +Nowhere. More had gone on an embassy to Brussels with Cuthbert Tunstal +when he wrote his philosophical satire upon European, and more +particularly English, statecraft, in the form of an Ideal Commonwealth +described by Hythloday as he had found it in Utopia. It was printed at +Louvain in the latter part of the year 1516, under the editorship of +Erasmus, and that enlightened young secretary to the municipality of +Antwerp, Peter Giles, or Ægidius, who is introduced into the story. +"Utopia" was not printed in England in the reign of Henry VIII., and +could not be, for its satire was too direct to be misunderstood, even +when it mocked English policy with ironical praise for doing exactly +what it failed to do. More was a wit and a philosopher, but at the same +time so practical and earnest that Erasmus tells of a burgomaster at +Antwerp who fastened upon the parable of Utopia with such goodwill that +he learnt it by heart. And in 1517 Erasmus advised a correspondent to +send for Utopia, if he had not yet read it, and if he wished to see the +true source of all political evils.</p> + +<p>Francis Bacon's "New Atlantis," first written in Latin, was published in +1629, three years after its author's death. Bacon placed his Ideal +Commonwealth in those seas where a great Austral continent was even then +supposed to be, but had not been discovered. As the old Atlantis implied +a foreboding of the American continent, so the New Atlantis implied +foreboding of the Australian. Bacon in his philosophy sought through +experimental science the dominion of men over things, "for Nature is +only governed by obeying her." In his Ideal World of the New Atlantis, +Science is made the civilizer who binds man to man, and is his leader to +the love of God.</p> + +<p>Thomas Campanella was Bacon's contemporary, a man only seven years +younger; and an Italian who suffered for his ardour in the cause of +science. He was born in Calabria in 1568, and died in 1639. He entered +the Dominican order when a boy, but had a free and eager appetite for +knowledge. He urged, like Bacon, that Nature should be studied through +her own works, not through books; he attacked, like Bacon, the dead +faith in Aristotle, that instead of following his energetic spirit of +research, lapsed into blind idolatry. Campanella strenuously urged that +men should reform all sciences by following Nature and the books of God. +He had been stirring in this way for ten years, when there arose in +Calabria a conspiracy against the Spanish rule. Campanella, who was an +Italian patriot was seized and sent to Naples. The Spanish inquisition +joined in attack on him. He was accused of books he had not written and +of opinions he did not hold; he was seven times put to the question and +suffered, with firmness of mind, the most cruel tortures. The Pope +interceded in vain for him with the King of Spain. He suffered +imprisonment for twenty-seven years, during which time he wrote much, +and one piece of his prison work was his ideal of "The City of the Sun."</p> + +<p>Released at last from his prison, Campanella went to Rome, where he was +defended by Pope Urban VIII. against continued violence of attack. But +he was compelled at last to leave Rome, and made his escape as a servant +in the livery of the French ambassador. In Paris, Richelieu became +Campanella's friend; the King of France gave him a pension of three +thousand livres; the Sorbonne vouched for the orthodoxy of his writings. +He died in Paris, at the age of seventy-one, in the Convent of the +Dominicans.</p> + +<p>Of Campanella's "Civitas Solis," which has not hitherto been translated +into English, the translation here given, with one or two omissions of +detail which can well be spared, has been made for me by my old pupil +and friend, Mr. Thomas W. Halliday.</p> + +<p>In the works (published in 1776) of the witty Dr. William King, who +played much with the subject of cookery, is a fragment found among his +remaining papers, and given by his editors as an original piece in the +manner of Rabelais. It seems never to have been observed that this is +only a translation of that part of Joseph Hall's "Mundus Alter es Idem," +which deals with the kitchen side of life. The fragment will be found at +the end of this volume, preceded by a short description of the other +parts of Hall's World which is other than ours, and yet the same.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 35em;"> +H.M.</p> +<p> +<i>March 1885.</i><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PLUTARCHS" id="PLUTARCHS"></a>PLUTARCH'S<br /> + +LIFE OF LYCURGUS.</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><span class="smcap">Life of Lycurgus.</span></h3> + + +<p>Of Lycurgus the lawgiver we have nothing to relate that is certain and +uncontroverted. For there are different accounts of his birth, his +travels, his death, and especially of the laws and form of government +which he established. But least of all are the times agreed upon in +which this great man lived. For some say he flourished at the same time +with Iphitus, and joined with him in settling the cessation of arms +during the Olympic games. Among these is Aristotle the philosopher, who +alleges for proof an Olympic quoit, on which was preserved the +inscription of Lycurgus's name. But others who, with Eratosthenes and +Apollodorus, compute the time by the succession of the Spartan kings, +place him much earlier than the first Olympiad. Timæus, however, +supposes that, as there were two Lycurguses in Sparta at different +times, the actions of both are ascribed to one, on account of his +particular renown; and that the more ancient of them lived not long +after Homer: nay, some say he had seen him. Xenophon too confirms the +opinion of his antiquity, when he makes him contemporary with the +Heraclidæ. It is true, the latest of the Lacedæmonian kings were of the +lineage of the Heraclidæ; but Xenophon there seems to speak of the first +and more immediate descendants of Hercules. As the history of those +times is thus involved, in relating the circumstances of Lycurgus's +life, we shall endeavour to select such as are least controverted, and +follow authors of the greatest credit.</p> + +<p>Simonides the poet, tells us, that Prytanis, not Eunomus, was father to +Lycurgus. But most writers give us the genealogy of Lycurgus and Eunomus +in a different manner; for, according to them, Sous was the son of +Patrocles, and grandson of Aristodemus, Eurytion the son of Sous, +Prytanis of Eurytion, and Eunomus of Prytanis; to this Eunomus was born +Polydectes, by a former wife, and by a second, named Dianassa, Lycurgus. +Eutychidas, however, says Lycurgus was the sixth from Patrocles, and the +eleventh from Hercules. The most distinguished of his ancestors was +Sous, under whom the Lacedæmonians made the Helotes their slaves, and +gained an extensive tract of land from the Arcadians. Of this Sous it is +related, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in a difficult post +where there was no water, he agreed to give up all his conquests, +provided that himself and all his army should drink of the neighbouring +spring. When these conditions were sworn to, he assembled his forces, +and offered his kingdom to the man that would forbear drinking; not one +of them, however, would deny himself, but they all drank. Then Sous went +down to the spring himself, and having only sprinkled his face in sight +of the enemy, he marched off, and still held the country, because all +had not drank. Yet, though he was highly honoured for this, the family +had not their name from him, but from his son, were called Eurytionidæ; +and this, because Eurytion seems to be the first who relaxed the +strictness of kingly government, inclining to the interest of the +people, and ingratiating himself with them. Upon this relaxation their +encroachments increased, and the succeeding kings, either becoming +odious, treating them with greater rigour, or else giving way through +weakness or in hopes of favour, for a long time anarchy and confusion +prevailed in Sparta; by which one of its kings, the father of Lycurgus, +lost his life. For while he was endeavouring to part some persons who +were concerned in a fray, he received a wound by a kitchen knife, of +which he died, leaving the kingdom to his eldest son Polydectes.</p> + +<p>But he too dying soon after, the general voice gave it for Lycurgus to +ascend the throne; and he actually did so, till it appeared that his +brother's widow was pregnant. As soon as he perceived this, he declared +that the kingdom belonged to her issue, provided it were male, and he +kept the administration in his hands only as his guardian. This he did +with the title of Prodicos, which the Lacedæmonians give to the +guardians of infant kings. Soon after, the queen made him a private +overture, that she would destroy her child, upon condition that he would +marry her when king of Sparta. Though he detested her wickedness, he +said nothing against the proposal, but pretending to approve it, charged +her not to take any drugs to procure an abortion, lest she should +endanger her own health or life; for he would take care that the child, +as soon as born, should be destroyed. Thus he artfully drew on the woman +to her full time, and, when he heard she was in labour, he sent persons +to attend and watch her delivery, with orders, if it were a girl, to +give it to the women, but if a boy, to bring it to him, in whatever +business he might be engaged. It happened that he was at supper with the +magistrates when she was delivered of a boy, and his servants, who were +present, carried the child to him. When he received it, he is reported +to have said to the company, "Spartans, see here your new-born king." He +then laid him down upon the chair of state, and named him Charilaus, +because of the joy and admiration of his magnanimity and justice +testified by all present. Thus the reign of Lycurgus lasted only eight +months. But the citizens had a great veneration for him on other +accounts, and there were more that paid him their attentions, and were +ready to execute his commands, out of regard to his virtues, than those +that obeyed him as a guardian to the king, and director of the +administration. There were not, however, wanting those that envied him, +and opposed his advancement, as too high for so young a man; +particularly the relations and friends of the queen-mother, who seemed +to have been treated with contempt. Her brother Leonidas, one day boldly +attacked him with virulent language, and scrupled not to tell him that +he was well assured he would soon be king; thus preparing suspicions, +and matter of accusation against Lycurgus, in case any accident should +befall the king. Insinuations of the same kind were likewise spread by +the queen-mother. Moved with this ill-treatment, and fearing some dark +design, he determined to get clear of all suspicion, by travelling into +other countries, till his nephew should be grown up, and have a son to +succeed him in the kingdom.</p> + +<p>He set sail, therefore, and landed in Crete. There having observed the +forms of government, and conversed with the most illustrious personages, +he was struck with admiration of some of their laws, and resolved at his +return to make use of them in Sparta. Some others he rejected. Among the +friends he gained in Crete was Thales, with whom he had interest enough +to persuade him to go and settle at Sparta. Thales was famed for his +wisdom and political abilities: he was withal a lyric poet, who under +colour of exercising his art, performed as great things as the most +excellent lawgivers. For his odes were so many persuasives to obedience +and unanimity, as by means of melody and numbers they had great grace +and power, they softened insensibly the manners of the audience, drew +them off from the animosities which then prevailed, and united them in +zeal for excellence and virtue. So that, in some measure, he prepared +the way for Lycurgus towards the instruction of the Spartans. From Crete +Lycurgus passed to Asia, desirous, as is said, to compare the Ionian +expense and luxury with the Cretan frugality and hard diet, so as to +judge what effect each had on their several manners and governments; +just as physicians compare bodies that are weak and sickly with the +healthy and robust. There also, probably, he met with Homer's poems, +which were preserved by the posterity of Cleophylus. Observing that many +moral sentences and much political knowledge were intermixed with his +stories, which had an irresistible charm, he collected them into one +body, and transcribed them with pleasure, in order to take them home +with him. For his glorious poetry was not yet fully known in Greece; +only some particular pieces were in a few hands, as they happened to be +dispersed. Lycurgus was the first that made them generally known. The +Egyptians likewise suppose that he visited them; and as of all their +institutions he was most pleased with their distinguishing the military +men from the rest of the people, he took the same method at Sparta, and, +by separating from these the mechanics and artificers, he rendered the +constitution more noble and more of a piece. This assertion of the +Egyptians is confirmed by some of the Greek writers. But we know of no +one, except Aristocrates, son of Hipparchus, and a Spartan, who has +affirmed that he went to Libya and Spain, and in his Indian excursions +conversed with the Gymnosophists.</p> + +<p>The Lacedæmonians found the want of Lycurgus when absent, and sent many +embassies to entreat him to return. For they perceived that their kings +had barely the title and outward appendages of royalty, but in nothing +else differed from the multitude; whereas Lycurgus had abilities from +nature to guide the measures of government, and powers of persuasion, +that drew the hearts of men to him. The kings, however, where consulted +about his return, and they hoped that in his presence they should +experience less insolence amongst the people. Returning then to a city +thus disposed, he immediately applied himself to alter the whole frame +of the constitution; sensible that a partial change, and the introducing +of some new laws, would be of no sort of advantage; but, as in the case +of a body diseased and full of bad humours, whose temperament is to be +corrected and new formed by medicines, it was necessary to begin a new +regimen. With these sentiments he went to Delphi, and when he had +offered and consulted the god, he returned with that celebrated oracle, +in which the priestess called him "Beloved of the gods, and rather a god +than a man." As to his request that he might enact good laws, she told +him, Apollo had heard his request, and promised that the constitution he +should establish would be the most excellent in the world. Thus +encouraged, he applied to the nobility, and desired them to put their +hands to the work; addressing himself privately at first to his friends, +and afterwards by degrees, trying the disposition of others, and +preparing them to concur in the business. When matters were ripe, he +ordered thirty of the principal citizens to appear armed in the +market-place by break of day, to strike terror into such as might desire +to oppose him. Hermippus has given us the names of twenty of the most +eminent of them; but he that had the greatest share in the whole +enterprise, and gave Lycurgus the best assistance in the establishing of +his laws, was called Arithmiades. Upon the first alarm, king Charilaus, +apprehending it to be a design against his person, took refuge in the +Chalcioicos. But he was soon satisfied, and accepted of their oath. Nay, +so far from being obstinate, he joined in the undertaking. Indeed, he +was so remarkable for the gentleness of his disposition, that Archelaus, +his partner in the throne, is reported to have said to some that were +praising the young king, "Yes, Charilaus is a good man to be sure, who +cannot find in his heart to punish the bad." Among the many new +institutions of Lycurgus, the first and most important was that of a +senate; which sharing, as Plato says, in the power of the kings, too +imperious and unrestrained before, and having equal authority with them, +was the means of keeping them within the bounds of moderation, and +highly contributed to the preservation of the state. For before it had +been veering and unsettled, sometimes inclining to arbitrary power, and +sometimes towards a pure democracy; but this establishment of a senate, +an intermediate body, like ballast, kept it in a just equilibrium, and +put it in a safe posture: the twenty-eight senators adhering to the +kings, whenever they saw the people too encroaching, and, on the other +hand, supporting the people, when the kings attempted to make themselves +absolute. This, according to Aristotle, was the number of senators fixed +upon, because two of the thirty associates of Lycurgus deserted the +business through fear. But Sphærus tells us there were only twenty-eight +at first entrusted with the design. Something, perhaps, there is in its +being a perfect number, formed of seven multiplied by four, and withal +the first number, after six, that is equal to all its parts. But I +rather think, just so many senators were created, that, together with +the two kings, the whole body might consist of thirty members.</p> + +<p>He had this institution so much at heart, that he obtained from Delphi +an oracle in its behalf, called <i>rhetra</i>, or the decree. This was +couched in very ancient and uncommon terms, which interpreted, ran thus: +"When you have built a temple to the Syllanian Jupiter, and the +Syllanian Minerva, divided the people into tribes and classes, and +established a senate of thirty persons, including the two kings, you +shall occasionally summon the people to an assembly between Babyce and +Cnacion, and they shall have the determining voice." Babyce and Cnacion +are now called Oenus. But Aristotle thinks, by Cnacion is meant the +river, and by Babyce the bridge. Between these they held their +assemblies, having neither halls, nor any kind of building for that +purpose. These things he thought of no advantage to their councils, but +rather a disservice; as they distracted the attention, and turned it +upon trifles, on observing the statues and pictures, the splendid roofs, +and every other theatrical ornament. The people thus assembled had no +right to propose any subject of debate, and were only authorized to +ratify or reject what might be proposed to them by the senate and the +kings. But because, in process of time, the people, by additions or +retrenchments, changed the terms, and perverted the sense of the +decrees, the kings Polydorus and Theopompus inserted in the <i>rhetra</i> +this clause: "If the people attempt to corrupt any law, the senate and +chiefs shall retire:" that is, they shall dissolve the assembly, and +annul the alterations. And they found means to persuade the Spartans +that this too was ordered by Apollo; as we learn from these verses of +Tyrtæus:</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 15em;"> +Ye sons of Sparta, who at Phœbus' shrine<br /> +Your humble vows prefer, attentive hear<br /> +The god's decision. O'er your beauteous lands<br /> +Two guardian kings, a senate, and the voice<br /> +Of the concurring people, lasting laws<br /> +Shall with joint power establish.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Though the government was thus tempered by Lycurgus, yet soon after it +degenerated into an oligarchy, whose power was exercised with such +wantonness and violence, that it wanted indeed a bridle, as Plato +expresses it. This curb they found in the authority of the Ephori, about +a hundred and thirty years after Lycurgus. Elatus was the first invested +with this dignity, in the reign of Theopompus; who, when his wife +upbraided him, that he would leave the regal power to his children less +than he received it, replied, "Nay but greater, because more lasting." +And, in fact, the prerogative, so stripped of all extravagant +pretensions, no longer occasioned either envy or danger to its +possessors. By these means they escaped the miseries which befell the +Messenian and Argive kings, who would not in the least relax the +severity of their power in favour of the people. Indeed, from nothing +more does the wisdom and foresight of Lycurgus appear, than from the +disorderly governments, and the bad understanding that subsisted between +the kings and people of Messena and Argos, neighbouring states, and +related in blood to Sparta. For, as at first they were in all respects +equal to her, and possessed of a better country, and yet preserved no +lasting happiness, but, through the insolence of the kings and +disobedience of the people, were harassed with perpetual troubles, they +made it very evident that it was really a felicity more than human, a +blessing from heaven to the Spartans, to have a legislator who knew so +well how to frame and temper their government. But this was an event of +a later date.</p> + +<p>A second and bolder political enterprise of Lycurgus was a new division +of the lands. For he found a prodigious inequality, the city overcharged +with many indigent persons, who had no land, and the wealth centred in +the hands of a few. Determined, therefore, to root out the evils of +insolence, envy, avarice, and luxury, and those distempers of a state +still more inveterate and fatal, I mean poverty and riches, he persuaded +them to cancel all former divisions of land, and to make new ones, in +such a manner that they might be perfectly equal in their possessions +and way of living. Hence, if they were ambitious of distinction they +might seek it in virtue, as no other difference was left between them +but that which arises from the dishonour of base actions and the praise +of good ones. His proposal was put in practice. He made nine thousand +lots for the territory of Sparta, which he distributed among so many +citizens, and thirty thousand for the inhabitants of the rest of +Laconia. But some say he made only six thousand shares for the city, and +that Polydorus added three thousand afterwards; others, that Polydorus +doubled the number appointed by Lycurgus, which were only four thousand +five hundred. Each lot was capable of producing (one year with another) +seventy bushels of grain for each man, and twelve for each woman, +besides a quantity of wine and oil in proportion. Such a provision they +thought sufficient for health and a good habit of body, and they wanted +nothing more. A story goes of our legislator, that some time after +returning from a journey through the fields just reaped, and seeing the +shocks standing parallel and equal, he smiled, and said to some that +were by, "How like is Laconia to an estate newly divided among many +brothers!"</p> + +<p>After this, he attempted to divide also the movables, in order to take +away all appearance of inequality; but he soon perceived that they could +not bear to have their goods directly taken from them, and therefore +took another method, counterworking their avarice by a stratagem. First +he stopped the currency of the gold and silver coin, and ordered that +they should make use of iron money only, then to a great quantity and +weight of this he assigned but a small value; so that to lay up ten +<i>minæ</i>, a whole room was required, and to remove it, nothing less than a +yoke of oxen. When this became current, many kinds of injustice ceased +in Lacedæmon. Who would steal or take a bribe, who would defraud or rob, +when he could not conceal the booty; when he could neither be dignified +by the possession of it, nor if cut in pieces be served by its use? For +we are told that when hot, they quenched it in vinegar, to make it +brittle and unmalleable, and consequently unfit for any other service. +In the next place, he excluded unprofitable and superfluous arts: +indeed, if he had not done this, most of them would have fallen of +themselves, when the new money took place, as the manufactures could not +be disposed of. Their iron coin would not pass in the rest of Greece, +but was ridiculed and despised; so that the Spartans had no means of +purchasing any foreign or curious wares; nor did any merchant-ship +unlade in their harbours. There were not even to be found in all their +country either sophists, wandering fortune-tellers, keepers of infamous +houses, or dealers in gold and silver trinkets, because there was no +money. Thus luxury, losing by degrees the means that cherished and +supported it, died away of itself: even they who had great possessions, +had no advantage from them, since they could not be displayed in public, +but must lie useless, in unregarded repositories. Hence it was, that +excellent workmanship was shown in their useful and necessary furniture, +as beds, chairs, and tables; and the Lacedæmonian cup called <i>cothon</i>, +as Critias informs us, was highly valued, particularly in campaigns: for +the water, which must then of necessity be drank, though it would often +otherwise offend the sight, had its muddiness concealed by the colour of +the cup, and the thick part stopping at the shelving brim, it came +clearer to the lips. Of these improvements the lawgiver was the cause; +for the workmen having no more employment in matters of mere curiosity, +showed the excellence of their art in necessary things.</p> + +<p>Desirous to complete the conquest of luxury, and exterminate the love of +riches, he introduced a third institution, which was wisely enough and +ingeniously contrived. This was the use of public tables, where all were +to eat in common of the same meat, and such kinds of it as were +appointed by law. At the same time they were forbidden to eat at home, +upon expensive couches and tables, to call in the assistance of butchers +and cooks, or to fatten like voracious animals in private. For so not +only their manners would be corrupted, but their bodies disordered; +abandoned to all manner of sensuality and dissoluteness, they would +require long sleep, warm baths, and the same indulgence as in perpetual +sickness. To effect this was certainly very great; but it was greater +still, to secure riches from rapine and from envy, as Theophrastus +expresses it, or rather by their eating in common, and by the frugality +of their table, to take from riches their very being. For what use or +enjoyment of them, what peculiar display of magnificence could there be, +where the poor man went to the same refreshment with the rich? Hence the +observation, that it was only at Sparta where Plutus (according to the +proverb) was kept blind, and like an image, destitute of life or motion. +It must further be observed, that they had not the privilege to eat at +home, and so to come without appetite to the public repast: they made a +point of it to observe any one that did not eat and drink with them, and +to reproach him as an intemperate and effeminate person that was sick of +the common diet.</p> + +<p>The rich, therefore (we are told), were more offended with this +regulation than with any other, and, rising in a body, they loudly +expressed their indignation: nay, they proceeded so far as to assault +Lycurgus with stones, so that he was forced to fly from the assembly and +take refuge in a temple. Unhappily, however, before he reached it, a +young man named Alcander, hasty in his resentments, though not otherwise +ill-tempered, came up with him, and, upon his turning round, struck out +one of his eyes with a stick. Lycurgus then stopped short, and, without +giving way to passion, showed the people his eye beat out, and his face +streaming with blood. They were so struck with shame and sorrow at the +sight, that they surrendered Alcander to him, and conducted him home +with the utmost expressions of regret. Lycurgus thanked them for their +care of his person, and dismissed them all except Alcander. He took him +into his house, but showed no ill treatment either by word or action; +only ordering him to wait upon him, instead of his usual servants and +attendants. The youth, who was of an ingenuous disposition, without +murmuring, did as he was commanded. Living in this manner with Lycurgus, +and having an opportunity to observe the mildness and goodness of his +heart, his strict temperance and indefatigable industry, he told his +friends that Lycurgus was not that proud and severe man he might have +been taken for, but, above all others, gentle and engaging in his +behaviour. This, then, was the chastisement, and this punishment he +suffered, of a wild and headstrong young man to become a very modest and +prudent citizen. In memory of his misfortune, Lycurgus built a temple to +Minerva Optiletis, so called by him from a term which the Dorians use +for the eye. Yet Dioscorides, who wrote a treatise concerning the +Lacedæmonian government, and others, relate that his eye was hurt, but +not put out, and that he built the temple in gratitude to the goddess +for his cure. However, the Spartans never carried staves to their +assemblies afterwards.</p> + +<p>The public repasts were called by the Cretans Andria; but the +Lacedæmonians styled them Phiditia, either from their tendency to +friendship and mutual benevolence, <i>phiditia</i> being used instead of +<i>philitia</i>; or else from their teaching frugality and parsimony, which +the word <i>pheido</i> signifies. But it is not all impossible that the first +letter might by some means or other be added, and so <i>phiditia</i> take +place of <i>editia</i>, which barely signifies eating. There were fifteen +persons to a table, or a few more or less. Each of them was obliged to +bring in monthly a bushel of meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of +cheese, two pounds and a half of figs, and a little money to buy flesh +and fish. If any of them happened to offer a sacrifice of first fruits, +or to kill venison, he sent a part of it to the public table: for after +a sacrifice or hunting, he was at liberty to sup at home: but the rest +were to appear at the usual place. For a long time this eating in common +was observed with great exactness: so that when king Agis returned from +a successful expedition against the Athenians, and from a desire to sup +with his wife, requested to have his portion at home, the Polemarchs +refused to send it: nay, when, through resentment, he neglected, the day +following, to offer the sacrifice usual on occasion of victory, they set +a fine upon him. Children also were introduced at these public tables, +as so many schools of sobriety. There they heard discourses concerning +government, and were instructed in the most liberal breeding. There they +were allowed to jest without scurrility, and were not to take it ill +when the raillery was returned. For it was reckoned worthy of a +Lacedæmonian to bear a jest: but if any one's patience failed, he had +only to desire them to be quiet, and they left off immediately. When +they first entered, the oldest man present pointed to the door, and +said, "Not a word spoken in this company goes out there." The admitting +of any man to a particular table was under the following regulation. +Each member of that small society took a little ball of soft bread in +his hand. This he was to drop, without saying a word, into a vessel +called <i>caddos</i>, which the waiter carried upon his head. In case he +approved of the candidate, he did it without altering the figure, if +not, he first pressed it flat in his hand; for a flatted ball was +considered as a negative. And if but one such was found, the person was +not admitted, as they thought it proper that the whole company should be +satisfied with each other. He who thus rejected, was said to have no +luck in the <i>caddos</i>. The dish that was in the highest esteem amongst +them was the black broth. The old men were so fond of it that they +ranged themselves on one side and eat it, leaving the meat to the young +people. It is related of a king of Pontus, that he purchased a +Lacedæmonian cook, for the sake of this broth. But when he came to taste +it he strongly expressed his dislike; and the cook made answer, "Sir, to +make this broth relish, it is necessary first to bathe in the Eurotas." +After they had drank moderately, they went home without lights. Indeed, +they were forbidden to walk with a light either on this or any other +occasion, that they might accustom themselves to march in the darkest +night boldly and resolutely. Such was the order of their public +repasts.</p> + +<p>Lycurgus left none of his laws in writing; it was ordered in one of the +<i>Rhetræ</i> that none should be written. For what he thought most conducive +to the virtue and happiness of a city, was principles interwoven with +the manners and breeding of the people. These would remain immovable, as +founded in inclination, and be the strongest and most lasting tie; and +the habits which education produced in the youth, would answer in each +the purpose of a lawgiver. As for smaller matters, contracts about +property, and whatever occasionally varied, it was better not to reduce +these to a written form and unalterable method, but to suffer them to +change with the times, and to admit of additions or retrenchments at the +pleasure of persons so well educated. For he resolved the whole business +of legislation into the bringing up of youth. And this, as we have +observed, was the reason why one of his ordinances forbad them to have +any written laws.</p> + +<p>Another ordinance levelled against magnificence and expense, directed +that the ceilings of houses should be wrought with no tool but the axe +and the doors with nothing but the saw. For, as Epaminondas is reported +to have said afterwards, of his table, "Treason lurks not under such a +dinner," so Lycurgus perceived before him, that such a house admits of +no luxury and needless splendour. Indeed, no man could be so absurd as +to bring into a dwelling so homely and simple, bedsteads with silver +feet, purple coverlets, golden cups, and a train of expense that follows +these: but all would necessarily have the bed suitable to the room, the +coverlet of the bed and the rest of their utensils and furniture to +that. From this plain sort of dwellings, proceeded the question of +Leotychidas the elder to his host, when he supped at Corinth, and saw +the ceiling of the room very splendid and curiously wrought, "Whether +trees grew square in his country."</p> + +<p>A third ordinance of Lycurgus was, that they should not often make war +against the same enemy, lest, by being frequently put upon defending +themselves, they too should become able warriors in their turn. And this +they most blamed king Agesilaus for afterwards, that by frequent and +continued incursions into Boeotia, he taught the Thebans to make head +against the Lacedæmonians. This made Antalcidas say, when he saw him +wounded, "The Thebans pay you well for making them good soldiers who +neither were willing nor able to fight you before." These ordinances he +called <i>Rhetræ</i>, as if they had been oracles and decrees of the Deity +himself.</p> + +<p>As for the education of youth, which he looked upon as the greatest and +most glorious work of a lawgiver, he began with it at the very source, +taking into consideration their conception and birth, by regulating the +marriages. For he did not (as Aristotle says) desist from his attempt to +bring the women under sober rules. They had, indeed, assumed great +liberty and power on account of the frequent expeditions of their +husbands, during which they were left sole mistresses at home, and so +gained an undue deference and improper titles; but notwithstanding this +he took all possible care of them. He ordered the virgins to exercise +themselves in running, wrestling, and throwing quoits and darts; that +their bodies being strong and vigorous, the children afterwards produced +from them might be the same; and that, thus fortified by exercise, they +might the better support the pangs of child-birth, and be delivered with +safety. In order to take away the excessive tenderness and delicacy of +the sex, the consequence of a recluse life, he accustomed the virgins +occasionally to be seen naked as well as the young men, and to dance and +sing in their presence on certain festivals. There they sometimes +indulged in a little raillery upon those that had misbehaved themselves, +and sometimes they sung encomiums on such as deserved them, thus +exciting in the young men a useful emulation and love of glory. For he +who was praised for his bravery and celebrated among the virgins, went +away perfectly happy: while their satirical glances thrown out in sport, +were no less cutting than serious admonitions; especially as the kings +and senate went with the other citizens to see all that passed. As for +the virgins appearing naked, there was nothing disgraceful in it, +because everything was conducted with modesty, and without one indecent +word or action. Nay, it caused a simplicity of manners and an emulation +for the best habit of body; their ideas too were naturally enlarged, +while they were not excluded from their share of bravery and honour. +Hence they were furnished with sentiments and language, such as Gorgo +the wife of Leonidas is said to have made use of. When a woman of +another country said to her, "You of Lacedæmon are the only women in the +world that rule the men;" she answered, "We are the only women that +bring forth men."</p> + +<p>These public dances and other exercises of the young maidens naked, in +sight of the young men, were, moreover, incentives to marriage: and, to +use Plato's expression, drew them almost as necessarily by the +attractions of love, as a geometrical conclusion follows from the +premises. To encourage it still more, some marks of infamy were set upon +those that continued bachelors. For they were not permitted to see these +exercises of the naked virgins; and the magistrates commanded them to +march naked round the market-place in the winter, and to sing a song +composed against themselves, which expressed how justly they were +punished for their disobedience to the laws. They were also deprived of +that honour and respect which the younger people paid to the old; so +that nobody found fault with what was said to Dercyllidas, though an +eminent commander. It seems, when he came one day into company, a young +man, instead of rising up and giving place, told him, "You have no child +to give place to me, when I am old."</p> + +<p>In their marriages, the bridegroom carried off the bride by violence; +and she was never chosen in a tender age, but when she had arrived at +full maturity. Then the woman that had the direction of the wedding, cut +the bride's hair close to the skin, dressed her in man's clothes, laid +her upon a mattrass, and left her in the dark. The bridegroom, neither +oppressed with wine nor enervated with luxury, but perfectly sober, as +having always supped at the common table, went in privately, untied her +girdle, and carried her to another bed. Having stayed there a short +time, he modestly retired to his usual apartment, to sleep with the +other young men; and observed the same conduct afterwards, spending the +day with his companions, and reposing himself with them in the night, +nor even visiting his bride but with great caution and apprehensions of +being discovered by the rest of the family; the bride at the same time +exerted all her art to contrive convenient opportunities for their +private meetings. And this they did not for a short time only, but some +of them even had children before they had an interview with their wives +in the daytime. This kind of commerce not only exercised their +temperance and chastity, but kept their bodies fruitful, and the first +ardour of their love fresh and unabated; for as they were not satiated +like those that are always with their wives, there still was place for +unextinguished desire. When he had thus established a proper regard to +modesty and decorum with respect to marriage, he was equally studious to +drive from that state the vain and womanish passion of jealousy; by +making it quite as reputable to have children in common with persons of +merit, as to avoid all offensive freedom in their own behaviour to their +wives. He laughed at those who revenge with wars and bloodshed the +communication of a married woman's favours; and allowed, that if a man +in years should have a young wife, he might introduce to her some +handsome and honest young man, whom he most approved of, and when she +had a child of this generous race, bring it up as his own. On the other +hand, he allowed, that if a man of character should entertain a passion +for a married woman on account of her modesty and the beauty of her +children, he might treat with her husband for admission to her company, +that so planting in a beauty-bearing soil, he might produce excellent +children, the congenial offspring of excellent parents. For, in the +first place, Lycurgus considered children, not so much the property of +their parents as of the state; and therefore he would not have them +begot by ordinary persons, but by the best men in it. In the next place, +he observed the vanity and absurdity of other nations, where people +study to have their horses and dogs of the finest breed they can procure +either by interest or money; and yet keep their wives shut up, that they +may have children by none but themselves, though they may happen to be +doting, decrepit, or infirm. As if children, when sprung from a bad +stock, and consequently good for nothing, were no detriment to those +whom they belong to, and who have the trouble of bringing them up, nor +any advantage, when well descended and of a generous disposition. These +regulations tending to secure a healthy offspring, and consequently +beneficial to the state, were so far from encouraging that +licentiousness of the women which prevailed afterwards, that adultery +was not known amongst them. A saying, upon this subject of Geradas, an +ancient Spartan, is thus related. A stranger had asked him, "What +punishment their law appointed for adulterers?" He answered, "My friend, +there are no adulterers in our country." The other replied, "But what if +there should be one?" "Why then," says Geradas, "he must forfeit a bull +so large that he might drink of the Eurotas from the top of Mount +Taygetus." When the stranger expressed his surprise at this, and said, +"How can such a bull be found?" Geradas answered with a smile, "How can +an adulterer be found in Sparta?" This is the account we have of their +marriages.</p> + +<p>It was not left to the father to rear what children he pleased, but he +was obliged to carry the child to a place called Lesche, to be examined +by the most ancient men of the tribe, who were assembled there. If it +was strong and well-proportioned, they gave orders for its education, +and assigned it one of the nine thousand shares of land; but if it was +weakly and deformed, they ordered it to be thrown into the place called +Apothetæ, which is a deep cavern near the mountain Taygetus; concluding +that its life could be no advantage either to itself or to the public, +since nature had not given it at first any strength or goodness of +constitution. For the same reason the women did not wash their new-born +infants with water, but with wine, thus making some trial of their habit +of body; imagining that sickly and epileptic children sink and die under +the experiment, while healthy became more vigorous and hardy. Great care +and art was also exerted by the nurses; for, as they never swathed the +infants, their limbs had a freer turn, and their countenances a more +liberal air; besides, they used them to any sort of meat, to have no +terrors in the dark, nor to be afraid of being alone, and to leave all +ill humour and unmanly crying. Hence people of other countries purchased +Lacedæmonian nurses for their children; and Alcibiades the Athenian is +said to have been nursed by Amicla, a Spartan. But if he was fortunate +in a nurse, he was not so in a preceptor: for Zopyrus, appointed to that +office by Pericles, was, as Plato tells us, no better qualified than a +common slave. The Spartan children were not in that manner, under tutors +purchased or hired with money, nor were the parents at liberty to +educate them as they pleased: but as soon as they were seven years old, +Lycurgus ordered them to be enrolled in companies, where they were all +kept under the same order and discipline, and had their exercises and +recreations in common. He who showed the most conduct and courage +amongst them, was made captain of the company. The rest kept their eyes +upon him, obeyed his orders, and bore with patience the punishment he +inflicted: so that their whole education was an exercise of obedience. +The old men were present at their diversions, and often suggested some +occasion of dispute or quarrel, that they might observe with exactness +the spirit of each, and their firmness in battle.</p> + +<p>As for learning, they had just what was absolutely necessary. All the +rest of their education was calculated to make them subject to command, +to endure labour, to fight and conquer. They added, therefore, to their +discipline, as they advance in age; cutting their hair very close, +making them go barefoot, and play, for the most part, quite naked. At +twelve years of age, their under garment was taken away, and but one +upper one a year allowed them. Hence they were necessarily dirty in +their persons, and not indulged the great favour of baths, and oils, +except on some particular days of the year. They slept in companies, on +beds made of the tops of reeds, which they gathered with their own +hands, without knives, and brought from the banks of the Eurotas. In +winter they were permitted to add a little thistle-down, as that seemed +to have some warmth in it.</p> + +<p>At this age, the most distinguished amongst them became the favourite +companions of the elder; and the old men attended more constantly their +places of exercise, observing their trials of strength and wit, not +slightly and in a cursory manner, but as their fathers, guardians, and +governors: so that there was neither time nor place where persons were +wanting to instruct and chastise them. One of the best and ablest men of +the city was, moreover, appointed inspector of the youth: and he gave +the command of each company to the discreetest and most spirited of +those called Irens. An Iren was one that had been two years out of the +class of boys: a Melliren one of the oldest lads. This Iren, then, a +youth twenty years old, gives orders to those under his command in their +little battles, and has them to serve him at his house. He sends the +oldest of them to fetch wood, and the younger to gather pot-herbs: these +they steal where they can find them, either slily getting into gardens, +or else craftily and warily creeping to the common tables. But if any +one be caught, he is severely flogged for negligence or want of +dexterity. They steal, too, whatever victuals they possibly can, +ingeniously contriving to do it when persons are asleep, or keep but +indifferent watch. If they are discovered, they are punished not only +with whipping, but with hunger. Indeed, their supper is but slender at +all times, that, to fence against want, they may be forced to exercise +their courage and address. This is the first intention of their spare +diet: a subordinate one is, to make them grow tall. For when the animal +spirits are not too much oppressed by a great quantity of food, which +stretches itself out in breadth and thickness, they mount upwards by +their natural lightness, and the body easily and freely shoots up in +height. This also contributes to make them handsome; for thin and +slender habits yield more freely to nature, which then gives a fine +proportion to the limbs; whilst the heavy and gross resist her by their +weight. So women that take physic during their pregnancy, have slighter +children indeed, but of a finer and more delicate turn, because the +suppleness of the matter more readily obeys the plastic power. However, +these are speculations which we shall leave to others.</p> + +<p>The boys steal with so much caution, that one of them having conveyed a +young fox under his garment, suffered the creature to tear out his +bowels with his teeth and claws, choosing rather to die than to be +detected. Nor does this appear incredible, if we consider what their +young men can endure to this day; for we have seen many of them expire +under the lash at the altar of Diana Orthia.</p> + +<p>The Iren, reposing himself after supper, used to order one of the boys +to sing a song; to another he put some question which required a +judicious answer: for example, "Who was the best man in the city?" or +"What he thought of such an action?" This accustomed them from their +childhood to judge of the virtues, to enter into the affairs of their +countrymen. For if one of them was asked, "Who is a good citizen, or who +an infamous one," and hesitated in his answer, he was considered a boy +of slow parts, and of a soul that would not aspire to honour. The answer +was likewise to have a reason assigned for it, and proof conceived in +few words. He whose account of the matter was wrong, by way of +punishment had his thumb bit by the Iren. The old men and magistrates +often attended these little trials, to see whether the Iren exercised +his authority in a rational and proper manner. He was permitted, indeed, +to inflict the penalties; but when the boys were gone, he was to be +chastised himself, if he had punished them either with too much severity +or remissness.</p> + +<p>The adopters of favourites also shared both in the honour and disgrace +of their boys: and one of them is said to have been mulcted by the +magistrates, because the boy whom he had taken into his affections let +some ungenerous word or cry escape him as he was fighting. This love was +so honourable and in so much esteem, that the virgins too had their +lovers amongst the most virtuous matrons. A competition of affection +caused no misunderstanding, but rather a mutual friendship between those +that had fixed their regards upon the same youth, and an united +endeavour to make him as accomplished as possible.</p> + +<p>The boys were also taught to use sharp repartee, seasoned with humour, +and whatever they said was to be concise and pithy. For Lycurgus, as we +have observed, fixed but a small value on a considerable quantity of his +iron money; but, on the contrary, the worth of speech was to consist in +its being comprised in a few plain words, pregnant with a great deal of +sense: and he contrived that by long silence they might learn to be +sententious and acute in their replies. As debauchery often causes +weakness and sterility in the body, so the intemperance of the tongue +makes conversation empty and insipid. King Agis, therefore, when a +certain Athenian laughed at the Lacedæmonian short swords, and said, +"The jugglers would swallow them with ease upon the stage," answered in +his laconic way, "And yet we can reach our enemies' hearts with them." +Indeed, to me there seems to be something in this concise manner of +speaking which immediately reaches the object aimed at, and forcibly +strikes the mind of the hearer. Lycurgus himself was short and +sententious in his discourse, if we may judge by some of his answers +which are recorded; that, for instance, concerning the constitution. +When one advised him to establish a popular government in Lacedæmon, +"Go," said he, "and first make a trial of it in thy own family." That +again, concerning sacrifices to the Deity, when he was asked why he +appointed them so trifling and of so little value, "That we might never +be in want," said he, "of something to offer him." Once more, when they +inquired of him, what sort of martial exercises he allowed of, he +answered, "All, except those in which you stretch out your hands." +Several such like replies of his are said to be taken from the letters +which he wrote to his countrymen: as to their question, "How shall we +best guard against the invasion of an enemy?"—"By continuing poor, and +not desiring in your possessions to be one above another." And to the +question, whether they should enclose Sparta with walls, "That city is +well fortified, which has a wall of men instead of brick." Whether these +and some other letters ascribed to him are genuine or not, is no easy +matter to determine. However, that they hated long speeches, the +following apophthegms are a farther proof. King Leonidas said to one +who discoursed at an improper time about affairs of some concern, "My +friend, you should not talk so much to the purpose, of what it is not to +the purpose to talk of." Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, being asked +why his uncle had made so few laws, answered, "To men of few words, few +laws are sufficient." Some people finding fault with Hecatæus the +sophist, because, when admitted to one of the public repasts, he said +nothing all the time, Archidamidas replied, "He that knows how to speak, +knows also when to speak."</p> + +<p>The manner of their repartees, which, as I said, were seasoned with +humour, may be gathered from these instances. When a troublesome fellow +was pestering Demaratus with impertinent questions, and this in +particular several times repeated, "Who is the best man in Sparta?" He +answered, "He that is least like you." To some who were commending the +Eleans for managing the Olympic games with so much justice and +propriety, Agis said, "What great matter is it, if the Eleans do justice +once in five years?" When a stranger was professing his regard for +Theopompus, and saying that his own countrymen called him Philolacon (a +lover of the Lacedæmonians), the king answered him, "My good friend, it +were much better, if they called you Philopolites" (a lover of your own +countrymen). Plistonax, the son of Pausanias, replied to an orator of +Athens, who said the Lacedæmonians had no learning. "True, for we are +the only people of Greece that have learned no ill of you." To one who +asked what number of men there was in Sparta, Archidamidas said, "Enough +to keep bad men at a distance."</p> + +<p>Even when they indulged a vein of pleasantry, one might perceive that +they would not use one unnecessary word, nor let an expression escape +them that had not some sense worth attending to. For one being asked to +go and hear a person who imitated the nightingale to perfection, +answered, "I have heard the nightingale herself." Another said, upon +reading this epitaph,</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 15em;"> +Victims of Mars, at Selinus they fell,<br /> +Who quench'd the rage of tyranny—<br /> +</p> + +<p>"And they deserved to fall, for, instead of <i>quenching</i> it, they should +have let it <i>burn out</i>." A young man answered one that promised him some +game-cocks that would stand their death, "Give me those that will be the +death of others." Another seeing some people carried into the country in +litters, said, "May I never sit in any place where I cannot rise before +the aged!" This was the manner of their apophthegms: so that it has been +justly enough observed that the term <i>lakonizein</i> (to act the +Lacedæmonian) is to be referred rather to the exercises of the mind, +than those of the body.</p> + +<p>Nor were poetry and music less cultivated among them, than a concise +dignity of expression. Their songs had a spirit, which could rouse the +soul, and impel it in an enthusiastic manner to action. The language was +plain and manly, the subject serious and moral. For they consisted +chiefly of the praises of heroes that had died for Sparta, or else of +expressions of detestation for such wretches as had declined the +glorious opportunity, and rather chose to drag on life in misery and +contempt. Nor did they forget to express an ambition for glory suitable +to their respective ages. Of this it may not be amiss to give an +instance. There were three choirs on their festivals, corresponding with +the three ages of man. The old men began,</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 15em;"> +Once in battle bold we shone;<br /> +</p> + +<p>the young men answered,</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 15em;"> +Try us: our vigour is not gone;<br /> +</p> + +<p>and the boys concluded,</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 15em;"> +The palm remains for us alone.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Indeed, if we consider with some attention such of the Lacedæmonian +poems as are still extant, and get into those airs which were played +upon the flute when they marched to battle, we must agree that Terpander +and Pindar have very fitly joined valour and music together. The former +thus speaks of Lacedæmon,</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 5em;"> +There gleams the youth's bright falchion: there the muse<br /> +Lifts her sweet voice: there awful Justice opes<br /> +Her wide pavilion.<br /> +</p> + +<p>And Pindar sings,</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 15em;"> +There in grave council sits the sage;<br /> +There burns the youth's resistless rage<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">To hurl the quiv'ring lance;</span><br /> +The Muse with glory crowns their arms,<br /> +And Melody exerts her charms,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And Pleasure leads the dance.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Thus we are informed, not only of their warlike turn, but their skill in +music. For as the Spartan poet says,</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 15em;"> +To swell the bold notes of the lyre,<br /> +Becomes the warrior's lofty fire.<br /> +</p> + +<p>And the king always offered sacrifice to the muses before a battle, +putting his troops in mind, I suppose, of their early education and of +the judgment that would be passed upon them; as well as that those +divinities might teach them to despite danger, while they performed some +exploit fit for them to celebrate.</p> + +<p>On these occasions they relaxed the severity of their discipline, +permitting their men to be curious in dressing their hair, and elegant +in their arms and apparel, while they expressed their alacrity, like +horses full of fire and neighing for the race. They let their hair, +therefore, grow from their youth, but took more particular care, when +they expected an action, to have it well combed and shining; remembering +a saying of Lycurgus, that "a large head of hair made the handsome more +graceful, and the ugly more terrible." The exercises, too, of the young +men, during the campaigns, were more moderate, their diet not so hard, +and their whole treatment more indulgent: so that they were the only +people in the world with whom military discipline wore, in time of war, +a gentler face than usual. When the army was drawn up, and the enemy +near, the king sacrificed a goat, and commanded them all to set garlands +upon their heads, and the musicians to play Castro's march, while +himself began the pæan, which was the signal to advance. It was at once +a solemn and dreadful sight to see them measuring their steps to the +sound of music, and without the least disorder in their ranks or tumult +of spirits, moving forward cheerfully and composedly, with harmony, to +battle. Neither fear nor rashness was likely to approve men so disposed, +possessed as they were of a firm presence of mind, with courage and +confidence of success, as under the conduct of heaven. When the king +advanced against the enemy, he had always with him some one that had +been crowned in the public games of Greece. And they tell us, that a +Lacedæmonian, when large sums were offered him on condition that he +would not enter the Olympic lists, refused them, having with much +difficulty thrown his antagonist, one put this question to him, +"Spartan, what will you get by this victory?" He answered with a smile, +"I shall have the honour to fight foremost in the ranks before my +prince." When they had routed the enemy, they continued the pursuit till +they were assured of the victory: after that they immediately desisted; +deeming it neither generous nor worthy of a Grecian to destroy those who +made no farther resistance. This was not only a proof of magnanimity, +but of great service to their cause. For when their adversaries found +that they killed such as stood it out, but spared the fugitives, they +concluded it was better to fly than to meet their fate upon the spot.</p> + +<p>Hippias the sophist tells us, that Lycurgus himself was a man of great +personal valour, and an experienced commander. Philostephanus also +ascribes to him the first division of cavalry into troops of fifty, who +were drawn up in a square body. But Demetrius the Phalerean says, that +he never had any military employment, and that there was the profoundest +peace imaginable when he established the constitution of Sparta. His +providing for a cessation of arms during the Olympic games is likewise a +mark of the humane and peaceable man. Some, however, acquaint us, and +among the rest Hermippus, that Lucurgus at first had no communication +with Iphitus; but coming that way, and happening to be a spectator, he +heard behind him a human voice (as he thought) which expressed some +wonder and displeasure that he did not put his countrymen upon resorting +to so great an assembly. He turned round immediately, to discover whence +the voice came, and as there was no man to be seen, concluded it was +from heaven. He joined Iphitus, therefore; and ordering, along with him, +the ceremonies of the festival, rendered it more magnificent and +lasting.</p> + +<p>The discipline of the Lacedæmonians continued after they were arrived at +years of maturity. For no man was at liberty to live as he pleased; the +city being like one great camp, where all had their stated allowance, +and knew their public charge, each man concluding that he was born, not +for himself, but for his country. Hence, if they had no particular +orders, they employed themselves in inspecting the boys, and teaching +them something useful, or in learning of those that were older than +themselves. One of the greatest privileges that Lycurgus procured his +countrymen, was the enjoyment of leisure, the consequence of his +forbidding them to exercise any mechanic trade. It was not worth their +while to take great pains to raise a fortune, since riches there were of +no account: and the Helotes, who tilled the ground, were answerable for +the produce above-mentioned. To this purpose we have a story of a +Lacedæmonian, who, happening to be at Athens while the court sat, was +informed of a man who was fined for idleness; and when the poor fellow +was returning home in great dejection, attended by his condoling +friends, he desired the company to show him the person that was +condemned for keeping up his dignity. So much beneath them they reckoned +all attention to mechanics arts, and all desire of riches!</p> + +<p>Lawsuits were banished from Lacedæmon with money. The Spartans knew +neither riches nor poverty, but possessed an equal competency, and had a +cheap and easy way of supplying their few wants. Hence, when they were +not engaged in war, their time was taken up with dancing, feasting, +hunting, or meeting to exercise, or converse. They went not to market +under thirty years of age, all their necessary concerns being managed by +their relations and adopters. Nor was it reckoned a credit to the old to +be seen sauntering in the market-place; it was deemed more suitable for +them to pass great part of the day in the schools of exercise, or places +of conversation. Their discourse seldom turned upon money, or business, +or trade, but upon the praise of the excellent, or the contempt of the +worthless; and the last was expressed with that pleasantry and humour, +which conveyed instruction and correction without seeming to intend it. +Nor was Lycurgus himself immoderately severe in his manner; but, as +Sosibius tells us, he dedicated a little statue to the god of laughter +in each hall. He considered facetiousness as a seasoning of their hard +exercise and diet, and therefore ordered it to take place on all proper +occasions, in their common entertainments and parties of pleasure.</p> + +<p>Upon the whole, he taught his citizens to think nothing more +disagreeable than to live by (or for) themselves. Like bees, they acted +with one impulse for the public good, and always assembled about their +prince. They were possessed with a thirst of honour, an enthusiasm +bordering upon insanity, and had not a wish but for their country. These +sentiments are confirmed by some of their aphorisms. When Pædaretus lost +his election for one of the "three hundred," he went away "rejoicing +that there were three hundred better men than himself found in the +city." Pisistratidas going with some others, ambassador to the king of +Persia's lieutenants, was asked whether they came with a public +commission, or on their own account, to which he answered, "If +successful, for the public; if unsuccessful, for ourselves." Agrileonis, +the mother of Brasidas, asking some Amphipolitans that waited upon her +at her house, whether Brasidas died honourably and as became a Spartan? +they greatly extolled his merit, and said there was not such a man left +in Sparta; whereupon she replied, "Say not so, my friends; for Brasidas +was indeed a man of honour, but Lacedæmon can boast of many better men +than he."</p> + +<p>The senate, as I said before, consisted at first of those that were +assistants to Lycurgus in his great enterprise. Afterwards, to fill up +any vacancy that might happen, he ordered the most worthy men to be +selected, of those that were full threescore years old. This was the +most respectable dispute in the world, and the contest was truly +glorious; for it was not who should be swiftest among the swift, or +strongest of the strong, but who was the wisest and best among the good +and wise. He who had the preference was to bear this mark of superior +excellence through life, this great authority, which put into his hands +the lives and honour of the citizens, and every other important affair. +The manner of the election was this: when the people were assembled, +some persons appointed for the purpose were shut up in a room near the +place; where they could neither see nor be seen, and only hear the +shouts of the constituents: for by them they decided this and most +other affairs. Each candidate walked silently through the assembly, one +after another according to lot. Those that were shut up had writing +tables, in which they set down in different columns the number and +loudness of the shouts, without knowing who they were for; only they +marked them as first, second, third, and so on, according to the number +of the competitors. He that had the most and loudest acclamations, was +declared duly elected. Then he was crowned with a garland, and went +round to give thanks to the gods: a number of young men followed, +striving which should extol him most, and the women celebrated his +virtues in their songs, and blessed his worthy life and conduct. Each of +his relations offered him a repast, and their address on the occasion +was, "Sparta honours you with this collation." When he had finished the +procession, he went to the common table, and lived as before. Only two +portions were set before him, one of which he carried away: and as all +the women related to him attended at the gates of the public hall, he +called her for whom he had the greatest esteem, and presented her with +the portion, saying at the same time, "That which I received as a mark +of honour, I give to you." Then she was conducted home with great +applause by the rest of the women.</p> + +<p>Lycurgus likewise made good regulations with respect to burials. In the +first place, to take away all superstition, he ordered the dead to be +buried in the city, and even permitted their monuments to be erected +near the temples; accustoming the youth to such sights from their +infancy, that they might have no uneasiness from them, nor any horror +for death, as if people were polluted with the touch of a dead body, or +with treading upon a grave. In the next place, he suffered nothing to be +buried with the corpse, except the red cloth and the olive leaves in +which it was wrapped. Nor would he suffer the relations to inscribe any +names upon the tombs, except of those men that fell in battle, or those +women who died in some sacred office. He fixed eleven days for the time +of mourning: on the twelfth they were to put an end to it, after +offering sacrifice to Ceres. No part of life was left vacant and +unimproved, but even with their necessary actions he interwove the +praise of virtue and the contempt of vice: and he so filled the city +with living examples, that it was next to impossible, for persons who +had these from their infancy before their eyes, not to be drawn and +formed to honour.</p> + +<p>For the same reason he would not permit all that desired to go abroad +and see other countries, lest they should contract foreign manners, gain +traces of a life of little discipline, and of a different form of +government. He forbid strangers too to resort to Sparta, who could not +assign a good reason for their coming; not, as Thucydides says, out of +fear they should imitate the constitution of that city, and make +improvements in virtue, but lest they should teach his own people some +evil. For along with foreigners come new subjects of discourse; new +discourse produces new opinions; and from these there necessarily spring +new passions and desires, which, like discords in music, would disturb +the established government. He, therefore, thought it more expedient for +the city to keep out of it corrupt customs and manners, than even to +prevent the introduction of a pestilence.</p> + +<p>Thus far, then, we can perceive no vestiges of a disregard to right and +wrong, which is the fault some people find with the laws of Lycurgus, +allowing them well enough calculated to produce valour, but not to +promote justice. Perhaps it was the Cryptia, as they called it, or +ambuscade, if that was really one of this lawgiver's institutions, as +Aristotle says it was, which gave Plato so bad an impression both of +Lycurgus and his laws. The governors of the youth ordered the shrewdest +of them from time to time to disperse themselves in the country, +provided only with daggers and some necessary provisions. In the daytime +they hid themselves, and rested in the most private places they could +find, but at night they sallied out into the roads, and killed all the +Helotes they could meet with. Nay, sometimes by day, they fell upon them +in the fields, and murdered the ablest and strongest of them. Thucydides +relates in his history of the Peloponnesian war, that the Spartans +selected such of them as were distinguished for their courage, to the +number of two thousand or more, declared them free, crowned them with +garlands, and conducted them to the temples of the gods; but soon after +they all disappeared; and no one could, either then or since, give +account in what manner they were destroyed. Aristotle particularly says, +that the Ephori, as soon as they were invested in their office, declared +war against the Helotes, that they might be massacred under pretence of +law. In other respects they treated them with great inhumanity: +sometimes they made them drink till they were intoxicated, and in that +condition led them into the public halls, to show the young men what +drunkenness was. They ordered them too to sing mean songs, and to dance +ridiculous dances, but not to meddle with any that were genteel and +graceful. Thus they tell us, that when the Thebans afterwards invaded +Laconia, and took a great number of the Helotes prisoners, they ordered +them to sing the odes of Terpander, Aleman, or Spendon the Lacedæmonian, +but they excused themselves, alleging that it was forbidden by their +masters. Those who say that a freeman in Sparta was most a freeman, and +a slave most a slave, seem well to have considered the difference of +states. But in my opinion, it was in after-times that these cruelties +took place among the Lacedæmonians, chiefly after the great earthquake, +when, as history informs us, the Helotes, joining the Messenians, +attacked them, did infinite damage to the country, and brought the city +to the greatest extremity. I can never ascribe to Lycurgus so +abominable an act as that of the ambuscade. I would judge in this case +by the mildness and justice which appeared in the rest of his conduct, +to which also the gods gave their sanction.</p> + +<p>When his principal institutions had taken root in the manners of the +people, and the government was come to such maturity as to be able to +support and preserve itself, then, as Plato says of the Deity, that he +rejoiced when he had created the world, and given it its first motion; +so Lycurgus was charmed with the beauty and greatness of his political +establishment, when he saw it exemplified in fact, and move on in due +order. He was next desirous to make it immortal, so far as human wisdom +could effect it, and to deliver it down unchanged to the latest times. +For this purpose he assembled all the people, and told them the +provisions he had already made for the state were indeed sufficient for +virtue and happiness, but the greatest and most important matter was +still behind, which he could not disclose to them till he had consulted +the oracle; that they must therefore inviolably observe his laws, +without altering anything in them, till he returned from Delphi; and +then he would acquaint them with the pleasure of Apollo. When they had +all promised to do so, and desired him to set forward, he took an oath +of the kings and senators, and afterwards of all the citizens, that they +would abide by the present establishment till Lycurgus came back. He +then took his journey to Delphi.</p> + +<p>When he arrived there, he offered sacrifice to the gods, and consulted +the oracle, whether his laws were sufficient to promote virtue, and +secure the happiness of the state. Apollo answered, that the laws were +excellent, and that the city which kept to the constitution he had +established, would be the most glorious in the world. This oracle +Lycurgus took down in writing, and sent it to Sparta. He then offered +another sacrifice, and embraced his friends and his son, determined +never to release his citizens from their oath, but voluntarily there to +put a period to his life; while he was yet of an age when life was not a +burden, when death was not desirable, and while he was not unhappy in +any one circumstance. He, therefore, destroyed himself by abstaining +from food, persuaded that the very death of lawgivers should have its +use, and their exit, so far from being insignificant, have its share of +virtue, and be considered as a great action. To him, indeed, whose +performances were so illustrious, the conclusion of life was the crown +of happiness, and his death was left guardian of those invaluable +blessings he had procured his countrymen through life, as they had taken +an oath not to depart from his establishment till his return. Nor was he +deceived in his expectations. Sparta continued superior to the rest of +Greece, both in its government at home and reputation abroad, so long as +it retained the institution of Lycurgus: and this it did during the +space of five hundred years, and the reign of fourteen successive kings, +down to Agis the son of Archidamus. As for the appointment of the +Ephori, it was so far from weakening the constitution, that it gave it +additional vigour, and though it seemed to be established in favour of +the people, it strengthened the aristocracy.</p> + +<p>But in the reign of Agis money found its way into Sparta, and with money +came its inseparable attendant—avarice. This was by means of Lysander; +who, though himself incapable of being corrupted by money, filled his +country with the love of it, and with luxury too. He brought both gold +and silver from the wars, and thereby broke through the laws of +Lycurgus. While these were in force, Sparta was not so much under the +political regulations of a commonwealth, as the strict rules of a +philosophic life; and as the poets feign of Hercules, that only with a +club and lion's skin he travelled over the world, clearing it of lawless +ruffians and cruel tyrants; so the Lacedæmonians with a piece of +parchment and coarse coat kept Greece in a voluntary obedience, +destroyed usurpation and tyranny in the states, put an end to wars, and +laid seditions asleep, very often without either shield or lance, and +only by sending one ambassador; to whose directions all parties +concerned immediately submitted. Thus bees, when their prince appears, +compose their quarrels and unite in one swarm. So much did justice and +good government prevail in that state, that I am surprised at those who +say the Lacedæmonians knew indeed how to obey, but not how to govern: +and on this occasion quote the saying of king Theopompus, who, when one +told him that Sparta was preserved by the good administration of its +kings, replied, "Nay, rather by the obedience of their subjects." It is +certain that people will not continue pliant to those who know not how +to command; but it is the part of a good governor to teach obedience. He +who knows how to lead well, is sure to be well followed: and as it is by +the art of horsemanship that a horse is made gentle and tractable, so it +is by the abilities of him that fills the throne that the people become +ductile and submissive. Such was the conduct of the Lacedæmonians, that +people did not only endure, but even desired to be their subjects. They +asked not of them either ships, money or troops, but only a Spartan +general. When they had received him, they treated him with the greatest +honour and respect; so Gylippus was revered by the Sicilians, Brasidas +by the Chalcidians, Lysander, Callicratidas, and Agesilaus by all the +people of Asia. These, and such as these, wherever they came, were +called moderators and reformers, both of the magistrates and people, and +Sparta itself was considered as a school of discipline, where the beauty +of life and political order were taught in the utmost perfection. Hence +Stratonicus seems facetiously enough to have said, that he would order +"the Athenians to have the conduct of mysteries and processions; the +Eleans to preside in games, as their particular province; and the +Lacedæmonians to be beaten, if the other did amiss." This was spoken in +jest: but Antisthenes, one of the scholars of Socrates, said (more +seriously) of the Thebans, when he saw them pluming themselves upon +their success at Leuctra, "They were just like so many school-boys +rejoicing that they had beaten their master."</p> + +<p>It was not, however, the principal design of Lycurgus that his city +should govern many others, but he considered its happiness like that of +a private man, as flowing from virtue and self-consistency: he therefore +so ordered and disposed it, that by the freedom and sobriety of its +inhabitants, and their having a sufficiency within themselves, its +continuance might be the more secure. Plato, Diogenes, Zeno, and other +writers upon government, have taken Lycurgus for their model: and these +have attained great praise, though they left only an idea of something +excellent. Yet he who, not in idea and in words, but in fact produced a +most inimitable form of government, and by showing a whole city of +philosophers, confounded those who imagine that the so much talked of +strictness of a philosophic life is impracticable; he, I say, stands in +the rank of glory far beyond the founders of all the other Grecian +states. Therefore Aristotle is of opinion, that the honours paid him in +Lacedæmon were far beneath his merit. Yet those honours were very great; +for he has a temple there, and they offer him a yearly sacrifice, as a +god. It is also said, that when his remains were brought home, his tomb +was struck with lightning: a seal of divinity which no other man, +however eminent, has had, except Euripides, who died and was buried at +Arethusa in Macedonia. This was matter of great satisfaction and triumph +to the friends of Euripides, that the same thing should befall him after +death, which had formerly happened to the most venerable of men, and the +most favoured of heaven. Some say, Lycurgus died at Cirrha; but +Apollothemis will have it, that he was brought to Elis and died there; +and Timæus and Aristoxenus write, that he ended his days in Crete; nay, +Aristoxenus adds, that the Cretans show his tomb at Pergamia, near the +high road. We are told, he left an only son named Antiorus: and as he +died without issue, the family was extinct. His friends and relations +observed his anniversary, which subsisted for many ages, and the days on +which they met for that purpose they called Lycurgidæ. Aristocrates, the +son of Hipparchus, relates, that the friends of Lycurgus, with whom he +sojourned, and at last died in Crete, burned his body, and, at his +request, threw his ashes into the sea. Thus he guarded against the +possibility of his remains being brought back to Sparta by the +Lacedæmonians, lest they should then think themselves released from +their oath, on the pretence that he was returned, and make innovations +in the government. This is what we had to say of Lycurgus.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="SIR_THOMAS_MORES" id="SIR_THOMAS_MORES"></a>SIR THOMAS MORE'S<br /> + +UTOPIA.</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>UTOPIA.</h3> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h4>BOOK I.</h4> + + +<p>Henry the Eighth, the unconquered King of England, a prince adorned with +all the virtues that become a great monarch, having some differences of +no small consequence with Charles the most serene prince of Castile, +sent me into Flanders, as his ambassador, for treating and composing +matters between them. I was colleague and companion to that incomparable +man Cuthbert Tonstal, whom the king with such universal applause lately +made Master of the Rolls; but of whom I will say nothing; not because I +fear that the testimony of a friend will be suspected, but rather +because his learning and virtues are too great for me to do them +justice, and so well known, that they need not my commendations unless I +would, according to the proverb, "Show the sun with a lanthorn." Those +that were appointed by the prince to treat with us met us at Bruges, +according to agreement; they were all worthy men. The Margrave of Bruges +was their head, and the chief man among them; but he that was esteemed +the wisest, and that spoke for the rest, was George Temse, the Provost +of Casselsee; both art and nature had concurred to make him eloquent: he +was very learned in the law; and as he had a great capacity, so by a +long practice in affairs he was very dextrous at unravelling them. +After we had several times met without coming to an agreement, they went +to Brussels for some days to know the prince's pleasure. And since our +business would admit it, I went to Antwerp. While I was there, among +many that visited me, there was one that was more acceptable to me than +any other, Peter Giles, born at Antwerp, who is a man of great honour, +and of a good rank in his town, though less than he deserves; for I do +not know if there be anywhere to be found a more learned and a better +bred young man: for as he is both a very worthy and a very knowing +person, so he is so civil to all men, so particularly kind to his +friends, and so full of candour and affection, that there is not perhaps +above one or two anywhere to be found that is in all respects so perfect +a friend. He is extraordinarily modest, there is no artifice in him; and +yet no man has more of a prudent simplicity: his conversation was so +pleasant and so innocently cheerful, that his company in a great measure +lessened any longings to go back to my country, and to my wife and +children, which an absence of four months had quickened very much. One +day as I was returning home from Mass at St. Mary's, which is the chief +church, and the most frequented of any in Antwerp, I saw him by accident +talking with a stranger, who seemed past the flower of his age; his face +was tanned, he had a long beard, and his cloak was hanging carelessly +about him, so that by his looks and habit I concluded he was a seaman. +As soon as Peter saw me, he came and saluted me; and as I was returning +his civility, he took me aside, and pointing to him with whom he had +been discoursing, he said, "Do you see that man? I was just thinking to +bring him to you." I answered, "He should have been very welcome on your +account." "And on his own too," replied he, "if you knew the man, for +there is none alive that can give so copious an account of unknown +nations and countries as he can do; which I know you very much desire." +Then said I, "I did not guess amiss, for at first sight I took him for +a seaman." "But you are much mistaken," said he, "for he has not sailed +as a seaman, but as a traveller, or rather a philosopher. This Raphael, +who from his family carries the name of Hythloday, is not ignorant of +the Latin tongue, but is eminently learned in the Greek, having applied +himself more particularly to that than to the former, because he had +given himself much to philosophy, in which he knew that the Romans have +left us nothing that is valuable, except what is to be found in Seneca +and Cicero. He is a Portuguese by birth, and was so desirous of seeing +the world, that he divided his estate among his brothers, run the same +hazard as Americus Vesputius, and bore a share in three of his four +voyages, that are now published; only he did not return with him in his +last, but obtained leave of him almost by force, that he might be one of +those twenty-four who were left at the farthest place at which they +touched, in their last voyage to New Castile. The leaving him thus did +not a little gratify one that was more fond of travelling than of +returning home, to be buried in his own country; for he used often to +say, that the way to heaven was the same from all places; and he that +had no grave, had the heaven still over him. Yet this disposition of +mind had cost him dear, if God had not been very gracious to him; for +after he, with five Castilians, had travelled over many countries, at +last, by strange good fortune, he got to Ceylon, and from thence to +Calicut, where he very happily found some Portuguese ships; and, beyond +all men's expectations, returned to his native country." When Peter had +said this to me, I thanked him for his kindness, in intending to give me +the acquaintance of a man whose conversation he knew would be so +acceptable; and upon that Raphael and I embraced each other. After those +civilities were past which are usual with strangers upon their first +meeting, we all went to my house, and entering into the garden, sat down +on a green bank, and entertained one another in discourse. He told us, +that when Vesputius had sailed away, he and his companions that stayed +behind in New Castile, by degrees insinuated themselves into the +affections of the people of the country, meeting often with them, and +treating them gently: and at last they not only lived among them without +danger, but conversed familiarly with them; and got so far into the +heart of a prince, whose name and country I have forgot, that he both +furnished them plentifully with all things necessary, and also with the +conveniences of travelling; both boats when they went by water, and +waggons when they travelled over land: he sent with them a very faithful +guide, who was to introduce and recommend them to such other princes as +they had a mind to see: and after many days' journey, they came to +towns, and cities, and to commonwealths, that were both happily governed +and well peopled. Under the equator, and as far on both sides of it as +the sun moves, there lay vast deserts that were parched with the +perpetual heat of the sun; the soil was withered, all things looked +dismally, and all places were either quite uninhabited, or abounded with +wild beasts and serpents, and some few men, that were neither less wild +nor less cruel than the beasts themselves. But as they went farther, a +new scene opened, all things grew milder, the air less burning, the soil +more verdant, and even the beasts were less wild: and at last there were +nations, towns, and cities, that had not only mutual commerce among +themselves, and with their neighbours, but traded both by sea and land, +to very remote countries. There they found the conveniences of seeing +many countries on all hands, for no ship went any voyage into which he +and his companions were not very welcome. The first vessels that they +saw were flat-bottomed, their sails were made of reeds and wicker woven +close together, only some were of leather; but afterwards they found +ships made with round keels, and canvas sails, and in all respects like +our ships; and the seamen understood both astronomy and navigation. He +got wonderfully into their favour, by showing them the use of the +needle, of which till then they were utterly ignorant. They sailed +before with great caution, and only in summer-time, but now they count +all seasons alike, trusting wholly to the loadstone, in which they are +perhaps more secure than safe; so that there is reason to fear that this +discovery, which was thought would prove so much to their advantage, may +by their imprudence become an occasion of much mischief to them. But it +were too long to dwell on all that he told us he had observed in every +place; it would be too great a digression from our present purpose: +whatever is necessary to be told, concerning those wise and prudent +institutions which he observed among civilized nations, may perhaps be +related by us on a more proper occasion. We asked him many questions +concerning all these things, to which he answered very willingly; only +we made no inquiries after monsters, than which nothing is more common; +for everywhere one may hear of ravenous dogs and wolves, and cruel +men-eaters; but it is not so easy to find states that are well and +wisely governed.</p> + +<p>As he told us of many things that were amiss in those new-discovered +countries, so he reckoned up not a few things from which patterns might +be taken for correcting the errors of these nations among whom we live; +of which an account may be given, as I have already promised, at some +other time; for at present I intend only to relate those particulars +that he told us of the manners and laws of the Utopians: but I will +begin with the occasion that led us to speak of that commonwealth. After +Raphael had discoursed with great judgment on the many errors that were +both among us and these nations; had treated of the wise institutions +both here and there, and had spoken as distinctly of the customs and +government of every nation through which he had passed, as if he had +spent his whole life in it; Peter being struck with admiration, said, "I +wonder, Raphael, how it comes that you enter into no king's service, for +I am sure there are none to whom you would not be very acceptable: for +your learning and knowledge, both of men and things, is such, that you +would not only entertain them very pleasantly, but be of great use to +them, by the examples you could set before them, and the advices you +could give them; and by this means you would both serve your own +interest, and be of great use to all your friends."—"As for my +friends," answered he, "I need not be much concerned, having already +done for them all that was incumbent on me; for when I was not only in +good health, but fresh and young, I distributed that among my kindred +and friends which other people do not part with till they are old and +sick; when they then unwillingly give that which they can enjoy no +longer themselves. I think my friends ought to rest contented with this, +and not to expect that for their sakes I should enslave myself to any +king whatsoever."—"Soft and fair," said Peter, "I do not mean that you +should be a slave to any king, but only that you should assist them, and +be useful to them."—"The change of the word," said he, "does not alter +the matter."—"But term it as you will," replied Peter, "I do not see +any other way in which you can be so useful, both in private to your +friends, and to the public, and by which you can make your own condition +happier."—"Happier!" answered Raphael, "is that to be compassed in a +way so abhorrent to my genius? Now I live as I will, to which I believe +few courtiers can pretend. And there are so many that court the favour +of great men, that there will be no great loss if they are not troubled +either with me or with others of my temper." Upon this, said I, "I +perceive, Raphael, that you neither desire wealth nor greatness; and +indeed I value and admire such a man much more than I do any of the +great men in the world. Yet I think you would do what would well become +so generous and philosophical a soul as yours is, if you would apply +your time and thoughts to public affairs, even though you may happen to +find it a little uneasy to yourself: and this you can never do with so +much advantage, as by being taken into the counsel of some great prince, +and putting him on noble and worthy actions, which I know you would do +if you were in such a post; for the springs both of good and evil flow +from the prince, over a whole nation, as from a lasting fountain. So +much learning as you have, even without practice in affairs, or so great +a practice as you have had, without any other learning, would render you +a very fit counsellor to any king whatsoever."—"You are doubly +mistaken," said he, "Mr. More, both in your opinion of me, and in the +judgment you make of things: for as I have not that capacity that you +fancy I have; so, if I had it, the public would not be one jot the +better, when I had sacrificed my quiet to it. For most princes apply +themselves more to affairs of war than to the useful arts of peace; and +in these I neither have any knowledge, nor do I much desire it: they are +generally more set on acquiring new kingdoms, right or wrong, than on +governing well those they possess. And among the ministers of princes, +there are none that are not so wise as to need no assistance, or at +least that do not think themselves so wise, that they imagine they need +none; and if they court any, it is only those for whom the prince has +much personal favour, whom by their fawnings and flatteries they +endeavour to fix to their own interests: and indeed Nature has so made +us, that we all love to be flattered, and to please ourselves with our +own notions. The old crow loves his young, and the ape her cubs. Now if +in such a Court, made up of persons who envy all others, and only admire +themselves, a person should but propose anything that he had either read +in history, or observed in his travels, the rest would think that the +reputation of their wisdom would sink, and that their interest would be +much depressed, if they could not run it down: and if all other things +failed, then they would fly to this, that such or such things pleased +our ancestors, and it were well for us if we could but match them. They +would set up their rest on such an answer, as a sufficient confutation +of all that could be said; as if it were a great misfortune, that any +should be found wiser than his ancestors; but though they willingly let +go all the good things that were among those of former ages, yet if +better things are proposed they cover themselves obstinately with this +excuse of reverence to past times. I have met with these proud, morose, +and absurd judgments of things in many places, particularly once in +England."—"Was you ever there?" said I.—"Yes, I was," answered he, +"and stayed some months there, not long after the rebellion in the west +was suppressed with a great slaughter of the poor people that were +engaged in it.</p> + +<p>"I was then much obliged to that reverend prelate, John Morton, +Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal, and Chancellor of England: a man," +said he, "Peter (for Mr. More knows well what he was), that was not less +venerable for his wisdom and virtues, than for the high character he +bore. He was of a middle stature, not broken with age; his looks begot +reverence rather than fear; his conversation was easy, but serious and +grave; he sometimes took pleasure to try the force of those that came as +suitors to him upon business, by speaking sharply, though decently to +them, and by that he discovered their spirit and presence of mind, with +which he was much delighted, when it did not grow up to impudence, as +bearing a great resemblance to his own temper; and he looked on such +persons as the fittest men for affairs. He spoke both gracefully and +weightily; he was eminently skilled in the law, had a vast +understanding, and a prodigious memory; and those excellent talents with +which Nature had furnished him, were improved by study and experience. +When I was in England the king depended much on his counsels, and the +government seemed to be chiefly supported by him; for from his youth he +had been all along practised in affairs; and having passed through many +traverses of fortune, he had with great cost acquired a vast stock of +wisdom, which is not soon lost when it is purchased so dear. One day +when I was dining with him there happened to be at table one of the +English lawyers, who took occasion to run out in a high commendation of +the severe execution of justice upon thieves, who, as he said, were then +hanged so fast, that there were sometimes twenty on one gibbet; and upon +that he said he could not wonder enough how it came to pass, that since +so few escaped, there were yet so many thieves left who were still +robbing in all places. Upon this, I who took the boldness to speak +freely before the Cardinal, said, there was no reason to wonder at the +matter, since this way of punishing thieves was neither just in itself +nor good for the public; for as the severity was too great, so the +remedy was not effectual; simple theft not being so great a crime that +it ought to cost a man his life, no punishment how severe soever being +able to restrain those from robbing who can find out no other way of +livelihood. 'In this,' said I, 'not only you in England, but a great +part of the world imitate some ill masters that are readier to chastise +their scholars than to teach them. There are dreadful punishments +enacted against thieves, but it were much better to make such good +provisions by which every man might be put in a method how to live, and +so be preserved from the fatal necessity of stealing and of dying for +it.'—'There has been care enough taken for that,' said he, 'there are +many handicrafts, and there is husbandry, by which they may make a shift +to live unless they have a greater mind to follow ill courses.'—'That +will not serve your turn,' said I, 'for many lose their limbs in civil +or foreign wars, as lately in the Cornish rebellion, and some time ago +in your wars with France, who being thus mutilated in the service of +their king and country, can no more follow their old trades, and are +too old to learn new ones: but since wars are only accidental things, +and have intervals, let us consider those things that fall out every +day. There is a great number of noblemen among you, that are themselves +as idle as drones, that subsist on other men's labour, on the labour of +their tenants, whom, to raise their revenues, they pare to the quick. +This indeed is the only instance of their frugality, for in all other +things they are prodigal, even to the beggaring of themselves: but +besides this, they carry about with them a great number of idle fellows, +who never learned any art by which they may gain their living; and +these, as soon as either their lord dies, or they themselves fall sick, +are turned out of doors; for your lords are readier to feed idle people, +than to take care of the sick; and often the heir is not able to keep +together so great a family as his predecessor did. Now when the stomachs +of those that are thus turned out of doors, grow keen, they rob no less +keenly; and what else can they do? for when, by wandering about, they +have worn out both their health and their clothes, and are tattered, and +look ghastly, men of quality will not entertain them, and poor men dare +not do it; knowing that one who has been bred up in idleness and +pleasure, and who was used to walk about with his sword and buckler, +despising all the neighbourhood with an insolent scorn, as far below +him, is not fit for the spade and mattock: nor will he serve a poor man +for so small a hire, and in so low a diet as he can afford to give him.' +To this he answered, 'This sort of men ought to be particularly +cherished, for in them consists the force of the armies for which we +have occasion; since their birth inspires them with a nobler sense of +honour, than is to be found among tradesmen or ploughmen.'—'You may as +well say,' replied I, 'that you must cherish thieves on the account of +wars, for you will never want the one, as long as you have the other; +and as robbers prove sometimes gallant soldiers, so soldiers often prove +brave robbers; so near an alliance there is between those two sorts of +life. But this bad custom, so common among you, of keeping many +servants, is not peculiar to this nation. In France there is yet a more +pestiferous sort of people, for the whole country is full of soldiers, +still kept up in time of peace; if such a state of a nation can be +called a peace: and these are kept in pay upon the same account that you +plead for those idle retainers about noblemen; this being a maxim of +those pretended statesmen that it is necessary for the public safety, to +have a good body of veteran soldiers ever in readiness. They think raw +men are not to be depended on, and they sometimes seek occasions for +making war, that they may train up their soldiers in the art of cutting +throats; or as Sallust observed, for keeping their hands in use, that +they may not grow dull by too long an intermission. But France has +learned to its cost, how dangerous it is to feed such beasts. The fate +of the Romans, Carthaginians, and Syrians, and many other nations and +cities, which were both overturned and quite ruined by those standing +armies, should make others wiser: and the folly of this maxim of the +French, appears plainly even from this, that their trained soldiers +often find your raw men prove too hard for them; of which I will not say +much, lest you may think I flatter the English. Every day's experience +shows, that the mechanics in the towns, or the clowns in the country, +are not afraid of fighting with those idle gentlemen, if they are not +disabled by some misfortune in their body, or dispirited by extreme +want, so that you need not fear that those well-shaped and strong men +(for it is only such that noblemen love to keep about them, till they +spoil them) who now grow feeble with ease, and are softened with their +effeminate manner of life, would be less fit for action if they were +well bred and well employed. And it seems very unreasonable, that for +the prospect of a war, which you need never have but when you please, +you should maintain so many idle men, as will always disturb you in +time of peace, which is ever to be more considered than war. But I do +not think that this necessity of stealing arises only from hence; there +is another cause of it more peculiar to England.'—'What is that?' said +the Cardinal.—'The increase of pasture,' said I, 'by which your sheep, +which are naturally mild, and easily kept in order, may be said now to +devour men, and unpeople, not only villages, but towns; for wherever it +is found that the sheep of any soil yield a softer and richer wool than +ordinary, there the nobility and gentry, and even those holy men the +abbots, not contented with the old rents which their farms yielded, nor +thinking it enough that they, living at their ease, do no good to the +public, resolve to do it hurt instead of good. They stop the course of +agriculture, destroying houses and towns, reserving only the churches, +and enclose grounds that they may lodge their sheep in them. As if +forests and parks had swallowed up too little of the land, those worthy +countrymen turn the best inhabited places in solitudes; for when an +insatiable wretch, who is a plague to his country, resolves to inclose +many thousand acres of ground, the owners, as well as tenants, are +turned out of their possessions, by tricks, or by main force, or being +wearied out with ill usage, they are forced to sell them. By which means +those miserable people, both men and women, married and unmarried, old +and young, with their poor but numerous families (since country business +requires many hands), are all forced to change their seats, not knowing +whither to go; and they must sell almost for nothing their household +stuff, which could not bring them much money, even though they might +stay for a buyer. When that little money is at an end, for it will be +soon spent; what is left for them to do, but either to steal and so to +be hanged (God knows how justly), or to go about and beg? And if they do +this, they are put in prison as idle vagabonds; while they would +willingly work, but can find none that will hire them; for there is no +more occasion for country labour, to which they have been bred, when +there is no arable ground left. One shepherd can look after a flock, +which will stock an extent of ground that would require many hands, if +it were to be ploughed and reaped. This likewise in many places raises +the price of corn. The price of wool is also so risen, that the poor +people who were wont to make cloth are no more able to buy it; and this +likewise makes many of them idle. For since the increase of pasture, God +has punished the avarice of the owners, by a rot among the sheep, which +has destroyed vast numbers of them; to us it might have seemed more just +had it fell on the owners themselves. But suppose the sheep should +increase ever so much, their price is not like to fall; since though +they cannot be called a monopoly, because they are not engrossed by one +person, yet they are in so few hands, and these are so rich, that as +they are not pressed to sell them sooner than they have a mind to it, so +they never do it till they have raised the price as high as possible. +And on the same account it is, that the other kinds of cattle are so +dear, because many villages being pulled down, and all country labour +being much neglected, there are none who make it their business to breed +them. The rich do not breed cattle as they do sheep, but buy them lean, +and at low prices; and after they have fattened them on their grounds, +sell them again at high rates. And I do not think that all the +inconveniences this will produce are yet observed; for as they sell the +cattle dear, so if they are consumed faster than the breeding countries +from which they are brought can afford them, then the stock must +decrease, and this must needs end in great scarcity; and by these means +this your island, which seemed as to this particular the happiest in the +world, will suffer much by the cursed avarice of a few persons; besides +this, the rising of corn makes all people lessen their families as much +as they can; and what can those who are dismissed by them do, but +either beg or rob? And to this last, a man of a great mind is much +sooner drawn than to the former. Luxury likewise breaks in apace upon +you, to set forward your poverty and misery; there is an excessive +vanity in apparel, and great cost in diet; and that not only in +noblemen's families, but even among tradesmen, among the farmers +themselves, and among all ranks of persons. You have also many infamous +houses, and besides those that are known, the taverns and alehouses are +no better; add to these, dice, cards, tables, foot-ball, tennis, and +quoits, in which money runs fast away; and those that are initiated into +them, must in the conclusion betake themselves to robbing for a supply. +Banish these plagues, and give orders that those who have dispeopled so +much soil, may either rebuild the villages they have pulled down, or let +out their grounds to such as will do it: restrain those engrossings of +the rich, that are as bad almost as monopolies; leave fewer occasions to +idleness; let agriculture be set up again, and the manufacture of the +wool be regulated, that so there may be work found for those companies +of idle people whom want forces to be thieves, or who now being idle +vagabonds, or useless servants, will certainly grow thieves at last. If +you do not find a remedy to these evils, it is a vain thing to boast of +your severity in punishing theft, which though it may have the +appearance of justice, yet in itself is neither just nor convenient. For +if you suffer your people to be ill educated, and their manners to be +corrupted from their infancy, and then punish them for those crimes to +which their first education disposed them, what else is to be concluded +from this, but that you first make thieves and then punish them?'</p> + +<p>"While I was talking thus, the counsellor who was present had prepared +an answer, and had resolved to resume all I had said, according to the +formality of a debate, in which things are generally repeated more +faithfully than they are answered; as if the chief trial to be made +were of men's memories. 'You have talked prettily for a stranger,' said +he, 'having heard of many things among us which you have not been able +to consider well; but I will make the whole matter plain to you, and +will first repeat in order all that you have said, then I will show how +much your ignorance of our affairs has misled you, and will in the last +place answer all your arguments. And that I may begin where I promised, +there were four things——' 'Hold your peace,' said the Cardinal, 'this +will take up too much time; therefore we will at present ease you of the +trouble of answering, and reserve it to our next meeting, which shall be +to-morrow, if Raphael's affairs and yours can admit of it. But, +Raphael,' said he to me, 'I would gladly know upon what reason it is +that you think theft ought not to be punished by death? Would you give +way to it? Or do you propose any other punishment that will be more +useful to the public? For since death does not restrain theft, if men +thought their lives would be safe, what fear or force could restrain ill +men? On the contrary, they would look on the mitigation of the +punishment as an invitation to commit more crimes.' I answered, 'It +seems to me a very unjust thing to take away a man's life for a little +money; for nothing in the world can be of equal value with a man's life: +and if it is said, that it is not for the money that one suffers, but +for his breaking the law, I must say, extreme justice is an extreme +injury; for we ought not to approve of these terrible laws that make the +smallest offences capital, nor of that opinion of the Stoics, that makes +all crimes equal, as if there were no difference to be made between the +killing a man and the taking his purse, between which, if we examine +things impartially, there is no likeness nor proportion. God has +commanded us not to kill, and shall we kill so easily for a little +money? But if one shall say, that by that law we are only forbid to kill +any, except when the laws of the land allow of it; upon the same +grounds, laws may be made in some cases to allow of adultery and +perjury: for God having taken from us the right of disposing, either of +our own or of other people's lives, if it is pretended that the mutual +consent of man in making laws can authorize man-slaughter in cases in +which God has given us no example, that it frees people from the +obligation of the divine law, and so makes murder a lawful action; what +is this, but to give a preference to human laws before the divine? And +if this is once admitted, by the same rule men may in all other things +put what restrictions they please upon the laws of God. If by the +Mosaical law, though it was rough and severe, as being a yoke laid on an +obstinate and servile nation, men were only fined, and not put to death +for theft, we cannot imagine that in this new law of mercy, in which God +treats us with the tenderness of a father, He has given us a greater +license to cruelty than He did to the Jews. Upon these reasons it is, +that I think putting thieves to death is not lawful; and it is plain and +obvious that it is absurd, and of ill consequence to the commonwealth, +that a thief and a murderer should be equally punished; for if a robber +sees that his danger is the same, if he is convicted of theft as if he +were guilty of murder, this will naturally incite him to kill the person +whom otherwise he would only have robbed, since if the punishment is the +same, there is more security, and less danger of discovery, when he that +can best make it is put out of the way; so that terrifying thieves too +much, provokes them to cruelty.</p> + +<p>"'But as to the question, what more convenient way of punishment can be +found? I think it is much more easier to find out that, than to invent +anything that is worse; why should we doubt but the way that was so long +in use among the old Romans, who understood so well the arts of +government, was very proper for their punishment? They condemned such as +they found guilty of great crimes, to work their whole lives in +quarries, or to dig in mines with chains about them. But the method that +I liked best, was that which I observed in my travels in Persia, among +the Polylerits, who are a considerable and well-governed people. They +pay a yearly tribute to the King of Persia; but in all other respects +they are a free nation, and governed by their own laws. They lie far +from the sea, and are environed with hills; and being contented with the +productions of their own country, which is very fruitful, they have +little commerce with any other nation; and as they, according to the +genius of their country, have no inclination to enlarge their borders; +so their mountains, and the pension they pay to the Persian, secure them +from all invasions. Thus they have no wars among them: they live rather +conveniently than with splendour, and may be rather called a happy +nation, than either eminent or famous; for I do not think that they are +known so much as by name to any but their next neighbours. Those that +are found guilty of theft among them, are bound to make restitution to +the owner, and not as it is in other places, to the prince, for they +reckon that the prince has no more right to the stolen goods than the +thief; but if that which was stolen is no more in being, then the goods +of the thieves are estimated, and restitution being made out of them, +the remainder is given to their wives and children: and they themselves +are condemned to serve in the public works, but are neither imprisoned, +nor chained, unless there happened to be some extraordinary +circumstances in their crimes. They go about loose and free, working for +the public. If they are idle or backward to work, they are whipped; but +if they work hard, they are well used and treated without any mark of +reproach, only the lists of them are called always at night, and then +they are shut up. They suffer no other uneasiness, but this of constant +labour; for as they work for the public, so they are well entertained +out of the public stock, which is done differently in different places. +In some places, whatever is bestowed on them, is raised by a charitable +contribution; and though this way may seem uncertain, yet so merciful +are the inclinations of that people, that they are plentifully supplied +by it; but in other places, public revenues are set aside for them; or +there is a constant tax of a poll-money raised for their maintenance. In +some places they are set to no public work, but every private man that +has occasion to hire workmen, goes to the market-places and hires them +of the public, a little lower than he would do a freeman: if they go +lazily about their task, he may quicken them with the whip. By this +means there is always some piece of work or other to be done by them; +and beside their livelihood, they earn somewhat still to the public. +They all wear a peculiar habit, of one certain colour, and their hair is +cropped a little above their ears, and a piece of one of their ears is +cut off. Their friends are allowed to give them either meat, drink, or +clothes, so they are of their proper colour; but it is death, both to +the giver and taker, if they give them money; nor is it less penal for +any freeman to take money from them, upon any account whatsoever: and it +is also death for any of these slaves (so they are called) to handle +arms. Those of every division of the country are distinguished by a +peculiar mark; which it is capital for them to lay aside, to go out of +their bounds, or to talk with a slave of another jurisdiction; and the +very attempt of an escape is no less penal than an escape itself; it is +death for any other slave to be accessory to it; and if a freeman +engages in it he is condemned to slavery. Those that discover it are +rewarded; if freemen, in money; and if slaves, with liberty, together +with a pardon for being accessory to it; that so they might find their +account, rather in repenting of their engaging in such a design, than in +persisting in it.</p> + +<p>"These are their laws and rules in relation to robbery; and it is +obvious that they are as advantageous as they are mild and gentle; +since vice is not only destroyed, and men preserved, but they treated in +such a manner as to make them see the necessity of being honest, and of +employing the rest of their lives in repairing the injuries they have +formerly done to society. Nor is there any hazard of their falling back +to their old customs: and so little do travellers apprehend mischief +from them, that they generally make use of them for guides, from one +jurisdiction to another; for there is nothing left them by which they +can rob, or be the better for it, since as they are disarmed, so the +very having of money is a sufficient conviction: and as they are +certainly punished if discovered, so they cannot hope to escape; for +their habit being in all the parts of it different from what is commonly +worn, they cannot fly away, unless they would go naked, and even then +their cropped ear would betray them. The only danger to be feared from +them, is their conspiring against the government: but those of one +division and neighbourhood can do nothing to any purpose, unless a +general conspiracy were laid amongst all the slaves of the several +jurisdictions, which cannot be done, since they cannot meet or talk +together; nor will any venture on a design where the concealment would +be so dangerous, and the discovery so profitable. None are quite +hopeless of recovering their freedom, since by their obedience and +patience, and by giving good grounds to believe that they will change +their manner of life for the future, they may expect at last to obtain +their liberty: and some are every year restored to it, upon the good +character that is given of them.—When I had related all this, I added, +that I did not see why such a method might not be followed with more +advantage, than could ever be expected from that severe justice which +the counsellor magnified so much. To this he answered, that it could +never take place in England, without endangering the whole nation. As he +said this, he shook his head, made some grimaces, and held his peace, +while all the company seemed of his opinion, except the Cardinal, who +said that it was not easy to form a judgment of its success, since it +was a method that never yet had been tried. 'But if,' said he, 'when the +sentence of death was passed upon a thief, the prince would reprieve him +for a while, and make the experiment upon him, denying him the privilege +of a sanctuary; and then if it had a good effect upon him, it might take +place; and if it did not succeed, the worst would be, to execute the +sentence on the condemned persons at last. And I do not see,' added he, +'why it would be either unjust, inconvenient, or at all dangerous, to +admit of such a delay: in my opinion, the vagabonds ought to be treated +in the same manner; against whom, though we have made many laws, yet we +have not been able to gain our end.' When the Cardinal had done, they +all commended the motion, though they had despised it when it came from +me; but more particularly commended what related to the vagabonds, +because it was his own observation.</p> + +<p>"I do not know whether it be worth while to tell what followed, for it +was very ridiculous; but I shall venture at it, for as it is not foreign +to this matter, so some good use may be made of it. There was a jester +standing by, that counterfeited the fool so naturally, that he seemed to +be really one. The jests which he offered were so cold and dull, that we +laughed more at him than at them; yet sometimes he said, as it were by +chance, things that were not unpleasant; so as to justify the old +proverb, 'That he who throws the dice often, will sometimes have a lucky +hit.' When one of the company had said, that I had taken care of the +thieves, and the Cardinal had taken care of the vagabonds, so that there +remained nothing but that some public provision might be made for the +poor, whom sickness or old age had disabled from labour. 'Leave that to +me,' said the fool, 'and I shall take care of them; for there is no +sort of people whose sight I abhor more, having been so often vexed +with them, and with their sad complaints; but as dolefully soever as +they have told their tale, they could never prevail so far as to draw +one penny from me: for either I had no mind to give them anything, or +when I had a mind to do it, I had nothing to give them: and they now +know me so well, that they will not lose their labour, but let me pass +without giving me any trouble, because they hope for nothing, no more in +faith than if I were a priest: but I would have a law made, for sending +all these beggars to monasteries, the men to the Benedictines to be made +lay-brothers, and the women to be nuns.' The Cardinal smiled, and +approved of it in jest; but the rest liked it in earnest. There was a +divine present, who though he was a grave morose man, yet he was so +pleased with this reflection that was made on the priests and the monks, +that he began to play with the fool, and said to him, 'This will not +deliver you from all beggars, except you take care of us friars.'—'That +is done already,' answered the fool, 'for the Cardinal has provided for +you, by what he proposed for restraining vagabonds, and setting them to +work, for I know no vagabonds like you.' This was well entertained by +the whole company, who looking at the Cardinal, perceived that he was +not ill pleased at it; only the friar himself was vexed, as may be +easily imagined, and fell into such a passion, that he could not forbear +railing at the fool, and calling him knave, slanderer, back-biter, and +son of perdition, and then cited some dreadful threatenings out of the +Scriptures against him. Now the jester thought he was in his element, +and laid about him freely. 'Good friar,' said he, 'be not angry, for it +is written, "In patience possess your soul."'—The friar answered (for I +shall give you his own words), 'I am not angry, you hangman; at least I +do not sin in it, for the Psalmist says, "Be ye angry, and sin +not."'—Upon this the Cardinal admonished him gently, and wished him to +govern his passions. 'No, my lord,' said he, 'I speak not but from a +good zeal, which I ought to have; for holy men have had a good zeal, as +it is said, "The zeal of thy house hath eaten me up;" and we sing in our +church, that those who mocked Elisha as he went up to the house of God, +felt the effects of his zeal; which that mocker, that rogue, that +scoundrel, will perhaps feel.'—'You do this perhaps with a good +intention,' said the Cardinal; 'but in my opinion, it were wiser in you, +and perhaps better for you, not to engage in so ridiculous a contest +with a fool.'—'No, my lord,' answered he, 'that were not wisely done; +for Solomon, the wisest of men, said, "Answer a fool according to his +folly;" which I now do, and show him the ditch into which he will fall, +if he is not aware of it; for if the many mockers of Elisha, who was but +one bald man, felt the effect of his zeal, what will become of one +mocker of so many friars, among whom there are so many bald men? We have +likewise a Bull, by which all that jeer us are excommunicated.'—When +the Cardinal saw that there was no end of this matter, he made a sign to +the fool to withdraw, turned the discourse another way; and soon after +rose from the table, and dismissing us, went to hear causes.</p> + +<p>"Thus, Mr. More, I have run out into a tedious story, of the length of +which I had been ashamed, if, as you earnestly begged it of me, I had +not observed you to hearken to it, as if you had no mind to lose any +part of it. I might have contracted it, but I resolved to give it you at +large, that you might observe how those that despised what I had +proposed, no sooner perceived that the Cardinal did not dislike it, but +presently approved of it, fawned so on him, and flattered him to such a +degree, that they in good earnest applauded those things that he only +liked in jest. And from hence you may gather, how little courtiers would +value either me or my counsels."</p> + +<p>To this I answered, "You have done me a great kindness in this +relation; for as everything has been related by you, both wisely and +pleasantly, so you have made me imagine that I was in my own country, +and grown young again, by recalling that good Cardinal to my thoughts, +in whose family I was bred from my childhood: and though you are upon +other accounts very dear to me, yet you are the dearer, because you +honour his memory so much; but after all this I cannot change my +opinion; for I still think that if you could overcome that aversion +which you have to the Courts of Princes, you might, by the advice which +it is in your power to give, do a great deal of good to mankind; and +this is the chief design that every good man ought to propose to himself +in living: for your friend Plato thinks that nations will be happy, when +either philosophers become kings, or kings become philosophers; it is no +wonder if we are so far from that happiness, while philosophers will not +think it their duty to assist kings with their councils."—"They are not +so base-minded," said he, "but that they would willingly do it; many of +them have already done it by their books, if those that are in power +would but hearken to their good advice. But Plato judged right, that +except kings themselves became philosophers, they who from their +childhood are corrupted with false notions, would never fall in entirely +with the councils of philosophers, and this he himself found to be true +in the person of Dionysius.</p> + +<p>"Do not you think, that if I were about any king, proposing good laws to +him, and endeavouring to root out all the cursed seeds of evil that I +found in him, I should either be turned out of his Court, or at least be +laughed at for my pains? For instance, what could it signify if I were +about the King of France, and were called into his cabinet-council, +where several wise men, in his hearing, were proposing many expedients; +as by what arts and practices Milan may be kept; and Naples, that had so +oft slipped out of their hands, recovered; how the Venetians, and after +them the rest of Italy, may be subdued; and then how Flanders, Brabant, +and all Burgundy, and some other kingdoms which he has swallowed already +in his designs, may be added to his empire. One proposes a league with +the Venetians, to be kept as long as he finds his account in it, and +that he ought to communicate councils with them, and give them some +share of the spoil, till his success makes him need or fear them less, +and then it will be easily taken out of their hands. Another proposes +the hiring the Germans, and the securing the Switzers by pensions. +Another proposes the gaining the Emperor by money, which is omnipotent +with him. Another proposes a peace with the King of Arragon, and in +order to cement it, the yielding up the King of Navarre's pretensions. +Another thinks the Prince of Castile is to be wrought on, by the hope of +an alliance; and that some of his courtiers are to be gained to the +French faction by pensions. The hardest point of all is what to do with +England: a treaty of peace is to be set on foot, and if their alliance +is not to be depended on, yet it is to be made as firm as possible; and +they are to be called friends, but suspected as enemies: therefore the +Scots are to be kept in readiness, to be let loose upon England on every +occasion: and some banished nobleman is to be supported underhand (for +by the league it cannot be done avowedly) who has a pretension to the +crown, by which means that suspected prince may be kept in awe. Now when +things are in so great a fermentation, and so many gallant men are +joining councils, how to carry on the war, if so mean a man as I should +stand up, and wish them to change all their councils, to let Italy +alone, and stay at home, since the kingdom of France was indeed greater +than could be well governed by one man; that therefore he ought not to +think of adding others to it: and if after this, I should propose to +them the resolutions of the Achorians, a people that lie on the +south-east of Utopia, who long ago engaged in war, in order to add to +the dominions of their prince another kingdom, to which he had some +pretensions by an ancient alliance. This they conquered, but found that +the trouble of keeping it was equal to that by which it was gained; that +the conquered people were always either in rebellion or exposed to +foreign invasions, while they were obliged to be incessantly at war, +either for or against them, and consequently could never disband their +army; that in the meantime they were oppressed with taxes, their money +went out of the kingdom, their blood was spilt for the glory of their +king, without procuring the least advantage to the people, who received +not the smallest benefit from it even in time of peace; and that their +manners being corrupted by a long war, robbery and murders everywhere +abounded, and their laws fell into contempt; while their king, +distracted with the care of two kingdoms, was the less able to apply his +mind to the interests of either. When they saw this, and that there +would be no end to these evils, they by joint councils made an humble +address to their king, desiring him to choose which of the two kingdoms +he had the greatest mind to keep, since he could not hold both; for they +were too great a people to be governed by a divided king, since no man +would willingly have a groom that should be in common between him and +another. Upon which the good prince was forced to quit his new kingdom +to one of his friends (who was not long after dethroned), and to be +contented with his old one. To this I would add, that after all those +warlike attempts, the vast confusions, and the consumption both of +treasure and of people that must follow them; perhaps upon some +misfortune, they might be forced to throw up all at last; therefore it +seemed much more eligible that the king should improve his ancient +kingdom all he could, and make it flourish as much as possible; that he +should love his people, and be beloved of them; that he should live +among them, govern them gently, and let other kingdoms alone, since that +which had fallen to his share was big enough, if not too big for him. +Pray how do you think would such a speech as this be heard?"—"I +confess," said I, "I think not very well."</p> + +<p>"But what," said he, "if I should sort with another kind of ministers, +whose chief contrivances and consultations were, by what art the +prince's treasures might be increased. Where one proposes raising the +value of specie when the king's debts are large, and lowering it when +his revenues were to come in, that so he might both pay much with a +little, and in a little receive a great deal: another proposes a +pretence of a war, that money might be raised in order to carry it on, +and that a peace be concluded as soon as that was done; and this with +such appearances of religion as might work on the people, and make them +impute it to the piety of their prince, and to his tenderness for the +lives of his subjects. A third offers some old musty laws, that have +been antiquated by a long disuse; and which, as they had been forgotten +by all the subjects, so they had been also broken by them; and proposes +the levying the penalties of these laws, that as it would bring in a +vast treasure, so there might be a very good pretence for it, since it +would look like the executing a law, and the doing of justice. A fourth +proposes the prohibiting of many things under severe penalties, +especially such as were against the interest of the people, and then the +dispensing with these prohibitions upon great compositions, to those who +might find their advantage in breaking them. This would serve two ends, +both of them acceptable to many; for as those whose avarice led them to +transgress would be severely fined, so the selling licenses dear would +look as if a prince were tender of his people, and would not easily, or +at low rates, dispense with anything that might be against the public +good. Another proposes that the judges must be made sure, that they may +declare always in favour of the prerogative, that they must be often +sent for to Court, that the king may hear them argue those points in +which he is concerned; since how unjust soever any of his pretensions +may be, yet still some one or other of them, either out of contradiction +to others, or the pride of singularity, or to make their court, would +find out some pretence or other to give the king a fair colour to carry +the point: for if the judges but differ in opinion, the clearest thing +in the world is made by that means disputable, and truth being once +brought in question, the king may then take advantage to expound the law +for his own profit; while the judges that stand out will be brought +over, either out of fear or modesty; and they being thus gained, all of +them may be sent to the bench to give sentence boldly, as the king would +have it: for fair pretences will never be wanting when sentence is to be +given in the prince's favour. It will either be said that equity lies of +his side, or some words in the law will be found sounding that way, or +some forced sense will be put on them; and when all other things fail, +the king's undoubted prerogative will be pretended, as that which is +above all law; and to which a religious judge ought to have a special +regard. Thus all consent to that maxim of Crassus, that a prince cannot +have treasure enough, since he must maintain his armies out of it: that +a king, even though he would, can do nothing unjustly; that all property +is in him, not excepting the very persons of his subjects: and that no +man has any other property, but that which the king out of his goodness +thinks fit to leave him. And they think it is the prince's interest, +that there be as little of this left as may be, as if it were his +advantage that his people should have neither riches nor liberty; since +these things make them less easy and less willing to submit to a cruel +and unjust government; whereas necessity and poverty blunts them, makes +them patient, beats them down, and breaks that height of spirit, that +might otherwise dispose them to rebel. Now what if after all these +propositions were made, I should rise up and assert, that such councils +were both unbecoming a king, and mischievous to him: and that not only +his honour but his safety consisted more in his people's wealth, than in +his own; if I should show that they choose a king for their own sake, +and not for his; that by his care and endeavours they may be both easy +and safe; and that therefore a prince ought to take more care of his +people's happiness than of his own, as a shepherd is to take more care +of his flock than of himself. It is also certain, that they are much +mistaken that think the poverty of a nation is a means of the public +safety. Who quarrel more than beggars? Who does more earnestly long for +a change, than he that is uneasy in his present circumstances? And who +run to create confusions with so desperate a boldness, as those who have +nothing to lose, hope to gain by them? If a king should fall under such +contempt or envy, that he could not keep his subjects in their duty, but +by oppression and ill usage, and by rendering them poor and miserable, +it were certainly better for him to quit his kingdom, than to retain it +by such methods, as makes him while he keeps the name of authority, lose +the majesty due to it. Nor is it so becoming the dignity of a king to +reign over beggars, as over rich and happy subjects. And therefore +Fabricius, a man of a noble and exalted temper, said, he would rather +govern rich men, than be rich himself; since for one man to abound in +wealth and pleasure, when all about him are mourning and groaning, is to +be a gaoler and not a king. He is an unskilful physician, that cannot +cure one disease without casting his patient into another: so he that +can find no other way for correcting the errors of his people, but by +taking from them the conveniences of life, shows that he knows not what +it is to govern a free nation. He himself ought rather to shake off his +sloth, or to lay down his pride; for the contempt or hatred that his +people have for him, takes its rise from the vices in himself. Let him +live upon what belongs to him, without wronging others, and accommodate +his expense to his revenue. Let him punish crimes, and by his wise +conduct let him endeavour to prevent them, rather than be severe when he +has suffered them to be too common: let him not rashly revive laws that +are abrogated by disuse, especially if they have been long forgotten, +and never wanted; and let him never take any penalty for the breach of +them, to which a judge would not give way in a private man, but would +look on him as a crafty and unjust person for pretending to it. To these +things I would add, that law among the Macarians, a people that lie not +far from Utopia, by which their king, on the day on which he begins to +reign, is tied by an oath confirmed by solemn sacrifices, never to have +at once above a thousand pounds of gold in his treasures, or so much +silver as is equal to that in value. This law, they tell us, was made by +an excellent king, who had more regard to the riches of his country than +to his own wealth; and therefore provided against the heaping up of so +much treasure, as might impoverish the people. He thought that moderate +sum might be sufficient for any accident; if either the king had +occasion for it against rebels, or the kingdom against the invasion of +an enemy; but that it was not enough to encourage a prince to invade +other men's rights, a circumstance that was the chief cause of his +making that law. He also thought that it was a good provision for that +free circulation of money, so necessary for the course of commerce and +exchange: and when a king must distribute all those extraordinary +accessions that increase treasure beyond the due pitch, it makes him +less disposed to oppress his subjects. Such a king as this will be the +terror of ill men, and will be beloved by all the good.</p> + +<p>"If, I say, I should talk of these or such like things, to men that had +taken their bias another way, how deaf would they be to all I could +say?"—"No doubt, very deaf," answered I; and no wonder, for one is +never to offer at propositions or advice that we are certain will not be +entertained. Discourses so much out of the road could not avail +anything, nor have any effect on men whose minds were prepossessed with +different sentiments. This philosophical way of speculation is not +unpleasant among friends in a free conversation, but there is no room +for it in the Courts of Princes where great affairs are carried on by +authority."—"That is what I was saying," replied he, "that there is no +room for philosophy in the Courts of Princes."—"Yes, there is," said I, +"but not for this speculative philosophy that makes everything to be +alike fitting at all times: but there is another philosophy that is more +pliable, that knows its proper scene, accommodates itself to it, and +teaches a man with propriety and decency to act that part which has +fallen to his share. If when one of Plautus's comedies is upon the stage +and a company of servants are acting their parts, you should come out in +the garb of a philosopher, and repeat out of 'Octavia' a discourse of +Seneca's to Nero, would it not be better for you to say nothing than by +mixing things of such different natures to make an impertinent +tragi-comedy? For you spoil and corrupt the play that is in hand when +you mix with it things of an opposite nature, even though they are much +better. Therefore go through with the play that is acting the best you +can, and do not confound it because another that is pleasanter comes +into your thoughts. It is even so in a commonwealth, and in the councils +of princes; if ill opinions cannot be quite rooted out, and you cannot +cure some received vice according to your wishes, you must not therefore +abandon the commonwealth, for the same reasons you should not forsake +the ship in a storm because you cannot command the winds. You are not +obliged to assault people with discourses that are out of their road, +when you see that their received notions must prevent your making an +impression upon them. You ought rather to cast about and to manage +things with all the dexterity in your power, so that if you are not +able to make them go well they may be as little ill as possible; for +except all men were good everything cannot be right, and that is a +blessing that I do not at present hope to see. According to your +arguments," answered he, "all that I could be able to do would be to +preserve myself from being mad while I endeavoured to cure the madness +of others; for if I speak truth, I must repeat what I have said to you; +and as for lying, whether a philosopher can do it or not, I cannot tell, +I am sure I cannot do it. But though these discourses may be uneasy and +ungrateful to them, I do not see why they should seem foolish or +extravagant: indeed if I should either propose such things as Plato has +contrived in his commonwealth, or as the Utopians practise in theirs, +though they might seem better, as certainly they are, yet they are so +different from our establishment, which is founded on property, there +being no such thing among them, that I could not expect that it would +have any effect on them; but such discourses as mine, which only call +past evils to mind and give warning of what may follow, have nothing in +them that is so absurd that they may not be used at any time, for they +can only be unpleasant to those who are resolved to run headlong the +contrary way; and if we must let alone everything as absurd or +extravagant which by reason of the wicked lives of many may seem +uncouth, we must, even among Christians, give over pressing the greatest +part of those things that Christ hath taught us, though He has commanded +us not to conceal them, but to proclaim on the house-tops that which He +taught in secret. The greatest parts of His precepts are more opposite +to the lives of the men of this age than any part of my discourse has +been; but the preachers seemed to have learned that craft to which you +advise me, for they observing that the world would not willingly suit +their lives to the rules that Christ has given, have fitted His doctrine +as if it had been a leaden rule, to their lives, that so some way or +other they might agree with one another. But I see no other effect of +this compliance except it be that men become more secure in their +wickedness by it. And this is all the success that I can have in a +Court, for I must always differ from the rest, and then I shall signify +nothing; or if I agree with them, I shall then only help forward their +madness. I do not comprehend what you mean by your casting about, or by +the bending and handling things so dexterously, that if they go not well +they may go as little ill as may be; for in Courts they will not bear +with a man's holding his peace or conniving at what others do. A man +must barefacedly approve of the worst counsels, and consent to the +blackest designs: so that he would pass for a spy, or possibly for a +traitor, that did but coldly approve of such wicked practices: and +therefore when a man is engaged in such a society, he will be so far +from being able to mend matters by his casting about, as you call it, +that he will find no occasions of doing any good: the ill company will +sooner corrupt him, than be the better for him: or if notwithstanding +all their ill company, he still remains steady and innocent, yet their +follies and knavery will be imputed to him; and by mixing counsels with +them, he must bear his share of all the blame that belongs wholly to +others.</p> + +<p>"It was no ill simile by which Plato set forth the unreasonableness of a +philosopher's meddling with government. If a man, says he, was to see a +great company run out every day into the rain, and take delight in being +wet; if he knew that it would be to no purpose for him to go and +persuade them to return to their houses, in order to avoid the storm, +and that all that could be expected by his going to speak to them would +be that he himself should be as wet as they, it would be best for him to +keep within doors; and since he had not influence enough to correct +other people's folly, to take care to preserve himself.</p> + +<p>"Though to speak plainly my real sentiments, I must freely own, that as +long as there is any property, and while money is the standard of all +other things, I cannot think that a nation can be governed either justly +or happily: not justly, because the best things will fall to the share +of the worst men; nor happily, because all things will be divided among +a few (and even these are not in all respects happy), the rest being +left to be absolutely miserable. Therefore when I reflect on the wise +and good constitution of the Utopians, among whom all things are so well +governed, and with so few laws; where virtue hath its due reward, and +yet there is such an equality, that every man lives in plenty; when I +compare with them so many other nations that are still making new laws, +and yet can never bring their constitution to a right regulation, where +notwithstanding every one has his property; yet all the laws that they +can invent have not the power either to obtain or preserve it, or even +to enable men certainly to distinguish what is their own from what is +another's; of which the many lawsuits that every day break out, and are +eternally depending, give too plain a demonstration; when, I say, I +balance all these things in my thoughts, I grow more favourable to +Plato, and do not wonder that he resolved not to make any laws for such +as would not submit to a community of all things: for so wise a man +could not but foresee that the setting all upon a level was the only way +to make a nation happy, which cannot be obtained so long as there is +property: for when every man draws to himself all that he can compass, +by one title or another, it must needs follow, that how plentiful soever +a nation may be, yet a few dividing the wealth of it among themselves, +the rest must fall into indigence. So that there will be two sorts of +people among them, who deserve that their fortunes should be +interchanged; the former useless, but wicked and ravenous; and the +latter, who by their constant industry serve the public more than +themselves, sincere and modest men. From whence I am persuaded, that +till property is taken away there can be no equitable or just +distribution of things, nor can the world be happily governed: for as +long as that is maintained, the greatest and the far best part of +mankind will be still oppressed with a load of cares and anxieties. I +confess without taking it quite away, those pressures that lie on a +great part of mankind may be made lighter; but they can never be quite +removed. For if laws were made to determine at how great an extent in +soil, and at how much money every man must stop, to limit the prince +that he might not grow too great, and to restrain the people that they +might not become too insolent, and that none might factiously aspire to +public employments; which ought neither to be sold, nor made burthensome +by a great expense; since otherwise those that serve in them would be +tempted to reimburse themselves by cheats and violence, and it would +become necessary to find out rich men for undergoing those employments +which ought rather to be trusted to the wise. These laws, I say, might +have such effects, as good diet and care might have on a sick man, whose +recovery is desperate: they might allay and mitigate the disease, but it +could never be quite healed, nor the body politic be brought again to a +good habit, as long as property remains; and it will fall out as in a +complication of diseases, that by applying a remedy to one sore, you +will provoke another; and that which removes the one ill symptom +produces others, while the strengthening one part of the body weakens +the rest."—"On the contrary," answered I, "it seems to me that men +cannot live conveniently, where all things are common: how can there be +any plenty, where every man will excuse himself from labour? For as the +hope of gain doth not excite him, so the confidence that he has in other +men's industry may make him slothful: if people come to be pinched with +want, and yet cannot dispose of anything as their own; what can follow +upon this but perpetual sedition and bloodshed, especially when the +reverence and authority due to magistrates falls to the ground? For I +cannot imagine how that can be kept up among those that are in all +things equal to one another."—"I do not wonder," said he, "that it +appears so to you, since you have no notion, or at least no right one, +of such a constitution: but if you had been in Utopia with me, and had +seen their laws and rules, as I did, for the space of five years, in +which I lived among them; and during which time I was so delighted with +them, that indeed I should never have left them, if it had not been to +make the discovery of that new world to the Europeans; you would then +confess that you had never seen a people so well constituted as +they,"—"You will not easily persuade me," said Peter, "that any nation +in that new world is better governed than those among us. For as our +understandings are not worse than theirs, so our government, if I +mistake not, being more ancient, a long practice has helped us to find +out many conveniences of life: and some happy chances have discovered +other things to us, which no man's understanding could ever have +invented."—"As for the antiquity, either of their government, or of +ours," said he, "you cannot pass a true judgment of it, unless you had +read their histories; for if they are to be believed, they had towns +among them before these parts were so much as inhabited. And as for +those discoveries, that have been either hit on by chance, or made by +ingenious men, these might have happened there as well as here. I do not +deny but we are more ingenious than they are, but they exceed us much in +industry and application. They knew little concerning us before our +arrival among them; they call us all by a general name of the nations +that lie beyond the Equinoctial Line; for their Chronicle mentions a +shipwreck that was made on their coast 1,200 years ago; and that some +Romans and Egyptians that were in the ship, getting safe ashore, spent +the rest of their days amongst them; and such was their ingenuity, that +from this single opportunity they drew the advantage of learning from +those unlooked-for guests, and acquired all the useful arts that were +then among the Romans, and which were known to these shipwrecked men: +and by the hints that they gave them, they themselves found out even +some of those arts which they could not fully explain; so happily did +they improve that accident, of having some of our people cast upon their +shore. But if such an accident has at any time brought any from thence +into Europe, we have been so far from improving it, that we do not so +much as remember it; as in after-times perhaps it will be forgot by our +people that I was ever there. For though they from one such accident +made themselves masters of all the good inventions that were among us; +yet I believe it would be long before we should learn or put in practice +any of the good institutions that are among them. And this is the true +cause of their being better governed, and living happier than we, though +we come not short of them in point of understanding or outward +advantages."—Upon this I said to him, "I earnestly beg you would +describe that island very particularly to us. Be not too short, but set +out in order all things relating to their soil, their rivers, their +towns, their people, their manners, constitution, laws, and, in a word, +all that you imagine we desire to know. And you may well imagine that we +desire to know everything concerning them, of which we are hitherto +ignorant."—"I will do it very willingly," said he, "for I have digested +the whole matter carefully; but it will take up some time,"—"Let us go +then," said I, "first and dine, and then we shall have leisure enough." +He consented. We went in and dined, and after dinner came back, and sat +down in the same place. I ordered my servants to take care that none +might come and interrupt us. And both Peter and I desired Raphael to be +as good as his word. When he saw that we were very intent upon it, he +paused a little to recollect himself, and began in this manner.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h4>BOOK II.</h4> + + +<p>The island of Utopia is in the middle two hundred miles broad, and holds +almost at the same breadth over a great part of it; but it grows +narrower towards both ends. Its figure is not unlike a crescent: between +its horns, the sea comes in eleven miles broad, and spreads itself into +a great bay, which is environed with land to the compass of about five +hundred miles, and is well secured from winds. In this bay there is no +great current, the whole coast is, as it were, one continued harbour, +which gives all that live in the island great convenience for mutual +commerce; but the entry into the bay, occasioned by rocks on the one +hand, and shallows on the other, is very dangerous. In the middle of it +there is one single rock which appears above water, and may therefore be +easily avoided, and on the top of it there is a tower in which a +garrison is kept, the other rocks lie under water, and are very +dangerous. The channel is known only to the natives, so that if any +stranger should enter into the bay, without one of their pilots, he +would run great danger of shipwreck; for even they themselves could not +pass it safe, if some marks that are on the coast did not direct their +way; and if these should be but a little shifted, any fleet that might +come against them, how great soever it were, would be certainly lost. On +the other side of the island there are likewise many harbours; and the +coast is so fortified, both by nature and art, that a small number of +men can hinder the descent of a great army. But they report (and there +remains good marks of it to make it credible) that this was no island at +first, but a part of the continent. Utopus that conquered it (whose name +it still carries, for Abraxa was its first name) brought the rude and +uncivilized inhabitants into such a good government, and to that measure +of politeness, that they now far excel all the rest of mankind; having +soon subdued them, he designed to separate them from the continent, and +to bring the sea quite round them. To accomplish this, he ordered a deep +channel to be dug fifteen miles long; and that the natives might not +think he treated them like slaves, he not only forced the inhabitants, +but also his own soldiers, to labour in carrying it on. As he set a vast +number of men to work, he beyond all men's expectations brought it to a +speedy conclusion. And his neighbours who at first laughed at the folly +of the undertaking, no sooner saw it brought to perfection, than they +were struck with admiration and terror.</p> + +<p>There are fifty-four cities in the island, all large and well built: the +manners, customs, and laws of which are the same, and they are all +contrived as near in the same manner as the ground on which they stand +will allow. The nearest lie at least twenty-four miles distance from one +another, and the most remote are not so far distant, but that a man can +go on foot in one day from it, to that which lies next it. Every city +sends three of their wisest senators once a year to Amaurot, to consult +about their common concerns; for that is chief town of the island, being +situated near the centre of it, so that it is the most convenient place +for their assemblies. The jurisdiction of every city extends at least +twenty miles: and where the towns lie wider, they have much more ground: +no town desires to enlarge its bounds, for the people consider +themselves rather as tenants than landlords. They have built over all +the country, farmhouses for husbandmen, which are well contrived, and +are furnished with all things necessary for country labour. Inhabitants +are sent by turns from the cities to dwell in them; no country family +has fewer than forty men and women in it, besides two slaves. There is a +master and a mistress set over every family; and over thirty families +there is a magistrate. Every year twenty of this family come back to the +town, after they have stayed two years in the country; and in their +room there are other twenty sent from the town, that they may learn +country work from those that have been already one year in the country, +as they must teach those that come to them the next from the town. By +this means such as dwell in those country farms are never ignorant of +agriculture, and so commit no errors, which might otherwise be fatal, +and bring them under a scarcity of corn. But though there is every year +such a shifting of the husbandmen, to prevent any man being forced +against his will to follow that hard course of life too long; yet many +among them take such pleasure in it, that they desire leave to continue +in it many years. These husbandmen till the ground, breed cattle, hew +wood, and convey it to the towns, either by land or water, as is most +convenient. They breed an infinite multitude of chickens in a very +curious manner; for the hens do not sit and hatch them, but vast number +of eggs are laid in a gentle and equal heat, in order to be hatched, and +they are no sooner out of the shell, and able to stir about, but they +seem to consider those that feed them as their mothers, and follow them +as other chickens do the hen that hatched them. They breed very few +horses, but those they have are full of mettle, and are kept only for +exercising their youth in the art of sitting and riding them; for they +do not put them to any work, either of ploughing or carriage, in which +they employ oxen; for though their horses are stronger, yet they find +oxen can hold out longer; and as they are not subject to so many +diseases, so they are kept upon a less charge, and with less trouble; +and even when they are so worn out, that they are no more fit for +labour, they are good meat at last. They sow no corn, but that which is +to be their bread; for they drink either wine, cyder, or perry, and +often water, sometimes boiled with honey or liquorice, with which they +abound; and though they know exactly how much corn will serve every +town, and all that tract of country which belongs to it, yet they sow +much more, and breed more cattle than are necessary for their +consumption; and they give that overplus of which they make no use to +their neighbours. When they want anything in the country which it does +not produce, they fetch that from the town, without carrying anything in +exchange for it. And the magistrates of the town take care to see it +given them; for they meet generally in the town once a month, upon a +festival day. When the time of harvest comes, the magistrates in the +country send to those in the towns, and let them know how many hands +they will need for reaping the harvest; and the number they call for +being sent to them, they commonly despatch it all in one day.</p> + + +<p class="center">OF THEIR TOWNS, PARTICULARLY OF AMAUROT.</p> + +<p>He that knows one of their towns, knows them all, they are so like one +another, except where the situation makes some difference. I shall +therefore describe one of them; and none is so proper as Amaurot; for as +none is more eminent, all the rest yielding in precedence to this, +because it is the seat of their supreme council; so there was none of +them better known to me, I having lived five years altogether in it.</p> + +<p>It lies upon the side of a hill, or rather a rising ground: its figure +is almost square, for from the one side of it, which shoots up almost to +the top of the hill, it runs down in a descent for two miles to the +river Anider; but it is a little broader the other way that runs along +by the bank of that river. The Anider rises about eighty miles above +Amaurot in a small spring at first; but other brooks falling into it, of +which two are more considerable than the rest. As it runs by Amaurot, it +is grown half a mile broad; but it still grows larger and larger, till +after sixty miles course below it, it is lost in the ocean, between the +town and the sea, and for some miles above the town, it ebbs and flows +every six hours, with a strong current. The tide comes up for about +thirty miles so full, that there is nothing but salt water in the river, +the fresh water being driven back with its force; and above that, for +some miles, the water is brackish; but a little higher, as it runs by +the town, it is quite fresh; and when the tide ebbs, it continues fresh +all along to the sea. There is a bridge cast over the river, not of +timber, but of fair stone, consisting of many stately arches; it lies at +that part of the town which is farthest from the sea, so that ships +without any hindrance lie all along the side of the town. There is +likewise another river that runs by it, which though it is not great, +yet it runs pleasantly, for it rises out of the same hill on which the +town stands, and so runs down through it, and falls into the Anider. The +inhabitants have fortified the fountain-head of this river, which +springs a little without the towns; that so if they should happen to be +besieged, the enemy might not be able to stop or divert the course of +the water, nor poison it; from thence it is carried in earthen pipes to +the lower streets; and for those places of the town to which the water +of that small river cannot be conveyed, they have great cisterns for +receiving the rain-water, which supplies the want of the other. The town +is compassed with a high and thick wall, in which there are many towers +and forts; there is also a broad and deep dry ditch, set thick with +thorns, cast round three sides of the town, and the river is instead of +a ditch on the fourth side. The streets are very convenient for all +carriage, and are well sheltered from the winds. Their buildings are +good, and are so uniform, that a whole side of a street looks like one +house. The streets are twenty feet broad; there lie gardens behind all +their houses; these are large but enclosed with buildings, that on all +hands face the streets; so that every house has both a door to the +street, and a back door to the garden. Their doors have all two leaves, +which, as they are easily opened, so they shut of their own accord; and +there being no property among them, every man may freely enter into any +house whatsoever. At every ten years end they shift their houses by +lots. They cultivate their gardens with great care, so that they have +both vines, fruits, herbs, and flowers in them; and all is so well +ordered, and so finely kept, that I never saw gardens anywhere that were +both so fruitful and so beautiful as theirs. And this humour of ordering +their gardens so well, is not only kept up by the pleasure they find in +it, but also by an emulation between the inhabitants of the several +streets, who vie with each other; and there is indeed nothing belonging +to the whole town that is both more useful and more pleasant. So that he +who founded the town, seems to have taken care of nothing more than of +their gardens; for they say, the whole scheme of the town was designed +at first by Utopus, but he left all that belonged to the ornament and +improvement of it, to be added by those that should come after him, that +being too much for one man to bring to perfection. Their records, that +contain the history of their town and state, are preserved with an exact +care, and run backwards 1,760 years. From these it appears that their +houses were at first low and mean, like cottages, made of any sort of +timber, and were built with mud walls and thatched with straw. But now +their houses are three stories high: the fronts of them are faced either +with stone, plastering, or brick; and between the facings of their walls +they throw in their rubbish. Their roofs are flat, and on them they lay +a sort of plaster, which costs very little, and yet is so tempered that +it is not apt to take fire, and yet resists the weather more than lead. +They have great quantities of glass among them, with which they glaze +their windows. They use also in their windows a thin linen cloth, that +is so oiled or gummed that it both keeps out the wind and gives free +admission to the light.</p> + +<p class="center">OF THEIR MAGISTRATES.</p> + +<p>Thirty families choose every year a magistrate, who was anciently called +the Syphogrant, but is now called the Philarch; and over every ten +Syphogrants, with the families subject to them, there is another +magistrate, who was anciently called the Tranibor, but of late the +Archphilarch. All the Syphogrants, who are in number 200, choose the +Prince out of a list of four, who are named by the people of the four +divisions of the city; but they take an oath before they proceed to an +election, that they will choose him whom they think most fit for the +office. They give their voices secretly, so that it is not known for +whom every one gives his suffrage. The Prince is for life, unless he is +removed upon suspicion of some design to enslave the people. The +Tranibors are new chosen every year, but yet they are for the most part +continued. All their other magistrates are only annual. The Tranibors +meet every third day, and oftener if necessary, and consult with the +Prince, either concerning the affairs of the state in general, or such +private differences as may arise sometimes among the people; though that +falls out but seldom. There are always two Syphogrants called into the +council-chamber, and these are changed every day. It is a fundamental +rule of their government, that no conclusion can be made in anything +that relates to the public, till it has been first debated three several +days in their council. It is death for any to meet and consult +concerning the state, unless it be either in their ordinary council, or +in the assembly of the whole body of the people.</p> + +<p>These things have been so provided among them, that the Prince and the +Tranibors may not conspire together to change the government, and +enslave the people; and therefore when anything of great importance is +set on foot, it is sent to the Syphogrants; who after they have +communicated it to the families that belong to their divisions, and have +considered it among themselves, make report to the senate; and upon +great occasions, the matter is referred to the council of the whole +island. One rule observed in their council, is, never to debate a thing +on the same day in which it is first proposed; for that is always +referred to the next meeting, that so men may not rashly, and in the +heat of discourse, engage themselves too soon, which might bias them so +much, that instead of consulting the good of the public, they might +rather study to support their first opinions, and by a perverse and +preposterous sort of shame, hazard their country rather than endanger +their own reputation, or venture the being suspected to have wanted +foresight in the expedients that they at first proposed. And therefore +to prevent this, they take care that they may rather be deliberate than +sudden in their motions.</p> + + +<p class="center">OF THEIR TRADES, AND MANNER OF LIFE.</p> + +<p>Agriculture is that which is so universally understood among them, that +no person, either man or woman, is ignorant of it; they are instructed +in it from their childhood, partly by what they learn at school, and +partly by practice; they being led out often into the fields, about the +town, where they not only see others at work, but are likewise exercised +in it themselves. Besides agriculture, which is so common to them all, +every man has some peculiar trade to which he applies himself, such as +the manufacture of wool, or flax, masonry, smith's work, or carpenter's +work; for there is no sort of trade that is in great esteem among them. +Throughout the island they wear the same sort of clothes without any +other distinction, except what is necessary to distinguish the two +sexes, and the married and unmarried. The fashion never alters; and as +it is neither disagreeable nor uneasy, so it is suited to the climate, +and calculated both for their summers and winters. Every family makes +their own clothes; but all among them, women as well men, learn one or +other of the trades formerly mentioned. Women, for the most part, deal +in wool and flax, which suit best with their weakness, leaving the ruder +trades to the men. The same trade generally passes down from father to +son, inclinations often following descent; but if any man's genius lies +another way, he is by adoption translated into a family that deals in +the trade to which he is inclined: and when that is to be done, care is +taken not only by his father, but by the magistrate, that he may be put +to a discreet and good man. And if after a person has learned one trade, +he desires to acquire another, that is also allowed, and is managed in +the same manner as the former. When he has learned both, he follows that +which he likes best, unless the public has more occasion for the other.</p> + +<p>The chief, and almost the only business of the Syphogrants, is to take +care that no man may live idle, but that every one may follow his trade +diligently: yet they do not wear themselves out with perpetual toil, +from morning to night, as if they were beasts of burden, which as it is +indeed a heavy slavery, so it is everywhere the common course of life +amongst all mechanics except the Utopians; but they dividing the day and +night into twenty-four hours, appoint six of these for work; three of +which are before dinner; and three after. They then sup, and at eight +o'clock, counting from noon, go to bed and sleep eight hours. The rest +of their time besides that taken up in work, eating and sleeping, is +left to every man's discretion; yet they are not to abuse that interval +to luxury and idleness, but must employ it in some proper exercise +according to their various inclinations, which is for the most part +reading. It is ordinary to have public lectures every morning before +daybreak; at which none are obliged to appear but those who are marked +out for literature; yet a great many, both men and women of all ranks, +go to hear lectures of one sort or other, according to their +inclinations. But if others, that are not made for contemplation, choose +rather to employ themselves at that time in their trades, as many of +them do, they are not hindered, but are rather commended, as men that +take care to serve their country. After supper, they spend an hour in +some diversion, in summer in their gardens, and in winter in the halls +where they eat; where they entertain each other, either with music or +discourse. They do not so much as know dice, or any such foolish and +mischievous games: they have, however, two sorts of games not unlike our +chess; the one is between several numbers, in which one number, as it +were, consumes another: the other resembles a battle between the virtues +and the vices, in which the enmity in the vices among themselves, and +their agreement against virtue, is not unpleasantly represented; +together with the special oppositions between the particular virtues and +vices; as also the methods by which vice either openly assaults or +secretly undermines virtue; and virtue on the other hand resists it. But +the time appointed for labour is to be narrowly examined, otherwise you +may imagine, that since there are only six hours appointed for work, +they may fall under a scarcity of necessary provisions. But it is so far +from being true, that this time is not sufficient for supplying them +with plenty of all things, either necessary or convenient; that it is +rather too much; and this you will easily apprehend, if you consider how +great a part of all other nations is quite idle. First, women generally +do little, who are the half of mankind; and if some few women are +diligent, their husbands are idle: then consider the great company of +idle priests, and of those that are called religious men; add to these +all rich men, chiefly those that have estates in land, who are called +noblemen and gentlemen, together with their families, made up of idle +persons, that are kept more for show than use; add to these, all those +strong and lusty beggars, that go about pretending some disease, in +excuse for their begging; and upon the whole account you will find that +the number of those by whose labours mankind is supplied, is much less +than you perhaps imagined. Then consider how few of those that work are +employed in labours that are of real service; for we who measure all +things by money, give rise to many trades that are both vain and +superfluous, and serve only to support riot and luxury. For if those who +work were employed only in such things as the conveniences of life +require, there would be such an abundance of them, that the prices of +them would so sink, that tradesmen could not be maintained by their +gains; if all those who labour about useless things, were set to more +profitable employments, and if all they that languish out their lives in +sloth and idleness, every one of whom consumes as much as any two of the +men that are at work, were forced to labour, you may easily imagine that +a small proportion of time would serve for doing all that is either +necessary, profitable, or pleasant to mankind, especially while pleasure +is kept within its due bounds. This appears very plainly in Utopia, for +there, in a great city, and in all the territory that lies round it, you +can scarce find five hundred, either men or women, by their age and +strength, are capable of labour, that are not engaged in it; even the +Syphogrants, though excused by the law, yet do not excuse themselves, +but work, that by their examples they may excite the industry of the +rest of the people. The like exemption is allowed to those, who being +recommended to the people by the priests, are by the secret suffrages of +the Syphogrants privileged from labour, that they may apply themselves +wholly to study; and if any of these fall short of those hopes that they +seemed at first to give, they are obliged to return to work. And +sometimes a mechanic, that so employs his leisure hours, as to make a +considerable advancement in learning, is eased from being a tradesman, +and ranked among their learned men. Out of these they choose their +ambassadors, their priests, their Tranibors, and the Prince himself; +anciently called their Barzenes, but is called of late their Ademus.</p> + +<p>And thus from the great numbers among them that are neither suffered to +be idle, nor to be employed in any fruitless labour, you may easily make +the estimate how much may be done in those few hours in which they are +obliged to labour. But besides all that has been already said, it is to +be considered that the needful arts among them are managed with less +labour than anywhere else. The building or the repairing of houses among +us employ many hands, because often a thriftless heir suffers a house +that his father built to fall into decay, so that his successor must, at +a great cost, repair that which he might have kept up with a small +charge: it frequently happens, that the same house which one person +built at a vast expense, is neglected by another, who thinks he has a +more delicate sense of the beauties of architecture; and he suffering it +to fall to ruin, builds another at no less charge. But among the +Utopians, all things are so regulated that men very seldom build upon a +new piece of ground; and are not only very quick in repairing their +houses, but show their foresight in preventing their decay: so that +their buildings are preserved very long, with but little labour; and +thus the builders to whom that care belongs are often without +employment, except the hewing of timber, and the squaring of stones, +that the materials may be in readiness for raising a building very +suddenly, when there is any occasion for it. As to their clothes, +observe how little work is spent in them: while they are at labour, they +are clothed with leather and skins, cast carelessly about them, which +will last seven years; and when they appear in public they put on an +upper garment, which hides the other; and these are all of one colour, +and that is the natural colour of the wool. As they need less woollen +cloth than is used anywhere else, so that which they make use of is much +less costly. They use linen cloth more; but that is prepared with less +labour, and they value cloth only by the whiteness of the linen, or the +cleanness of the wool, without much regard to the fineness of the +thread: while in other places, four or five upper garments of woollen +cloth, of different colours, and as many vests of silk, will scarce +serve one man; and while those that are nicer think ten too few, every +man there is content with one, which very often serves him two years. +Nor is there anything that can tempt a man to desire more; for if he had +them, he would neither be the warmer, nor would he make one jot the +better appearance for it. And thus, since they are all employed in some +useful labour, and since they content themselves with fewer things, it +falls out that there is a great abundance of all things among them: so +that it frequently happens, that for want of other work, vast numbers +are sent out to mend the highways. But when no public undertaking is to +be performed, the hours of working are lessened. The magistrates never +engage the people in unnecessary labour, since the chief end of the +constitution is to regulate labour by the necessities of the public, and +to allow all the people as much time as is necessary for the improvement +of their minds, in which they think the happiness of life consists.</p> + + +<p class="center">OF THEIR TRAFFIC.</p> + +<p>But it is now time to explain to you the mutual intercourse of this +people, their commerce, and the rules by which all things are +distributed among them.</p> + +<p>As their cities are composed of families, so their families are made up +of those that are nearly related to one another. Their women, when they +grow up, are married out; but all the males, both children and +grandchildren, live still in the same house, in great obedience to their +common parent, unless age has weakened his understanding; and in that +case, he that is next to him in age comes in his room. But lest any city +should become either too great, or by any accident be dispeopled, +provision is made that none of their cities may contain above six +thousand families, besides those of the country round it. No family may +have less than ten, and more than sixteen persons in it; but there can +be no determined number for the children under age. This rule is easily +observed, by removing some of the children of a more fruitful couple to +any other family that does not abound so much in them. By the same rule, +they supply cities that do not increase so fast, from others that breed +faster; and if there is any increase over the whole island, then they +draw out a number of their citizens out of the several towns, and send +them over to the neighbouring continent; where, if they find that the +inhabitants have more soil than they can well cultivate, they fix a +colony, taking the inhabitants into their society, if they are willing +to live with them; and where they do that of their own accord, they +quickly enter into their method of life, and conform to their rules, and +this proves a happiness to both nations: for according to their +constitution, such care is taken of the soil, that it becomes fruitful +enough for both, though it might be otherwise too narrow and barren for +any one of them. But if the natives refuse to conform themselves to +their laws, they drive them out of those bounds which they mark out for +themselves, and use force if they resist. For they account it a very +just cause of war, for a nation to hinder others from possessing a part +of that soil, of which they make no use, but which is suffered to lie +idle and uncultivated; since every man has by the law of Nature a right +to such a waste portion of the earth as is necessary for his +subsistence. If an accident has so lessened the number of the +inhabitants of any of their towns, that it cannot be made up from the +other towns of the island, without diminishing them too much, which is +said to have fallen out but twice since they were first a people, when +great numbers were carried off by the plague; the loss is then supplied +by recalling as many as are wanted from their colonies; for they will +abandon these, rather than suffer the towns in the island to sink too +low.</p> + +<p>But to return to their manner of living in society, the oldest man of +every family, as has been already said, is its governor. Wives serve +their husbands, and children their parents, and always the younger +serves the elder. Every city is divided into four equal parts, and in +the middle of each there is a market-place: what is brought thither, and +manufactured by the several families, is carried from thence to houses +appointed for that purpose, in which all things of a sort are laid by +themselves; and thither every father goes and takes whatsoever he or his +family stand in need of, without either paying for it, or leaving +anything in exchange. There is no reason for giving a denial to any +person, since there is such plenty of everything among them; and there +is no danger of a man's asking for more than he needs; they have no +inducements to do this, since they are sure that they shall always be +supplied. It is the fear of want that makes any of the whole race of +animals either greedy or ravenous; but besides fear, there is in man a +pride that makes him fancy it a particular glory to excel others in pomp +and excess. But by the laws of the Utopians, there is no room for this. +Near these markets there are others for all sorts of provisions, where +there are not only herbs, fruits, and bread, but also fish, fowl, and +cattle. There are also, without their towns, places appointed near some +running water, for killing their beasts, and for washing away their +filth; which is done by their slaves: for they suffer none of their +citizens to kill their cattle, because they think that pity and +good-nature, which are among the best of those affections that are born +with us, are much impaired by the butchering of animals: nor do they +suffer anything that is foul or unclean to be brought within their +towns, lest the air should be infected by ill smells which might +prejudice their health. In every street there are great halls that lie +at an equal distance from each other, distinguished by particular names. +The Syphogrants dwell in those that are set over thirty families, +fifteen lying on one side of it, and as many on the other. In these +halls they all meet and have their repasts. The stewards of every one of +them come to the market-place at an appointed hour; and according to the +number of those that belong to the hall, they carry home provisions. But +they take more care of their sick than of any others: these are lodged +and provided for in public hospitals: they have belonging to every town +four hospitals, that are built without their walls, and are so large +that they may pass for little towns: by this means, if they had ever +such a number of sick persons, they could lodge them conveniently, and +at such a distance, that such of them as are sick of infectious diseases +may be kept so far from the rest that there can be no danger of +contagion. The hospitals are furnished and stored with all things that +are convenient for the ease and recovery of the sick; and those that are +put in them are looked after with such tender and watchful care, and are +so constantly attended by their skilful physicians, that as none is sent +to them against their will, so there is scarce one in a whole town that, +if he should fall ill, would not choose rather to go thither than lie +sick at home.</p> + +<p>After the steward of the hospitals has taken for the sick whatsoever the +physician prescribes, then the best things that are left in the market +are distributed equally among the halls, in proportion to their numbers, +only, in the first place, they serve the Prince, the chief priest, the +Tranibors, the ambassadors, and strangers, if there are any, which +indeed falls out but seldom, and for whom there are houses well +furnished, particularly appointed for their reception when they come +among them. At the hours of dinner and supper, the whole Syphogranty +being called together by sound of trumpet, they meet and eat together, +except only such as are in the hospitals, or lie sick at home. Yet after +the halls are served, no man is hindered to carry provisions home from +the market-place; for they know that none does that but for some good +reason; for though any that will may eat at home, yet none does it +willingly, since it is both ridiculous and foolish for any to give +themselves the trouble to make ready an ill dinner at home, when there +is a much more plentiful one made ready for him so near hand. All the +uneasy and sordid services about these halls are performed by their +slaves; but the dressing and cooking their meat, and the ordering their +tables, belong only to the women, all those of every family taking it by +turns. They sit at three or more tables, according to their number; the +men sit towards the wall, and the women sit on the other side, that if +any of them should be taken suddenly ill, which is no uncommon case +amongst women with child, she may, without disturbing the rest, rise and +go to the nurse's room, who are there with the sucking children; where +there is always clean water at hand, and cradles in which they may lay +the young children, if there is occasion for it, and a fire that they +may shift and dress them before it. Every child is nursed by its own +mother, if death or sickness does not intervene; and in that case the +Syphogrants' wives find out a nurse quickly, which is no hard matter; +for any one that can do it, offers herself cheerfully; for as they are +much inclined to that piece of mercy, so the child whom they nurse +considers the nurse as its mother. All the children under five years old +sit among the nurses, the rest of the younger sort of both sexes, till +they are fit for marriage, either serve those that sit at table; or if +they are not strong enough for that, stand by them in great silence, and +eat what is given them; nor have they any other formality of dining. In +the middle of the first table, which stands across the upper end of the +hall, sit the Syphogrant and his wife; for that is the chief and most +conspicuous place; next to him sit two of the most ancient, for there go +always four to a mess. If there is a temple within that Syphogranty, the +priest and his wife sit with the Syphogrant above all the rest: next +them there is a mixture of old and young, who are so placed, that as the +young are set near others, so they are mixed with the more ancient; +which they say was appointed on this account, that the gravity of the +old people, and the reverence that is due to them, might restrain the +younger from all indecent words and gestures. Dishes are not served up +to the whole table at first, but the best are first set before the old, +whose seats are distinguished from the young, and after them all the +rest are served alike. The old men distribute to the younger any curious +meats that happen to be set before them, if there is not such an +abundance of them that the whole company may be served alike.</p> + +<p>Thus old men are honoured with a particular respect; yet all the rest +fare as well as they. Both dinner and supper are begun with some lecture +of morality that is read to them; but it is so short, that it is not +tedious nor uneasy to them to hear it: from hence the old men take +occasion to entertain those about them, with some useful and pleasant +enlargements; but they do not engross the whole discourse so to +themselves, during their meals, that the younger may not put in for a +share: on the contrary, they engage them to talk, that so they may in +that free way of conversation find out the force of every one's spirit, +and observe his temper. They despatch their dinners quickly, but sit +long at supper; because they go to work after the one, and are to sleep +after the other, during which they think the stomach carries on the +concoction more vigorously. They never sup without music; and there is +always fruit served up after meat; while they are at table, some burn +perfumes, and sprinkle about fragrant ointments and sweet waters: in +short, they want nothing that may cheer up their spirits: they give +themselves a large allowance that way, and indulge themselves in all +such pleasures as are attended with no inconvenience. Thus do those that +are in the towns live together; but in the country, where they live at +great distance, every one eats at home, and no family wants any +necessary sort of provision, for it is from them that provisions are +sent unto those that live in the towns.</p> + + +<p class="center">OF THE TRAVELLING OF THE UTOPIANS.</p> + +<p>If any man has a mind to visit his friends that live in some other town, +or desires to travel and see the rest of the country, he obtains leave +very easily from the Syphogrant and Tranibors, when there is no +particular occasion for him at home: such as travel, carry with them a +passport from the Prince, which both certifies the license that is +granted for travelling, and limits the time of their return. They are +furnished with a waggon and a slave, who drives the oxen, and looks +after them: but unless there are women in the company, the waggon is +sent back at the end of the journey as a needless encumbrance: while +they are on the road, they carry no provisions with them; yet they want +nothing, but are everywhere treated as if they were at home. If they +stay in any place longer than a night, every one follows his proper +occupation, and is very well used by those of his own trade: but if any +man goes out of the city to which he belongs, without leave, and is +found rambling without a passport, he is severely treated, he is +punished as a fugitive, and sent home disgracefully; and if he falls +again into the like fault, is condemned to slavery. If any man has a +mind to travel only over the precinct of his own city, he may freely do +it, with his father's permission and his wife's consent; but when he +comes into any of the country houses, if he expects to be entertained by +them, he must labour with them and conform to their rules: and if he +does this, he may freely go over the whole precinct; being thus as +useful to the city to which he belongs, as if he were still within it. +Thus you see that there are no idle persons among them, nor pretences of +excusing any from labour. There are no taverns, no alehouses nor stews +among them; nor any other occasions of corrupting each other, of getting +into corners, or forming themselves into parties: all men live in full +view, so that all are obliged, both to perform their ordinary task, and +to employ themselves well in their spare hours. And it is certain that a +people thus ordered must live in great abundance of all things; and +these being equally distributed among them, no man can want, or be +obliged to beg.</p> + +<p>In their great council at Amaurot, to which there are three sent from +every town once a year, they examine what towns abound in provisions, +and what are under any scarcity, that so the one may be furnished from +the other; and this is done freely, without any sort of exchange; for +according to their plenty or scarcity, they supply, or are supplied from +one another; so that indeed the whole island is, as it were, one family. +When they have thus taken care of their whole country, and laid up +stores for two years, which they do to prevent the ill consequences of +an unfavourable season, they order an exportation of the overplus, both +of corn, honey, wool, flax, wood, wax, tallow, leather, and cattle; +which they send out commonly in great quantities to other nations. They +order a seventh part of all these goods to be freely given to the poor +of the countries to which they send them, and sell the rest at moderate +rates. And by this exchange, they not only bring back those few things +that they need at home (for indeed they scarce need anything but iron), +but likewise a great deal of gold and silver; and by their driving this +trade so long, it is not to be imagined how vast a treasure they have +got among them: so that now they do not much care whether they sell off +their merchandise for money in hand, or upon trust. A great part of +their treasure is now in bonds; but in all their contracts no private +man stands bound, but the writing runs in the name of the town; and the +towns that owe them money, raise it from those private hands that owe it +to them, lay it up in their public chamber, or enjoy the profit of it +till the Utopians call for it; and they choose rather to let the +greatest part of it lie in their hands who make advantage by it, than to +call for it themselves: but if they see that any of their other +neighbours stand more in need of it, then they call it in and lend it to +them: whenever they are engaged in war, which is the only occasion in +which their treasure can be usefully employed, they make use of it +themselves. In great extremities or sudden accidents they employ it in +hiring foreign troops, whom they more willingly expose to danger than +their own people: they give them great pay, knowing well that this will +work even on their enemies, that it will engage them either to betray +their own side, or at least to desert it, and that it is the best means +of raising mutual jealousies among them: for this end they have an +incredible treasure; but they do not keep it as a treasure, but in such +a manner as I am almost afraid to tell, lest you think it so +extravagant, as to be hardly credible. This I have the more reason to +apprehend, because if I had not seen it myself, I could not have been +easily persuaded to have believed it upon any man's report.</p> + +<p>It is certain that all things appear incredible to us, in proportion as +they differ from own customs. But one who can judge aright, will not +wonder to find, that since their constitution differs so much from ours, +their value of gold and silver should be measured by a very different +standard; for since they have no use for money among themselves, but +keep it as a provision against events which seldom happen, and between +which there are generally long intervening intervals; they value it no +farther than it deserves, that is, in proportion to its use. So that it +is plain, they must prefer iron either to gold or silver: for men can no +more live without iron, than without fire or water; but Nature has +marked out no use for the other metals, so essential as not easily to be +dispensed with. The folly of men has enhanced the value of gold and +silver, because of their scarcity. Whereas, on the contrary, it is their +opinion that Nature, as an indulgent parent, has freely given us all the +best things in great abundance, such as water and earth, but has laid up +and hid from us the things that are vain and useless.</p> + +<p>If these metals were laid up in any tower in the kingdom, it would raise +a jealousy of the Prince and Senate, and give birth to that foolish +mistrust into which the people are apt to fall, a jealousy of their +intending to sacrifice the interest of the public to their own private +advantage. If they should work it into vessels, or any sort of plate, +they fear that the people might grow too fond of it, and so be unwilling +to let the plate be run down, if a war made it necessary to employ it in +paying their soldiers. To prevent all these inconveniences, they have +fallen upon an expedient, which as it agrees with their other policy, so +is it very different from ours, and will scarce gain belief among us, +who value gold so much, and lay it up so carefully. They eat and drink +out of vessels of earth, or glass, which make an agreeable appearance +though formed of brittle materials: while they make their chamber-pots +and close-stools of gold and silver; and that not only in their public +halls, but in their private houses: of the same metals they likewise +make chains and fetters for their slaves; to some of which, as a badge +of infamy, they hang an ear-ring of gold, and make others wear a chain +or a coronet of the same metal; and thus they take care, by all possible +means, to render gold and silver of no esteem. And from hence it is, +that while other nations part with their gold and silver, as unwillingly +as if one tore out their bowels, those of Utopia would look on their +giving in all they possess of those (metals, when there were any use for +them) but as the parting with a trifle, or as we would esteem the loss +of a penny. They find pearls on their coast; and diamonds and carbuncles +on their rocks; they do not look after them, but if they find them by +chance, they polish them, and with them they adorn their children, who +are delighted with them, and glory in them during their childhood; but +when they grow to years, and see that none but children use such +baubles, they of their own accord, without being bid by their parents, +lay them aside; and would be as much ashamed to use them afterwards, as +children among us, when they come to years, are of their puppets and +other toys.</p> + +<p>I never saw a clearer instance of the opposite impressions that +different customs make on people, than I observed in the ambassadors of +the Anemolians, who came to Amaurot when I was there. As they came to +treat of affairs of great consequence, the deputies from several towns +met together to wait for their coming. The ambassadors of the nations +that lie near Utopia, knowing their customs, and that fine clothes are +in no esteem among them, that silk is despised, and gold is a badge of +infamy, use to come very modestly clothed; but the Anemolians lying more +remote, and having had little commerce with them, understanding that +they were coarsely clothed, and all in the same manner, took it for +granted that they had none of those fine things among them of which they +made no use; and they being a vain-glorious rather than a wise people, +resolved to set themselves out with so much pomp, that they should look +like gods, and strike the eyes of the poor Utopians with their +splendour. Thus three ambassadors made their entry with an hundred +attendants, all clad in garments of different colours, and the greater +part in silk; the ambassadors themselves, who were of the nobility of +their country, were in cloth of gold, and adorned with massy chains, +ear-rings and rings of gold: their caps were covered with bracelets set +full of pearls and other gems: in a word, they were set out with all +those things that, among the Utopians, were either the badges of +slavery, the marks of infamy, or the playthings of children. It was not +unpleasant to see, on the one side, how they looked big, when they +compared their rich habits with the plain clothes of the Utopians, who +were come out in great numbers to see them make their entry: and, on the +other, to observe how much they were mistaken in the impression which +they hoped this pomp would have made on them. It appeared so ridiculous +a show to all that had never stirred out of their country, and had not +seen the customs of other nations, that though they paid some reverence +to those that were the most meanly clad, as if they had been the +ambassadors, yet when they saw the ambassadors themselves, so full of +gold and chains, they looked upon them as slaves, and forbore to treat +them with reverence. You might have seen the children, who were grown +big enough to despise their playthings, and who had thrown away their +jewels, call to their mothers, push them gently, and cry out, "See that +great fool that wears pearls and gems, as if he were yet a child." While +their mothers very innocently replied, "Hold your peace, this I believe +is one of the ambassador's fools." Others censured the fashion of their +chains, and observed that they were of no use; for they were too slight +to bind their slaves, who could easily break them; and besides hung so +loose about them, that they thought it easy to throw them away, and so +get from them. But after the ambassadors had stayed a day among them, +and saw so vast a quantity of gold in their houses, which was as much +despised by them as it was esteemed in other nations, and beheld more +gold and silver in the chains and fetters of one slave than all their +ornaments amounted to, their plumes fell, and they were ashamed of all +that glory for which they had formerly valued themselves, and +accordingly laid it aside; a resolution that they immediately took, when +on their engaging in some free discourse with the Utopians, they +discovered their sense of such things and their other customs. The +Utopians wonder how any man should be so much taken with the glaring +doubtful lustre of a jewel or a stone, that can look up to a star, or to +the sun himself; or how any should value himself because his cloth is +made of a finer thread: for how fine soever that thread may be, it was +once no better than the fleece of a sheep, and that sheep was a sheep +still for all its wearing it. They wonder much to hear that gold which +in itself is so useless a thing, should be everywhere so much esteemed, +that even men for whom it was made, and by whom it has its value, should +yet be thought of less value than this metal. That a man of lead, who +has no more sense than a log of wood, and is as bad as he is foolish, +should have many wise and good men to serve him, only because he has a +great heap of that metal; and that if it should happen that by some +accident or trick of law (which sometimes produces as great changes as +chance itself) all this wealth should pass from the master to the +meanest varlet of his whole family, he himself would very soon become +one of his servants, as if he were a thing that belonged to his wealth, +and so were bound to follow its fortune. But they much more admire and +detest the folly of those who when they see a rich man, though they +neither owe him anything, nor are in any sort dependent on his bounty, +yet merely because he is rich give him little less than divine honours; +even though they know him to be so covetous and base-minded, that +notwithstanding all his wealth, he will not part with one farthing of it +to them as long as he lives.</p> + +<p>These and such like notions has that people imbibed, partly from their +education, being bred in a country whose customs and laws are opposite +to all such foolish maxims, and partly from their learning and studies; +for though there are but few in any town that are so wholly excused from +labour as to give themselves entirely up to their studies, these being +only such persons as discover from their childhood an extraordinary +capacity and disposition for letters; yet their children, and a great +part of the nation, both men and women, are taught to spend those hours +in which they are not obliged to work in reading: and this they do +through the whole progress of life. They have all their learning in +their own tongue, which is both a copious and pleasant language, and in +which a man can fully express his mind. It runs over a great tract of +many countries, but it is not equally pure in all places. They had never +so much as heard of the names of any of those philosophers that are so +famous in these parts of the world, before we went among them; and yet +they had made the same discoveries as the Greeks, both in music, logic, +arithmetic, and geometry. But as they are almost in everything equal to +the ancient philosophers, so they far exceed our modern logicians; for +they have never yet fallen upon the barbarous niceties that our youth +are forced to learn in those trifling logical schools that are among us; +they are so far from minding chimeras, and fantastical images made in +the mind, that none of them could comprehend what we meant when we +talked to them of a man in the abstract, as common to all men in +particular (so that though we spoke of him as a thing that we could +point at with our fingers, yet none of them could perceive him), and yet +distinct from every one, as if he were some monstrous Colossus or +giant. Yet for all this ignorance of these empty notions, they knew +astronomy, and were perfectly acquainted with the motions of the +heavenly bodies, and have many instruments, well contrived and divided, +by which they very accurately compute the course and positions of the +sun, moon, and stars. But for the cheat, of divining by the stars by +their oppositions or conjunctions, it has not so much as entered into +their thoughts. They have a particular sagacity, founded upon much +observation, in judging of the weather, by which they know when they may +look for rain, wind, or other alterations in the air; but as to the +philosophy of these things, the causes of the saltness of the sea, of +its ebbing and flowing, and of the original and nature both of the +heavens and the earth; they dispute of them, partly as our ancient +philosophers have done, and partly upon some new hypothesis, in which, +as they differ from them, so they do not in all things agree among +themselves.</p> + +<p>As to moral philosophy, they have the same disputes among them as we +have here: they examine what are properly good both for the body and the +mind, and whether any outward thing can be called truly good, or if that +term belong only to the endowments of the soul. They inquire likewise +into the nature of virtue and pleasure; but their chief dispute is +concerning the happiness of a man, and wherein it consists? Whether in +some one thing, or in a great many? They seem, indeed, more inclinable +to that opinion that places, if not the whole, yet the chief part of a +man's happiness in pleasure; and, what may seem more strange, they make +use of arguments even from religion, notwithstanding its severity and +roughness, for the support of that opinion so indulgent to pleasure; for +they never dispute concerning happiness without fetching some arguments +from the principles of religion, as well as from natural reason, since +without the former they reckon that all our inquiries after happiness +must be but conjectural and defective.</p> + +<p>These are their religious principles, that the soul of man is immortal, +and that God of His goodness has designed that it should be happy; and +that He has therefore appointed rewards for good and virtuous actions, +and punishments for vice, to be distributed after this life. Though +these principles of religion are conveyed down among them by tradition, +they think that even reason itself determines a man to believe and +acknowledge them, and freely confess that if these were taken away no +man would be so insensible as not to seek after pleasure by all possible +means, lawful or unlawful; using only this caution, that a lesser +pleasure might not stand in the way of a greater, and that no pleasure +ought to be pursued that should draw a great deal of pain after it; for +they think it the maddest thing in the world to pursue virtue, that is a +sour and difficult thing; and not only to renounce the pleasures of +life, but willingly to undergo much pain and trouble, if a man has no +prospect of a reward. And what reward can there be for one that has +passed his whole life, not only without pleasure, but in pain, if there +is nothing to be expected after death? Yet they do not place happiness +in all sorts of pleasures, but only in those that in themselves are good +and honest. There is a party among them who place happiness in bare +virtue; others think that our natures are conducted by virtue to +happiness, as that which is the chief good of man. They define virtue +thus, that it is a living according to Nature, and think that we are +made by God for that end; they believe that a man then follows the +dictates of Nature when he pursues or avoids things according to the +direction of reason; they say that the first dictate of reason is the +kindling in us a love and reverence for the Divine Majesty, to whom we +owe both all that we have, and all that we can ever hope for. In the +next place, reason directs us to keep our minds as free from passion and +as cheerful as we can, and that we should consider ourselves as bound by +the ties of good-nature and humanity to use our utmost endeavours to +help forward the happiness of all other persons; for there never was any +man such a morose and severe pursuer of virtue, such an enemy to +pleasure, that though he set hard rules for men to undergo much pain, +many watchings, and other rigours, yet did not at the same time advise +them to do all they could, in order to relieve and ease the miserable, +and who did not represent gentleness and good-nature as amiable +dispositions. And from thence they infer that if a man ought to advance +the welfare and comfort of the rest of mankind, there being no virtue +more proper and peculiar to our nature, than to ease the miseries of +others, to free from trouble and anxiety, in furnishing them with the +comforts of life, in which pleasure consists, Nature much more +vigorously leads them to do all this for himself. A life of pleasure is +either a real evil, and in that case we ought not to assist others in +their pursuit of it, but on the contrary, to keep them from it all we +can, as from that which is most hurtful and deadly; or if it is a good +thing, so that we not only may, but ought to help others to it, why then +ought not a man to begin with himself? Since no man can be more bound to +look after the good of another than after his own; for Nature cannot +direct us to be good and kind to others, and yet at the same time to be +unmerciful and cruel to ourselves. Thus, as they define virtue to be +living according to Nature, so they imagine that Nature prompts all +people on to seek after pleasure, as the end of all they do. They also +observe that in order to our supporting the pleasures of life, Nature +inclines us to enter into society; for there is no man so much raised +above the rest of mankind as to be the only favourite of Nature, who, on +the contrary, seems to have placed on a level all those that belong to +the same species. Upon this they infer that no man ought to seek his own +conveniences so eagerly as to prejudice others; and therefore they think +that not only all agreements between private persons ought to be +observed; but likewise that all those laws ought to be kept, which +either a good prince has published in due form, or to which a people, +that is neither oppressed with tyranny nor circumvented by fraud, has +consented, for distributing those conveniences of life which afford us +all our pleasures.</p> + +<p>They think it is an evidence of true wisdom for a man to pursue his own +advantages, as far as the laws allow it. They account it piety to prefer +the public good to one's private concerns; but they think it unjust for +a man to seek for pleasure, by snatching another man's pleasures from +him. And on the contrary, they think it a sign of a gentle and good +soul, for a man to dispense with his own advantage for the good of +others; and that by this means a good man finds as much pleasure one +way, as he parts with another; for as he may expect the like from others +when he may come to need it, so if that should fail him, yet the sense +of a good action, and the reflections that he makes on the love and +gratitude of those whom he has so obliged, gives the mind more pleasure +than the body could have found in that from which it had restrained +itself. They are also persuaded that God will make up the loss of those +small pleasures, with a vast and endless joy, of which religion easily +convinces a good soul.</p> + +<p>Thus upon an inquiry into the whole matter, they reckon that all our +actions, and even all our virtues, terminate in pleasure, as in our +chief end and greatest happiness; and they call every motion or state, +either of body or mind, in which Nature teaches us to delight, a +pleasure. Thus they cautiously limit pleasure only to those appetites to +which Nature leads us; for they say that Nature leads us only to those +delights to which reason as well as sense carries us, and by which we +neither injure any other person, nor lose the possession of greater +pleasures, and of such as draw no troubles after them; but they look +upon those delights which men by a foolish, though common, mistake call +pleasure, as if they could change as easily the nature of things as the +use of words; as things that greatly obstruct their real happiness, +instead of advancing it, because they so entirely possess the minds of +those that are once captivated by them with a false notion of pleasure, +that there is no room left for pleasures of a truer or purer kind.</p> + +<p>There are many things that in themselves have nothing that is truly +delightful; on the contrary, they have a good deal of bitterness in +them; and yet from our perverse appetites after forbidden objects, are +not only ranked among the pleasures, but are made even the greatest +designs of life. Among those who pursue these sophisticated pleasures, +they reckon such as I mentioned before, who think themselves really the +better for having fine clothes; in which they think they are doubly +mistaken, both in the opinion that they have of their clothes, and in +that they have of themselves; for if you consider the use of clothes, +why should a fine thread be thought better than a coarse one? And yet +these men, as if they had some real advantages beyond others, and did +not owe them wholly to their mistakes, look big, seem to fancy +themselves to be more valuable, and imagine that a respect is due to +them for the sake of a rich garment, to which they would not have +pretended if they had been more meanly clothed; and even resent it as an +affront, if that respect is not paid them. It is also a great folly to +be taken with outward marks of respect, which signify nothing: for what +true or real pleasure can one man find in another's standing bare, or +making legs to him? Will the bending another man's knees give ease to +yours? And will the head's being bare cure the madness of yours? And yet +it is wonderful to see how this false notion of pleasure bewitches many +who delight themselves with the fancy of their nobility, and are pleased +with this conceit, that they are descended from ancestors, who have been +held for some successions rich, and who have had great possessions; for +this is all that makes nobility at present; yet they do not think +themselves a whit the less noble, though their immediate parents have +left none of this wealth to them, or though they themselves have +squandered it away. The Utopians have no better opinion of those who are +much taken with gems and precious stones, and who account it a degree of +happiness, next to a divine one, if they can purchase one that is very +extraordinary; especially if it be of that sort of stones that is then +in greatest request; for the same sort is not at all times universally +of the same value; nor will men buy it unless it be dismounted and taken +out of the gold; the jeweller is then made to give good security, and +required solemnly to swear that the stone is true, that by such an exact +caution a false one might not be bought instead of a true: though if you +were to examine it, your eye could find no difference between the +counterfeit and that which is true; so that they are all one to you as +much as if you were blind. Or can it be thought that they who heap up an +useless mass of wealth, not for any use that it is to bring them, but +merely to please themselves with the contemplation of it, enjoy any true +pleasure in it? The delight they find is only a false shadow of joy. +Those are no better whose error is somewhat different from the former, +and who hide it, out of their fear of losing it; for what other name can +fit the hiding it in the earth, or rather the restoring it to it again, +it being thus cut off from being useful, either to its owner or to the +rest of mankind? And yet the owner having hid it carefully, is glad, +because he thinks he is now sure of it. If it should be stole, the +owner, though he might live perhaps ten years after the theft, of which +he knew nothing, would find no difference between his having or losing +it; for both ways it was equally useless to him.</p> + +<p>Among those foolish pursuers of pleasure, they reckon all that delight +in hunting, in fowling, or gaming: of whose madness they have only +heard, for they have no such things among them. But they have asked us, +what sort of pleasure is it that men can find in throwing the dice? For +if there were any pleasure in it, they think the doing of it so often +should give one a surfeit of it: and what pleasure can one find in +hearing the barking and howling of dogs, which seem rather odious than +pleasant sounds? Nor can they comprehend the pleasure of seeing dogs run +after a hare, more than of seeing one dog run after another; for if the +seeing them run is that which gives the pleasure, you have the same +entertainment to the eye on both these occasions; since that is the same +in both cases: but if the pleasure lies in seeing the hare killed and +torn by the dogs, this ought rather to stir pity, that a weak, harmless +and fearful hare should be devoured by strong, fierce, and cruel dogs. +Therefore all this business of hunting is, among the Utopians, turned +over to their butchers; and those, as has been already said, are all +slaves; and they look on hunting as one of the basest parts of a +butcher's work: for they account it both more profitable and more decent +to kill those beasts that are more necessary and useful to mankind; +whereas the killing and tearing of so small and miserable an animal can +only attract the huntsman with a false show of pleasure, from which he +can reap but small advantage. They look on the desire of the bloodshed, +even of beasts, as a mark of a mind that is already corrupted with +cruelty, or that at least by the frequent returns of so brutal a +pleasure must degenerate into it.</p> + +<p>Thus, though the rabble of mankind look upon these, and on innumerable +other things of the same nature, as pleasures; the Utopians, on the +contrary, observing that there is nothing in them truly pleasant, +conclude that they are not to be reckoned among pleasures: for though +these things may create some tickling in the senses (which seems to be a +true notion of pleasure), yet they imagine that this does not arise +from the thing itself, but from a depraved custom, which may so vitiate +a man's taste, that bitter things may pass for sweet; as women with +child think pitch or tallow taste sweeter than honey; but as a man's +sense when corrupted, either by a disease or some ill habit, does not +change the nature of other things, so neither can it change the nature +of pleasure.</p> + +<p>They reckon up several sorts of pleasures, which they call true ones: +some belong to the body and others to the mind. The pleasures of the +mind lie in knowledge, and in that delight which the contemplation of +truth carries with it; to which they add the joyful reflections on a +well-spent life, and the assured hopes of a future happiness. They +divide the pleasures of the body into two sorts; the one is that which +gives our senses some real delight, and is performed, either by +recruiting nature, and supplying those parts which feed the internal +heat of life by eating and drinking; or when nature is eased of any +surcharge that oppresses it; when we are relieved from sudden pain, or +that which arises from satisfying the appetite which Nature has wisely +given to lead us to the propagation of the species. There is another +kind of pleasure that arises neither from our receiving what the body +requires, nor its being relieved when overcharged, and yet by a secret, +unseen virtue affects the senses, raises the passions, and strikes the +mind with generous impressions; this is the pleasure that arises from +music. Another kind of bodily pleasure is that which results from an +undisturbed and vigorous constitution of body, when life and active +spirits seem to actuate every part. This lively health, when entirely +free from all mixture of pain, of itself gives an inward pleasure, +independent of all external objects of delight; and though this pleasure +does not so powerfully affect us, nor act so strongly on the senses as +some of the others, yet it may be esteemed as the greatest of all +pleasures, and almost all the Utopians reckon it the foundation and +basis of all the other joys of life; since this alone makes the state +of life easy and desirable; and when this is wanting, a man is really +capable of no other pleasure. They look upon freedom from pain, if it +does not rise from perfect health, to be a state of stupidity rather +than of pleasure. This subject has been very narrowly canvassed among +them; and it has been debated whether a firm and entire health could be +called a pleasure or not? Some have thought that there was no pleasure +but what was excited by some sensible motion in the body. But this +opinion has been long ago excluded from among them, so that now they +almost universally agree that health is the greatest of all bodily +pleasures; and that as there is a pain in sickness, which is as opposite +in its nature to pleasure as sickness itself is to health; so they hold, +that health is accompanied with pleasure: and if any should say that +sickness is not really pain, but that it only carries pain along with +it, they look upon that as a fetch of subtilty, that does not much alter +the matter. It is all one, in their opinion, whether it be said that +health is in itself a pleasure, or that it begets a pleasure, as fire +gives heat; so it be granted, that all those whose health is entire have +a true pleasure in the enjoyment of it: and they reason thus—what is +the pleasure of eating, but that a man's health which had been weakened, +does, with the assistance of food, drive away hunger, and so recruiting +itself recovers its former vigour? And being thus refreshed, it finds a +pleasure in that conflict; and if the conflict is pleasure, the victory +must yet breed a greater pleasure, except we fancy that it becomes +stupid as soon as it has obtained that which it pursued, and so neither +knows nor rejoices in its own welfare. If it is said that health cannot +be felt, they absolutely deny it; for what man is in health that does +not perceive it when he is awake? Is there any man that is so dull and +stupid as not to acknowledge that he feels a delight in health? And what +is delight but another name for pleasure?</p> + +<p>But of all pleasures, they esteem those to be most valuable that lie in +the mind; the chief of which arises out of true virtue, and the witness +of a good conscience. They account health the chief pleasure that +belongs to the body; for they think that the pleasure of eating and +drinking, and all the other delights of sense, are only so far desirable +as they give or maintain health. But they are not pleasant in +themselves, otherwise than as they resist those impressions that our +natural infirmities are still making upon us: for as a wise man desires +rather to avoid diseases than to take physic; and to be freed from pain, +rather than to find ease by remedies; so it is more desirable not to +need this sort of pleasure, than to be obliged to indulge it. If any man +imagines that there is a real happiness in these enjoyments, he must +then confess that he would be the happiest of all men if he were to lead +his life in perpetual hunger, thirst, and itching, and by consequence in +perpetual eating, drinking, and scratching himself; which any one may +easily see would be not only a base, but a miserable state of a life. +These are indeed the lowest of pleasures, and the least pure; for we can +never relish them, but when they are mixed with the contrary pains. The +pain of hunger must give us the pleasure of eating; and here the pain +out-balances the pleasure; and as the pain is more vehement, so it lasts +much longer; for as it begins before the pleasure, so it does not cease +but with the pleasure that extinguishes it, and both expire together. +They think, therefore, none of those pleasures are to be valued any +further than as they are necessary; yet they rejoice in them, and with +due gratitude acknowledge the tenderness of the great Author of Nature, +who has planted in us appetites, by which those things that are +necessary for our preservation are likewise made pleasant to us. For how +miserable a thing would life be, if those daily diseases of hunger and +thirst were to be carried off by such bitter drugs as we must use for +those diseases that return seldomer upon us? And thus these pleasant as +well as proper gifts of Nature maintain the strength and the +sprightliness of our bodies.</p> + +<p>They also entertain themselves with the other delights let in at their +eyes, their ears, and their nostrils, as the pleasant relishes and +seasonings of life, which Nature seems to have marked out peculiarly for +man; since no other sort of animals contemplates the figure and beauty +of the universe; nor is delighted with smells, any farther than as they +distinguish meats by them; not do they apprehend the concords or +discords of sound; yet in all pleasures whatsoever they take care that a +lesser joy does not hinder a greater, and that pleasure may never breed +pain, which they think always follows dishonest pleasures. But they +think it madness for a man to wear out the beauty of his face, or the +force of his natural strength; to corrupt the sprightliness of his body +by sloth and laziness, or to waste it by fasting; that it is madness to +weaken the strength of his constitution, and reject the other delights +of life; unless by renouncing his own satisfaction, he can either serve +the public or promote the happiness of others, for which he expects a +greater recompense from God. So that they look on such a course of life +as the mark of a mind that is both cruel to itself, and ungrateful to +the Author of Nature, as if we would not be beholden to Him for His +favours, and therefore rejects all His blessings; as one who should +afflict himself for the empty shadow of virtue; or for no better end +than to render himself capable of bearing those misfortunes which +possibly will never happen.</p> + +<p>This is their notion of virtue and of pleasure; they think that no man's +reason can carry him to a truer idea of them, unless some discovery from +Heaven should inspire him with sublimer notions. I have not now the +leisure to examine whether they think right or wrong in this matter: nor +do I judge it necessary, for I have only undertaken to give you an +account of their constitution, but not to defend all their principles. I +am sure, that whatsoever may be said of their notions, there is not in +the whole world either a better people or a happier government: their +bodies are vigorous and lively; and though they are but of a middle +stature, and have neither the fruitfullest soil nor the purest air in +the world, yet they fortify themselves so well by their temperate course +of life, against the unhealthiness of their air, and by their industry +they so cultivate their soil, that there is nowhere to be seen a greater +increase both of corn and cattle, nor are there anywhere healthier men, +and freer from diseases: for one may there see reduced to practice, not +only all the art that the husbandman employs in manuring and improving +an ill soil, but whole woods plucked up by the roots, and in other +places new ones planted, where there were none before. Their principal +motive for this is the convenience of carriage, that their timber may be +either near their towns, or growing on the banks of the sea, or of some +rivers, so as to be floated to them; for it is a harder work to carry +wood at any distance over land, than corn. The people are industrious, +apt to learn, as well as cheerful and pleasant; and none can endure more +labour, when it is necessary; but except in that case they love their +ease. They are unwearied pursuers of knowledge; for when we had given +them some hints of the learning and discipline of the Greeks, concerning +whom we only instructed them (for we know that there was nothing among +the Romans, except their historians and their poets, that they would +value much), it was strange to see how eagerly they were set on learning +that language. We began to read a little of it to them, rather in +compliance with their importunity, than out of any hopes of their +reaping from it any great advantage. But after a very short trial, we +found they made such progress, that we saw our labour was like to be +more successful than we could have expected. They learned to write +their characters, and to pronounce their language so exactly, had so +quick an apprehension, they remembered it so faithfully, and became so +ready and correct in the use of it, that it would have looked like a +miracle if the greater part of those whom we taught had not been men +both of extraordinary capacity and of a fit age for instruction. They +were for the greatest part chosen from among their learned men, by their +chief council, though some studied it of their own accord. In three +years' time they became masters of the whole language, so that they read +the best of the Greek authors very exactly. I am indeed apt to think +that they learned that language the more easily, from its having some +relation to their own. I believe that they were a colony of the Greeks; +for though their language comes nearer the Persian, yet they retain many +names, both for their towns and magistrates, that are of Greek +derivation. I happened to carry a great many books with me, instead of +merchandise, when I sailed my fourth voyage; for I was so far from +thinking of soon coming back, that I rather thought never to have +returned at all, and I gave them all my books, among which were many of +Plato's and some of Aristotle's works. I had also Theophrastus on +Plants, which, to my great regret, was imperfect; for having laid it +carelessly by, while we were at sea, a monkey had seized upon it, and in +many places torn out the leaves. They have no books of grammar but +Lascares, for I did not carry Theodorus with me; nor have they any +dictionaries but Hesichius and Dioscorides. They esteem Plutarch highly, +and were much taken with Lucian's wit, and with his pleasant way of +writing. As for the poets, they have Aristophanes, Homer, Euripides, and +Sophocles of Aldus's edition; and for historians Thucydides, Herodotus +and Herodian. One of my companions, Thricius Apinatus, happened to carry +with him some of Hippocrates's works, and Galen's Microtechne, which +they hold in great estimation; for though there is no nation in the +world that needs physic so little as they do, yet there is not any that +honours it so much: they reckon the knowledge of it one of the +pleasantest and most profitable parts of philosophy, by which, as they +search into the secrets of Nature, so they not only find this study +highly agreeable, but think that such inquiries are very acceptable to +the Author of Nature; and imagine that as He, like the inventors of +curious engines amongst mankind, has exposed this great machine of the +universe to the view of the only creatures capable of contemplating it, +so an exact and curious observer, who admires His workmanship, is much +more acceptable to Him than one of the herd, who like a beast incapable +of reason, looks on this glorious scene with the eyes of a dull and +unconcerned spectator.</p> + +<p>The minds of the Utopians when fenced with a love for learning, are very +ingenious in discovering all such arts as are necessary to carry it to +perfection. Two things they owe to us, the manufacture of paper, and the +art of printing: yet they are not so entirely indebted to us for these +discoveries, but that a great part of the invention was their own. We +showed them some books printed by Aldus, we explained to them the way of +making paper, and the mystery of printing; but as we had never practised +these arts, we described them in a crude and superficial manner. They +seized the hints we gave them, and though at first they could not arrive +at perfection, yet by making many essays they at last found out and +corrected all their errors, and conquered every difficulty. Before this +they only wrote on parchment, on reeds, or on the barks of trees; but +now they have established the manufactures of paper, and set up +printing-presses, so that if they had but a good number of Greek authors +they would be quickly supplied with many copies of them: at present, +though they have no more than those I have mentioned, yet by several +impressions they have multiplied them into many thousands. If any man +was to go among them that had some extraordinary talent, or that by +much travelling had observed the customs of many nations (which made us +to be so well received), he would receive a hearty welcome; for they are +very desirous to know the state of the whole world. Very few go among +them on the account of traffic, for what can a man carry to them but +iron, or gold, or silver, which merchants desire rather to export than +import to a strange country: and as for their exportation, they think it +better to manage that themselves than to leave it to foreigners, for by +this means, as they understand the state of the neighbouring countries +better, so they keep up the art of navigation, which cannot be +maintained but by much practice.</p> + + + +<p class="center">OF THEIR SLAVES, AND OF THEIR MARRIAGES.</p> + +<p>They do not make slaves of prisoners of war, except those that are taken +in battle; nor of the sons of their slaves, nor of those of other +nations: the slaves among them are only such as are condemned to that +state of life for the commission of some crime, or, which is more +common, such as their merchants find condemned to die in those parts to +which they trade, whom they sometimes redeem at low rates; and in other +places have them for nothing. They are kept at perpetual labour, and are +always chained, but with this difference, that their own natives are +treated much worse than others; they are considered as more profligate +than the rest, and since they could not be restrained by the advantages +of so excellent an education, are judged worthy of harder usage. Another +sort of slaves are the poor of the neighbouring countries, who offer of +their own accord to come and serve them; they treat these better, and +use them in all other respects as well as their own countrymen, except +their imposing more labour upon them, which is no hard task to those +that have been accustomed to it; and if any of these have a mind to go +back to their own country, which indeed falls out but seldom, as they do +not force them to stay, so they do not send them away empty-handed.</p> + +<p>I have already told you with what care they look after their sick, so +that nothing is left undone that can contribute either to their ease or +health: and for those who are taken with fixed and incurable diseases, +they use all possible ways to cherish them, and to make their lives as +comfortable as possible. They visit them often, and take great pains to +make their time pass off easily: but when any is taken with a torturing +and lingering pain, so that there is no hope, either of recovery or +ease, the priests and magistrates come and exhort them, that since they +are now unable to go on with the business of life, are become a burden +to themselves and to all about them, and they have really outlived +themselves, they should no longer nourish such a rooted distemper, but +choose rather to die, since they cannot live but in much misery: being +assured, that if they thus deliver themselves from torture, or are +willing that others should do it, they shall be happy after death. Since +by their acting thus, they lose none of the pleasures, but only the +troubles of life; they think they behave not only reasonably, but in a +manner consistent with religion and piety; because they follow the +advice given them by their priests, who are the expounders of the will +of God. Such as are wrought on by these persuasions, either starve +themselves of their own accord, or take opium, and by that means die +without pain. But no man is forced on this way of ending his life; and +if they cannot be persuaded to it, this does not induce them to fail in +their attendance and care of them; but as they believe that a voluntary +death, when it is chosen upon such an authority, is very honourable, so +if any man takes away his own life, without the approbation of the +priests and the Senate, they give him none of the honours of a decent +funeral, but throw his body into a ditch.</p> + +<p>Their women are not married before eighteen, nor their men before +two-and-twenty, and if any of them run into forbidden embraces before +marriage they are severely punished, and the privilege of marriage is +denied them, unless they can obtain a special warrant from the Prince. +Such disorders cast a great reproach upon the master and mistress of the +family in which they happen, for it is supposed that they have failed in +their duty. The reason of punishing this so severely is, because they +think that if they were not strictly restrained from all vagrant +appetites, very few would engage in a state in which they venture the +quiet of their whole lives, by being confined to one person, and are +obliged to endure all the inconveniences with which it is accompanied. +In choosing their wives they use a method that would appear to us very +absurd and ridiculous, but it is constantly observed among them, and is +accounted perfectly consistent with wisdom. Before marriage some grave +matron presents the bride naked, whether she is a virgin or a widow, to +the bridegroom; and after that some grave man presents the bridegroom +naked to the bride. We indeed both laughed at this, and condemned it as +very indecent. But they, on the other hand, wondered at the folly of the +men of all other nations, who, if they are but to buy a horse of a small +value, are so cautious that they will see every part of him, and take +off both his saddle and all his other tackle, that there may be no +secret ulcer hid under any of them; and that yet in the choice of a +wife, on which depends the happiness or unhappiness of the rest of his +life, a man should venture upon trust, and only see about a +hand's-breadth of the face, all the rest of the body being covered, +under which there may lie hid what may be contagious, as well as +loathsome. All men are not so wise as to choose a woman only for her +good qualities; and even wise men consider the body as that which adds +not a little to the mind: and it is certain there may be some such +deformity covered with the clothes as may totally alienate a man from +his wife when it is too late to part with her. If such a thing is +discovered after marriage, a man has no remedy but patience. They +therefore think it is reasonable that there should be good provision +made against such mischievous frauds.</p> + +<p>There was so much the more reason for them to make a regulation in this +matter, because they are the only people of those parts that neither +allow of polygamy, nor of divorces, except in the case of adultery, or +insufferable perverseness; for in these cases the Senate dissolves the +marriage, and grants the injured person leave to marry again; but the +guilty are made infamous, and are never allowed the privilege of a +second marriage. None are suffered to put away their wives against their +wills, from any great calamity that may have fallen on their persons; +for they look on it as the height of cruelty and treachery to abandon +either of the married persons when they need most the tender care of +their comfort, and that chiefly in the case of old age, which as it +carries many diseases along with it, so it is a disease of itself. But +it frequently falls out that when a married couple do not well agree, +they by mutual consent separate, and find out other persons with whom +they hope they may live more happily. Yet this is not done without +obtaining leave of the Senate, which never admits of a divorce, but upon +a strict inquiry made, both by the senators and their wives, into the +grounds upon which it is desired; and even when they are satisfied +concerning the reasons of it, they go on but slowly, for they imagine +that too great easiness in granting leave for new marriages would very +much shake the kindness of married people. They punish severely those +that defile the marriage-bed. If both parties are married they are +divorced, and the injured persons may marry one another, or whom they +please; but the adulterer and the adulteress are condemned to slavery. +Yet if either of the injured persons cannot shake off the love of the +married person, they may live with them still in that state, but they +must follow them to that labour to which the slaves are condemned; and +sometimes the repentance of the condemned, together with the unshaken +kindness of the innocent and injured person, has prevailed so far with +the Prince that he has taken off the sentence; but those that relapse +after they are once pardoned are punished with death.</p> + +<p>Their law does not determine the punishment for other crimes; but that +is left to the Senate, to temper it according to the circumstances of +the fact. Husbands have power to correct their wives, and parents to +chastise their children, unless the fault is so great that a public +punishment is thought necessary for striking terror into others. For the +most part, slavery is the punishment even of the greatest crimes; for as +that is no less terrible to the criminals themselves than death, so they +think the preserving them in a state of servitude is more for the +interest of the commonwealth than killing them; since as their labour is +a greater benefit to the public than their death could be, so the sight +of their misery is a more lasting terror to other men than that which +would be given by their death. If their slaves rebel, and will not bear +their yoke, and submit to the labour that is enjoined them, they are +treated as wild beasts that cannot be kept in order, neither by a +prison, nor by their chains; and are at last put to death. But those who +bear their punishment patiently, and are so much wrought on by that +pressure that lies so hard on them that it appears they are really more +troubled for the crimes they have committed than for the miseries they +suffer, are not out of hope but that at last either the Prince will, by +his prerogative, or the people by their intercession, restore them again +to their liberty, or at least very much mitigate their slavery. He that +tempts a married woman to adultery, is no less severely punished than he +that commits it; for they believe that a deliberate design to commit a +crime, is equal to the fact itself: since its not taking effect does +not make the person that miscarried in his attempt at all the less +guilty.</p> + +<p>They take great pleasure in fools, and as it is thought a base and +unbecoming thing to use them ill, so they do not think it amiss for +people to divert themselves with their folly: and, in their opinion, +this is a great advantage to the fools themselves: for if men were so +sullen and severe as not at all to please themselves with their +ridiculous behaviour and foolish sayings, which is all that they can do +to recommend themselves to others, it could not be expected that they +would be so well provided for, nor so tenderly used as they must +otherwise be. If any man should reproach another for his being misshaped +or imperfect in any part of his body, it would not at all be thought a +reflection on the person so treated, but it would be accounted +scandalous in him that had upbraided another with what he could not +help. It is thought a sign of a sluggish and sordid mind not to preserve +carefully one's natural beauty; but it is likewise infamous among them +to use paint. They all see that no beauty recommends a wife so much to +her husband as the probity of her life, and her obedience: for as some +few are catched and held only by beauty, so all are attracted by the +other excellences which charm all the world.</p> + +<p>As they fright men from committing crimes by punishments, so they invite +them to the love of virtue by public honours: therefore they erect +statues to the memories of such worthy men as have deserved well of +their country, and set these in their market-places, both to perpetuate +the remembrance of their actions, and to be an incitement to their +posterity to follow their example.</p> + +<p>If any man aspires to any office, he is sure never to compass it: they +all live easily together, for none of the magistrates are either +insolent or cruel to the people: they affect rather to be called +fathers, and by being really so, they well deserve the name; and the +people pay them all the marks of honour the more freely, because none +are exacted from them. The Prince himself has no distinction, either of +garments, or of a crown; but is only distinguished by a sheaf of corn +carried before him; as the high priest is also known by his being +preceded by a person carrying a wax light.</p> + +<p>They have but few laws, and such is their constitution that they need +not many. They very much condemn other nations, whose laws, together +with the commentaries on them, swell up to so many volumes; for they +think it an unreasonable thing to oblige men to obey a body of laws that +are both of such a bulk, and so dark as not to be read and understood by +every one of the subjects.</p> + +<p>They have no lawyers among them, for they consider them as a sort of +people whose profession it is to disguise matters, and to wrest the +laws; and therefore they think it is much better that every man should +plead his own cause, and trust it to the judge, as in other places the +client trusts it to a counsellor. By this means they both cut off many +delays, and find out truth more certainly: for after the parties have +laid open the merits of the cause, without those artifices which lawyers +are apt to suggest, the judge examines the whole matter, and supports +the simplicity of such well-meaning persons, whom otherwise crafty men +would be sure to run down: and thus they avoid those evils which appear +very remarkably among all those nations that labour under a vast load of +laws. Every one of them is skilled in their law, for as it is a very +short study, so the plainest meaning of which words are capable is +always the sense of their laws. And they argue thus: all laws are +promulgated for this end, that every man may know his duty; and +therefore the plainest and most obvious sense of the words is that which +ought to be put upon them; since a more refined exposition cannot be +easily comprehended, and would only serve to make the laws become +useless to the greater part of mankind, and especially to those who need +most the direction of them: for it is all one, not to make a law at +all, or to couch it in such terms that without a quick apprehension, and +much study, a man cannot find out the true meaning of it; since the +generality of mankind are both so dull, and so much employed in their +several trades, that they have neither the leisure nor the capacity +requisite for such an inquiry.</p> + +<p>Some of their neighbours, who are masters of their own liberties, having +long ago, by the assistance of the Utopians, shaken off the yoke of +tyranny, and being much taken with those virtues which they observe +among them, have come to desire that they would send magistrates to +govern them; some changing them every year, and others every five years. +At the end of their government they bring them back to Utopia, with +great expressions of honour and esteem, and carry away others to govern +in their stead. In this they seem to have fallen upon a very good +expedient for their own happiness and safety; for since the good or ill +condition of a nation depends so much upon their magistrates, they could +not have made a better choice than by pitching on men whom no advantages +can bias; for wealth is of no use to them, since they must so soon go +back to their own country; and they being strangers among them, are not +engaged in any of their heats or animosities; and it is certain that +when public judicatories are swayed, either by avarice or partial +affections, there must follow a dissolution of justice, the chief sinew +of society.</p> + +<p>The Utopians call those nations that come and ask magistrates from them, +neighbours; but those to whom they have been of more particular service, +friends. And as all other nations are perpetually either making leagues +or breaking them, they never enter into an alliance with any state. They +think leagues are useless things, and believe that if the common ties of +humanity do not knit men together, the faith of promises will have no +great effect; and they are the more confirmed in this by what they see +among the nations round about them, who are no strict observers of +leagues and treaties. We know how religiously they are observed in +Europe, more particularly where the Christian doctrine is received, +among whom they are sacred and inviolable. Which is partly owing to the +justice and goodness of the princes themselves, and partly to the +reverence they pay to the popes; who as they are most religious +observers of their own promises, so they exhort all other princes to +perform theirs; and when fainter methods do not prevail, they compel +them to it by the severity of the pastoral censure, and think that it +would be the most indecent thing possible if men who are particularly +distinguished by the title of the faithful, should not religiously keep +the faith of their treaties. But in that new-found world, which is not +more distant from us in situation than the people are in their manners +and course of life, there is no trusting to leagues, even though they +were made with all the pomp of the most sacred ceremonies; on the +contrary, they are on this account the sooner broken, some slight +pretence being found in the words of the treaties, which are purposely +couched in such ambiguous terms that they can never be so strictly bound +but they will always find some loophole to escape at; and thus they +break both their leagues and their faith. And this is done with such +impudence, that those very men who value themselves on having suggested +these expedients to their princes, would with a haughty scorn declaim +against such craft, or to speak plainer, such fraud and deceit, if they +found private men make use of it in their bargains, and would readily +say that they deserved to be hanged.</p> + +<p>By this means it is, that all sort of justice passes in the world for a +low-spirited and vulgar virtue, far below the dignity of royal +greatness. Or at least, there are set up two sorts of justice; the one +is mean, and creeps on the ground, and therefore becomes none but the +lower part of mankind, and so must be kept in severely by many +restraints that it may not break out beyond the bounds that are set to +it. The other is the peculiar virtue of princes, which as it is more +majestic than that which becomes the rabble, so takes a freer compass; +and thus lawful and unlawful are only measured by pleasure and interest. +These practices of the princes that lie about Utopia, who make so little +account of their faith, seem to be the reasons that determine them to +engage in no confederacies; perhaps they would change their mind if they +lived among us; but yet though treaties were more religiously observed, +they would still dislike the custom of making them; since the world has +taken up a false maxim upon it, as if there were no tie of Nature +uniting one nation to another, only separated perhaps by a mountain or a +river, and that all were born in a state of hostility, and so might +lawfully do all that mischief to their neighbours against which there is +no provision made by treaties; and that when treaties are made, they do +not cut off the enmity, or restrain the license of preying upon each +other, if by the unskilfulness of wording them there are not effectual +provisoes made against them. They, on the other hand, judge that no man +is to be esteemed our enemy that has never injured us; and that the +partnership of the human nature is instead of a league. And that +kindness and good-nature unite men more effectually and with greater +strength than any agreements whatsoever; since thereby the engagements +of men's hearts become stronger than the bond and obligation of words.</p> + + + +<p class="center">OF THEIR MILITARY DISCIPLINE.</p> + +<p>They detest war as a very brutal thing; and which, to the reproach of +human nature, is more practised by men than by any sort of beasts. They, +in opposition to the sentiments of almost all other nations, think that +there is nothing more inglorious than that glory that is gained by war. +And therefore though they accustom themselves daily to military +exercises and the discipline of war, in which not only their men but +their women likewise are trained up, that in cases of necessity they may +not be quite useless; yet they do not rashly engage in war, unless it be +either to defend themselves, or their friends, from any unjust +aggressors; or out of good-nature or in compassion assist an oppressed +nation in shaking off the yoke of tyranny. They indeed help their +friends, not only in defensive, but also in offensive wars; but they +never do that unless they had been consulted before the breach was made, +and being satisfied with the grounds on which they went, they had found +that all demands of reparation were rejected, so that a war was +unavoidable. This they think to be not only just, when one neighbour +makes an inroad on another, by public order, and carry away the spoils; +but when the merchants of one country are oppressed in another, either +under pretence of some unjust laws, or by the perverse wresting of good +ones. This they count a juster cause of war than the other, because +those injuries are done under some colour of laws. This was the only +ground of that war in which they engaged with the Nephelogetes against +the Aleopolitanes, a little before our time; for the merchants of the +former having, as they thought, met with great injustice among the +latter, which, whether it was in itself right or wrong, drew on a +terrible war, in which many of their neighbours were engaged; and their +keenness in carrying it on being supported by their strength in +maintaining it, it not only shook some very flourishing states, and very +much afflicted others, but after a series of much mischief ended in the +entire conquest and slavery of the Aleopolitanes, who though before the +war they were in all respects much superior to the Nephelogetes, were +yet subdued; but though the Utopians had assisted them in the war, yet +they pretended to no share of the spoil.</p> + +<p>But though they so vigorously assist their friends in obtaining +reparation for the injuries they have received in affairs of this +nature, yet if any such frauds was committed against themselves, +provided no violence was done to their persons, they would only on their +being refused satisfaction forbear trading with such a people. This is +not because they consider their neighbours more than their own citizens; +but since their neighbours trade every one upon his own stock, fraud is +a more sensible injury to them than it is to the Utopians, among whom +the public in such a case only suffers. As they expect nothing in return +for the merchandises they export but that in which they so much abound, +and is of little use to them, the loss does not much affect them; they +think therefore it would be too severe to revenge a loss attended with +so little inconvenience either to their lives, or their subsistence, +with the death of many persons; but if any of their people is either +killed or wounded wrongfully, whether it be done by public authority or +only by private men, as soon as they hear of it they send ambassadors, +and demand that the guilty persons may be delivered up to them; and if +that is denied, they declare war; but if it be complied with, the +offenders are condemned either to death or slavery.</p> + +<p>They would be both troubled and ashamed of a bloody victory over their +enemies, and think it would be as foolish a purchase as to buy the most +valuable goods at too high a rate. And in no victory do they glory so +much as in that which is gained by dexterity and good conduct, without +bloodshed. In such cases they appoint public triumphs, and erect +trophies to the honour of those who have succeeded; for then do they +reckon that a man acts suitably to his nature when he conquers his enemy +in such a way as that no other creature but a man could be capable of, +and that is by the strength of his understanding. Bears, lions, boars, +wolves, and dogs, and all other animals employ their bodily force one +against another, in which as many of them are superior to men, both in +strength and fierceness, so they are all subdued by his reason and +understanding.</p> + +<p>The only design of the Utopians in war is to obtain that by force, which +if it had been granted them in time would have prevented the war; or if +that cannot be done, to take so severe a revenge on those that have +injured them that they may be terrified from doing the like for the time +to come. By these ends they measure all their designs, and manage them +so that it is visible that the appetite of fame or vain-glory does not +work so much on them as a just care of their own security.</p> + +<p>As soon as they declare war, they take care to have a great many +schedules, that are sealed with their common seal, affixed in the most +conspicuous places of their enemies' country. This is carried secretly, +and done in many places all at once. In these they promise great rewards +to such as shall kill the prince, and lesser in proportion to such as +shall kill any other persons, who are those on whom, next to the prince +himself, they cast the chief balance of the war. And they double the sum +to him that, instead of killing the person so marked out, shall take him +alive and put him in their hands. They offer not only indemnity, but +rewards, to such of the persons themselves that are so marked, if they +will act against their countrymen: by this means those that are named in +their schedules become not only distrustful of their fellow-citizens, +but are jealous of one another, and are much distracted by fear and +danger; for it has often fallen out that many of them, and even the +Prince himself, have been betrayed by those in whom they have trusted +most: for the rewards that the Utopians offer are so unmeasurably great, +that there is no sort of crime to which men cannot be drawn by them. +They consider the risk that those run who undertake such services, and +offer a recompense proportioned to the danger; not only a vast deal of +gold, but great revenues in lands, that lie among other nations that are +their friends, where they may go and enjoy them very securely; and they +observe the promises they make of this kind most religiously. They very +much approve of this way of corrupting their enemies, though it appears +to others to be base and cruel; but they look on it as a wise course, to +make an end of what would be otherwise a long war, without so much as +hazarding one battle to decide it. They think it likewise an act of +mercy and love to mankind to prevent the great slaughter of those that +must otherwise be killed in the progress of the war, both on their own +side and on that of their enemies, by the death of a few that are most +guilty; and that in so doing they are kind even to their enemies, and +pity them no less than their own people, as knowing that the greater +part of them do not engage in the war of their own accord, but are +driven into it by the passions of their prince.</p> + +<p>If this method does not succeed with them, then they sow seeds of +contention among their enemies, and animate the prince's brother, or +some of the nobility, to aspire to the crown. If they cannot disunite +them by domestic broils, then they engage their neighbours against them, +and make them set on foot some old pretensions, which are never wanting +to princes when they have occasion for them. These they plentifully +supply with money, though but very sparingly with any auxiliary troops: +for they are so tender of their own people, that they would not +willingly exchange one of them, even with the prince of their enemies' +country.</p> + +<p>But as they keep their gold and silver only for such an occasion, so +when that offers itself they easily part with it, since it would be no +inconvenience to them though they should reserve nothing of it to +themselves. For besides the wealth that they have among them at home, +they have a vast treasure abroad, many nations round about them being +deep in their debt: so that they hire soldiers from all places for +carrying on their wars, but chiefly from the Zapolets, who live five +hundred miles east of Utopia. They are a rude, wild, and fierce nation, +who delight in the woods and rocks, among which they were born and bred +up. They are hardened both against heat, cold and labour, and know +nothing of the delicacies of life. They do not apply themselves to +agriculture, nor do they care either for their houses or their clothes. +Cattle is all that they look after; and for the greatest part they live +either by hunting, or upon rapine; and are made, as it were, only for +war. They watch all opportunities of engaging in it, and very readily +embrace such as are offered them. Great numbers of them will frequently +go out, and offer themselves for a very low pay, to serve any that will +employ them: they know none of the arts of life, but those that lead to +the taking it away; they serve those that hire them, both with much +courage and great fidelity; but will not engage to serve for any +determined time, and agree upon such terms, that the next day they may +go over to the enemies of those whom they serve, if they offer them a +greater encouragement: and will perhaps return to them the day after +that, upon a higher advance of their pay. There are few wars in which +they make not a considerable part of the armies of both sides: so it +often falls out that they who are related, and were hired in the same +country, and so have lived long and familiarly together, forgetting both +their relations and former friendship, kill one another upon no other +consideration than that of being hired to it for a little money, by +princes of different interests; and such a regard have they for money, +that they are easily wrought on by the difference of one penny a day to +change sides. So entirely does their avarice influence them; and yet +this money, which they value so highly, is of little use to them; for +what they purchase thus with their blood, they quickly waste on luxury, +which among them is but of a poor and miserable form.</p> + +<p>This nation serves the Utopians against all people whatsoever, for they +pay higher than any other. The Utopians hold this for a maxim, that as +they seek out the best sort of men for their own use at home, so they +make use of this worst sort of men for the consumption of war, and +therefore they hire them with the offers of vast rewards, to expose +themselves to all sorts of hazards, out of which the greater part never +returns to claim their promises. Yet they make them good most +religiously to such as escape. This animates them to adventure again, +whenever there is occasion for it; for the Utopians are not at all +troubled how many of these happen to be killed, and reckon it a service +done to mankind if they could be a means to deliver the world from such +a lewd and vicious sort of people, that seem to have run together as to +the drain of human nature. Next to these they are served in their wars +with those upon whose account they undertake them, and with the +auxiliary troops of their other friends, to whom they join a few of +their own people, and send some men of eminent and approved virtue to +command in chief. There are two sent with him, who during his command +are but private men, but the first is to succeed him if he should happen +to be either killed or taken; and in case of the like misfortune to him, +the third comes in his place; and thus they provide against ill events, +that such accidents as may befall their generals may not endanger their +armies. When they draw out troops of their own people, they take such +out of every city as freely offer themselves, for none are forced to go +against their wills, since they think that if any man is pressed that +wants courage, he will not only act faintly, but by his cowardice +dishearten others. But if an invasion is made on their country they make +use of such men, if they have good bodies, though they are not brave; +and either put them aboard their ships or place them on the walls of +their towns, that being so posted they may find no opportunity of flying +away; and thus either shame, the heat of action, or the impossibility of +flying, bears down their cowardice; they often make a virtue of +necessity and behave themselves well, because nothing else is left them. +But as they force no man to go into any foreign war against his will, so +they do not hinder those women who are willing to go along with their +husbands; on the contrary, they encourage and praise them, and they +stand often next their husbands in the front of the army. They also +place together those who are related, parents and children, kindred, and +those that are mutually allied, near one another; that those whom Nature +has inspired with the greatest zeal for assisting one another, may be +the nearest and readiest to do it; and it is matter of great reproach if +husband or wife survive one another, or if a child survives his parents, +and therefore when they come to be engaged in action they continue to +fight to the last man, if their enemies stand before them. And as they +use all prudent methods to avoid the endangering their own men, and if +it is possible let all the action and danger fall upon the troops that +they hire, so if it becomes necessary for themselves to engage, they +then charge with as much courage as they avoided it before with +prudence: nor is it a fierce charge at first, but it increases by +degrees; and as they continue in action, they grow more obstinate and +press harder upon the enemy, insomuch that they will much sooner die +than give ground; for the certainty that their children will be well +looked after when they are dead, frees them from all that anxiety +concerning them which often masters men of great courage; and thus they +are animated by a noble and invincible resolution. Their skill in +military affairs increases their courage; and the wise sentiments which, +according to the laws of their country are instilled into them in their +education, give additional vigour to their minds: for as they do not +undervalue life so as prodigally to throw it away, they are not so +indecently fond of it as to preserve it by base and unbecoming methods. +In the greatest heat of action, the bravest of their youth, who have +devoted themselves to that service, single out the general of their +enemies, set on him either openly or by ambuscade, pursue him +everywhere, and when spent and wearied out, are relieved by others, who +never give over the pursuit; either attacking him with close weapons +when they can get near him, or with those which wound at a distance, +when others get in between them; so that unless he secures himself by +flight, they seldom fail at last to kill or to take him prisoner. When +they have obtained a victory, they kill as few as possible, and are much +more bent on taking many prisoners than on killing those that fly before +them; nor do they ever let their men so loose in the pursuit of their +enemies, as not to retain an entire body still in order; so that if they +have been forced to engage the last of their battalions before they +could gain the day, they will rather let their enemies all escape than +pursue them, when their own army is in disorder; remembering well what +has often fallen out to themselves, that when the main body of their +army has been quite defeated and broken, when their enemies imagining +the victory obtained, have let themselves loose into an irregular +pursuit, a few of them that lay for a reserve, waiting a fit +opportunity, have fallen on them in their chase, and when straggling in +disorder and apprehensive of no danger, but counting the day their own, +have turned the whole action, and wresting out of their hands a victory +that seemed certain and undoubted, while the vanquished have suddenly +become victorious.</p> + +<p>It is hard to tell whether they are more dexterous in laying or avoiding +ambushes. They sometimes seem to fly when it is far from their thoughts; +and when they intend to give ground, they do it so that it is very hard +to find out their design. If they see they are ill posted, or are like +to be overpowered by numbers, they then either march off in the night +with great silence, or by some stratagem delude their enemies: if they +retire in the daytime, they do it in such order, that it is no less +dangerous to fall upon them in a retreat than in a march. They fortify +their camps with a deep and large trench, and throw up the earth that is +dug out of it for a wall; nor do they employ only their slaves in this, +but the whole army works at it, except those that are then upon the +guard; so that when so many hands are at work, a great line and a strong +fortification is finished in so short a time that it is scarce credible. +Their armour is very strong for defence, and yet is not so heavy as to +make them uneasy in their marches; they can even swim with it. All that +are trained up to war, practise swimming. Both horse and foot make great +use of arrows, and are very expert. They have no swords, but fight with +a pole-axe that is both sharp and heavy, by which they thrust or strike +down an enemy. They are very good at finding out warlike machines, and +disguise them so well, that the enemy does not perceive them till he +feels the use of them; so that he cannot prepare such a defence as would +render them useless; the chief consideration had in the making them, is +that they may be easily carried and managed.</p> + +<p>If they agree to a truce, they observe it so religiously that no +provocations will make them break it. They never lay their enemies' +country waste, nor burn their corn, and even in their marches they take +all possible care that neither horse nor foot may tread it down, for +they do not know but that they may have use for it themselves. They hurt +no man whom they find disarmed, unless he is a spy. When a town is +surrendered to them, they take it into their protection: and when they +carry a place by storm, they never plunder it, but put those only to the +sword that opposed the rendering of it up, and make the rest of the +garrison slaves, but for the other inhabitants, they do them no hurt; +and if any of them had advised a surrender, they give them good rewards +out of the estates of those that they condemn, and distribute the rest +among their auxiliary troops, but they themselves take no share of the +spoil.</p> + +<p>When a war is ended, they do not oblige their friends to reimburse their +expenses; but they obtain them of the conquered, either in money, which +they keep for the next occasion, or in lands, out of which a constant +revenue is to be paid them; by many increases, the revenue which they +draw out from several countries on such occasions, is now risen to above +700,000 ducats a year. They send some of their own people to receive +these revenues, who have orders to live magnificently, and like princes, +by which means they consume much of it upon the place; and either bring +over the rest to Utopia, or lend it to that nation in which it lies. +This they most commonly do, unless some great occasion, which falls out +but very seldom, should oblige them to call for it all. It is out of +these lands that they assign rewards to such as they encourage to +adventure on desperate attempts. If any prince that engages in war with +them is making preparations for invading their country, they prevent +him, and make his country the seat of the war; for they do not willingly +suffer any war to break in upon their island; and if that should happen, +they would only defend themselves by their own people, but would not +call for auxiliary troops to their assistance.</p> + + +<p class="center">OF THE RELIGIONS OF THE UTOPIANS.</p> + +<p>There are several sorts of religions, not only in different parts of the +island, but even in every town; some worshipping the sun, others the +moon, or one of the planets; some worship such men as have been eminent +in former times for virtue, or glory, not only as ordinary deities, but +as the supreme God: yet the greater and wiser sort of them worship none +of these, but adore one eternal, invisible, infinite, and +incomprehensible Deity; as a Being that is far above all our +apprehensions, that is spread over the whole universe, not by His bulk, +but by His power and virtue; Him they call the Father of All, and +acknowledge that the beginnings, the increase, the progress, the +vicissitudes, and the end of all things come only from Him; nor do they +offer divine honours to any but to Him alone. And indeed, though they +differ concerning other things, yet all agree in this, that they think +there is one supreme Being that made and governs the world, whom they +call in the language of their country Mithras. They differ in this, that +one thinks the God whom he worships is this supreme Being, and another +thinks that his idol is that God; but they all agree in one principle, +that whoever is this supreme Being, He is also that great Essence to +whose glory and majesty all honours are ascribed by the consent of all +nations.</p> + +<p>By degrees, they fall off from the various superstitions that are among +them, and grow up to that one religion that is the best and most in +request; and there is no doubt to be made but that all the others had +vanished long ago, if some of those who advised them to lay aside their +superstitions had not met with some unhappy accident, which being +considered as inflicted by Heaven, made them afraid that the God whose +worship had like to have been abandoned, had interposed, and revenged +themselves on those who despised their authority.</p> + +<p>After they had heard from us an account of the doctrine, the course of +life, and the miracles of Christ, and of the wonderful constancy of so +many martyrs, whose blood, so willingly offered up by them, was the +chief occasion of spreading their religion over a vast number of +nations; it is not to be imagined how inclined they were to receive it. +I shall not determine whether this proceeded from any secret inspiration +of God, or whether it was because it seemed so favourable to that +community of goods, which is an opinion so particular as well as so dear +to them; since they perceived that Christ and His followers lived by +that rule, and that it was still kept up in some communities among the +sincerest sort of Christians. From whichsoever of these motives it might +be, true it is that many of them came over to our religion, and were +initiated into it by baptism. But as two of our number were dead, so +none of the four that survived were in priest's orders; we therefore +could only baptize them; so that to our great regret they could not +partake of the other sacraments, that can only be administered by +priests; but they are instructed concerning them, and long most +vehemently for them. They have had great disputes among themselves, +whether one chosen by them to be a priest would not be thereby qualified +to do all the things that belong to that character, even though he had +no authority derived from the Pope; and they seemed to be resolved to +choose some for that employment, but they had not done it when I left +them.</p> + +<p>Those among them that have not received our religion, do not fright any +from it, and use none ill that goes over to it; so that all the while I +was there, one man was only punished on this occasion. He being newly +baptized, did, notwithstanding all that we could say to the contrary, +dispute publicly concerning the Christian religion with more zeal than +discretion; and with so much heat, that he not only preferred our +worship to theirs, but condemned all their rites as profane; and cried +out against all that adhered to them, as impious and sacrilegious +persons, that were to be damned to everlasting burnings. Upon his having +frequently preached in this manner, he was seized, and after trial he +was condemned to banishment, not for having disparaged their religion, +but for his inflaming the people to sedition: for this is one of their +most ancient laws, that no man ought to be punished for his religion. At +the first constitution of their government, Utopus having understood +that before his coming among them the old inhabitants had been engaged +in great quarrels concerning religion, by which they were so divided +among themselves, that he found it an easy thing to conquer them, since +instead of uniting their forces against him, every different party in +religion fought by themselves; after he had subdued them, he made a law +that every man might be of what religion he pleased, and might endeavour +to draw others to it by the force of argument, and by amicable and +modest ways, but without bitterness against those of other opinions; but +that he ought to use no other force but that of persuasion, and was +neither to mix with it reproaches nor violence; and such as did +otherwise were to be condemned to banishment or slavery.</p> + +<p>This law was made by Utopus, not only for preserving the public peace, +which he saw suffered much by daily contentions and irreconcilable +heats, but because he thought the interest of religion itself required +it. He judged it not fit to determine anything rashly, and seemed to +doubt whether those different forms of religion might not all come from +God, who might inspire men in a different manner, and be pleased with +this variety; he therefore thought it indecent and foolish for any man +to threaten and terrify another to make him believe what did not appear +to him to be true. And supposing that only one religion was really true, +and the rest false, he imagined that the native force of truth would at +last break forth and shine bright, if supported only by the strength of +argument, and attended to with a gentle and unprejudiced mind; while, on +the other hand, if such debates were carried on with violence and +tumults, as the most wicked are always the most obstinate, so the best +and most holy religion might be choked with superstition, as corn is +with briars and thorns; he therefore left men wholly to their liberty, +that they might be free to believe as they should see cause; only he +made a solemn and severe law against such as should so far degenerate +from the dignity of human nature as to think that our souls died with +our bodies, or that the world was governed by chance, without a wise +overruling Providence: for they all formerly believed that there was a +state of rewards and punishments to the good and bad after this life; +and they now look on those that think otherwise as scarce fit to be +counted men, since they degrade so noble a being as the soul, and reckon +it no better than a beast's: thus they are far from looking on such men +as fit for human society, or to be citizens of a well-ordered +commonwealth; since a man of such principles must needs, as oft as he +dares do it, despise all their laws and customs: for there is no doubt +to be made that a man who is afraid of nothing but the law, and +apprehends nothing after death, will not scruple to break through all +the laws of his country, either by fraud or force, when by this means he +may satisfy his appetites. They never raise any that hold these maxims, +either to honours or offices, nor employ them in any public trust, but +despise them, as men of base and sordid minds: yet they do not punish +them, because they lay this down as a maxim that a man cannot make +himself believe anything he pleases; nor do they drive any to dissemble +their thoughts by threatenings, so that men are not tempted to lie or +disguise their opinions; which being a sort of fraud, is abhorred by the +Utopians. They take care indeed to prevent their disputing in defence of +these opinions, especially before the common people; but they suffer, +and even encourage them to dispute concerning them in private with their +priests and other grave men, being confident that they will be cured of +those mad opinions by having reason laid before them. There are many +among them that run far to the other extreme, though it is neither +thought an ill nor unreasonable opinion, and therefore is not at all +discouraged. They think that the souls of beasts are immortal, though +far inferior to the dignity of the human soul, and not capable of so +great a happiness. They are almost all of them very firmly persuaded +that good men will be infinitely happy in another state; so that though +they are compassionate to all that are sick, yet they lament no man's +death, except they see him loth to depart with life; for they look on +this as a very ill presage, as if the soul, conscious to itself of +guilt, and quite hopeless, was afraid to leave the body, from some +secret hints of approaching misery. They think that such a man's +appearance before God cannot be acceptable to Him, who, being called on, +does not go out cheerfully, but is backward and unwilling, and is, as it +were, dragged to it. They are struck with horror when they see any die +in this manner, and carry them out in silence and with sorrow, and +praying God that He would be merciful to the errors of the departed +soul, they lay the body in the ground; but when any die cheerfully, and +full of hope, they do not mourn for them, but sing hymns when they carry +out their bodies, and commending their souls very earnestly to God: +their whole behaviour is then rather grave than sad, they burn the body, +and set up a pillar where the pile was made, with an inscription to the +honour of the deceased. When they come from the funeral, they discourse +of his good life and worthy actions, but speak of nothing oftener and +with more pleasure than of his serenity at the hour of death. They think +such respect paid to the memory of good men is both the greatest +incitement to engage others to follow their example, and the most +acceptable worship that can be offered them; for they believe that +though by the imperfection of human sight they are invisible to us, yet +they are present among us, and hear those discourses that pass +concerning themselves. They believe it inconsistent, with the happiness +of departed souls not to be at liberty to be where they will, and do +not imagine them capable of the ingratitude of not desiring to see +those friends with whom they lived on earth in the strictest bonds of +love and kindness: besides they are persuaded that good men after death +have these affections and all other good dispositions increased rather +than diminished, and therefore conclude that they are still among the +living, and observe all they say or do. From hence they engage in all +their affairs with the greater confidence of success, as trusting to +their protection; while this opinion of the presence of their ancestors +is a restraint that prevents their engaging in ill designs.</p> + +<p>They despise and laugh at auguries, and the other vain and superstitious +ways of divination, so much observed among other nations; but have great +reverence for such miracles as cannot flow from any of the powers of +Nature, and look on them as effects and indications of the presence of +the supreme Being, of which they say many instances have occurred among +them; and that sometimes their public prayers, which upon great and +dangerous occasions they have solemnly put up to God, with assured +confidence of being heard, have been answered in a miraculous manner.</p> + +<p>They think the contemplating God in His works, and the adoring Him for +them, is a very acceptable piece of worship to Him.</p> + +<p>There are many among them, that upon a motive of religion neglect +learning, and apply themselves to no sort of study; nor do they allow +themselves any leisure time, but are perpetually employed, believing +that by the good things that a man does he secures to himself that +happiness that comes after death. Some of these visit the sick; others +mend highways, cleanse ditches, repair bridges, or dig turf, gravel, or +stones. Others fell and cleave timber, and bring wood, corn, and other +necessaries on carts into their towns. Nor do these only serve the +public, but they serve even private men, more than the slaves +themselves do; for if there is anywhere a rough, hard, and sordid piece +of work to be done, from which many are frightened by the labour and +loathsomeness of it, if not the despair of accomplishing it, they +cheerfully, and of their own accord, take that to their share; and by +that means, as they ease others very much, so they afflict themselves, +and spend their whole life in hard labour; and yet they do not value +themselves upon this, nor lessen other people's credit to raise their +own; but by their stooping to such servile employments, they are so far +from being despised, that they are so much the more esteemed by the +whole nation.</p> + +<p>Of these there are two sorts; some live unmarried and chaste, and +abstain from eating any sort of flesh; and thus weaning themselves from +all the pleasures of the present life, which they account hurtful, they +pursue, even by the hardest and painfullest methods possible, that +blessedness which they hope for hereafter; and the nearer they approach +to it, they are the more cheerful and earnest in their endeavours after +it. Another sort of them is less willing to put themselves to much toil, +and therefore prefer a married state to a single one; and as they do not +deny themselves the pleasure of it, so they think the begetting of +children is a debt which they owe to human nature and to their country; +nor do they avoid any pleasure that does not hinder labour, and +therefore eat flesh so much the more willingly, as they find that by +this means they are the more able to work; the Utopians look upon these +as the wiser sect, but they esteem the others as the most holy. They +would indeed laugh at any man, who from the principles of reason would +prefer an unmarried state to a married, or a life of labour to an easy +life; but they reverence and admire such as do it from the motives of +religion. There is nothing in which they are more cautious than in +giving their opinion positively concerning any sort of religion. The men +that lead those severe lives are called in the language of their +country Brutheskas, which answers to those we call religious orders.</p> + +<p>Their priests are men of eminent piety, and therefore they are but few, +for there are only thirteen in every town, one for every temple; but +when they go to war, seven of these go out with their forces, and seven +others are chosen to supply their room in their absence; but these enter +again upon their employment when they return; and those who served in +their absence attend upon the high-priest, till vacancies fall by death; +for there is one set over all the rest. They are chosen by the people as +the other magistrates are, by suffrages given in secret, for preventing +of factions; and when they are chosen they are consecrated by the +college of priests. The care of all sacred things, the worship of God, +and an inspection into the manners of the people, are committed to them. +It is a reproach to a man to be sent for by any of them, or for them to +speak to him in secret, for that always gives some suspicion. All that +is incumbent on them is only to exhort and admonish the people; for the +power of correcting and punishing ill men belongs wholly to the Prince +and to the other magistrates. The severest thing that the priest does, +is the excluding those that are desperately wicked from joining in their +worship. There is not any sort of punishment more dreaded by them than +this, for as it loads them with infamy, so it fills them with secret +horrors, such is their reverence to their religion; nor will their +bodies be long exempted from their share of trouble; for if they do not +very quickly satisfy the priests of the truth of their repentance, they +are seized on by the Senate, and punished for their impiety. The +education of youth belongs to the priests, yet they do not take so much +care of instructing them in letters as in forming their minds and +manners aright; they use all possible methods to infuse very early into +the tender and flexible minds of children such opinions as are both good +in themselves and will be useful to their country. For when deep +impressions of these things are made at that age, they follow men +through the whole course of their lives, and conduce much to preserve +the peace of the government, which suffers by nothing more than by vices +that rise out of ill opinions. The wives of their priests are the most +extraordinary women of the whole country; sometimes the women themselves +are made priests, though that falls out but seldom, nor are any but +ancient widows chosen into that order.</p> + +<p>None of the magistrates have greater honour paid them than is paid the +priests; and if they should happen to commit any crime, they would not +be questioned for it. Their punishment is left to God, and to their own +consciences; for they do not think it lawful to lay hands on any man, +how wicked soever he is, that has been in a peculiar manner dedicated to +God; nor do they find any great inconvenience in this, both because they +have so few priests, and because these are chosen with much caution, so +that it must be a very unusual thing to find one who merely out of +regard to his virtue, and for his being esteemed a singularly good man, +was raised up to so great a dignity, degenerate into corruption and +vice. And if such a thing should fall out, for man is a changeable +creature, yet there being few priests, and these having no authority but +what rises out of the respect that is paid them, nothing of great +consequence to the public can proceed from the indemnity that the +priests enjoy.</p> + +<p>They have indeed very few of them, lest greater numbers sharing in the +same honour might make the dignity of that order which they esteem so +highly to sink in its reputation. They also think it difficult to find +out many of such an exalted pitch of goodness, as to be equal to that +dignity which demands the exercise of more than ordinary virtues. Nor +are the priests in greater veneration among them than they are among +their neighbouring nations, as you may imagine by that which I think +gives occasion for it.</p> + +<p>When the Utopians engage in battle, the priests who accompany them to +the war, apparelled in their sacred vestments, kneel down during the +action, in a place not far from the field; and lifting up their hands to +heaven, pray, first for peace, and then for victory to their own side, +and particularly that it may be gained without the effusion of much +blood on either side; and when the victory turns to their side, they run +in among their own men to restrain their fury; and if any of their +enemies see them, or call to them, they are preserved by that means; and +such as can come so near them as to touch their garments, have not only +their lives, but their fortunes secured to them; it is upon this account +that all the nations roundabout consider them so much, and treat them +with such reverence, that they have been often no less able to preserve +their own people from the fury of their enemies, than to save their +enemies from their rage; for it has sometimes fallen out, that when +their armies have been in disorder, and forced to fly, so that their +enemies were running upon the slaughter and spoil, the priests by +interposing have separated them from one another, and stopped the +effusion of more blood; so that by their mediation a peace has been +concluded on very reasonable terms; nor is there any nation about them +so fierce, cruel, or barbarous as not to look upon their persons as +sacred and inviolable.</p> + +<p>The first and the last day of the month, and of the year, is a festival. +They measure their months by the course of the moon, and their years by +the course of the sun. The first days are called in their language the +Cynemernes, and the last the Trapemernes; which answers in our language +to the festival that begins, or ends the season.</p> + +<p>They have magnificent temples, that are not only nobly built, but +extremely spacious; which is the more necessary, as they have so few of +them; they are a little dark within, which proceeds not from any error +in the architecture, but is done with design; for their priests think +that too much light dissipates the thoughts, and that a more moderate +degree of it both recollects the mind and raises devotion. Though there +are many different forms of religion among them, yet all these, how +various soever, agree in the main point, which is the worshipping the +Divine Essence; and therefore there is nothing to be seen or heard in +their temples in which the several persuasions among them may not agree; +for every sect performs those rites that are peculiar to it, in their +private houses, nor is there anything in the public worship that +contradicts the particular ways of those different sects. There are no +images for God in their temples, so that every one may represent Him to +his thoughts, according to the way of his religion; nor do they call +this one God by any other name but that of Mithras, which is the common +name by which they all express the Divine Essence, whatsoever otherwise +they think it to be; nor are there any prayers among them but such as +every one of them may use without prejudice to his own opinion.</p> + +<p>They meet in their temples on the evening of the festival that concludes +a season: and not having yet broke their fast, they thank God for their +good success during that year or month, which is then at an end; and the +next day being that which begins the new season, they meet early in +their temples, to pray for the happy progress of all their affairs +during that period upon which they then enter. In the festival which +concludes the period, before they go to the temple, both wives and +children fall on their knees before their husbands or parents, and +confess everything in which they have either erred or failed in their +duty, and beg pardon for it. Thus all little discontents in families are +removed, that they may offer up their devotions with a pure and serene +mind; for they hold it a great impiety to enter upon them with disturbed +thoughts, or with a consciousness of their bearing hatred or anger in +their hearts to any person whatsoever; and think that they should become +liable to severe punishments if they presumed to offer sacrifices +without cleansing their hearts, and reconciling all their differences. +In the temples, the two sexes are separated, the men go to the right +hand, and the women to the left; and the males and females all place +themselves before the head and master or mistress of that family to +which they belong; so that those who have the government of them at home +may see their deportment in public; and they intermingle them so, that +the younger and the older may be set by one another; for if the younger +sort were all set together, they would perhaps trifle away that time too +much in which they ought to beget in themselves that religious dread of +the supreme Being, which is the greatest and almost the only incitement +to virtue.</p> + +<p>They offer up no living creature in sacrifice, nor do they think it +suitable to the divine Being, from whose bounty it is that these +creatures have derived their lives, to take pleasure in their deaths, or +the offering up their blood. They burn incense and other sweet odours, +and have a great number of wax lights during their worship; not out of +any imagination that such oblations can add anything to the divine +Nature, which even prayers cannot do; but as it is a harmless and pure +way of worshipping God, so they think those sweet savours and lights, +together with some other ceremonies, by a secret and unaccountable +virtue, elevate men's souls, and inflame them with greater energy and +cheerfulness during the divine worship.</p> + +<p>All the people appear in the temples in white garments, but the priest's +vestments are parti-coloured, and both the work and colours are +wonderful. They are made of no rich materials, for they are neither +embroidered nor set with precious stones, but are composed of the plumes +of several birds, laid together with so much art and so neatly, that the +true value of them is far beyond the costliest materials. They say that +in the ordering and placing those plumes some dark mysteries are +represented, which pass down among their priests in a secret tradition +concerning them; and that they are as hieroglyphics, putting them in +mind of the blessings that they have received from God, and of their +duties both to Him and to their neighbours. As soon as the priest +appears in those ornaments, they all fall prostrate on the ground, with +so much reverence and so deep a silence that such as look on cannot but +be struck with it, as if it were the effect of the appearance of a +Deity. After they have been for some time in this posture, they all +stand up, upon a sign given by the priest, and sing hymns to the honour +of God, some musical instruments playing all the while. These are quite +of another form than those used among us: but as many of them are much +sweeter than ours, so others are made use of by us. Yet in one thing +they very much exceed us; all their music, both vocal and instrumental, +is adapted to imitate and express the passions, and is so happily suited +to every occasion, that whether the subject of the hymn be cheerful or +formed to soothe or trouble the mind, or to express grief or remorse, +the music takes the impression of whatever is represented, affects and +kindles the passions, and works the sentiments deep into the hearts of +the hearers. When this is done, both priests and people offer up very +solemn prayers to God in a set form of words; and these are so composed, +that whatsoever is pronounced by the whole assembly may be likewise +applied by every man in particular to his own condition; in these they +acknowledge God to be the author and governor of the world, and the +fountain of all the good they receive, and therefore offer up to Him +their thanksgiving; and in particular bless Him for His goodness in +ordering it so, that they are born under the happiest government in the +world, and are of a religion which they hope is the truest of all +others: but if they are mistaken, and if there is either a better +government or a religion more acceptable to God, they implore His +goodness to let them know it, vowing that they resolve to follow Him +whithersoever He leads them. But if their government is the best, and +their religion the truest, then they pray that He may fortify them in +it, and bring all the world both to the same rules of life, and to the +same opinions concerning himself; unless, according to the +unsearchableness of His mind, He is pleased with a variety of religions. +Then they pray that God may give them an easy passage at last to +himself; not presuming to set limits to Him, how early or late it should +be; but if it may be wished for, without derogating from His supreme +authority, they desire to be quickly delivered, and to be taken to +himself, though by the most terrible kind of death, rather than to be +detained long from seeing Him by the most prosperous course of life. +When this prayer is ended, they all fall down again upon the ground, and +after a little while they rise up, go home to dinner, and spend the rest +of the day in diversion or military exercises.</p> + +<p>Thus have I described to you, as particularly as I could, the +constitution of that commonwealth, which I do not only think the best in +the world, but indeed the only commonwealth that truly deserves that +name. In all other places it is visible, that while people talk of a +commonwealth, every man only seeks his own wealth; but there, where no +man has any property, all men zealously pursue the good of the public: +and, indeed, it is no wonder to see men act so differently; for in other +commonwealths, every man knows that unless he provides for himself, how +flourishing soever the commonwealth may be, he must die of hunger; so +that he sees the necessity of preferring his own concerns to the public; +but in Utopia, where every man has a right to everything, they all know +that if care is taken to keep the public stores full, no private man can +want anything; for among them there is no unequal distribution, so that +no man is poor, none in necessity; and though no man has anything, yet +they are all rich; for what can make a man so rich as to lead a serene +and cheerful life, free from anxieties; neither apprehending want +himself, nor vexed with the endless complaints of his wife? He is not +afraid of the misery of his children, nor is he contriving how to raise +a portion for his daughters, but is secure in this, that both he and his +wife, his children and grandchildren, to as many generations as he can +fancy, will all live both plentifully and happily; since among them +there is no less care taken of those who were once engaged in labour, +but grow afterwards unable to follow it, than there is elsewhere of +these that continue still employed. I would gladly hear any man compare +the justice that is among them with that of all other nations; among +whom, may I perish, if I see anything that looks either like justice or +equity: for what justice is there in this, that a nobleman, a goldsmith, +a banker, or any other man, that either does nothing at all, or at best +is employed in things that are of no use to the public, should live in +great luxury and splendour, upon what is so ill acquired; and a mean +man, a carter, a smith, or a ploughman, that works harder even than the +beasts themselves, and is employed in labours so necessary, that no +commonwealth could hold out a year without them, can only earn so poor a +livelihood, and must lead so miserable a life, that the condition of the +beasts is much better than theirs? For as the beasts do not work so +constantly, so they feed almost as well, and with more pleasure; and +have no anxiety about what is to come, whilst these men are depressed by +a barren and fruitless employment, and tormented with the apprehensions +of want in their old age; since that which they get by their daily +labour does but maintain them at present, and is consumed as fast as it +comes in, there is no overplus left to lay up for old age.</p> + +<p>Is not that government both unjust and ungrateful, that is so prodigal +of its favours to those that are called gentlemen, or goldsmiths, or +such others who are idle, or live either by flattery, or by contriving +the arts of vain pleasure; and on the other hand, takes no care of those +of a meaner sort, such as ploughmen, colliers, and smiths, without whom +it could not subsist? But after the public has reaped all the advantage +of their service, and they come to be oppressed with age, sickness, and +want, all their labours and the good they have done is forgotten; and +all the recompense given them is that they are left to die in great +misery. The richer sort are often endeavouring to bring the hire of +labourers lower, not only by their fraudulent practices, but by the laws +which they procure to be made to that effect; so that though it is a +thing most unjust in itself, to give such small rewards to those who +deserve so well of the public, yet they have given those hardships the +name and colour of justice, by procuring laws to be made for regulating +them.</p> + +<p>Therefore I must say that, as I hope for mercy, I can have no other +notion of all the other governments that I see or know, than that they +are a conspiracy of the rich, who on pretence of managing the public +only pursue their private ends, and devise all the ways and arts they +can find out; first, that they may, without danger, preserve all that +they have so ill acquired, and then that they may engage the poor to +toil and labour for them at as low rates as possible, and oppress them +as much as they please. And if they can but prevail to get these +contrivances established by the show of public authority, which is +considered as the representative of the whole people, then they are +accounted laws. Yet these wicked men after they have, by a most +insatiable covetousness, divided that among themselves with which all +the rest might have been well supplied, are far from that happiness that +is enjoyed among the Utopians: for the use as well as the desire of +money being extinguished, much anxiety and great occasions of mischief +is cut off with it. And who does not see that the frauds, thefts, +robberies, quarrels, tumults, contentions, seditions, murders, +treacheries, and witchcrafts, which are indeed rather punished than +restrained by the severities of law, would all fall off, if money were +not any more valued by the world? Men's fears, solicitudes, cares, +labours, and watchings, would all perish in the same moment with the +value of money: even poverty itself, for the relief of which money seems +most necessary, would fall. But, in order to the apprehending this +aright, take one instance.</p> + +<p>Consider any year that has been so unfruitful that many thousands have +died of hunger; and yet if at the end of that year a survey was made of +the granaries of all the rich men that have hoarded up the corn, it +would be found that there was enough among them to have prevented all +that consumption of men that perished in misery; and that if it had been +distributed among them, none would have felt the terrible effects of +that scarcity; so easy a thing would it be to supply all the necessities +of life, if that blessed thing called money, which is pretended to be +invented for procuring them, was not really the only thing that +obstructed their being procured!</p> + +<p>I do not doubt but rich men are sensible of this, and that they well +know how much a greater happiness it is to want nothing necessary than +to abound in many superfluities, and to be rescued out of so much misery +than to abound with so much wealth; and I cannot think but the sense of +every man's interest, added to the authority of Christ's commands, who +as He was infinitely wise, knew what was best, and was not less good in +discovering it to us, would have drawn all the world over to the laws of +the Utopians, if pride, that plague of human nature, that source of so +much misery, did not hinder it; for this vice does not measure happiness +so much by its own conveniences as by the miseries of others; and would +not be satisfied with being thought a goddess, if none were left that +were miserable, over whom she might insult. Pride thinks its own +happiness shines the brighter by comparing it with the misfortunes of +other persons; that by displaying its own wealth, they may feel their +poverty the more sensibly. This is that infernal serpent that creeps +into the breasts of mortals, and possesses them too much to be easily +drawn out; and therefore I am glad that the Utopians have fallen upon +this form of government, in which I wish that all the world could be so +wise as to imitate them; for they have indeed laid down such a scheme +and foundation of policy, that as men live happily under it, so it is +like to be of great continuance; for they having rooted out of the minds +of their people all the seeds both of ambition and faction, there is no +danger of any commotion at home; which alone has been the ruin of many +states, that seemed otherwise to be well secured; but as long as they +live in peace at home, and are governed by such good laws, the envy of +all their neighbouring princes, who have often though in vain attempted +their ruin, will never be able to put their state into any commotion or +disorder.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>When Raphael had thus made an end of speaking, though many things +occurred to me, both concerning the manners and laws of that people, +that seemed very absurd, as well as their way of making war, as in their +notions of religion and divine matters; together with several other +particulars, but chiefly what seemed the foundation of all the rest, +their living in common, without the use of money, by which all nobility, +magnificence, splendour, and majesty, which, according to the common +opinion, are the true ornaments of a nation, would be quite taken away; +yet since I perceived that Raphael was weary, and was not sure whether +he could easily bear contradiction, remembering that he had taken notice +of some who seemed to think they were bound in honour to support the +credit of their own wisdom, by finding out something to censure in all +other men's inventions, besides their own; I only commended their +constitution, and the account he had given of it in general; and so +taking him by the hand, carried him to supper, and told him I would find +out some other time for examining this subject more particularly, and +for discoursing more copiously upon it; and indeed I shall be glad to +embrace an opportunity of doing it. In the meanwhile, though it must be +confessed that he is both a very learned man, and a person who has +obtained a great knowledge of the world, I cannot perfectly agree to +everything he has related; however, there are many things in the +Commonwealth of Utopia that I rather wish, than hope, to see followed in +our governments.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="BACONS" id="BACONS"></a>BACON'S<br /> + +NEW ATLANTIS.</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><span class="smcap">New Atlantis.</span></h3> + + +<p>We sailed from Peru, where we had continued by the space of one whole +year, for China and Japan, by the South Sea, taking with us victuals for +twelve months; and had good winds from the east, though soft and weak, +for five months' space and more. But then the wind came about, and +settled in the west for many days, so as we could make little or no way, +and were sometimes in purpose to turn back. But then again there arose +strong and great winds from the south, with a point east; which carried +us up, for all that we could do, towards the north: by which time our +victuals failed us, though we had made good spare of them. So that +finding ourselves, in the midst of the greatest wilderness of waters in +the world, without victual, we gave ourselves for lost men, and prepared +for death. Yet we did lift up our hearts and voices to God above, who +showeth His wonders in the deep; beseeching Him of his mercy, that as in +the beginning He discovered the face of the deep, and brought forth dry +land, so He would now discover land to us, that we might not perish. And +it came to pass, that the next day about evening we saw within a kenning +before us, towards the north, as it were thick clouds, which did put us +in some hope of land: knowing how that part of the South Sea was utterly +unknown: and might have islands or continents, that hitherto were not +come to light. Wherefore we bent out course thither, where we saw the +appearance of land, all that night: and in the dawning of next day, we +might plainly discern that it was a land flat to our sight, and full of +boscage, which made it show the more dark. And after an hour and a +half's sailing, we entered into a good haven, being the port of a fair +city. Not great indeed, but well built, and that gave a pleasant view +from the sea. And we thinking every minute long till we were on land, +came close to the shore and offered to land. But straightways we saw +divers of the people, with bastons in their hands, as it were forbidding +us to land: yet without any cries or fierceness, but only as warning us +off, by signs that they made. Whereupon being not a little discomfited, +we were advising with ourselves what we should do. During which time +there made forth to us a small boat, with about eight persons in it, +whereof one of them had in his hand a tipstaff of a yellow cane, tipped +at both ends with blue, who made aboard our ship, without any show of +distrust at all. And when he saw one of our number present himself +somewhat afore the rest, he drew forth a little scroll of parchment +(somewhat yellower than our parchment, and shining like the leaves of +writing tables, but otherwise soft and flexible), and delivered it to +our foremost man. In which scroll were written in ancient Hebrew, and in +ancient Greek, and in good Latin of the school, and in Spanish these +words: "Land ye not, none of you, and provide to be gone from this coast +within sixteen days, except you have further time given you; meanwhile, +if you want fresh water, or victual, or help for your sick, or that your +ship needeth repair, write down your wants, and you shall have that +which belongeth to mercy." This scroll was signed with a stamp of +cherubim's wings, not spread, but hanging downwards; and by them a +cross. This being delivered, the officer returned, and left only a +servant with us to receive our answer. Consulting hereupon amongst +ourselves, we were much perplexed. The denial of landing, and hasty +warning us away, troubled us much: on the other side, to find that the +people had languages, and were so full of humanity, did comfort us not a +little. And above all, the sign of the cross to that instrument, was to +us a great rejoicing, and as it were a certain presage of good. Our +answer was in the Spanish tongue, "That for our ship, it was well; for +we had rather met with calms and contrary winds, than any tempests. For +our sick, they were many, and in very ill case; so that if they were not +permitted to land, they ran in danger of their lives." Our other wants +we set down in particular, adding, "That we had some little store of +merchandise, which if it pleased them to deal for, it might supply our +wants, without being chargeable unto them." We offered some reward in +pistolets unto the servant, and a piece of crimson velvet to be +presented to the officer; but the servant took them not, nor would +scarce look upon them; and so left us, and went back in another little +boat which was sent for him.</p> + +<p>About three hours after we had despatched our answer there came towards +us a person (as it seemed) of a place. He had on him a gown with wide +sleeves, of a kind of water chamolet, of an excellent azure colour, far +more glossy than ours: his under apparel was green, and so was his hat, +being in the form of a turban, daintily made, and not so huge as the +Turkish turbans; and the locks of his hair came down below the brims of +it. A reverend man was he to behold. He came in a boat, gilt in some +part of it, with four persons more only in that boat; and was followed +by another boat, wherein were some twenty. When he was come within a +flight-shot of our ship, signs were made to us that we should send forth +some to meet him upon the water, which we presently did in our +ship-boat, sending the principal man amongst us save one, and four of +our number with him. When we were come within six yards of their boat, +they called to us to stay, and not to approach farther, which we did. +And thereupon the man, whom I before described, stood up, and with a +loud voice in Spanish, asked, "Are ye Christians?" We answered, "We +were;" fearing the less, because of the cross we had seen in the +subscription. At which answer the said person lift up his right hand +towards heaven, and drew it softly to his mouth (which is the gesture +they use, when they thank God), and then said: "If ye will swear, all of +you, by the merits of the Saviour, that ye are no pirates; nor have shed +blood, lawfully nor unlawfully, within forty days past; you may have +license to come on land." We said, "We were all ready to take that +oath." Whereupon one of those that were with him, being (as it seemed) a +notary, made an entry of this act. Which done, another of the attendants +of the great person, which was with him in the same boat, after his lord +had spoken a little to him, said aloud: "My lord would have you know, +that it is not of pride, or greatness, that he cometh not aboard your +ship: but for that, in your answer, you declare that you have many sick +amongst you, he was warned by the conservator of health of the city that +he should keep a distance." We bowed ourselves towards him, and +answered: "We were his humble servants; and accounted for great honour +and singular humanity towards us, that which was already done: but hoped +well, that the nature of the sickness of our men was not infectious." So +he returned; and a while after came the notary to us aboard our ship; +holding in his hand a fruit of that country, like an orange, but of +colour between orange-tawny and scarlet: which cast a most excellent +odour. He used it (as it seemed) for a preservative against infection. +He gave us our oath, "By the name of Jesus, and His merits:" and after +told us, that the next day by six of the clock in the morning, we should +be sent to, and brought to the strangers' house (so he called it), where +we should be accommodated of things, both for our whole and for our +sick. So he left us; and when we offered him some pistolets, he +smiling, said, "He must not be twice paid for one labour:" meaning (as I +take it) that he had salary sufficient of the state for his service. For +(as I after learned) they call an officer that taketh rewards +twice-paid.</p> + +<p>The next morning early, there came to us the same officer that came to +us at first with his cane, and told us: "He came to conduct us to the +strangers' house: and that he had prevented the hour, because we might +have the whole day before us for our business. For (said he) if you will +follow my advice, there shall first go with me some few of you, and see +the place, and how it may be made convenient for you: and then you may +send for your sick, and the rest of your number, which ye will bring on +land." We thanked him, and said, "That his care which he took of +desolate strangers, God would reward." And so six of us went on land +with him; and when we were on land, he went before us, and turned to us, +and said, "He was but our servant, and our guide." He led us through +three fair streets; and all the way we went there were gathered some +people on both sides, standing in a row; but in so civil a fashion, as +if it had been, not to wonder at us, but to welcome us; and divers of +them, as we passed by them, put their arms a little abroad, which is +their gesture when they bid any welcome. The strangers' house is a fair +and spacious house, built of brick, of somewhat a bluer colour than our +brick; and with handsome windows, some of glass, some of a kind of +cambric oiled. He brought us first into a fair parlour above stairs, and +then asked us, "What number of persons we were? and how many sick?" We +answered, "We were in all (sick and whole) one and fifty persons, +whereof our sick were seventeen." He desired us to have patience a +little, and to stay till he came back to us, which was about an hour +after; and then he led us to see the chambers which were provided for +us, being in number nineteen. They having cast it (as it seemeth) that +four of those chambers, which were better than the rest, might receive +four of the principal men of our company; and lodge them alone by +themselves; and the other fifteen chambers were to lodge us, two and two +together. The chambers were handsome and cheerful chambers, and +furnished civilly. Then he led us to a long gallery, like a dorture, +where he showed us all along the one side (for the other side was but +wall and window) seventeen cells, very neat ones, having partitions of +cedar wood. Which gallery and cells, being in all forty (many more than +we needed), were instituted as an infirmary for sick persons. And he +told us withal, that as any of our sick waxed well, he might be removed +from his cell to a chamber: for which purpose there were set forth ten +spare chambers, besides the number we spake of before. This done, he +brought us back to the parlour, and lifting up his cane a little (as +they do when they give any charge or command), said to us, "Ye are to +know that the custom of the land requireth, that after this day and +to-morrow (which we give you for removing your people from your ship), +you are to keep within doors for three days. But let it not trouble you, +nor do not think yourselves restrained, but rather left to your rest and +ease. You shall want nothing; and there are six of our people appointed +to attend you for any business you may have abroad." We gave him thanks +with all affection and respect, and said, "God surely is manifested in +this land." We offered him also twenty pistolets; but he smiled, and +only said: "What? Twice paid!" And so he left us. Soon after our dinner +was served in; which was right good viands, both for bread and meat: +better than any collegiate diet that I have known in Europe. We had also +drink of three sorts, all wholesome and good; wine of the grape; a drink +of grain, such as is with us our ale, but more clear; and a kind of +cider made of a fruit of that country; a wonderful pleasing and +refreshing drink. Besides, there were brought in to us great store of +those scarlet oranges for our sick; which (they said) were an assured +remedy for sickness taken at sea. There was given us also a box of small +grey or whitish pills, which they wished our sick should take, one of +the pills every night before sleep; which (they said) would hasten their +recovery. The next day, after that our trouble of carriage and removing +of our men and goods out of our ship was somewhat settled and quiet, I +thought good to call our company together, and when they were assembled, +said unto them, "My dear friends, let us know ourselves, and how it +standeth with us. We are men cast on land, as Jonas was out of the +whale's belly, when we were as buried in the deep; and now we are on +land, we are but between death and life, for we are beyond both the old +world and the new; and whether ever we shall see Europe, God only +knoweth. It is a kind of miracle hath brought us hither, and it must be +little less that shall bring us hence. Therefore in regard of our +deliverance past, and our danger present and to come, let us look up to +God, and every man reform his own ways. Besides we are come here amongst +a Christian people, full of piety and humanity. Let us not bring that +confusion of face upon ourselves, as to show our vices or unworthiness +before them. Yet there is more, for they have by commandment (though in +form of courtesy) cloistered us within these walls for three days; who +knoweth whether it be not to take some taste of our manners and +conditions? And if they find them bad, to banish us straightways; if +good, to give us further time. For these men that they have given us for +attendance, may withal have an eye upon us. Therefore, for God's love, +and as we love the weal of our souls and bodies, let us so behave +ourselves, as we may be at peace with God, and may find grace in the +eyes of this people." Our company with one voice thanked me for my good +admonition, and promised me to live soberly and civilly, and without +giving any the least occasion of offence. So we spent our three days +joyfully, and without care, in expectation what would be done with us +when they were expired. During which time, we had every hour joy of the +amendment of our sick, who thought themselves cast into some divine pool +of healing, they mended so kindly and so fast.</p> + +<p>The morrow after our three days were past, there came to us a new man, +that we had not seen before, clothed in blue as the former was, save +that his turban was white with a small red cross on the top. He had also +a tippet of fine linen. At his coming in, he did bend to us a little, +and put his arms abroad. We of our parts saluted him in a very lowly and +submissive manner; as looking that from him we should receive sentence +of life or death. He desired to speak with some few of us. Whereupon six +of us only stayed, and the rest avoided the room. He said, "I am by +office governor of this house of strangers, and by vocation I am a +Christian priest; and therefore am come to you, to offer you my service, +both as strangers, and chiefly as Christians. Some things I may tell +you, which I think you will not be unwilling to hear. The state hath +given you license to stay on land for the space of six weeks: and let it +not trouble you, if your occasions ask further time, for the law in this +point is not precise; and I do not doubt, but myself shall be able to +obtain for you such further time as shall be convenient. Ye shall also +understand, that the strangers' house is at this time rich, and much +aforehand; for it hath laid up revenue these thirty-seven years: for so +long it is since any stranger arrived in this part; and therefore take +ye no care; the state will defray you all the time you stay. Neither +shall you stay one day the less for that. As for any merchandise you +have brought, ye shall be well used, and have your return, either in +merchandise or in gold and silver: for to us it is all one. And if you +have any other request to make, hide it not; for ye shall find we will +not make your countenance to fall by the answer ye shall receive. Only +this I must tell you, that none of you must go above a karan (that is +with them a mile and a half) from the walls of the city, without special +leave." We answered, after we had looked a while upon one another, +admiring this gracious and parent-like usage, that we could not tell +what to say, for we wanted words to express our thanks; and his noble +free offers left us nothing to ask. It seemed to us, that we had before +us a picture of our salvation in heaven; for we that were a while since +in the jaws of death, were now brought into a place where we found +nothing but consolations. For the commandment laid upon us, we would not +fail to obey it, though it was impossible but our hearts should be +inflamed to tread further upon this happy and holy ground. We added, +that our tongues should first cleave to the roofs of our mouths, ere we +should forget, either this reverend person, or this whole nation, in our +prayers. We also most humbly besought him to accept of us as his true +servants, by as just a right as ever men on earth were bounden; laying +and presenting both our persons and all we had at his feet. He said, he +was a priest, and looked lot a priest's reward; which was our brotherly +love, and the good of our souls and bodies. So he went from us, not +without tears of tenderness in his eyes, and left us also confused with +joy and kindness, saying amongst ourselves, that we were come into a +land of angels, which did appear to us daily, and prevent us with +comforts, which we thought not of, much less expected.</p> + +<p>The next day, about ten of the clock, the governor came to us again, and +after salutations, said familiarly, that he was come to visit us; and +called for a chair, and sat him down; and we being some ten of us (the +rest were of the meaner sort, or else gone abroad), sat down with him; +and when we were set, he began thus: "We of this island of Bensalem +(for so they called it in their language) have this: that by means of +our solitary situation, and of the laws of secrecy, which we have for +our travellers, and our rare admission of strangers; we know well most +part of the habitable world, and are ourselves unknown. Therefore +because he that knoweth least is fittest to ask questions, it is more +reason, for the entertainment of the time, that ye ask me questions, +than that I ask you." We answered, that we humbly thanked him, that he +would give us leave so to do. And that we conceived by the taste we had +already, that there was no worldly thing on earth more worthy to be +known than the state of that happy land. But above all (we said) since +that we were met from the several ends of the world, and hoped assuredly +that we should meet one day in the kingdom of heaven (for that we were +both parts Christians), we desired to know (in respect that land was so +remote, and so divided by vast and unknown seas from the land where our +Saviour walked on earth) who was the apostle of that nation, and how it +was converted to the faith? It appeared in his face, that he took great +contentment in this our question; he said, "Ye knit my heart to you, by +asking this question in the first place: for it showeth that you first +seek the kingdom of heaven: and I shall gladly, and briefly, satisfy +your demand.</p> + +<p>"About twenty years after the ascension of our Saviour it came to pass, +that there was seen by the people of Renfusa (a city upon the eastern +coast of our island, within sight, the night was cloudy and calm), as it +might be some mile in the sea, a great pillar of light; not sharp, but +in form of a column, or cylinder, rising from the sea, a great way up +towards heaven; and on the top of it was seen a large cross of light, +more bright and resplendent than the body of the pillar. Upon which so +strange a spectacle, the people of the city gathered apace together upon +the sands, to wonder; and so after put themselves into a number of +small boats to go nearer to this marvellous sight. But when the boats +were come within about sixty yards of the pillar, they found themselves +all bound, and could go no further, yet so as they might move to go +about, but might not approach nearer; so as the boats stood all as in a +theatre, beholding this light, as an heavenly sign. It so fell out, that +there was in one of the boats one of the wise men of the Society of +Salomon's House; which house or college, my good brethren, is the very +eye of this kingdom, who having a while attentively and devoutly viewed +and contemplated this pillar and cross, fell down upon his face; and +then raised himself upon his knees, and lifting up his hands to heaven, +made his prayers in this manner:</p> + +<p>"'Lord God of heaven and earth; thou hast vouchsafed of thy grace, to +those of our order to know thy works of creation, and true secrets of +them; and to discern (as far as appertaineth to the generations of men) +between divine miracles, works of Nature, works of art and impostures, +and illusions of all sorts. I do here acknowledge and testify before +this people, that the thing we now see before our eyes, is thy finger, +and a true miracle. And forasmuch as we learn in our books, that thou +never workest miracles, but to a divine and excellent end (for the laws +of Nature are thine own laws, and thou exceedest them not but upon great +cause), we most humbly beseech thee to prosper this great sign, and to +give us the interpretation and use of it in mercy; which thou dost in +some part secretly promise, by sending it unto us.'</p> + +<p>"When he had made his prayer, he presently found the boat he was in +movable and unbound; whereas all the rest remained still fast; and +taking that for an assurance of leave to approach, he caused the boat to +be softly and with silence rowed towards the pillar; but ere he came +near it, the pillar and cross of light broke up, and cast itself abroad, +as it were into a firmament of many stars, which also vanished soon +after; and there was nothing left to be seen but a small ark, or chest +of cedar, dry and not wet at all with water, though it swam; and in the +fore-end of it, which was towards him, grew a small green branch of +palm; and when the wise man had taken it with all reverence into his +boat, it opened of itself, and there were found in it a book and a +letter, both written in fine parchment, and wrapped in sindons of linen. +The book contained all the canonical books of the Old and New Testament, +according as you have them (for we know well what the churches with you +receive), and the Apocalypse itself; and some other books of the New +Testament, which were not at that time written, were nevertheless in the +book. And for the letter, it was in these words:</p> + +<p>"'I Bartholomew, a servant of the Highest, and apostle of Jesus Christ, +was warned by an angel that appeared to me in a vision of glory, that I +should commit this ark to the floods of the sea. Therefore I do testify +and declare unto that people where God shall ordain this ark to come to +land, that in the same day is come unto them salvation and peace, and +goodwill from the Father, and from the Lord Jesus.'</p> + +<p>"There was also in both these writings, as well the book as the letter, +wrought a great miracle, conform to that of the apostles, in the +original gift of tongues. For there being at that time, in this land, +Hebrews, Persians, and Indians, besides the natives, every one read upon +the book and letter, as if they had been written in his own language. +And thus was this land saved from infidelity (as the remain of the old +world was from water) by an ark, through the apostolical and miraculous +evangelism of St. Bartholomew." And here he paused, and a messenger +came, and called him forth from us. So this was all that passed in that +conference.</p> + +<p>The next day, the same governor came again to us, immediately after +dinner, and excused himself, saying, "That the day before he was called +from us somewhat abruptly, but now he would make us amends, and spend +time with us, if we held his company and conference agreeable." We +answered, that we held it so agreeable and pleasing to us, as we forgot +both dangers past, and fears to come, for the time we heard him speak; +and that we thought an hour spent with him was worth years of our former +life. He bowed himself a little to us, and after we were set again, he +said, "Well, the questions are on your part." One of our number said, +after a little pause, that there was a matter we were no less desirous +to know than fearful to ask, lest we might presume too far. But +encouraged by his rare humanity towards us (that could scarce think +ourselves strangers, being his vowed and professed servants), we would +take the hardness to propound it; humbly beseeching him, if he thought +it not fit to be answered, that he would pardon it, though he rejected +it. We said, we well observed those his words, which he formerly spake, +that this happy island, where we now stood, was known to few, and yet +knew most of the nations of the world, which we found to be true, +considering they had the languages of Europe, and knew much of our state +and business; and yet we in Europe (notwithstanding all the remote +discoveries and navigations of this last age) never heard any of the +least inkling or glimpse of this island. This we found wonderful +strange; for that all nations have interknowledge one of another, either +by voyage into foreign parts, or by strangers that come to them; and +though the traveller into a foreign country doth commonly know more by +the eye than he that stayeth at home can by relation of the traveller; +yet both ways suffice to make a mutual knowledge, in some degree, on +both parts. But for this island, we never heard tell of any ship of +theirs, that had been seen to arrive upon any shore of Europe; no, nor +of either the East or West Indies, nor yet of any ship of any other +part of the world, that had made return for them. And yet the marvel +rested not in this. For the situation of it (as his lordship said) in +the secret conclave of such a vast sea might cause it. But then, that +they should have knowledge of the languages, books, affairs, of those +that lie such a distance from them, it was a thing we could not tell +what to make of; for that it seemed to us a condition and propriety of +divine powers and beings, to be hidden and unseen to others, and yet to +have others open, and as in a light to them. At this speech the governor +gave a gracious smile and said, that we did well to ask pardon for this +question we now asked, for that it imported, as if we thought this land +a land of magicians, that sent forth spirits of the air into all parts, +to bring them news and intelligence of other countries. It was answered +by us all, in all possible humbleness, but yet with a countenance taking +knowledge, that we knew that he spake it but merrily. That we were apt +enough to think, there was somewhat supernatural in this island, but yet +rather as angelical than magical. But to let his lordship know truly +what it was that made us tender and doubtful to ask this question, it +was not any such conceit, but because we remembered he had given a touch +in his former speech, that this land had laws of secrecy touching +strangers. To this he said, "You remember it aright; and therefore in +that I shall say to you, I must reserve some particulars, which it is +not lawful for me to reveal, but there will be enough left to give you +satisfaction.</p> + +<p>"You shall understand (that which perhaps you will scarce think +credible) that about three thousand years ago, or somewhat more, the +navigation of the world (especially for remote voyages) was greater than +at this day. Do not think with yourselves, that I know not how much it +is increased with you, within these threescore years; I know it well, +and yet I say, greater then than now; whether it was, that the example +of the ark, that saved the remnant of men from the universal deluge, +gave men confidence to adventure upon the waters, or what it was; but +such is the truth. The Phoenicians, and especially the Tyrians, had +great fleets; so had the Carthaginians their colony, which is yet +farther west. Toward the east the shipping of Egypt, and of Palestine, +was likewise great. China also, and the great Atlantis (that you call +America), which have now but junks and canoes, abounded then in tall +ships. This island (as appeareth by faithful registers of those times) +had then fifteen hundred strong ships, of great content. Of all this +there is with you sparing memory, or none; but we have large knowledge +thereof.</p> + +<p>"At that time, this land was known and frequented by the ships and +vessels of all the nations before named. And (as it cometh to pass) they +had many times men of other countries, that were no sailors, that came +with them; as Persians, Chaldeans, Arabians, so as almost all nations of +might and fame resorted hither; of whom we have some stirps and little +tribes with us at this day. And for our own ships, they went sundry +voyages, as well to your straits, which you call the Pillars of +Hercules, as to other parts in the Atlantic and Mediterranean Seas; as +to Paguin (which is the same with Cambalaine) and Quinzy, upon the +Oriental Seas, as far as to the borders of the East Tartary.</p> + +<p>"At the same time, and an age after or more, the inhabitants of the +great Atlantis did flourish. For though the narration and description +which is made by a great man with you, that the descendants of Neptune +planted there, and of the magnificent temple, palace, city and hill; and +the manifold streams of goodly navigable rivers, which as so many chains +environed the same site and temple; and the several degrees of ascent, +whereby men did climb up to the same, as if it had been a Scala Cœli; +be all poetical and fabulous; yet so much is true, that the said country +of Atlantis, as well that of Peru, then called Coya, as that of Mexico, +then named Tyrambel, were mighty and proud kingdoms, in arms, shipping, +and riches; so mighty, as at one time, or at least within the space of +ten years, they both made two great expeditions; they of Tyrambel +through the Atlantic to the Mediterranean Sea; and they of Coya, through +the South Sea upon this our island; and for the former of these, which +was into Europe, the same author amongst you, as it seemeth, had some +relation from the Egyptian priest, whom he citeth. For assuredly, such a +thing there was. But whether it were the ancient Athenians that had the +glory of the repulse and resistance of those forces, I can say nothing; +but certain it is there never came back either ship or man from that +voyage. Neither had the other voyage of those of Coya upon us had better +fortune, if they had not met with enemies of greater clemency. For the +king of this island, by name Altabin, a wise man and a great warrior, +knowing well both his own strength and that of his enemies, handled the +matter so, as he cut off their land forces from their ships, and +entoiled both their navy and their camp with a greater power than +theirs, both by sea and land; and compelled them to render themselves +without striking a stroke; and after they were at his mercy, contenting +himself only with their oath, that they should no more bear arms against +him, dismissed them all in safety. But the divine revenge overtook not +long after those proud enterprises. For within less than the space of +one hundred years the Great Atlantis was utterly lost and destroyed; not +by a great earthquake, as your man saith, for that whole tract is little +subject to earthquakes, but by a particular deluge, or inundation; those +countries having at this day far greater rivers, and far higher +mountains to pour down waters, than any part of the old world. But it is +true that the same inundation was not deep, not past forty foot, in most +places, from the ground, so that although it destroyed man and beast +generally, yet some few wild inhabitants of the wood escaped. Birds also +were saved by flying to the high trees and woods. For as for men, +although they had buildings in many places higher than the depth of the +water, yet that inundation, though it were shallow, had a long +continuance, whereby they of the vale that were not drowned perished for +want of food, and other things necessary. So as marvel you not at the +thin population of America, nor at the rudeness and ignorance of the +people; for you must account your inhabitants of America as a young +people, younger a thousand years at the least than the rest of the +world, for that there was so much time between the universal flood and +their particular inundation. For the poor remnant of human seed which +remained in their mountains, peopled the country again slowly, by little +and little, and being simple and a savage people (not like Noah and his +sons, which was the chief family of the earth), they were not able to +leave letters, arts, and civility to their posterity; and having +likewise in their mountainous habitations been used, in respect of the +extreme cold of those regions, to clothe themselves with the skins of +tigers, bears, and great hairy goats, that they have in those parts; +when after they came down into the valley, and found the intolerable +heats which are there, and knew no means of lighter apparel, they were +forced to begin the custom of going naked, which continueth at this day. +Only they take great pride and delight in the feathers of birds, and +this also they took from those their ancestors of the mountains, who +were invited unto it, by the infinite flight of birds, that came up to +the high grounds, while the waters stood below. So you see, by this main +accident of time, we lost our traffic with the Americans, with whom of +all others, in regard they lay nearest to us, we had most commerce. As +for the other parts of the world, it is most manifest that in the ages +following (whether it were in respect of wars, or by a natural +revolution of time) navigation did everywhere greatly decay, and +specially far voyages (the rather by the use of galleys, and such +vessels as could hardly brook the ocean) were altogether left and +omitted. So then, that part of intercourse which could be from other +nations, to sail to us, you see how it hath long since ceased; except it +were by some rare accident, as this of yours. But now of the cessation +of that other part of intercourse, which might be by our sailing to +other nations, I must yield you some other cause. For I cannot say, if I +shall say truly, but our shipping, for number, strength, mariners, +pilots, and all things that appertain to navigation, is as great as +ever; and therefore why we should sit at home, I shall now give you an +account by itself; and it will draw nearer, to give you satisfaction, to +your principal question.</p> + +<p>"There reigned in this island, about 1,900 years ago, a king, whose +memory of all others we most adore; not superstitiously, but as a divine +instrument, though a mortal man: his name was Salomona; and we esteem +him as the lawgiver of our nation. This king had a large heart, +inscrutable for good; and was wholly bent to make his kingdom and people +happy. He therefore taking into consideration how sufficient and +substantive this land was, to maintain itself without any aid at all of +the foreigner; being 5,000 miles in circuit, and of rare fertility of +soil, in the greatest part thereof; and finding also the shipping of +this country might be plentifully set on work, both by fishing and by +transportations from port to port, and likewise by sailing unto some +small islands that are not far from us, and are under the crown and laws +of this state; and recalling into his memory the happy and flourishing +estate wherein this land then was, so as it might be a thousand ways +altered to the worse, but scarce any one way to the better; though +nothing wanted to his noble and heroical intentions, but only (as far as +human foresight might reach) to give perpetuity to that which was in +his time so happily established, therefore amongst his other fundamental +laws of this kingdom he did ordain the interdicts and prohibitions which +we have touching entrance of strangers; which at that time (though it +was after the calamity of America) was frequent; doubting novelties and +commixture of manners. It is true, the like law against the admission of +strangers without license is an ancient law in the kingdom of China, and +yet continued in use. But there it is a poor thing; and hath made them a +curious, ignorant, fearful foolish nation. But our lawgiver made his law +of another temper. For first, he hath preserved all points of humanity, +in taking order and making provision for the relief of strangers +distressed; whereof you have tasted." At which speech (as reason was) we +all rose up, and bowed ourselves. He went on: "That king also still +desiring to join humanity and policy together; and thinking it against +humanity, to detain strangers here against their wills; and against +policy, that they should return, and discover their knowledge of this +estate, he took this course; he did ordain, that of the strangers that +should be permitted to land, as many at all times might depart as many +as would; but as many as would stay, should have very good conditions, +and means to live from the state. Wherein he saw so far, that now in so +many ages since the prohibition, we have memory not of one ship that +ever returned, and but of thirteen persons only, at several times, that +chose to return in our bottoms. What those few that returned may have +reported abroad, I know not. But you must think, whatsoever they have +said, could be taken where they came but for a dream. Now for our +travelling from hence into parts abroad, our lawgiver thought fit +altogether to restrain it. So is it not in China. For the Chinese sail +where they will, or can; which showeth, that their law of keeping out +strangers is a law of pusillanimity and fear. But this restraint of ours +hath one only exception, which is admirable; preserving the good which +cometh by communicating with strangers, and avoiding the hurt: and I +will now open it to you. And here I shall seem a little to digress, but +you will by-and-by find it pertinent. Ye shall understand, my dear +friends, that amongst the excellent acts of that king, one above all +hath the pre-eminence. It was the erection and institution of an order, +or society, which we call Salomon's House; the noblest foundation, as we +think, that ever was upon the earth, and the lantern of this kingdom. It +is dedicated to the study of the works and creatures of God. Some think +it beareth the founder's name a little corrupted, as if it should be +Solomon's House. But the records write it as it is spoken. So as I take +it to be denominate of the king of the Hebrews, which is famous with +you, and no strangers to us; for we have some parts of his works which +with you are lost; namely, that natural history which he wrote of all +plants, from the cedar of Libanus to the moss that groweth out of the +wall; and of all things that have life and motion. This maketh me think +that our king finding himself to symbolize, in many things, with that +king of the Hebrews, which lived many years before him, honoured him +with the title of this foundation. And I am the rather induced to be of +this opinion, for that I find in ancient records, this order or society +is sometimes called Solomon's House, and sometimes the College of the +Six Days' Works; whereby I am satisfied that our excellent king had +learned from the Hebrews that God had created the world, and all that +therein is, within six days: and therefore he instituted that house, for +the finding out of the true nature of all things, whereby God might have +the more glory in the workmanship of them, and men the more fruit in +their use of them, did give it also that second name. But now to come to +our present purpose. When the king had forbidden to all his people +navigation into any part that was not under his crown, he made +nevertheless this ordinance; that every twelve years there should be +set forth out of this kingdom, two ships, appointed to several voyages; +that in either of these ships there should be a mission of three of the +fellows or brethren of Salomon's House, whose errand was only to give us +knowledge of the affairs and state of those countries to which they were +designed; and especially of the sciences, arts, manufactures, and +inventions of all the world; and withal to bring unto us books, +instruments, and patterns in every kind: that the ships, after they had +landed the brethren, should return; and that the brethren should stay +abroad till the new mission, the ships are not otherwise fraught than +with store of victuals, and good quantity of treasure to remain with the +brethren, for the buying of such things, and rewarding of such persons, +as they should think fit. Now for me to tell you how the vulgar sort of +mariners are contained from being discovered at land, and how they that +must be put on shore for any time, colour themselves under the names of +other nations, and to what places these voyages have been designed; and +what places of rendezvous are appointed for the new missions, and the +like circumstances of the practice, I may not do it, neither is it much +to your desire. But thus you see we maintain a trade, not for gold, +silver, or jewels, nor for silks, nor for spices, nor any other +commodity of matter; but only for God's first creature, which was light; +to have light, I say, of the growth of all parts of the world." And when +he had said this, he was silent, and so were we all; for indeed we were +all astonished to hear so strange things so probably told. And he +perceiving that we were willing to say somewhat, but had it not ready, +in great courtesy took us off, and descended to ask us questions of our +voyage and fortunes, and in the end concluded that we might do well to +think with ourselves, what time of stay we would demand of the state, +and bade us not to scant ourselves; for he would procure such time as we +desired. Whereupon we all rose up and presented ourselves to kiss the +skirt of his tippet, but he would not suffer us, and so took his leave. +But when it came once amongst our people, that the state used to offer +conditions to strangers that would stay, we had work enough to get any +of our men to look to our ship, and to keep them from going presently to +the governor, to crave conditions; but with much ado we restrained them, +till we might agree what course to take.</p> + +<p>We took ourselves now for freemen, seeing there was no danger of our +utter perdition, and lived most joyfully, going abroad and seeing what +was to be seen in the city and places adjacent, within our tedder; and +obtaining acquaintance with many of the city, not of the meanest +quality, at whose hands we found such humanity, and such a freedom and +desire to take strangers, as it were, into their bosom, as was enough to +make us forget all that was dear to us in our own countries; and +continually we met with many things, right worthy of observation and +relation; as indeed, if there be a mirror in the world, worthy to hold +men's eyes, it is that country. One day there were two of our company +bidden to a feast of the family, as they call it; a most natural, pious, +and reverend custom it is, showing that nation to be compounded of all +goodness. This is the manner of it; it is granted to any man that shall +live to see thirty persons descended of his body, alive together, and +all above three years old, to make this feast, which is done at the cost +of the state. The father of the family, whom they call the Tirsan, two +days before the feast, taketh to him three of such friends as he liketh +to choose, and is assisted also by the governor of the city or place +where the feast is celebrated, and all the persons of the family, of +both sexes, are summoned to attend him. These two days the Tirsan +sitteth in consultation, concerning the good estate of the family. +There, if there be any discord or suits between any of the family, they +are compounded and appeased. There, if any of the family be distressed +or decayed, order is taken for their relief, and competent means to +live. There, if any be subject to vice, or take ill courses, they are +reproved and censured. So likewise direction is given touching +marriages, and the courses of life which any of them should take, with +divers other the like orders and advices. The governor assisteth to the +end, to put in execution, by his public authority, the decrees and +orders of the Tirsan, if they should be disobeyed, though that seldom +needeth; such reverence and obedience they give to the order of Nature. +The Tirsan doth also then ever choose one man from amongst his sons, to +live in house with him; who is called ever after the Son of the Vine. +The reason will hereafter appear. On the feast day, the father or Tirsan +cometh forth after divine service into a large room where the feast is +celebrated; which room hath an half-pace at the upper end. Against the +wall, in the middle of the half-pace, is a chair placed for him, with a +table and carpet before it. Over the chair is a state, made round or +oval, and it is of ivy; an ivy somewhat whiter than ours, like the leaf +of a silver asp, but more shining; for it is green all winter. And the +state is curiously wrought with silver and silk of divers colours, +broiding or binding in the ivy; and is ever of the work of some of the +daughters of the family; and veiled over at the top, with a fine net of +silk and silver. But the substance of it is true ivy; whereof after it +is taken down, the friends of the family are desirous to have some leaf +or sprig to keep. The Tirsan cometh forth with all his generation or +lineage, the males before him, and the females following him; and if +there be a mother, from whose body the whole lineage is descended, there +is a traverse placed in a loft above on the right hand of the chair, +with a privy door, and a carved window of glass, leaded with gold and +blue; where she sitteth, but is not seen. When the Tirsan is come forth, +he sitteth down in the chair; and all the lineage place themselves +against the wall, both at his back, and upon the return of the +half-pace, in order of their years, without difference of sex, and stand +upon their feet. When he is set, the room being always full of company, +but well kept and without disorder, after some pause there cometh in +from the lower end of the room a Taratan (which is as much as an +herald), and on either side of him two young lads: whereof one carrieth +a scroll of their shining yellow parchment, and the other a cluster of +grapes of gold, with a long foot or stalk. The herald and children are +clothed with mantles of sea-water green satin; but the herald's mantle +is streamed with gold, and hath a train. Then the herald with three +curtsies, or rather inclinations, cometh up as far as the half-pace, and +there first taketh into his hand the scroll. This scroll is the king's +charter, containing gift of revenue, and many privileges, exemptions, +and points of honour, granted to the father of the family; and it is +ever styled and directed, "To such an one, our well-beloved friend and +creditor," which is a title proper only to this case. For they say, the +king is debtor to no man, but for propagation of his subjects; the seal +set to the king's charter is the king's image, embossed or moulded in +gold; and though such charters be expedited of course, and as of right, +yet they are varied by discretion, according to the number and dignity +of the family. This charter the herald readeth aloud; and while it is +read, the father or Tirsan standeth up, supported by two of his sons, +such as he chooseth. Then the herald mounteth the half-pace, and +delivereth the charter into his hand: and with that there is an +acclamation, by all that are present, in their language, which is thus +much, "Happy are the people of Bensalem." Then the herald taketh into +his hand from the other child the cluster of grapes, which is of gold; +both the stalk, and the grapes. But the grapes are daintily enamelled; +and if the males of the family be the greater number, the grapes are +enamelled purple, with a little sun set on the top; if the females, then +they are enamelled into a greenish yellow, with a crescent on the top. +The grapes are in number as many as there are descendants of the family. +This golden cluster the herald delivereth also to the Tirsan; who +presently delivereth it over to that son that he had formerly chosen, to +be in house with him: who beareth it before his father, as an ensign of +honour, when he goeth in public ever after; and is thereupon called the +Son of the Vine. After this ceremony ended the father or Tirsan +retireth; and after some time cometh forth again to dinner, where he +sitteth alone under the state, as before; and none of his descendants +sit with him, of what degree or dignity so ever, except he hap to be of +Salomon's House. He is served only by his own children, such as are +male; who perform unto him all service of the table upon the knee, and +the women only stand about him, leaning against the wall. The room below +his half-pace hath tables on the sides for the guests that are bidden; +who are served with great and comely order; and towards the end of +dinner (which in the greatest feasts with them lasteth never above an +hour and a half) there is an hymn sung, varied according to the +invention of him that composeth it (for they have excellent poesy), but +the subject of it is always the praises of Adam, and Noah, and Abraham; +whereof the former two peopled the world, and the last was the father of +the faithful: concluding ever with a thanksgiving for the nativity of +our Saviour, in whose birth the births of all are only blessed. Dinner +being done, the Tirsan retireth again; and having withdrawn himself +alone into a place, where he maketh some private prayers, he cometh +forth the third time, to give the blessing; with all his descendants, +who stand about him as at the first. Then he calleth them forth by one +and by one, by name as he pleaseth, though seldom the order of age be +inverted. The person that is called (the table being before removed) +kneeleth down before the chair, and the father layeth his hand upon his +head, or her head, and giveth the blessing in these words: "Son of +Bensalem (or daughter of Bensalem), thy father saith it; the man by whom +thou hast breath and life speaketh the word; the blessing of the +everlasting Father, the Prince of Peace, and the Holy Dove be upon thee, +and make the days of thy pilgrimage good and many." This he saith to +every of them; and that done, if there be any of his sons of eminent +merit and virtue, so they be not above two, he calleth for them again, +and saith, laying his arm over their shoulders, they standing: "Sons, it +is well you are born, give God the praise, and persevere to the end." +And withal delivereth to either of them a jewel, made in the figure of +an ear of wheat, which they ever after wear in the front of their +turban, or hat; this done, they fall to music and dances, and other +recreations, after their manner, for the rest of the day. This is the +full order of that feast.</p> + +<p>By that time six or seven days were spent, I was fallen into straight +acquaintance with a merchant of that city, whose name was Joabin. He was +a Jew and circumcised; for they have some few stirps of Jews yet +remaining among them, whom they leave to their own religion. Which they +may the better do, because they are of a far differing disposition from +the Jews in other parts. For whereas they hate the name of Christ, and +have a secret inbred rancour against the people amongst whom they live; +these, contrariwise, give unto our Saviour many high attributes, and +love the nation of Bensalem extremely. Surely this man of whom I speak +would ever acknowledge that Christ was born of a Virgin; and that He was +more than a man; and he would tell how God made Him ruler of the +seraphims, which guard His throne; and they call Him also the Milken +Way, and the Eliah of the Messiah, and many other high names, which +though they be inferior to His divine majesty, yet they are far from the +language of other Jews. And for the country of Bensalem, this man would +make no end of commending it, being desirous by tradition among the Jews +there to have it believed that the people thereof were of the +generations of Abraham, by another son, whom they call Nachoran; and +that Moses by a secret cabala ordained the laws of Bensalem which they +now use; and that when the Messias should come, and sit in His throne at +Hierusalem, the King of Bensalem should sit at His feet, whereas other +kings should keep a great distance. But yet setting aside these Jewish +dreams, the man was a wise man and learned, and of great policy, and +excellently seen in the laws and customs of that nation. Amongst other +discourses one day I told him, I was much affected with the relation I +had from some of the company of their custom in holding the feast of the +family, for that, methought, I had never heard of a solemnity wherein +Nature did so much preside. And because propagation of families +proceedeth from the nuptial copulation, I desired to know of him what +laws and customs they had concerning marriage, and whether they kept +marriage well, and whether they were tied to one wife? For that where +population is so much affected, and such as with them it seemed to be, +there is commonly permission of plurality of wives. To this he said: +"You have reason for to commend that excellent institution of the feast +of the family; and indeed we have experience, that those families that +are partakers of the blessings of that feast, do flourish and prosper +ever after, in an extraordinary manner. But hear me now, and I will tell +you what I know. You shall understand that there is not under the +heavens so chaste a nation as this of Bensalem, nor so free from all +pollution or foulness. It is the virgin of the world; I remember, I have +read in one of your European books, of an holy hermit amongst you, that +desired to see the spirit of fornication, and there appeared to him a +little foul ugly Ethiope; but if he had desired to see the spirit of +chastity of Bensalem, it would have appeared to him in the likeness of a +fair beautiful cherubim. For there is nothing, amongst mortal men, more +fair and admirable than the chaste minds of this people. Know, +therefore, that with them there are no stews, no dissolute houses, no +courtezans, nor anything of that kind. Nay, they wonder, with +detestation, at you in Europe, which permit such things. They say ye +have put marriage out of office; for marriage is ordained a remedy for +unlawful concupiscence; and natural concupiscence seemeth as a spur to +marriage. But when men have at hand a remedy, more agreeable to their +corrupt will, marriage is almost expulsed. And therefore there are with +you seen infinite men that marry not, but choose rather a libertine and +impure single life, than to be yoked in marriage; and many that do +marry, marry late, when the prime and strength of their years is past. +And when they do marry, what is marriage to them but a very bargain; +wherein is sought alliance, or portion, or reputation, with some desire +(almost indifferent) of issue; and not the faithful nuptial union of man +and wife, that was first instituted. Neither is it possible, that those +that have cast away so basely so much of their strength, should greatly +esteem children (being of the same matter) as chaste men do. So likewise +during marriage is the case much amended, as it ought to be if those +things were tolerated only for necessity; no, but they remain still as a +very affront to marriage. The haunting of those dissolute places, or +resort to courtezans, are no more punished in married men than in +bachelors. And the depraved custom of change, and the delight in +meretricious embracements (where sin is turned into art), maketh +marriage a dull thing, and a kind of imposition or tax. They hear you +defend these things, as done to avoid greater evils; as advoutries, +deflowering of virgins, unnatural lust, and the like. But they say, this +is a preposterous wisdom; and they call it Lot's offer, who to save his +guests from abusing, offered his daughters; nay, they say further, that +there is little gained in this; for that the same vices and appetites do +still remain and abound, unlawful lust being like a furnace, that if you +stop the flames altogether it will quench, but if you give it any vent +it will rage; as for masculine love, they have no touch of it; and yet +there are not so faithful and inviolate friendships in the world again +as are there, and to speak generally (as I said before) I have not read +of any such chastity in any people as theirs. And their usual saying is +that whosoever is unchaste cannot reverence himself; and they say that +the reverence of a man's self, is, next religion, the chiefest bridle of +all vices." And when he had said this the good Jew paused a little; +whereupon I, far more willing to hear him speak on than to speak myself; +yet thinking it decent that upon his pause of speech I should not be +altogether silent, said only this; that I would say to him, as the widow +of Sarepta said to Elias: "that he was come to bring to memory our +sins;" and that I confess the righteousness of Bensalem was greater than +the righteousness of Europe. At which speech he bowed his head, and went +on this manner: "They have also many wise and excellent laws, touching +marriage. They allow no polygamy. They have ordained that none do +intermarry, or contract, until a month be past from their first +interview. Marriage without consent of parents they do not make void, +but they mulct it in the inheritors; for the children of such marriages +are not admitted to inherit above a third part of their parents' +inheritance. I have read in a book of one of your men, of a feigned +commonwealth, where the married couple are permitted, before they +contract, to see one another naked. This they dislike; for they think it +a scorn to give a refusal after so familiar knowledge; but because of +many hidden defects in men and women's bodies, they have a more civil +way; for they have near every town a couple of pools (which they call +Adam and Eve's pools), where it is permitted to one of the friends of +the man, and another of the friends of the woman, to see them severally +bathe naked."</p> + +<p>And as we were thus in conference, there came one that seemed to be a +messenger, in a rich huke, that spake with the Jew; whereupon he turned +to me, and said, "You will pardon me, for I am commanded away in haste." +The next morning he came to me again, joyful as it seemed, and said, +"There is word come to the governor of the city, that one of the fathers +of Salomon's House will be here this day seven-night; we have seen none +of them this dozen years. His coming is in state; but the cause of his +coming is secret. I will provide you and your fellows of a good standing +to see his entry." I thanked him, and told him I was most glad of the +news. The day being come he made his entry. He was a man of middle +stature and age, comely of person, and had an aspect as if he pitied +men. He was clothed in a robe of fine black cloth with wide sleeves, and +a cape: his under garment was of excellent white linen down to the foot, +girt with a girdle of the same; and a sindon or tippet of the same about +his neck. He had gloves that were curious, and set with stone; and shoes +of peach-coloured velvet. His neck was bare to the shoulders. His hat +was like a helmet, or Spanish montero; and his locks curled below it +decently; they were of colour brown. His beard was cut round and of the +same colour with his hair, somewhat lighter. He was carried in a rich +chariot, without wheels, litter-wise, with two horses at either end, +richly trapped in blue velvet embroidered; and two footmen on each side +in the like attire. The chariot was all of cedar, gilt and adorned with +crystal; save that the fore-end had panels of sapphires, set in borders +of gold, and the hinder-end the like of emeralds of the Peru colour. +There was also a sun of gold, radiant upon the top, in the midst; and on +the top before a small cherub of gold, with wings displayed. The chariot +was covered with cloth of gold tissued upon blue. He had before him +fifty attendants, young men all, in white satin loose coats up to the +mid-leg, and stockings of white silk; and shoes of blue velvet; and hats +of blue velvet, with fine plumes of divers colours, set round like +hat-bands. Next before the chariot went two men, bare-headed, in linen +garments down to the foot, girt, and shoes of blue velvet, who carried +the one a crosier, the other a pastoral staff like a sheep-hook; neither +of them of metal, but the crosier of balm-wood, the pastoral staff of +cedar. Horsemen he had none, neither before nor behind his chariot; as +it seemeth, to avoid all tumult and trouble. Behind his chariot went all +the officers and principals of the companies of the city. He sat alone, +upon cushions, of a kind of excellent plush, blue; and under his foot +curious carpets of silk of divers colours, like the Persian, but far +finer. He held up his bare hand, as he went, as blessing the people, but +in silence. The street was wonderfully well kept; so that there was +never any army had their men stand in better battle-array than the +people stood. The windows likewise were not crowded, but every one stood +in them, as if they had been placed. When the show was passed, the Jew +said to me, "I shall not be able to attend you as I would, in regard of +some charge the city hath laid upon me for the entertaining of this +great person." Three days after the Jew came to me again, and said, "Ye +are happy men; for the father of Salomon's House taketh knowledge of +your being here, and commanded me to tell you, that he will admit all +your company to his presence, and have private conference with one of +you, that ye shall choose; and for this hath appointed the next day +after to-morrow. And because he meaneth to give you his blessing, he +hath appointed it in the forenoon." We came at our day and hour, and I +was chosen by my fellows for the private access. We found him in a fair +chamber, richly hanged, and carpeted under foot, without any degrees to +the state; he was set upon a low throne richly adorned, and a rich cloth +of state over his head of blue satin embroidered. He was alone, save +that he had two pages of honour, on either hand one, finely attired in +white. His under garments were the like that we saw him wear in the +chariot; but instead of his gown, he had on him a mantle with a cape, of +the same fine black, fastened about him. When we came in, as we were +taught, we bowed low at our first entrance; and when we were come near +his chair, he stood up, holding forth his hand ungloved, and in posture +of blessing; and we every one of us stooped down, and kissed the end of +his tippet. That done, the rest departed, and I remained. Then he warned +the pages forth of the room, and caused me to sit down beside him, and +spake to me thus in the Spanish tongue:</p> + +<p>"God bless thee, my son; I will give thee the greatest jewel I have. For +I will impart unto thee, for the love of God and men, a relation of the +true state of Salomon's House. Son, to make you know the true state of +Salomon's House, I will keep this order. First, I will set forth unto +you the end of our foundation. Secondly, the preparations and +instruments we have for our works. Thirdly, the several employments and +functions whereto our fellows are assigned. And fourthly, the ordinances +and rites which we observe.</p> + +<p>"The end of our foundation is the knowledge of causes, and secret +motions of things; and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire, to +the effecting of all things possible.</p> + +<p>"The preparations and instruments are these. We have large and deep +caves of several depths; the deepest are sunk 600 fathoms; and some of +them are digged and made under great hills and mountains; so that if you +reckon together the depth of the hill, and the depth of the cave, they +are, some of them, above three miles deep. For we find that the depth of +an hill, and the depth of a cave from the flat, is the same thing; both +remote alike from the sun and heaven's beams, and from the open air. +These caves we call the lower region. And we use them for all +coagulations, indurations, refrigerations, and conservations of bodies. +We use them likewise for the imitation of natural mines and the +producing also of new artificial metals, by compositions and materials +which we use and lay there for many years. We use them also sometimes +(which may seem strange) for curing of some diseases, and for +prolongation of life, in some hermits that choose to live there, well +accommodated of all things necessary, and indeed live very long; by whom +also we learn many things.</p> + +<p>"We have burials in several earths, where we put divers cements, as the +Chinese do their porcelain. But we have them in greater variety, and +some of them more fine. We also have great variety of composts and +soils, for the making of the earth fruitful.</p> + +<p>"We have high towers, the highest about half a mile in height, and some +of them likewise set upon high mountains, so that the vantage of the +hill with the tower, is in the highest of them three miles at least. And +these places we call the upper region, account the air between the high +places and the low, as a middle region. We use these towers, according +to their several heights and situations, for insulation, refrigeration, +conservation, and for the view of divers meteors—as winds, rain, snow, +hail; and some of the fiery meteors also. And upon them, in some places, +are dwellings of hermits, whom we visit sometimes, and instruct what to +observe.</p> + +<p>"We have great lakes, both salt and fresh, whereof we have use for the +fish and fowl. We use them also for burials of some natural bodies, for +we find a difference in things buried in earth, or in air below the +earth, and things buried in water. We have also pools, of which some do +strain fresh water out of salt, and others by art do turn fresh water +into salt. We have also some rocks in the midst of the sea, and some +bays upon the shore for some works, wherein is required the air and +vapour of the sea. We have likewise violent streams and cataracts, which +serve us for many motions; and likewise engines for multiplying and +enforcing of winds to set also on divers motions.</p> + +<p>"We have also a number of artificial wells and fountains, made in +imitation of the natural sources and baths, as tincted upon vitriol, +sulphur, steel, brass, lead, nitre, and other minerals; and again, we +have little wells for infusions of many things, where the waters take +the virtue quicker and better than in vessels or basins. And amongst +them we have a water, which we call water of Paradise, being by that we +do it made very sovereign for health and prolongation of life.</p> + +<p>"We have also great and spacious houses, where we imitate and +demonstrate meteors—as snow, hail, rain, some artificial rains of +bodies, and not of water, thunders, lightnings; also generations of +bodies in air—as frogs, flies, and divers others.</p> + +<p>"We have also certain chambers, which we call chambers of health, where +we qualify the air as we think good and proper for the cure of divers +diseases, and preservation of health.</p> + +<p>"We have also fair and large baths, of several mixtures, for the cure of +diseases, and the restoring of man's body from arefaction; and others +for the confirming of it in strength of sinews, vital parts, and the +very juice and substance of the body.</p> + +<p>"We have also large and various orchards and gardens, wherein we do not +so much respect beauty as variety of ground and soil, proper for divers +trees and herbs, and some very spacious, where trees and berries are +set, whereof we make divers kinds of drinks, besides the vineyards. In +these we practise likewise all conclusions of grafting, and inoculating, +as well of wild-trees as fruit-trees, which produceth many effects. And +we make by art, in the same orchards and gardens, trees and flowers, to +come earlier or later than their seasons, and to come up and bear more +speedily than by their natural course they do. We make them also by art +greater much than their nature; and their fruit greater and sweeter, and +of differing taste, smell, colour, and figure, from their nature. And +many of them we so order, as that they become of medicinal use.</p> + +<p>"We have also means to make divers plants rise by mixtures of earths +without seeds, and likewise to make divers new plants, differing from +the vulgar, and to make one tree or plant turn into another.</p> + +<p>"We have also parks, and enclosures of all sorts, of beasts and birds; +which we use not only for view or rareness, but likewise for dissections +and trials, that thereby may take light what may be wrought upon the +body of man. Wherein we find many strange effects: as continuing life in +them, though divers parts, which you account vital, be perished and +taken forth; resuscitating of some that seem dead in appearance, and the +like. We try also all poisons, and other medicines upon them, as well of +chirurgery as physic. By art likewise we make them greater or smaller +than their kind is, and contrariwise dwarf them and stay their growth; +we make them more fruitful and bearing than their kind is, and +contrariwise barren and not generative. Also we make them differ in +colour, shape, activity, many ways. We find means to make commixtures +and copulations of divers kinds, which have produced many new kinds, and +them not barren, as the general opinion is. We make a number of kinds of +serpents, worms, flies, fishes of putrefaction, whereof some are +advanced (in effect) to be perfect creatures, like beasts or birds, and +have sexes, and do propagate. Neither do we this by chance, but we know +beforehand of what matter and commixture, what kind of those creatures +will arise.</p> + +<p>"We have also particular pools where we make trials upon fishes, as we +have said before of beasts and birds.</p> + +<p>"We have also places for breed and generation of those kinds of worms +and flies which are of special use; such as are with you your silkworms +and bees.</p> + +<p>"I will not hold you long with recounting of our brew-houses, +bake-houses, and kitchens, where are made divers drinks, breads, and +meats, rare and of special effects. Wines we have of grapes, and drinks +of other juice, of fruits, of grains, and of roots, and of mixtures with +honey, sugar, manna, and fruits dried and decocted; also of the tears or +wounding of trees, and of the pulp of canes. And these drinks are of +several ages, some to the age or last of forty years. We have drinks +also brewed with several herbs, and roots, and spices; yea, with several +fleshes, and white-meats; whereof some of the drinks are such as they +are in effect meat and drink both, so that divers, especially in age, do +desire to live with them with little or no meat or bread. And above all +we strive to have drinks of extreme thin parts, to insinuate into the +body, and yet without all biting, sharpness, or fretting; insomuch as +some of them put upon the back of your hand, will with a little stay +pass through to the palm, and yet taste mild to the mouth. We have also +waters, which we ripen in that fashion, as they become nourishing, so +that they are indeed excellent drinks, and many will use no other. Bread +we have of several grains, roots, and kernels; yea, and some of flesh, +and fish, dried; with divers kinds of leavings and seasonings; so that +some do extremely move appetites, some do nourish so, as divers do live +of them, without any other meat, who live very long. So for meats, we +have some of them so beaten, and made tender, and mortified, yet without +all corrupting, as a weak heat of the stomach will turn them into good +chilus, as well as a strong heat would meat otherwise prepared. We have +some meats also and bread, and drinks, which taken by men, enable them +to fast long after; and some other, that used make the very flesh of +men's bodies sensibly more hard and tough, and their strength far +greater than otherwise it would be.</p> + +<p>"We have dispensatories or shops of medicines; wherein you may easily +think, if we have such variety of plants, and living creatures, more +than you have in Europe (for we know what you have), the simples, drugs, +and ingredients of medicines, must likewise be in so much the greater +variety. We have them likewise of divers ages, and long fermentations. +And for their preparations, we have not only all manner of exquisite +distillations, and separations, and especially by gentle heats, and +percolations through divers strainers, yea, and substances; but also +exact forms of composition, whereby they incorporate almost as they were +natural simples.</p> + +<p>"We have also divers mechanical arts, which you have not; and stuffs +made by them, as papers, linen, silks, tissues, dainty works of feathers +of wonderful lustre, excellent dyes, and many others, and shops likewise +as well for such as are not brought into vulgar use amongst us, as for +those that are. For you must know, that of the things before recited, +many of them are grown into use throughout the kingdom, but yet, if they +did flow from our invention, we have of them also for patterns and +principals.</p> + +<p>"We have also furnaces of great diversities, and that keep great +diversity of heats; fierce and quick, strong and constant, soft and +mild, blown, quiet, dry, moist, and the like. But above all we have +heats, in imitation of the sun's and heavenly bodies' heats, that pass +divers inequalities, and as it were orbs, progresses, and returns +whereby we produce admirable effects. Besides, we have heats of dungs, +and of bellies and maws of living creatures and of their bloods and +bodies, and of hays and herbs laid up moist, of lime unquenched, and +such like. Instruments also which generate heat only by motion. And +farther, places for strong insulations; and again, places under the +earth, which by nature or art yield heat. These divers heats we use, as +the nature of the operation which we intend requireth.</p> + +<p>"We have also perspective-houses, where we make demonstrations of all +lights and radiations, and of all colours; and out of things uncoloured +and transparent, we can represent unto you all several colours, not in +rainbows, as it is in gems and prisms, but of themselves single. We +represent also all multiplications of light, which we carry to great +distance, and make so sharp, as to discern small points and lines. Also +all colourations of light: all delusions and deceits of the sight, in +figures, magnitudes, motions, colours; all demonstrations of shadows. We +find also divers means, yet unknown to you, of producing of light, +originally from divers bodies. We procure means of seeing objects afar +off, as in the heaven and remote places; and represent things near as +afar off, and things afar off as near; making feigned distances. We have +also helps for the sight far above spectacles and glasses in use; we +have also glasses and means to see small and minute bodies, perfectly +and distinctly; as the shapes and colours of small flies and worms, +grains, and flaws in gems, which cannot otherwise be seen, observations +in urine and blood not otherwise to be seen. We make artificial +rainbows, halos, and circles about light. We represent also all manner +of reflections, refractions, and multiplications of visual beams of +objects.</p> + +<p>"We have also precious stones, of all kinds, many of them of great +beauty and to you unknown; crystals likewise, and glasses of divers +kind; and amongst them some of metals vitrificated, and other materials, +besides those of which you make glass. Also a number of fossils, and +imperfect minerals, which you have not. Likewise loadstones of +prodigious virtue: and other rare stones, both natural and artificial.</p> + +<p>"We have also sound-houses, where we practise and demonstrate all sounds +and their generation. We have harmony which you have not, of +quarter-sounds and lesser slides of sounds. Divers instruments of music +likewise to you unknown, some sweeter than any you have; with bells and +rings that are dainty and sweet. We represent small sounds as great and +deep, likewise great sounds, extenuate and sharp; we make divers +tremblings and warblings of sounds, which in their original are entire. +We represent and imitate all articulate sounds and letters, and the +voices and notes of beasts and birds. We have certain helps, which set +to the ear do further the hearing greatly; we have also divers strange +and artificial echoes, reflecting the voice many times, and as it were +tossing it; and some that give back the voice louder than it came, some +shriller and some deeper; yea, some rendering the voice, differing in +the letters or articulate sound from that they receive. We have all +means to convey sounds in trunks and pipes, in strange lines and +distances.</p> + +<p>"We have also perfume-houses, wherewith we join also practices of taste. +We multiply smells which may seem strange: we imitate smells, making all +smells to breathe out of other mixtures than those that give them. We +make divers imitations of taste likewise, so that they will deceive any +man's taste. And in this house we contain also a confiture-house, where +we make all sweetmeats, dry and moist, and divers pleasant wines, milks, +broths, and salads, far in greater variety than you have.</p> + +<p>"We have also engine-houses, where are prepared engines and instruments +for all sorts of motions. There we imitate and practise to make swifter +motions than any you have, either out of your muskets or any engine that +you have; and to make them and multiply them more easily and with small +force, by wheels and other means, and to make them stronger and more +violent than yours are, exceeding your greatest cannons and basilisks. +We represent also ordnance and instruments of war and engines of all +kinds; and likewise new mixtures and compositions of gunpowder, +wild-fires burning in water and unquenchable, also fire-works of all +variety, both for pleasure and use. We imitate also flights of birds; we +have some degrees of flying in the air. We have ships and boats for +going under water and brooking of seas, also swimming-girdles and +supporters. We have divers curious clocks and other like motions of +return, and some perpetual motions. We imitate also motions of living +creatures by images of men, beasts, birds, fishes, and serpents; we have +also a great number of other various motions, strange for equality, +fineness and subtilty.</p> + +<p>"We have also a mathematical-house, where are represented all +instruments, as well of geometry as astronomy, exquisitely made.</p> + +<p>"We have also houses of deceits of the senses, where we represent all +manner of feats of juggling, false apparitions, impostures and +illusions, and their fallacies. And surely you will easily believe that +we, that have so many things truly natural which induce admiration, +could in a world of particulars deceive the senses if we would disguise +those things, and labour to make them more miraculous. But we do hate +all impostures and lies, insomuch as we have severely forbidden it to +all our fellows, under pain of ignominy and fines, that they do not show +any natural work or thing adorned or swelling, but only pure as it is, +and without all affectation of strangeness.</p> + +<p>"These are, my son, the riches of Salomon's House.</p> + +<p>"For the several employments and offices of our fellows, we have twelve +that sail into foreign countries under the names of other nations (for +our own we conceal), who bring us the books and abstracts, and patterns +of experiments of all other parts. These we call merchants of light.</p> + +<p>"We have three that collect the experiments which are in all books. +These we call deprepators.</p> + +<p>"We have three that collect the experiments of all mechanical arts, and +also of liberal sciences, and also of practices which are not brought +into arts. These we call mystery-men.</p> + +<p>"We have three that try new experiments.</p> + +<p>"Such as themselves think good. These we call pioneers or miners.</p> + +<p>"We have three that draw the experiments of the former four into titles +and tables, to give the better light for the drawing of observations and +axioms out of them. These we call compilers. We have three that bend +themselves, looking into the experiments of their fellows, and cast +about how to draw out of them things of use and practice for man's life +and knowledge, as well for works as for plain demonstration of causes, +means of natural divinations, and the easy and clear discovery of the +virtues and parts of bodies. These we call dowry-men or benefactors.</p> + +<p>"Then after divers meetings and consults of our whole number, to +consider of the former labours and collections, we have three that take +care out of them to direct new experiments, of a higher light, more +penetrating into Nature than the former. These we call lamps.</p> + +<p>"We have three others that do execute the experiment so directed, and +report them. These we call inoculators.</p> + +<p>"Lastly, we have three that raise the former discoveries by experiments +into greater observations, axioms, and aphorisms. These we call +interpreters of Nature.</p> + +<p>"We have also, as you must think, novices and apprentices, that the +succession of the former employed men do not fail; besides a great +number of servants and attendants, men and women. And this we do also: +we have consultations, which of the inventions and experiences which we +have discovered shall be published, and which not: and take all an oath +of secrecy for the concealing of those which we think fit to keep +secret: though some of those we do reveal sometime to the state, and +some not.</p> + +<p>"For our ordinances and rites, we have two very long and fair galleries: +in one of these we place patterns and samples of all manner of the more +rare and excellent inventions: in the other we place the statues of all +principal inventors. There we have the statue of your Columbus, that +discovered the West Indies: also the inventor of ships: your Monk that +was the inventor of ordnance and of gunpowder: the inventor of music: +the inventor of letters: the inventor of printing: the inventor of +observations of astronomy: the inventor of works in metal: the inventor +of glass: the inventor of silk of the worm: the inventor of wine: the +inventor of corn and bread: the inventor of sugars; and all these by +more certain tradition than you have. Then we have divers inventors of +our own, of excellent works; which since you have not seen, it were too +long to make descriptions of them; and besides, in the right +understanding of those descriptions you might easily err. For upon every +invention of value we erect a statue to the inventor, and give him a +liberal and honourable reward. These statues are some of brass, some of +marble and touchstone, some of cedar and other special woods gilt and +adorned; some of iron, some of silver, some of gold.</p> + +<p>"We have certain hymns and services, which we say daily, of laud and +thanks to God for His marvellous works. And forms of prayers, imploring +His aid and blessing for the illumination of our labours; and turning +them into good and holy uses.</p> + +<p>"Lastly, we have circuits or visits, of divers principal cities of the +kingdom; where as it cometh to pass we do publish such new profitable +inventions as we think good. And we do also declare natural divinations +of diseases, plagues, swarms of hurtful creatures, scarcity, tempest, +earthquakes, great inundations, comets, temperature of the year, and +divers other things; and we give counsel thereupon, what the people +shall do for the prevention and remedy of them."</p> + +<p>And when he had said this, he stood up; and I, as I had been taught, +knelt down; and he laid his right hand upon my head, and said, "God +bless thee, my son, and God bless this relation which I have made. I +give thee leave to publish it, for the good of other nations; for we +here are in God's bosom, a land unknown." And so he left me; having +assigned a value of about two thousand ducats for a bounty to me and my +fellows. For they give great largesses, where they come, upon all +occasions.</p> + + + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 5em;">THE REST WAS NOT PERFECTED.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CAMPANELLAS" id="CAMPANELLAS"></a>CAMPANELLA'S<br /> + +CITY OF THE SUN.</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><span class="smcap">The City of the Sun.</span></h3> + +<p><i>A Poetical Dialogue between a Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitallers +and a Genoese Sea-captain, his guest.</i></p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Prithee, now, tell me what happened to you during that voyage?</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> I have already told you how I wandered over the whole earth. In +the course of my journeying I came to Taprobane, and was compelled to go +ashore at a place, where through fear of the inhabitants I remained in a +wood. When I stepped out of this I found myself on a large plain +immediately under the equator.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> And what befell you here?</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> I came upon a large crowd of men and armed women, many of whom +did not understand our language, and they conducted me forthwith to the +City of the Sun.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Tell me after what plan this city is built and how it is +governed?</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> The greater part of the city is built upon a high hill, which +rises from an extensive plain, but several of its circles extend for +some distance beyond the base of the hill, which is of such a size that +the diameter of the city is upwards of two miles, so that its +circumference becomes about seven. On account of the humped shape of the +mountain, however, the diameter of the city is really more than if it +were built on a plain.</p> + +<p>It is divided into seven rings or huge circles named from the seven +planets, and the way from one to the other of these is by four streets +and through four gates, that look towards the four points of the +compass. Furthermore, it is so built that if the first circle were +stormed, it would of necessity entail a double amount of energy to storm +the second; still more to storm the third; and in each succeeding case +the strength and energy would have to be doubled; so that he who wishes +to capture that city must, as it were, storm it seven times. For my own +part, however, I think that not even the first wall could be occupied, +so thick are the earthworks and so well fortified is it with +breastworks, towers, guns and ditches.</p> + +<p>When I had been taken through the northern gate (which is shut with an +iron door so wrought that it can be raised and let down, and locked in +easily and strongly, its projections running into the grooves of the +thick posts by a marvellous device), I saw a level space seventy +paces<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> wide between the first and second walls. From hence can be seen +large palaces all joined to the wall of the second circuit, in such a +manner as to appear all one palace. Arches run on a level with the +middle height of the palaces, and are continued round the whole ring. +There are galleries for promenading upon these arches, which are +supported from beneath by thick and well-shaped columns, enclosing +arcades like peristyles, or cloisters of an abbey.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> A pace was 1-9/25 yards, 1,000 paces making a mile.</p></div> + +<p>But the palaces have no entrances from below, except on the inner or +concave partition, from which one enters directly to the lower parts of +the building. The higher parts, however, are reached by flights of +marble steps, which lead to galleries for promenading on the inside +similar to those on the outside. From these one enters the higher rooms, +which are very beautiful, and have windows on the concave and convex +partitions. These rooms are divided from one another by richly +decorated walls. The convex or outer wall of the ring is about eight +spans thick; the concave, three; the intermediate walls are one, or +perhaps one and a half. Leaving this circle one gets to the second +plain, which is nearly three paces narrower than the first. Then the +first wall of the second ring is seen adorned above and below with +similar galleries for walking, and there is on the inside of it another +interior wall enclosing palaces. It has also similar peristyles +supported by columns in the lower part, but above are excellent +pictures, round the ways into the upper houses. And so on afterwards +through similar spaces and double walls, enclosing palaces, and adorned +with galleries for walking, extending along their outer side, and +supported by columns, till the last circuit is reached, the way being +still over a level plain.</p> + +<p>But when the two gates, that is to say, those of the outmost and the +inmost walls, have been passed, one mounts by means of steps so formed +that an ascent is scarcely discernible, since it proceeds in a slanting +direction, and the steps succeed one another at almost imperceptible +heights. On the top of the hill is a rather spacious plain, and in the +midst of this there rises a temple built with wondrous art.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Tell on, I pray you! Tell on! I am dying to hear more.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> The temple is built in the form of a circle; it is not girt with +walls, but stands upon thick columns, beautifully grouped. A very large +dome, built with great care in the centre or pole, contains another +small vault as it were rising out of it, and in this is a spiracle, +which is right over the altar. There is but one altar in the middle of +the temple, and this is hedged round by columns. The temple itself is on +a space of more than three hundred and fifty paces. Without it, arches +measuring about eight paces extend from the heads of the columns +outwards, whence other columns rise about three paces from the thick, +strong and erect wall. Between these and the former columns there are +galleries for walking, with beautiful pavements, and in the recess of +the wall, which is adorned with numerous large doors, there are +immovable seats, placed as it were between the inside columns, +supporting the temple. Portable chairs are not wanting, many and well +adorned. Nothing is seen over the altar but a large globe, upon which +the heavenly bodies are painted, and another globe upon which there is a +representation of the earth. Furthermore, in the vault of the dome there +can be discerned representations of all the stars of heaven from the +first to the sixth magnitude, with their proper names and power to +influence terrestrial things marked in three little verses for each. +There are the poles and greater and lesser circles according to the +right latitude of the place, but these are not perfect because there is +no wall below. They seem, too, to be made in their relation to the +globes on the altar. The pavement of the temple is bright with precious +stones. Its seven golden lamps hang always burning, and these bear the +names of the seven planets.</p> + +<p>At the top of the building several small and beautiful cells surround +the small dome, and behind the level space above the bands or arches of +the exterior and interior columns there are many cells, both small and +large, where the priests and religious officers dwell to the number of +forty-nine.</p> + +<p>A revolving flag projects from the smaller dome, and this shows in what +quarter the wind is. The flag is marked with figures up to thirty-six, +and the priests know what sort of year the different kinds of winds +bring and what will be the changes of weather on land and sea. +Furthermore, under the flag a book is always kept written with letters +of gold.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> I pray you, worthy hero, explain to me their whole system of +government; for I am anxious to hear it.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> The great ruler among them is a priest whom they call by the +name <span class="smcap">Hoh</span>, though we should call him Metaphysic. He is head +over all, in temporal and spiritual matters, and all business and +lawsuits are settled by him, as the supreme authority. Three princes of +equal power—viz., Pon, Sin and Mor—assist him, and these in our tongue +we should call <span class="smcap">Power</span>, <span class="smcap">Wisdom</span> and <span class="smcap">Love</span>. To +<span class="smcap">Power</span> belongs the care of all matters relating to war and +peace. He attends to the military arts, and, next to Hoh, he is ruler in +every affair of a warlike nature. He governs the military magistrates +and the soldiers, and has the management of the munitions, the +fortifications, the storming of places, the implements of war, the +armories, the smiths and workmen connected with matters of this sort.</p> + +<p>But <span class="smcap">Wisdom</span> is the ruler of the liberal arts, of mechanics, of +all sciences with their magistrates and doctors, and of the discipline +of the schools. As many doctors as there are, are under his control. +There is one doctor who is called Astrologus; a second, Cosmographus; a +third, Arithmeticus; a fourth, Geometra; a fifth, Historiographus; a +sixth, Poeta; a seventh, Logicus; an eighth, Rhetor; a ninth, +Grammaticus; a tenth, Medicus; an eleventh, Physiologus; a twelfth, +Politicus; a thirteenth, Moralis. They have but one book, which they +call Wisdom, and in it all the sciences are written with conciseness and +marvellous fluency of expression. This they read to the people after the +custom of the Pythagoreans. It is Wisdom who causes the exterior and +interior, the higher and lower walls of the city to be adorned with the +finest pictures, and to have all the sciences painted upon them in an +admirable manner. On the walls of the temple and on the dome, which is +let down when the priest gives an address, lest the sounds of his voice, +being scattered, should fly away from his audience, there are pictures +of stars in their different magnitudes, with the powers and motions of +each, expressed separately in three little verses.</p> + +<p>On the interior wall of the first circuit all the mathematical figures +are conspicuously painted—figures more in number than Archimedes or +Euclid discovered, marked symmetrically, and with the explanation of +them neatly written and contained each in a little verse. There are +definitions and propositions, &c. &c. On the exterior convex wall is +first an immense drawing of the whole earth, given at one view. +Following upon this, there are tablets setting forth for every separate +country the customs both public and private, the laws, the origins and +the power of the inhabitants; and the alphabets the different people use +can be seen above that of the City of the Sun.</p> + +<p>On the inside of the second circuit, that is to say of the second ring +of buildings, paintings of all kinds of precious and common stones, of +minerals and metals, are seen; and a little piece of the metal itself is +also there with an apposite explanation in two small verses for each +metal or stone. On the outside are marked all the seas, rivers, lakes +and streams which are on the face of the earth; as are also the wines +and the oils and the different liquids, with the sources from which the +last are extracted, their qualities and strength. There are also vessels +built into the wall above the arches, and these are full of liquids from +one to three hundred years old, which cure all diseases. Hail and snow, +storms and thunder, and whatever else takes place in the air, are +represented with suitable figures and little verses. The inhabitants +even have the art of representing in stone all the phenomena of the air, +such as the wind, rain, thunder, the rainbow, &c.</p> + +<p>On the interior of the third circuit all the different families of trees +and herbs are depicted, and there is a live specimen of each plant in +earthenware vessels placed upon the outer partition of the arches. With +the specimens there are explanations as to where they were first found, +what are their powers and natures, and resemblances to celestial things +and to metals: to parts of the human body and to things in the sea, and +also as to their uses in medicine, &c. On the exterior wall are all the +races of fish, found in rivers, lakes and seas, and their habits and +values, and ways of breeding, training and living, the purposes for +which they exist in the world, and their uses to man. Further, their +resemblances to celestial and terrestrial things, produced both by +nature and art, are so given that I was astonished when I saw a fish +which was like a bishop, one like a chain, another like a garment, a +fourth like a nail, a fifth like a star, and others like images of those +things existing among us, the relation in each case being completely +manifest. There are sea-urchins to be seen, and the purple shell-fish +and mussels; and whatever the watery world possesses worthy of being +known is there fully shown in marvellous characters of painting and +drawing.</p> + +<p>On the fourth interior wall all the different kinds of birds are +painted, with their natures, sizes, customs, colours, manner of living, +&c.; and the only real phoenix is possessed by the inhabitants of this +city. On the exterior are shown all the races of creeping animals, +serpents, dragons and worms; the insects, the flies, gnats, beetles, +&c., in their different states, strength, venoms and uses, and a great +deal more than you or I can think of.</p> + +<p>On the fifth interior they have all the larger animals of the earth, as +many in number as would astonish you. We indeed know not the thousandth +part of them, for on the exterior wall also a great many of immense size +are also portrayed. To be sure, of horses alone, how great a number of +breeds there is and how beautiful are the forms there cleverly +displayed!</p> + +<p>On the sixth interior are painted all the mechanical arts, with the +several instruments for each and their manner of use among different +nations. Alongside the dignity of such is placed, and their several +inventors are named. But on the exterior all the inventors in science, +in warfare, and in law are represented. There I saw Moses, Osiris, +Jupiter, Mercury, Lycurgus, Pompilius, Pythagoras, Zamolxis, Solon, +Charondas, Phoroneus, with very many others. They even have Mahomet, +whom nevertheless they hate as a false and sordid legislator. In the +most dignified position I saw a representation of Jesus Christ and of +the twelve Apostles, whom they consider very worthy and hold to be +great. Of the representations of men, I perceived Cæsar, Alexander, +Pyrrhus and Hannibal in the highest place; and other very renowned +heroes in peace and war, especially Roman heroes, were painted in lower +positions, under the galleries. And when I asked with astonishment +whence they had obtained our history, they told me that among them there +was a knowledge of all languages, and that by perseverance they +continually send explorers and ambassadors over the whole earth, who +learn thoroughly the customs, forces, rule and histories of the nations, +bad and good alike. These they apply all to their own republic, and with +this they are well pleased. I learnt that cannon and typography were +invented by the Chinese before we knew of them. There are magistrates, +who announce the meaning of the pictures, and boys are accustomed to +learn all the sciences, without toil and as if for pleasure; but in the +way of history only until they are ten years old.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Love</span> is foremost in attending to the charge of the race. He +sees that men and women are so joined together, that they bring forth +the best offspring. Indeed, they laugh at us who exhibit a studious care +for our breed of horses and dogs, but neglect the breeding of human +beings. Thus the education of the children is under his rule. So also is +the medicine that is sold, the sowing and collecting of fruits of the +earth and of trees, agriculture, pasturage, the preparations for the +months, the cooking arrangements, and whatever has any reference to +food, clothing, and the intercourse of the sexes. Love himself is ruler, +but there are many male and female magistrates dedicated to these arts.</p> + +<p>Metaphysic then with these three rulers manage all the above-named +matters, and even by himself alone nothing is done; all business is +discharged by the four together, but in whatever Metaphysic inclines to +the rest are sure to agree.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Tell me, please, of the magistrates, their services and duties, +of the education and mode of living, whether the government is a +monarchy, a republic, or an aristocracy.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> This race of men came there from India, flying from the sword of +the Magi, a race of plunderers and tyrants who laid waste their country, +and they determined to lead a philosophic life in fellowship with one +another. Although the community of wives is not instituted among the +other inhabitants of their province, among them it is in use after this +manner. All things are common with them, and their dispensation is by +the authority of the magistrates. Arts and honours and pleasures are +common, and are held in such a manner that no one can appropriate +anything to himself.</p> + +<p>They say that all private property is acquired and improved for the +reason that each one of us by himself has his own home and wife and +children. From this self-love springs. For when we raise a son to riches +and dignities, and leave an heir to much wealth, we become either ready +to grasp at the property of the state, if in any case fear should be +removed from the power which belongs to riches and rank; or avaricious, +crafty, and hypocritical, if any one is of slender purse, little +strength, and mean ancestry. But when we have taken away self-love, +there remains only love for the state.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Under such circumstances no one will be willing to labour, while +he expects others to work, on the fruit of whose labours he can live, as +Aristotle argues against Plato.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> I do not know how to deal with that argument, but I declare to +you that they burn with so great a love for their fatherland, as I could +scarcely have believed possible; and indeed with much more than the +histories tell us belonged to the Romans, who fell willingly for their +country, inasmuch as they have to a greater extent surrendered their +private property. I think truly that the friars and monks and clergy of +our country, if they were not weakened by love for their kindred and +friends, or by the ambition to rise to higher dignities, would be less +fond of property, and more imbued with a spirit of charity towards all, +as it was in the time of the Apostles, and is now in a great many cases.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> St. Augustine may say that, but I say that among this race of +men, friendship is worth nothing; since they have not the chance of +conferring mutual benefits on one another.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> Nay, indeed. For it is worth the trouble to see that no one can +receive gifts from another. Whatever is necessary they have, they +receive it from the community, and the magistrate takes care that no one +receives more than he deserves. Yet nothing necessary is denied to any +one. Friendship is recognized among them in war, in infirmity, in the +art contests, by which means they aid one another mutually by teaching. +Sometimes they improve themselves mutually with praises, with +conversation, with actions and out of the things they need. All those of +the same age call one another brothers. They call all over twenty-two +years of age, fathers; those who are less than twenty-two are named +sons. Moreover, the magistrates govern well, so that no one in the +fraternity can do injury to another.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> And how?</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> As many names of virtues as there are amongst us, so many +magistrates there are among them. There is a magistrate who is named +Magnanimity, another Fortitude, a third Chastity, a fourth Liberality, a +fifth Criminal and Civil Justice, a sixth Comfort, a seventh Truth, an +eighth Kindness, a tenth Gratitude, an eleventh Cheerfulness, a twelfth +Exercise, a thirteenth Sobriety, &c. They are elected to duties of that +kind, each one to that duty for excellence in which he is known from +boyhood to be most suitable. Wherefore among them neither robbery nor +clever murders, nor lewdness, incest, adultery, or other crimes of +which we accuse one another, can be found. They accuse themselves of +ingratitude and malignity when any one denies a lawful satisfaction to +another, of indolence, of sadness, of anger, of scurrility, of slander, +and of lying, which curseful thing they thoroughly hate. Accused persons +undergoing punishment are deprived of the common table, and other +honours, until the judge thinks that they agree with their correction.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Tell me the manner in which the magistrates are chosen.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> You would not rightly understand this, unless you first learnt +their manner of living. That you may know then, men and women wear the +same kind of garment, suited for war. The women wear the toga below the +knee, but the men above. And both sexes are instructed in all the arts +together. When this has been done as a start, and before their third +year, the boys learn the language and the alphabet on the walls by +walking round them. They have four leaders, and four elders, the first +to direct them, the second to teach them, and these are men approved +beyond all others. After some time they exercise themselves with +gymnastics, running, quoits, and other games, by means of which all +their muscles are strengthened alike. Their feet are always bare, and so +are their heads as far as the seventh ring. Afterwards they lead them to +the offices of the trades, such as shoemaking, cooking, metal-working, +carpentry, painting, &c. In order to find out the bent of the genius of +each one, after their seventh year, when they have already gone through +the mathematics on the walls, they take them to the readings of all the +sciences; there are four lectures at each reading, and in the course of +four hours the four in their order explain everything.</p> + +<p>For some take physical exercise or busy themselves with public services +or functions, others apply themselves to reading. Leaving these studies +all are devoted to the more abstruse subjects, to mathematics, to +medicine, and to other sciences. There is continual debate and studied +argument amongst them, and after a time they become magistrates of those +sciences or mechanical arts in which they are the most proficient; for +every one follows the opinion of his leader and judge, and goes out to +the plains to the works of the field, and for the purpose of becoming +acquainted with the pasturage of the dumb animals. And they consider him +the more noble and renowned who has dedicated himself to the study of +the most arts and knows how to practise them wisely. Wherefore they +laugh at us in that we consider our workmen ignoble, and hold those to +be noble who have mastered no pursuit; but live in ease, and are so many +slaves given over to their own pleasure and lasciviousness; and thus as +it were from a school of vices so many idle and wicked fellows go forth +for the ruin of the state.</p> + +<p>The rest of the officials, however, are chosen by the four chiefs, Hoh, +Pon, Sin and Mor, and by the teachers of that art over which they are +fit to preside. And these teachers know well who is most suited for +rule. Certain men are proposed by the magistrates in council, they +themselves not seeking to become candidates, and he opposes who knows +anything against those brought forward for election, or if not, speaks +in favour of them. But no one attains to the dignity of Hoh except him +who knows the histories of the nations, and their customs and sacrifices +and laws, and their form of government, whether a republic or a +monarchy. He must also know the names of the lawgivers and the inventors +in science, and the laws and the history of the earth and the heavenly +bodies. They think it also necessary that he should understand all the +mechanical arts, the physical sciences, astrology and mathematics. +(Nearly every two days they teach our mechanical art. They are not +allowed to overwork themselves, but frequent practice and the paintings +render learning easy to them. Not too much care is given to the +cultivation of languages, as they have a goodly number of interpreters +who are grammarians in the state.) But beyond everything else it is +necessary that Hoh should understand metaphysics and theology; that he +should know thoroughly the derivations, foundations and demonstrations +of all the arts and sciences; the likeness and difference of things; +necessity, fate, and the harmonies of the universe; power, wisdom, and +the love of things and of God; the stages of life and its symbols; +everything relating to the heavens, the earth and the sea; and the ideas +of God, as much as mortal man can know of Him. He must also be well read +in the Prophets and in astrology. And thus they know long beforehand who +will be Hoh. He is not chosen to so great a dignity unless he has +attained his thirty-fifth year. And this office is perpetual, because it +is not known who may be too wise for it or who too skilled in ruling.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Who indeed can be so wise? If even any one has a knowledge of the +sciences it seems that he must be unskilled in ruling.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> This very question I asked them and they replied thus: "We, +indeed, are more certain that such a very learned man has the knowledge +of governing, than you who place ignorant persons in authority, and +consider them suitable merely because they have sprung from rulers or +have been chosen by a powerful faction. But our Hoh, a man really the +most capable to rule, is for all that never cruel nor wicked, nor a +tyrant, inasmuch as he possesses so much wisdom. This, moreover, is not +unknown to you, that the same argument cannot apply among you, when you +consider that man the most learned who knows most of grammar, or logic, +or of Aristotle or any other author. For such knowledge as this of yours +much servile labour and memory work is required, so that a man is +rendered unskilful; since he has contemplated nothing but the words of +books and has given his mind with useless result to the consideration of +the dead signs of things. Hence he knows not in what way God rules the +universe, nor the ways and customs of Nature and the nations. Wherefore +he is not equal to our <span class="smcap">Hoh</span>. For that one cannot know so many +arts and sciences thoroughly, who is not esteemed for skilled ingenuity, +very apt at all things, and therefore at ruling especially. This also is +plain to us that he who knows only one science, does not really know +either that or the others, and he who is suited for only one science and +has gathered his knowledge from books, is unlearned and unskilled. But +this is not the case with intellects prompt and expert in every branch +of knowledge and suitable for the consideration of natural objects, as +it is necessary that our <span class="smcap">Hoh</span> should be. Besides in our state +the sciences are taught with a facility (as you have seen) by which more +scholars are turned out by us in one year than by you in ten, or even +fifteen. Make trial, I pray you, of these boys." In this matter I was +struck with astonishment at their truthful discourse and at the trial of +their boys, who did not understand my language well. Indeed it is +necessary that three of them should be skilled in our tongue, three in +Arabic, three in Polish, and three in each of the other languages, and +no recreation is allowed them unless they become more learned. For that +they go out to the plain for the sake of running about and hurling +arrows and lances, and of firing harquebuses, and for the sake of +hunting the wild animals and getting a knowledge of plants and stones, +and agriculture and pasturage; sometimes the band of boys does one +thing, sometimes another.</p> + +<p>They do not consider it necessary that the three rulers assisting +<span class="smcap">Hoh</span> should know other than the arts having reference to their +rule, and so they have only a historical knowledge of the arts which are +common to all. But their own they know well, to which certainly one is +dedicated more than another. Thus <span class="smcap">Power</span> is the most learned in +the equestrian art, in marshalling the army, in marking out of camps, +in the manufacture of every kind of weapon and of warlike machines, in +planning stratagems, and in every affair of a military nature. And for +these reasons, they consider it necessary that these chiefs should have +been philosophers, historians, politicians, and physicists. Concerning +the other two triumvirs, understand remarks similar to those I have made +about <span class="smcap">Power</span>.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> I really wish that you would recount all their public duties, and +would distinguish between them, and also that you would tell clearly how +they are all taught in common.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> They have dwellings in common and dormitories, and couches and +other necessaries. But at the end of every six months they are separated +by the masters. Some shall sleep in this ring, some in another; some in +the first apartment, and some in the second; and these apartments are +marked by means of the alphabet on the lintel. There are occupations, +mechanical and theoretical, common to both men and women, with this +difference, that the occupations which require more hard work, and +walking a long distance, are practised by men, such as ploughing, +sowing, gathering the fruits, working at the threshing-floor, and +perchance at the vintage. But it is customary to choose women for +milking the cows, and for making cheese. In like manner, they go to the +gardens near to the outskirts of the city both for collecting the plants +and for cultivating them. In fact, all sedentary and stationary pursuits +are practised by the women, such as weaving, spinning, sewing, cutting +the hair, shaving, dispensing medicines, and making all kinds of +garments. They are, however, excluded from working in wood and the +manufacture of arms. If a woman is fit to paint, she is not prevented +from doing so; nevertheless, music is given over to the women alone, +because they please the more, and of a truth to boys also. But the women +have not the practice of the drum and the horn.</p> + +<p>And they prepare their feasts and arrange the tables in the following +manner. It is the peculiar work of the boys and girls under twenty to +wait at the tables. In every ring there are the suitable kitchens, +barns, and stores of utensils for eating and drinking, and over every +department an old man and an old woman preside. These two have at once +the command of those who serve, and the power of chastising, or causing +to be chastised, those who are negligent or disobedient; and they also +examine and mark each one, both male and female, who excels in his or +her duties.</p> + +<p>All the young people wait upon the older ones who have passed the age of +forty, and in the evening when they go to sleep the master and mistress +command that those should be sent to work in the morning, upon whom in +succession the duty falls, one or two to separate apartments. The young +people, however, wait upon one another, and that alas! with some +unwillingness. They have first and second tables, and on both sides +there are seats. On one side sit the women, on the other the men; and as +in the refectories of the monks, there is no noise. While they are +eating a young man reads a book from a platform, intoning distinctly and +sonorously, and often the magistrates question them upon the more +important parts of the reading. And truly it is pleasant to observe in +what manner these young people, so beautiful and clothed in garments so +suitable, attend to them, and to see at the same time so many friends, +brothers, sons, fathers and mothers all in their turn living together +with so much honesty, propriety and love. So each one is given a napkin, +a plate, fish, and a dish of food. It is the duty of the medical +officers to tell the cooks what repasts shall be prepared on each day, +and what food for the old, what for the young, and what for the sick. +The magistrates receive the full-grown and fatter portion, and they from +their share always distribute something to the boys at the table who +have shown themselves more studious in the morning at the lectures and +debates concerning wisdom and arms. And this is held to be one of the +most distinguished honours. For six days they ordain to sing with music +at table. Only a few, however, sing; or there is one voice accompanying +the lute and one for each other instrument. And when all alike in +service join their hands, nothing is found to be wanting. The old men +placed at the head of the cooking business and of the refectories of the +servants praise the cleanliness of the streets, the houses, the vessels, +the garments, the workshops and the warehouses.</p> + +<p>They wear white undergarments to which adheres a covering, which is at +once coat and legging, without wrinkles. The borders of the fastenings +are furnished with globular buttons, extended round and caught up here +and there by chains. The coverings of the legs descend to the shoes and +are continued even to the heels. Then they cover the feet with large +socks, or as it were half-buskins fastened by buckles, over which they +wear a half-boot, and besides, as I have already said, they are clothed +with a toga. And so aptly fitting are the garments, that when the toga +is destroyed, the different parts of the whole body are straight-way +discerned, no part being concealed. They change their clothes for +different ones four times in the year, that is when the sun enters +respectively the constellations Aries, Cancer, Libra and Capricorn, and +according to the circumstances and necessity as decided by the officer +of health. The keepers of clothes for the different rings are wont to +distribute them, and it is marvellous that they have at the same time as +many garments as there is need for, some heavy and some slight, +according to the weather. They all use white clothing, and this is +washed in each month with lye or soap, as are also the workshops of the +lower trades, the kitchens, the pantries, the barns, the store-houses, +the armories, the refectories and the baths. Moreover, the clothes are +washed at the pillars of the peristyles, and the water is brought down +by means of canals which are continued as sewers. In every street of the +different rings there are suitable fountains, which send forth their +water by means of canals, the water being drawn up from nearly the +bottom of the mountain by the sole movement of a cleverly contrived +handle. There is water in fountains and in cisterns, whither the +rain-water collected from the roofs of the houses is brought through +pipes full of sand. They wash their bodies often, according as the +doctor and master command. All the mechanical arts are practised under +the peristyles, but the speculative are carried on above in the walking +galleries and ramparts where are the more splendid paintings, but the +more sacred ones are taught in the temple. In the halls and wings of the +rings there are solar time-pieces and bells, and hands by which the +hours and seasons are marked off.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Tell me about their children.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> When their women have brought forth children, they suckle and +rear them in temples set apart for all. They give milk for two years or +more as the physician orders. After that time the weaned child is given +into the charge of the mistresses, if it is a female, and to the +masters, if it is a male. And then with other young children they are +pleasantly instructed in the alphabet, and in the knowledge of the +pictures, and in running, walking and wrestling; also in the historical +drawings, and in languages; and they are adorned with a suitable garment +of different colours. After their sixth year they are taught natural +science, and then the mechanical sciences. The men who are weak in +intellect are sent to farms, and when they have become more proficient +some of them are received into the state. And those of the same age and +born under the same constellation are especially like one another in +strength and in appearance, and hence arises much lasting concord in the +state, these men honouring one another with mutual love and help. Names +are given to them by Metaphysicus, and that not by chance but +designedly, and according to each one's peculiarity, as was the custom +among the ancient Romans. Wherefore one is called Beautiful (<i>Pulcher</i>), +another the Big-nosed (<i>Naso</i>), another the Fat-legged (<i>Cranipes</i>) +another Crooked (<i>Torvus</i>) another Lean (<i>Macer</i>) and so on. But when +they have become very skilled in their professions and done any great +deed in war or in time of peace, a cognomen from art is given to them, +such as Beautiful, the great painter (<i>Pulcher</i>, <i>Pictor Magnus</i>), the +golden one (<i>Aureus</i>) the excellent one (<i>Excellens</i>) or the strong +(<i>Strenuus</i>); or from their deeds, such as Naso the Brave (<i>Nason +Fortis</i>) or the cunning, or the great, or very great conqueror; or from +the enemy any one has overcome, Africanus, Asiaticus, Etruscus; or if +any one has overcome Manfred or Tortelius, he is called Macer Manfred or +Tortelius, and so on. All these cognomens are added by the higher +magistrates, and very often with a crown suitable to the deed or art, +and with the flourish of music. For gold and silver is reckoned of +little value among them except as material for their vessels and +ornaments, which are common to all.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Tell me, I pray you, is there no jealousy among them or +disappointment to that one who has not been elected to a magistracy, or +to any other dignity to which he aspires?</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> Certainly not. For no one wants either necessaries or luxuries. +Moreover, the race is managed for the good of the commonwealth and not +of private individuals, and the magistrates must be obeyed. They deny +what we hold—viz., that it is natural to man to recognize his offspring +and to educate them, and to use his wife and house and children as his +own. For they say that children are bred for the preservation of the +species and not for individual pleasure, as St. Thomas also asserts. +Therefore the breeding of children has reference to the commonwealth and +not to individuals, except in so far as they are constituents of the +commonwealth. And since individuals for the most part bring forth +children wrongly and educate them wrongly, they consider that they +remove destruction from the state, and therefore, for this reason, with +most sacred fear, they commit the education of the children, who as it +were are the element of the republic, to the care of magistrates; for +the safety of the community is not that of a few. And thus they +distribute male and female breeders of the best natures according to +philosophical rules. Plato thinks that this distribution ought to be +made by lot, lest some men seeing that they are kept away from the +beautiful women, should rise up with anger and hatred against the +magistrates; and he thinks further that those who do not deserve +cohabitation with the more beautiful women, should be deceived whilst +the lots are being led out of the city by the magistrates, so that at +all times the women who are suitable should fall to their lot, not those +whom they desire. This shrewdness, however, is not necessary among the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun. For with them deformity is unknown. +When the women are exercised they get a clear complexion, and become +strong of limb, tall and agile, and with them beauty consists in +tallness and strength. Therefore, if any woman dyes her face, so that it +may become beautiful, or uses high-heeled boots so that she may appear +tall, or garments with trains to cover her wooden shoes, she is +condemned to capital punishment. But if the women should even desire +them, they have no facility for doing these things. For who indeed would +give them this facility? Further, they assert that among us abuses of +this kind arise from the leisure and sloth of women. By these means they +lose their colour and have pale complexions, and become feeble and +small. For this reason they are without proper complexions, use high +sandals, and become beautiful not from strength, but from slothful +tenderness. And thus they ruin their own tempers and natures, and +consequently those of their offspring. Furthermore, if at any time a man +is taken captive with ardent love for a certain woman, the two are +allowed to converse and joke together, and to give one another garlands +of flowers or leaves, and to make verses. But if the race is endangered, +by no means is further union between them permitted. Moreover, the love +born of eager desire is not known among them; only that born of +friendship.</p> + +<p>Domestic affairs and partnerships are of little account, because, +excepting the sign of honour, each one receives what he is in need of. +To the heroes and heroines of the republic, it is customary to give the +pleasing gifts of honour, beautiful wreaths, sweet food or splendid +clothes, while they are feasting. In the daytime all use white garments +within the city, but at night or outside the city they use red garments +either of wool or silk. They hate black as they do dung, and therefore +they dislike the Japanese, who are fond of black. Pride they consider +the most execrable vice, and one who acts proudly is chastised with the +most ruthless correction. Wherefore no one thinks it lowering to wait at +table or to work in the kitchen or fields. All work they call +discipline, and thus they say that it is honourable to go on foot, to do +any act of nature, to see with the eye, and to speak with the tongue; +and when there is need, they distinguish philosophically between tears +and spittle.</p> + +<p>Every man who, when he is told off to work, does his duty, is considered +very honourable. It is not the custom to keep slaves. For they are +enough, and more than enough, for themselves. But with us, alas! it is +not so. In Naples there exists seventy thousand souls, and out of these +scarcely ten or fifteen thousand do any work, and they are always lean +from overwork and are getting weaker every day. The rest become a prey +to idleness, avarice, ill-health, lasciviousness, usury and other vices, +and contaminate and corrupt very many families by holding them in +servitude for their own use, by keeping them in poverty and slavishness, +and by imparting to them their own vices. Therefore public slavery ruins +them; useful works, in the field, in military service and in arts, +except those which are debasing, are not cultivated, the few who do +practise them doing so with much aversion. But in the City of the Sun, +while duty and work is distributed among all, it only falls to each one +to work for about four hours every day. The remaining hours are spent in +learning joyously, in debating, in reading, in reciting, in writing, in +walking, in exercising the mind and body, and with play. They allow no +game which is played while sitting, neither the single die nor dice, nor +chess, nor others like these. But they play with the ball, with the +sack, with the hoop, with wrestling, with hurling at the stake. They +say, moreover, that grinding poverty renders men worthless, cunning, +sulky, thievish, insidious, vagabonds, liars, false witnesses, &c.; and +that wealth makes them insolent, proud, ignorant, traitors, assumers of +what they know not, deceivers, boasters, wanting in affection, +slanderers, &c. But with them all the rich and poor together make up the +community. They are rich because they want nothing, poor because they +possess nothing; and consequently they are not slaves to circumstances, +but circumstances serve them. And on this point they strongly recommend +the religion of the Christians, and especially the life of the Apostles.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> This seems excellent and sacred, but the community of women is a +thing too difficult to attain. The holy Roman Clement says that wives +ought to be common in accordance with the apostolic institution, and +praises Plato and Socrates, who thus teach, but the Glossary interprets +this community with regard to obedience. And Tertullian agrees with the +Glossary, that the first Christians had everything in common except +wives.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> These things I know little of. But this I saw among the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun that they did not make this +exception. And they defend themselves by the opinion of Socrates, of +Cato, of Plato, and of St. Clement but, as you say, they misunderstand +the opinions of these thinkers. And the inhabitants of the solar city +ascribe this to their want of education, since they are by no means +learned in philosophy. Nevertheless, they send abroad to discover the +customs of nations, and the best of these they always adopt. Practice +makes the women suitable for war and other duties. Thus they agree with +Plato, in whom I have read these same things. The reasoning of our +Cajetan does not convince me, and least of all that of Aristotle. This +thing, however, existing among them is excellent and worthy of +imitation—viz., that no physical defect renders a man incapable of +being serviceable except the decrepitude of old age, since even the +deformed are useful for consultation. The lame serve as guards, watching +with the eyes which they possess. The blind card wool with their hands, +separating the down from the hairs, with which latter they stuff the +couches and sofas; those who are without the use of eyes and hands give +the use of their ears or their voice for the convenience of the state, +and if one has only one sense, he uses it in the farms. And these +cripples are well treated, and some become spies, telling the officers +of the state what they have heard.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Tell me now, I pray you, of their military affairs. Then you may +explain their arts, ways of life and sciences, and lastly their +religion.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> The triumvir, Power, has under him all the magistrates of arms, +of artillery, of cavalry, of foot-soldiers, of architects, and of +strategists, and the masters and many of the most excellent workmen obey +the magistrates, the men of each art paying allegiance to their +respective chiefs. Moreover, Power is at the head of all the professors +of gymnastics, who teach military exercise, and who are prudent +generals, advanced in age. By these the boys are trained after their +twelfth year. Before this age, however, they have been accustomed to +wrestling, running, throwing the weight and other minor exercises, under +inferior masters. But at twelve they are taught how to strike at the +enemy, at horses and elephants, to handle the spear, the sword, the +arrow and the sling; to manage the horse; to advance and to retreat; to +remain in order of battle; to help a comrade in arms; to anticipate the +enemy by cunning; and to conquer.</p> + +<p>The women also are taught these arts under their own magistrates and +mistresses, so that they may be able if need be to render assistance to +the males in battles near the city. They are taught to watch the +fortifications lest at some time a hasty attack should suddenly be made. +In this respect they praise the Spartans and Amazons. The women know +well also how to let fly fiery balls, and how to make them from lead; +how to throw stones from pinnacles and to go in the way of an attack. +They are accustomed also to give up wine unmixed altogether, and that +one is punished most severely who shows any fear.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of the City of the Sun do not fear death, because they +all believe that the soul is immortal, and that when it has left the +body it is associated with other spirits, wicked or good, according to +the merits of this present life. Although they are partly followers of +Bramah and Pythagoras, they do not believe in the transmigration of +souls, except in some cases, by a distinct decree of God. They do not +abstain from injuring an enemy of the republic and of religion, who is +unworthy of pity. During the second month the army is reviewed, and +every day there is practice of arms, either in the cavalry plain or +within the walls. Nor are they ever without lectures on the science of +war. They take care that the accounts of Moses, of Joshua, of David, of +Judas Maccabeus, of Cæsar, of Alexander, of Scipio, of Hannibal, and +other great soldiers should be read. And then each one gives his own +opinion as to whether these generals acted well or ill, usefully or +honourably, and then the teacher answers and says who are right.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> With whom do they wage war, and for what reasons, since they are +so prosperous?</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> Wars might never occur, nevertheless they are exercised in +military tactics and in hunting, lest perchance they should become +effeminate and unprepared for any emergency. Besides there are four +kingdoms in the island, which are very envious of their prosperity, for +this reason that the people desire to live after the manner of the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun, and to be under their rule rather +than that of their own kings. Wherefore the state often makes war upon +these because, being neighbours, they are usurpers and live impiously, +since they have not an object of worship and do not observe the religion +of other nations or of the Brahmins. And other nations of India, to +which formerly they were subject, rise up as it were in rebellion, as +also do the Taprobanese, whom they wanted to join them at first. The +warriors of the City of the Sun, however, are always the victors. As +soon as they suffered from insult or disgrace or plunder, or when their +allies have been harassed, or a people have been oppressed by a tyrant +of the state (for they are always the advocates of liberty), they go +immediately to the council for deliberation. After they have knelt in +the presence of God that He might inspire their consultation, they +proceed to examine the merits of the business, and thus war is decided +on. Immediately after a priest, whom they call Forensic, is sent away. +He demands from the enemy the restitution of the plunder, asks that the +allies should be freed from oppression, or that the tyrant should be +deposed. If they deny these things war is declared by invoking the +vengeance of God—the God of Sabaoth—for destruction of those who +maintain an unjust cause. But if the enemy refuse to reply, the priest +gives him the space of one hour for his answer, if he is a king, but +three if it is a republic, so that they cannot escape giving a response. +And in this manner is war undertaken against the insolent enemies of +natural rights and of religion. When war has been declared, the deputy +of Power performs everything, but Power, like the Roman dictator, plans +and wills everything, so that hurtful tardiness may be avoided. And when +anything of great moment arises he consults Hoh and Wisdom and Love.</p> + +<p>Before this, however, the occasion of war and the justice of making an +expedition is declared by a herald in the great council. All from twenty +years and upwards are admitted to this council, and thus the necessaries +are agreed upon. All kinds of weapons stand in the armories, and these +they use often in sham fights. The exterior walls of each ring are full +of guns prepared by their labours, and they have other engines for +hurling which are called cannons, and which they take into battle upon +mules and asses and carriages. When they have arrived in an open plain +they enclose in the middle the provisions, engines of war, chariots, +ladders and machines and all fight courageously. Then each one returns +to the standards, and the enemy thinking that they are giving and +preparing to flee, are deceived and relax their order: then the warriors +of the City of the Sun, wheeling into wings and columns on each side, +regain their breath and strength, and ordering the artillery to +discharge their bullets they resume the fight against a disorganized +host. And they observe many ruses of this kind. They overcome all +mortals with their stratagems and engines. Their camp is fortified after +the manner of the Romans. They pitch their tents and fortify with wall +and ditch with wonderful quickness. The masters of works, of engines and +hurling machines, stand ready, and the soldiers understand the use of +the spade and the axe.</p> + +<p>Five, eight, or ten leaders learned in the order of battle and in +strategy consult together concerning the business of war, and command +their bands after consultation. It is their wont to take out with them +a body of boys, armed and on horses, so that they may learn to fight, +just as the whelps of lions and wolves are accustomed to blood. And +these in time of danger betake themselves to a place of safety, along +with many armed women. After the battle the women and boys soothe and +relieve the pain of the warriors, and wait upon them and encourage them +with embraces and pleasant words. How wonderful a help is this! For the +soldiers, in order that they may acquit themselves as sturdy men in the +eyes of their wives and offspring, endure hardships, and so love makes +them conquerors. He who in the fight first scales the enemy's walls +receives after the battle a crown of grass, as a token of honour, and at +the presentation the women and boys applaud loudly; that one who affords +aid to an ally gets a civic crown of oak-leaves; he who kills a tyrant +dedicates his arms in the temple and receives from Hoh the cognomen of +his deed, and other warriors obtain other kinds of crowns. Every +horse-soldier carries a spear and two strongly tempered pistols, narrow +at the mouth, hanging from his saddle. And to get the barrels of their +pistols narrow they pierce the metal which they intend to convert into +arms. Further, every cavalry soldier has a sword and a dagger. But the +rest, who form the light-armed troops, carry a metal cudgel. For if the +foe cannot pierce their metal for pistols and cannot make swords, they +attack him with clubs, shatter and overthrow him. Two chains of six +spans length hang from the club, and at the end of these are iron balls, +and when these aimed at the enemy they surround his neck and drag him to +the ground; and in order that they may be able to use the club more +easily, they do not hold the reins with their hands, but use them by +means of the feet. If perchance the reins are interchanged above the +trappings of the saddle, the ends are fastened to the stirrups with +buckles and not to the feet. And the stirrups have an arrangement for +swift movement of the bridle, so that they draw in or let out the rein +with marvellous celerity. With the right foot they turn the horse to the +left and with the left to the right. This secret, moreover, is not known +to the Tartars. For, although they govern the reins with their feet, +they are ignorant nevertheless of turning them and drawing them in and +letting them out by means of the block of the stirrups. The light-armed +cavalry with them are the first to engage in battle, then the men +forming the phalanx with their spears, then the archers for whose +services a great price is paid, and who are accustomed to fight in lines +crossing one another as the threads of cloth, some rushing forward in +their turn and others receding. They have a band of lancers +strengthening the line of battle, but they make trial of the swords only +at the end.</p> + +<p>After the battle they celebrate the military triumphs after the manner +of the Romans, and even in a more magnificent way. Prayers by the way of +thank-offerings are made to God, and then the general presents himself +in the temple, and the deeds, good and bad, are related by the poet or +historian, who according to custom was with the expedition. And the +greatest chief, Hoh, crowns the general with laurel and distributes +little gifts and honours to all the valorous soldiers, who are for some +days free from public duties. But this exemption from work is by no +means pleasing to them, since they know not what it is to be at leisure, +and so they help their companions. On the other hand, they who have been +conquered through their own fault, or have lost the victory, are blamed; +and they who were the first to take to flight are in no way worthy to +escape death, unless when the whole army asks their lives, and each one +takes upon himself a part of their punishment. But this indulgence is +rarely granted, except when there are good reasons favouring it. But he +who did not bear help to an ally or friend is beaten with rods. That one +who did not obey orders is given to the beasts, in an enclosure, to be +devoured, and a staff is put in his hand, and if he should conquer the +lions and the bears that are there, which is almost impossible, he is +received into favour again. The conquered states or those willingly +delivered up to them, forthwith have all things in common, and receive a +garrison and magistrates from the City of the Sun, and by degrees they +are accustomed to the ways of the city, the mistress of all, to which +they even send their sons to be taught without contributing anything for +expense.</p> + +<p>It would be too great trouble to tell you about the spies and their +master, and about the guards and laws and ceremonies, both within and +without the state, which you can of yourself imagine. Since from +childhood they are chosen according to their inclination and the star +under which they were born, therefore each one working according to his +natural propensity does his duty well and pleasantly, because naturally. +The same things I may say concerning strategy and the other functions.</p> + +<p>There are guards in the city by day and by night, and they are placed at +the four gates, and outside the walls of the seventh ring, above the +breastworks and towers and inside mounds. These places are guarded in +the day by women, in the night by men. And lest the guard should become +weary of watching, and in case of a surprise, they change them every +three hours, as is the custom with our soldiers. At sunset, when the +drum and symphonia sound, the armed guards are distributed. Cavalry and +infantry make use of hunting as the symbol of war, and practise games +and hold festivities in the plains. Then the music strikes up, and +freely they pardon the offences and faults of the enemy, and after the +victories they are kind to them, if it has been decreed that they should +destroy the walls of the enemy's city and take their lives. All these +things are done on the same day as the victory, and afterwards they +never cease to load the conquered with favours, for they say that there +ought to be no fighting, except when the conquerors give up the +conquered, not when they kill them. If there is a dispute among them +concerning injury or any other matter (for they themselves scarcely ever +contend except in matters of honour), the chief and his magistrates +chastise the accused one secretly, if he has done harm in deeds after he +has been first angry. If they wait until the time of the battle for the +verbal decision, they must give vent to their anger against the enemy, +and he who in battle shows the most daring deeds is considered to have +defended the better and truer cause in the struggle, and the other +yields, and they are punished justly. Nevertheless, they are not allowed +to come to single combat, since right is maintained by the tribunal, and +because the unjust cause is often apparent when the more just succumbs, +and he who professes to be the better man shows this in public fight.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> This is worth while, so that factions should not be cherished for +the harm of the fatherland, and so that civil wars might not occur, for +by means of these a tyrant often arises, as the examples of Rome and +Athens show. Now, I pray you, tell me of their works and matter +connected therewith.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> I believe that you have already heard about their military +affairs and about their agricultural and pastoral life, and in what way +these are common to them, and how they honour with the first grade of +nobility whoever is considered, to have a knowledge of these. They who +are skilful in more arts than these they consider still nobler, and they +set that one apart for teaching the art in which he is most skilful. The +occupations which require the most labour, such as working in metals and +building, are the most praiseworthy amongst them. No one declines to go +to these occupations, for the reason that from the beginning their +propensities are well known, and among them, on account of the +distribution of labour, no one does work harmful to him, but only that +which is necessary for him. The occupations entailing less labour belong +to the women. All of them are expected to know how to swim, and for this +reason ponds are dug outside the walls of the city and within them near +to the fountains.</p> + +<p>Commerce is of little use to them, but they know the value of money, and +they count for the use of their ambassadors and explorers, so that with +it they may have the means of living. They receive merchants into their +states from the different countries of the world, and these buy the +superfluous goods of the city. The people of the City of the Sun refuse +to take money, but in importing they accept in exchange those things of +which they are in need, and sometimes they buy with money; and the young +people in the City of the Sun are much amused when they see that for a +small price they receive so many things in exchange. The old men, +however, do not laugh. They are unwilling that the state should be +corrupted by the vicious customs of slaves and foreigners. Therefore +they do business at the gates, and sell those whom they have taken in +war or keep them for digging ditches and other hard work without the +city, and for this reason they always send four bands of soldiers to +take care of the fields, and with them there are the labourers. They go +out of the four gates from which roads with walls on both sides of them +lead to the sea, so that goods might easily be carried over them and +foreigners might not meet with difficulty on their way.</p> + +<p>To strangers they are kind and polite; they keep them for three days at +the public expense; after they have first washed their feet, they show +them their city and its customs, and they honour them with a seat at the +council and public table, and there are men whose duty it is to take +care of and guard the guests. But if strangers should wish to become +citizens of their state, they try them first for a month on a farm, and +for another month in the city, then they decide concerning them, and +admit them with certain ceremonies and oaths.</p> + +<p>Agriculture is much followed among them; there is not a span of earth +without cultivation, and they observe the winds and propitious stars. +With the exception of a few left in the city all go out armed, and with +flags and drums and trumpets sounding, to the fields, for the purposes +of ploughing, sowing, digging, hoeing, reaping, gathering fruit and +grapes; and they set in order everything, and do their work in a very +few hours and with much care. They use waggons fitted with sails which +are borne along by the wind even when it is contrary, by the marvellous +contrivance of wheels within wheels.</p> + +<p>And when there is no wind a beast draws along a huge cart, which is a +grand sight.</p> + +<p>The guardians of the land move about in the meantime, armed and always +in their proper turn. They do not use dung and filth for manuring the +fields, thinking that the fruit contracts something of their rottenness, +and when eaten gives a short and poor subsistence, as women who are +beautiful with rouge and from want of exercise bring forth feeble +offspring. Wherefore they do not as it were paint the earth, but dig it +up well and use secret remedies, so that fruit is borne quickly and +multiplies, and is not destroyed. They have a book for this work, which +they call the Georgics. As much of the land as is necessary is +cultivated, and the rest is used for the pasturage of cattle.</p> + +<p>The excellent occupation of breeding and rearing horses, oxen, sheep, +dogs and all kinds of domestic and tame animals, is in the highest +esteem among them as it was in the time of Abraham. And the animals are +led so to pair that they may be able to breed well.</p> + +<p>Fine pictures of oxen, horses, sheep, and other animals are placed +before them. They do not turn out horses with mares to feed, but at the +proper time they bring them together in an enclosure of the stables in +their fields. And this is done when they observe that the constellation +Archer is in favourable conjunction with Mars and Jupiter. For the oxen +they observe the Bull, for the sheep the Ram, and so on in accordance +with art. Under the Pleiades they keep a drove of hens and ducks and +geese, which are driven out by the women to feed near the city. The +women only do this when it is a pleasure to them. There are also places +enclosed, where they make cheese, butter, and milk-food. They also keep +capons, fruit and other things, and for all these matters there is a +book which they call the Bucolics. They have an abundance of all things, +since every one likes to be industrious, their labours being slight and +profitable. They are docile, and that one among them who is head of the +rest in duties of this kind they call king. For they say that this is +the proper name of the leaders, and it does not belong to ignorant +persons. It is wonderful to see how men and women march together +collectively, and always in obedience to the voice of the king. Nor do +they regard him with loathing as we do, for they know that although he +is greater than themselves, he is for all that their father and brother. +They keep groves and woods for wild animals, and they often hunt.</p> + +<p>The science of navigation is considered very dignified by them, and they +possess rafts and triremes, which go over the waters without rowers or +the force of the wind, but by a marvellous contrivance. And other +vessels they have which are moved by the winds. They have a correct +knowledge of the stars, and of the ebb and flow of the tide. They +navigate for the sake of becoming acquainted with nations and different +countries and things. They injure nobody, and they do not put up with +injury, and they never go to battle unless when provoked. They assert +that the whole earth will in time come to live in accordance with their +customs, and consequently they always find out whether there be a +nation whose manner of living is better and more approved than the rest. +They admire the Christian institutions and look for a realisation of the +apostolic life in vogue among themselves and in us. There are treaties +between them and the Chinese, and many other nations, both insular and +continental, such as Siam and Calicut, which they are only just able to +explore. Furthermore, they have artificial fires, battles on sea and +land, and many strategic secrets. Therefore they are nearly always +victorious.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Now it would be very pleasant to learn with what foods and drinks +they are nourished, and in what way and for how long they live.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> Their food consists of flesh, butter, honey, cheese, garden +herbs, and vegetables of various kinds. They were unwilling at first to +slay animals, because it seemed cruel; but thinking afterwards that it +was also cruel to destroy herbs which have a share of sensitive feeling, +they saw that they would perish from hunger unless they did an +unjustifiable action for the sake of justifiable ones, and so now they +all eat meat. Nevertheless, they do not kill willingly useful animals, +such as oxen and horses. They observe the difference between useful and +harmful foods, and for this they employ the science of medicine. They +always change their food. First they eat flesh, then fish, then +afterwards they go back to flesh, and nature is never incommoded or +weakened. The old people use the more digestible kind of food, and take +three meals a day, eating only a little. But the general community eat +twice, and the boys four times, that they might satisfy nature. The +length of their lives is generally one hundred years, but often they +reach two hundred.</p> + +<p>As regards drinking, they are extremely moderate. Wine is never given to +young people until they are ten years old, unless the state of their +health demands it. After their tenth year they take it diluted with +water, and so do the women, but the old men of fifty and upwards use +little or no water. They eat the most healthy things, according to the +time of the year.</p> + +<p>They think nothing harmful which is brought forth by God, except when +there has been abuse by taking too much. And therefore in the summer +they feed on fruits, because they are moist and juicy and cool, and +counteract the heat and dryness. In the winter they feed on dry +articles, and in the autumn they eat grapes, since they are given by God +to remove melancholy and sadness; and they also make use of scents to a +great degree. In the morning, when they have all risen they comb their +hair and wash their faces and hands with cold water. Then they chew +thyme or rock parsley or fennel, or rub their hands with these plants. +The old men make incense, and with their faces to the east repeat the +short prayer which Jesus Christ taught us. After this they go to wait +upon the old men, some go to the dance, and others to the duties of the +state. Later on they meet at the early lectures, then in the temple, +then for bodily exercise. Then for a little while they sit down to rest, +and at length they go to dinner.</p> + +<p>Among them there is never gout in the hands or feet, no catarrh, nor +sciatica, nor grievous colics, nor flatulency, nor hard breathing. For +these diseases are caused by indigestion and flatulency, and by +frugality and exercise they remove every humour and spasm. Wherefore it +is unseemly in the extreme to be seen vomiting or spitting, since they +say that this is a sign either of little exercise or of ignoble sloth, +or of drunkenness or gluttony. They suffer rather from swellings or from +the dry spasm, which they relieve with plenty of good and juicy food. +They heal fevers with pleasant baths and with milk-food, and with a +pleasant habitation in the country and by gradual exercise. Unclean +diseases cannot be prevalent with them because they often clean their +bodies by bathing in wine, and soothe them with aromatic oil, and by +the sweat of exercise they diffuse the poisonous vapour which corrupts +the blood and the marrow. They do suffer a little from consumption, +because they cannot perspire at the breast, but they never have asthma, +for the humid nature of which a heavy man is required. They cure hot +fevers with cold potations of water, but slight ones with sweet smells, +with cheese-bread or sleep, with music or dancing. Tertiary fevers are +cured by bleeding, by rhubarb or by a similar drawing remedy, or by +water soaked in the roots of plants, with purgative and sharp-tasting +qualities. But it is rarely that they take purgative medicines. Fevers +occurring every fourth day are cured easily by suddenly startling the +unprepared patients, and by means of herbs producing effects opposite to +the humours of this fever. All these secrets they told me in opposition +to their own wishes. They take more diligent pains to cure the lasting +fevers, which they fear more, and they strive to counteract these by the +observation of stars and of plants, and by prayers to God. Fevers +recurring every fifth, sixth, eighth or more days, you never find +whenever heavy humours are wanting.</p> + +<p>They use baths, and moreover they have warm ones according to the Roman +custom, and they make use also of olive oil. They have found out, too, a +great many secret cures for the preservation of cleanliness and health. +And in other ways they labour to cure the epilepsy, with which they are +often troubled.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> A sign this disease is of wonderful cleverness, for from it +Hercules, Scotus, Socrates, Callimachus, and Mahomet have suffered.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> They cure by means of prayers to heaven, by strengthening the +head, by acids, by planned gymnastics, and with fat cheese-bread +sprinkled with the flour of wheaten corn. They are very skilled in +making dishes, and in them they put spice, honey, butter and many highly +strengthening spices, and they temper their richness with acids, so that +they never vomit. They do not drink ice-cold drinks nor artificial hot +drinks, as the Chinese do; for they are not without aid against the +humours of the body, on account of the help they get from the natural +heat of the water; but they strengthen it with crushed garlic, with +vinegar, with wild thyme, with mint, and with basil, in the summer or in +time of special heaviness. They know also a secret for renovating life +after about the seventieth year, and for ridding it of affliction, and +this they do by a pleasing and indeed wonderful art.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Thus far you have said nothing concerning their sciences and +magistrates.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> Undoubtedly I have. But since you are so curious I will add +more. Both when it is new moon and full moon they call a council after a +sacrifice. To this all from twenty years upwards are admitted, and each +one is asked separately to say what is wanting in the state, and which +of the magistrates have discharged their duties rightly and which +wrongly. Then after eight days all the magistrates assemble, to wit, Hoh +first, and with him Power, Wisdom and Love. Each one of the three last +has three magistrates under him, making in all thirteen, and they +consider the affairs of the arts pertaining to each one of them; Power, +of war; Wisdom, of the sciences; Love, of food, clothing, education and +breeding. The masters of all the bands, who are captains of tens, of +fifties, of hundreds, also assemble, the women first and then the men. +They argue about those things which are for the welfare of the state, +and they choose the magistrates from among those who have already been +named in the great council. In this manner they assemble daily, Hoh and +his three princes, and they correct, confirm and execute the matters +passing to them, as decisions in the elections; other necessary +questions they provide of themselves. They do not use lots unless when +they are altogether doubtful how to decide. The eight magistrates under +Hoh, Power, Wisdom and Love are changed according to the wish of the +people, but the first four are never changed, unless they, taking +counsel with themselves, give up the dignity of one to another, whom +among them they know to be wiser, more renowned, and more nearly +perfect. And then they are obedient and honourable, since they yield +willingly to the wiser man and are taught by him. This, however, rarely +happens. The principals of the sciences, except Metaphysics, who is Hoh +himself, and is as it were the architect of all science, having rule +over all, are attached to Wisdom. Hoh is ashamed to be ignorant of any +possible thing. Under Wisdom therefore is Grammar, Logic, Physics, +Medicine, Astrology, Astronomy, Geometry, Cosmography, Music, +Perspective, Arithmetic, Poetry, Rhetoric, Painting, Sculpture. Under +the triumvir Love are Breeding, Agriculture, Education, Medicine, +Clothing, Pasturage, Coining.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> What about their judges?</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> This is the point I was just thinking of explaining. Everyone is +judged by the first master of his trade, and thus all the head +artificers are judges. They punish with exile, with flogging, with +blame, with deprivation of the common table, with exclusion from the +church and from the company of women. When there is a case in which +great injury has been done, it is punished with death, and they repay an +eye with an eye, a nose for a nose, a tooth for a tooth, and so on, +according to the law of retaliation. If the offence is wilful the +council decides. When there is strife and it takes place undesignedly, +the sentence is mitigated; nevertheless, not by the judge but by the +triumvirate, from whom even it may be referred to Hoh, not on account of +justice but of mercy, for Hoh is able to pardon. They have no prisons, +except one tower for shutting up rebellious enemies, and there is no +written statement of a case, which we commonly call a lawsuit. But the +accusation and witnesses are produced in the presence of the judge and +Power; the accused person makes his defence, and he is immediately +acquitted or condemned by the judge; and if he appeals to the +triumvirate, on the following day he is acquitted of condemned. On the +third day he is dismissed through the mercy and clemency of Hoh, or +receives the inviolable rigour of his sentence. An accused person is +reconciled to his accuser and to his witnesses, as it were, with the +medicine of his complaint, that is, with embracing and kissing. No one +is killed or stoned unless by the hands of the people, the accuser and +the witnesses beginning first. For they have no executioners and +lictors, lest the state should sink into ruin. The choice of death is +given to the rest of the people, who enclose the lifeless remains in +little bags and burn them by the application of fire, while exhorters +are present for the purpose of advising concerning a good death. +Nevertheless, the whole nation laments and beseeches God that His anger +may be appeased, being in grief that it should as it were have to cut +off a rotten member of the state. Certain officers talk to and convince +the accused man by means of arguments until he himself acquiesces in the +sentence of death passed upon him, or else he does not die. But if a +crime has been committed against the liberty of the republic, or against +God, or against the supreme magistrates, there is immediate censure +without pity. These only are punished with death. He who is about to die +is compelled to state in the presence of the people and with religious +scrupulousness the reasons for which he does not deserve death, and also +the sins of the others who ought to die instead of him, and further the +mistakes of the magistrates. If, moreover, it should seem right to the +person thus asserting, he must say why the accused ones are deserving of +less punishment than he. And if by his arguments he gains the victory he +is sent into exile, and appeases the state by means of prayers and +sacrifices and good life ensuing. They do not torture those named by the +accused person, but they warn them. Sins of frailty and ignorance are +punished only with blaming, and with compulsory continuation as +learners under the law and discipline of those sciences or arts against +which they have sinned. And all these things they have mutually among +themselves, since they seem to be in very truth members of the same +body, and one of another.</p> + +<p>This further I would have you know, that if a transgressor, without +waiting to be accused, goes of his own accord before a magistrate, +accusing himself and seeking to make amends, that one is liberated from +the punishment of a secret crime, and since he has not been accused of +such a crime, his punishment is changed into another. They take special +care that no one should invent slander, and if this should happen they +meet the offence with the punishment of retaliation. Since they always +walk about and work in crowds, five witnesses are required for the +conviction of a transgressor. If the case is otherwise, after having +threatened him, he is released after he has sworn an oath as the warrant +of good conduct. Or if he is accused a second or third time, his +increased punishment rests on the testimony of three or two witnesses. +They have but few laws, and these short and plain, and written upon a +flat table, and hanging to the doors of the temple, that is between the +columns. And on single columns can be seen the essences of things +described in the very terse style of Metaphysics—viz., the essences of +God, of the angels, of the world, of the stars, of man, of fate, of +virtue, all done with great wisdom. The definitions of all the virtues +are also delineated here, and here is the tribunal, where the judges of +all the virtues have their seat. The definition of a certain virtue is +written under that column where the judges for the aforesaid virtue sit, +and when a judge gives judgment he sits and speaks thus: O son, thou +hast sinned against this sacred definition of beneficence, or of +magnanimity, or of another virtue, as the case may be. And after +discussion the judge legally condemns him to the punishment for the +crime of which he is accused—viz., for injury for despondency, for +pride, for ingratitude, for sloth, &c. But the sentences are certain and +true correctives, savouring more of clemency than of actual punishment.</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Now you ought to tell me about their priests, their sacrifices, +their religion, and their belief.</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> The chief priest is Hoh, and it is the duty of all the superior +magistrates to pardon sins. Therefore the whole state by secret +confession, which we also use, tell their sins to the magistrates, who +at once purge their souls and teach those that are inimical to the +people. Then the sacred magistrates themselves confess their own +sinfulness to the three supreme chiefs, and together they confess the +faults of one another, though no special one is named, and they confess +especially the heavier faults and those harmful to the state. At length +the triumvirs confess their sinfulness to Hoh himself, who forthwith +recognizes the kinds of sins that are harmful to the state, and succours +with timely remedies. Then he offers sacrifices and prayers to God. And +before this he confesses the sins of the whole people, in the presence +of God, and publicly in the temple, above the altar, as often as it had +been necessary that the fault should be corrected. Nevertheless, no +transgressor is spoken of by his name. In this manner he absolves the +people by advising them that they should beware of sins of the aforesaid +kind. Afterwards he offers sacrifice to God, that He should pardon the +state and absolve it of its sins, and to teach and defend it. Once in +every year the chief priests of each separate subordinate state confess +their sins in the presence of Hoh. Thus he is not ignorant of the +wrong-doings of the provinces, and forthwith he removes them with all +human and heavenly remedies.</p> + +<p>Sacrifice is conducted after the following manner: Hoh asks the people +which one among them wishes to give himself as a sacrifice to God for +the sake of his fellows. He is then placed upon the fourth table, with +ceremonies and the offering up of prayers: the table is hung up in a +wonderful manner by means of four ropes passing through four cords +attached to firm pulley-blocks in the small dome of the temple. This +done they cry to the God of mercy, that He may accept the offering, not +of a beast as among the heathen, but of a human being. Then Hoh orders +the ropes to be drawn and the sacrifice is pulled up above to the centre +of the small dome, and there it dedicates itself with the most fervent +supplications. Food is given to it through a window by the priests, who +live around the dome, but it is allowed a very little to eat, until it +has atoned for the sins of the state. There with prayer and fasting he +cries to the God of heaven that He might accept its willing offering. +And after twenty or thirty days, the anger of God being appeased, the +sacrifice becomes a priest, or sometimes, though rarely, returns below +by means of the outer way for the priests. Ever after this man is +treated with great benevolence and much honour, for the reason that he +offered himself unto death for the sake of his country. But God does not +require death. The priests above twenty-four years of age offer praises +from their places in the top of the temple. This they do in the middle +of the night, at noon, in the morning and in the evening, to wit, four +times a day they sing their chants in the presence of God. It is also +their work to observe the stars and to note with the astrolabe their +motions and influences upon human things, and to find out their powers. +Thus they know in what part of the earth any change has been or will be, +and at what time it has taken place, and they send to find whether the +matter be as they have it. They make a note of predictions, true and +false, so that they may be able from experience to predict most +correctly. The priests, moreover, determine the hours for breeding and +the days for sowing, reaping, and gathering the vintage, and are as it +were the ambassadors and intercessors and connection between God and +man. And it is from among them mostly that Hoh is elected. They write +very learned treatises and search into the sciences. Below they never +descend, unless for their dinner and supper, so that the essence of +their heads do not descend to the stomachs and liver. Only very seldom, +and that as a cure for the ills of solitude, do they have converse with +women. On certain days Hoh goes up to them and deliberates with them +concerning the matters which he has lately investigated for the benefit +of the state and all the nations of the world.</p> + +<p>In the temple beneath one priest always stands near the altar praying +for the people, and at the end of every hour another succeeds him, just +as we are accustomed in solemn prayer to change every fourth hour. And +this method of supplication they call perpetual prayer. After a meal +they return thanks to God. Then they sing the deeds of the Christian, +Jewish, and Gentile heroes, and of those of all other nations, and this +is very delightful to them. Forsooth, no one is envious of another. They +sing a hymn to Love, one to Wisdom, and one each to all the other +virtues, and this they do under the direction of the ruler of each +virtue. Each one takes the woman he loves most, and they dance for +exercise with propriety and stateliness under the peristyles. The women +wear their long hair all twisted together and collected into one knot on +the crown of the head, but in rolling it they leave one curl. The men, +however, have one curl only and the rest of their hair around the head +is shaven off. Further, they wear a slight covering, and above this a +round hat a little larger than the size of their head. In the fields +they use caps, but at home each one wears a biretto white, red, or +another colour according to his trade or occupation. Moreover, the +magistrates use grander and more imposing-looking coverings for the +head.</p> + +<p>They hold great festivities when the sun enters the four cardinal points +of the heavens, that is, when he enters Cancer, Libra, Capricorn, and +Aries. On these occasions they have very learned, splendid, and as it +were comic performances. They celebrate also every full and every new +moon with a festival, as also they do the anniversaries of the founding +of the city, and of the days when they have won victories or done any +other great achievement. The celebrations take place with the music of +female voices, with the noise of trumpets and drums, and the firing of +salutations. The poets sing the praises of the most renowned leaders and +the victories. Nevertheless, if any of them should deceive even by +disparaging a foreign hero, he is punished. No one can exercise the +function of a poet who invents that which is not true, and a license +like this they think to be a pest of our world, for the reason that it +puts a premium upon virtue and often assigns it to unworthy persons, +either from fear or flattery, or ambition or avarice. For the praise of +no one is a statue erected until after his death; but whilst he is +alive, who has found out new arts and very useful secrets, or who has +rendered great service to the state either at home or on the +battle-field, his name is written in the book of heroes. They do not +bury dead bodies, but burn them, so that a plague may not arise from +them, and so that they may be converted into fire, a very noble and +powerful thing, which has its coming from the sun and returns to it. And +for the above reasons no chance is given for idolatry. The statues and +pictures of the heroes, however, are there, and the splendid women set +apart to become mothers often look at them. Prayers are made from the +state to the four horizontal corners of the world. In the morning to the +rising sun, then to the setting sun, then to the south, and lastly to +the north; and in the contrary order in the evening, first to the +setting sun, to the rising sun, to the north, and at length to the +south. They repeat but one prayer, which asks for health of body and of +mind, and happiness for themselves and all people, and they conclude it +with the petition "As it seems best to God." The public prayer for all +is long, and it is poured forth to heaven. For this reason the altar is +round and is divided crosswise by ways at right angles to one another. +By these ways Hoh enters after he has repeated the four prayers, and he +prays looking up to heaven. And then a great mystery is seen by them. +The priestly vestments are of a beauty and meaning like to those of +Aaron. They resemble Nature and they surpass Art.</p> + +<p>They divide the seasons according to the revolution of the sun, and not +of the stars, and they observe yearly by how much time the one precedes +the other. They hold that the sun approaches nearer and nearer, and +therefore by ever-lessening circles reaches the tropics and the equator +every year a little sooner. They measure months by the course of the +moon, years by that of the sun. They praise Ptolemy, admire Copernicus, +but place Aristarchus and Philolaus before him. They take great pains in +endeavouring to understand the construction of the world, and whether or +not it will perish, and at what time. They believe that the true oracle +of Jesus Christ is by the signs in the sun, in the moon, and in the +stars, which signs do not thus appear to many of us foolish ones. +Therefore they wait for the renewing of the age, and perchance for its +end. They say that it is very doubtful whether the world was made from +nothing, or from the ruins of other worlds, or from chaos, but they +certainly think that it was made, and did not exist from eternity. +Therefore they disbelieve in Aristotle, whom they consider a logician +and not a philosopher. From analogies, they can draw many arguments +against the eternity of the world. The sun and the stars they, so to +speak, regard as the living representatives and signs of God, as the +temples and holy living altars, and they honour but do not worship them. +Beyond all other things they venerate the sun, but they consider no +created thing worthy the adoration of worship. This they give to God +alone, and thus they serve Him, that they may not come into the power of +a tyrant and fall into misery by undergoing punishment by creatures of +revenge. They contemplate and know God under the image of the Sun, and +they call it the sign of God, His face and living image, by means of +which light, heat, life, and the making of all things good and bad +proceeds. Therefore they have built an altar like to the Sun in shape, +and the priests praise God in the sun and in the stars, as it were His +altars, and in the heavens, His temple as it were; and they pray to good +angels, who are, so to speak, the intercessors living in the stars, +their strong abodes. For God long since set signs of their beauty in +heaven, and of His glory in the Sun. They say there is but one heaven, +and that the planets move and rise of themselves when they approach the +sun or are in conjunction with it.</p> + +<p>They assert two principles of the physics of things below, namely, that +the Sun is the father, and the Earth the mother; the air is an impure +part of the heavens; all fire is derived from the sun. The sea is the +sweat of earth, or the fluid of earth combusted, and fused within its +bowels; but is the bond of union between air and earth, as the blood is +of the spirit and flesh of animals. The world is a great animal, and we +live within it as worms live within us. Therefore we do not belong to +the system of stars, sun, and earth, but to God only; for in respect to +them which seek only to amplify themselves, we are born and live by +chance; but in respect to God, whose instruments we are, we are formed +by prescience and design, and for a high end. Therefore we are bound to +no Father but God, and receive all things from Him. They hold as beyond +question the immortality of souls, and that these associate with good +angels after death, or with bad angels, according as they have likened +themselves in this life to either. For all things seek their like. They +differ little from us as to places of reward and punishment. They are in +doubt whether there are other worlds beyond ours, and account it +madness to say there is nothing. Nonentity is incompatible with the +infinite entity of God. They lay down two principles of metaphysics, +entity which is the highest God, and nothingness which is the defect of +entity. Evil and sin come of the propensity to nothingness; the sin +having its cause not efficient, but in deficiency. Deficiency is, they +say, of power, wisdom or will. Sin they place in the last of these +three, because he who knows and has the power to do good is bound also +to have the will, for will arises out of them. They worship God in +Trinity, saying God is the supreme Power, whence proceeds the highest +Wisdom, which is the same with God, and from these comes Love, which is +both Power and Wisdom; but they do not distinguish persons by name, as +in our Christian law, which has not been revealed to them. This +religion, when its abuses have been removed, will be the future mistress +of the world, as great theologians teach and hope. Therefore Spain found +the New World (though its first discoverer, Columbus, greatest of +heroes, was a Genoese), that all nations should be gathered under one +law. We know not what we do, but God knows, whose instruments we are. +They sought new regions for lust of gold and riches, but God works to a +higher end. The sun strives to burn up the earth, not to produce plants +and men, but God guides the battle to great issues. His the praise, to +Him the glory!</p> + +<p><i>G.M.</i> Oh, if you knew what our astrologers say of the coming age, and +of our age, that has in it more history within a hundred years than all +the world had in four thousand years before! Of the wonderful invention +of printing and guns, and the use of the magnet, and how it all comes of +Mercury, Mars, the Moon, and the Scorpion!</p> + +<p><i>Capt.</i> Ah, well! God gives all in His good time. They astrologize too +much.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="A_FRAGMENT_OF" id="A_FRAGMENT_OF"></a>A FRAGMENT OF</h3> + +<h2>JOSEPH HALL'S<br /> + +MUNDUS ALTER ET IDEM</h2> + +<h4>(<i>THE OTHER-AND SAME WORLD</i>)</h4> + +<h5>TRANSLATED BY</h5> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Dr.</span> WILLIAM KING.</h4> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>INTRODUCTORY SKETCH.</h3> + + +<p>Joseph Hall was born at Bristow Park, by Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in the year +1574, and educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In 1597 he published +three books, and in 1598 three more books, of Satires, "<i>Virgidemiarum</i>, +Six Bookes." These satires, with others published about the same time by +Marlowe and Marston, were burnt by order of Whitgift, Archbishop of +Canterbury, who had no relish for that kind of writing. Nine years +later, in the year 1607, at the age of thirty-two, Hall published the +satire now to be described. He was a witty and an earnest man, who rose +to honour in the Church, became successively Bishop of Exeter and of +Norwich; as Bishop of Norwich was in controversy with John Milton on +Church Discipline; suffered patiently imprisonment and persecution from +the Puritans; and closed an honourable life of more than fourscore years +in 1656. He has been called by some the Christian Seneca.</p> + +<p>His early work, the "Mundus Alter et Idem," represents an ideal world +divided into regions answering to man's chief weaknesses or vices. He +gave with it a map of its Crapulia, Latronia, &c., fully peopled, with a +neighbouring land in which there are no signs of settlement, <i>Terra +Sancta, ignota etiam adhuc</i>, the Holy Land, even yet unknown.</p> + +<p>Joseph Hall's new world is also figured as an Austral Continent. They +are good travellers, he says, who tell what they have seen in known +lands, but he is a better who not only travels but is himself the maker +of the lands he travels through. He chose his day, and went aboard the +good ship Phantasy, quitted harbour, sailed away, reached in two years +the Fortunate Isles, and, leaving the shores of Africa behind him, came +in sight of the black headland of Crapulia.</p> + +<p>Here Introduction ends and Travel begins with the part partly translated +by Dr. King: Crapulia, named from Crapula, is the Land of Inebriate +Excess, and its two provinces, Pamphagonia and Yvronia, mean by their +names the provinces of Omnivorous Gluttony and Drunkenness. Dr. King has +translated six chapters, and begun the seventh, which is upon the wars +of the Pamphagonians, to which they march forth armed with spits and +two-pronged forks and heavy ribs of beef. In their free city, Ucalegon, +built near the borders of Moronia, the citizens live happy as monks. +They are so well shut in by high rocks that they can laugh at enemies, +and through a hollow in the rocks with softest pace creeps the river +Oysivius (the Idle). There is only one way up, their rocks for the +inhabitants, and that is not by zigzag steps, but by a rope and basket. +Birds wholly peculiar to the place supply food by being themselves +eatable, and by the great multitude of their eggs, and by the loads of +fish they bring into their nests to feed their young. The citizens make +to themselves also beds of the soft feathers of these birds. This valley +yields to the people of Ucalegon everything except what they don't care +for. They are free, therefore, to sup, sleep, rise, dine, and lie down.</p> + +<p>Husbandry, as among the old Egyptians, consists chiefly in feeding pigs, +for the husbandmen wait on the rich. One, with a gentle touch, opens the +richer man's eyes when he wakes; another fans him with a flapper while +he eats; another puts bits into his mouth when it opens. There are two +cities under Ucalegon, Livona and Roncara (Snort and Snore), which have +like privileges, except that here the inhabitants are almost always +asleep, and fatten wonderfully.</p> + +<p>These are among the laws of Crapulia:—It is a crime to drink alone. +Whoever has defrauded Nature by fasting four hours after sleep shall be +compelled to sup. When the mouth is full it is enough to answer +questions by holding out a finger. What cook soever shall treat food so +that it cannot be eaten, shall be tied to a stake beside which is hung +meat half raw or half burnt, and shall remain so tied until somebody +comes who will eat that meat.</p> + +<p>No coin of metal is current in Crapulia, but they make payment in kind. +Thus two sparrows are one starling, two starlings are one fieldfare, two +fieldfares one hen, two hens one goose, two geese one lamb, two lambs +one kid, two kids one goat, two goats one cow, and so forth.</p> + +<p>The next chapter is on the Religion of the Crapulians. They hate Jove +because his thunder turns the wine sour and he spoils ripe fruit by +raining on it. Their God is Time, who eats everything.</p> + +<p>But I hasten, says the traveller, to the palace of the Grand Duke, +whither I was happily led by my genius. The first Duke must have been as +large as the man two of whose teeth were dug up at Cambridge, each as +big as a man's head. On his tomb is an inscription. "I Omasius, Duke of +Fagonia, Lord, Victor, Prince and God lie here. No man shall say I +starved, shall pass by fasting, or salute me sober. Let him be my heir +who can, my subject who will, my enemy who dares. Farewell and Fatten."</p> + +<p>After a description of the Island of Hunger, the traveller passes from +Pamphagonia to Yvronia, the other province of Crapulia.</p> + +<p>These are among the laws of Yvronia:—A cup must be either full or +empty. Whoever takes or returns a cup half empty shall be guilty of +<i>lèse societé</i>. The sober man who hurts a drunkard, shall be cut off +from wine for ever: if he kill a drunkard, he shall die by thirst. To +walk from supper in a right line shall be criminal. He who adds water to +wine shall be degraded to the table of the dogs.</p> + +<p>Yvronia having been described in seven chapters, the traveller in this +Other-and-Same World passes on to Viraginia, the land of the Viragoes. +This is Gynia Nova, miswritten New Guinea. The chief of its many +provinces is Linguadocia, in which Garrula is one of the famous cities. +In Viraginia the traveller was at once made prisoner, but permitted to +see the land after he had subscribed to certain articles, as, That in +word or deed he would work no ill to the nobler sex; That he would never +interpose a word when a woman was speaking; That wherever he might be he +would concede domestic rule to the woman; That he would never deny to a +wife any ornament of dress she looked at.</p> + +<p>As to its form of government, the state seemed to be a democracy, in +which all governed and none obeyed. They settled affairs at public +meetings, in which all spoke and none listened; and they had a perpetual +Parliament.</p> + +<p>The men in Viraginia are subject to the women. When a wife leaves her +house for any reason, she places the care of her husband under any other +woman of the household until she returns. A husband who survives his +wife, is married at once to his wife's maid, or goes into bondage to the +nearest mother of a family, because it is not permitted that any man +shall become master in his own house.</p> + +<p>The women sit while the men serve, sleep when the men are roused to get +up, scold them when they complain, and beat them. That day is worthy to +be marked with a white stone to which men can say good-bye with a whole +skin.</p> + +<p>Contrary to the custom with us, the women in Viraginia cut their hair +and let their nails grow. Some of them also practise with profit the +gymnastic art, so that they can make beautiful use of teeth, nails, and +heels. A nobler and more cleanly polished place is not to be seen than +Viraginia, where everything is washed, cooked and cared for by the men, +and there is nothing unbecoming but the garments of the men themselves.</p> + +<p>The next land to be visited was Moronia, Foolsland, the vastest, the +most uncultivated and the most populous of all these countries. To the +east is Variana or Moronia Mobilis, to the north is Moronia Aspera, to +the south Moronia Felix, and to the west Moronia Pia. The people are, +nearly all of them, tall and fat, with palish hair, prominent lips, and +very thick ears. In midwinter they go with their chests open, and the +rest of the body lightly clothed, that the warmth may enter the more +readily, and the cold go out of them; but in summer they put on thick +overcoats and cloaks, and all the clothes they have, to shut out the +heat. They shave their heads, either because they remember that they +were born bald, or to allay the heat of the brain, or because the hair +comes between the brain and heaven, and checks the freedom of the mind +in going heavenward.</p> + +<p>Provinces, towns and people of Moronia having been visited and fully +described, the traveller through this Other-and-Same World then proceeds +to describe Lavernia, the Land of Thieves and Cheats, who obtain great +part of their plunder from Moronia. In this land the Larcinians require +much attention. And at the end of all, adds Joseph Hall, "These men, +these manners, these cities I have seen, have marvelled at, have laughed +at, and at last, broken by the toils of so great a journey, have +returned to my own land. <span class="smcap">Peregrinus, quondam Academicus</span>."</p> + +<p>Dr. William King was born in the year 1663, son of Ezekiel King, a +gentleman of London. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ +Church, Oxford. He early inherited a fair estate, took his Master of +Arts degree in 1688, and began his career as writer with a refutation of +attacks upon Wiclif in the "History of Heresy," by M. Varillas. He then +chose law for a profession, in 1692 graduated as LL.D., and was admitted +an Advocate at Doctor's Commons. He kept a light heart and a lighter +purse than beseemed one of his fraternity, publishing playful satires, +at times showing an earnest mind under his mirth. In or soon after the +year 1702 Dr. King went to Ireland as judge of the High Court of +Admiralty, sole Commissioner of the Prizes, Vicar-General to the Lord +Primate, and Keeper of the Records in Birmingham's Tower, in which +office he was succeeded in 1708 by Joseph Addison. Dr. King, who had not +increased his credit for a love of work, returned to London about that +time, and following his own way of mirth began publishing "Useful +Transactions in Philosophy and other sorts of learning." In 1709 he +published the best of his playful poems, "The Art of Cookery, in +imitation of Horace's Art of Poetry; with some letters to Dr. Lister and +others, occasioned principally by the Title of a Book published by the +Doctor, being the works of Apicius Cœlius concerning the Soups and +Sauces of the Ancients." When he came across Joseph Hall's satire, he +found it so much to his mind that he began to translate as follows:—</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 35em;"> +H.M.<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><span class="smcap">Crapulia</span>.</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<h4><i>The Situation of the Country.</i></h4> + + +<p>Crapulia is a very fair and large territory, which on the north is +bounded with the Æthiopic Ocean, on the east with Laconia and Viraginia, +on the south by Moronia Felix, and westward with the Tryphonian Fens. It +lies in that part of the universe where is bred the monstrous bird +called Ruc, that for its prey will bear off an elephant in its talons; +and is described by the modern geographers.</p> + +<p>The soil is too fruitful, and the heavens too serene; so that I have +looked upon them with a silent envy, not without pity, when I considered +they were blessings so little deserved by the inhabitants. It lies in +seventy-four degrees of longitude, and sixty degrees of latitude, and +eleven degrees distant from the Cape of Good Hope; and lies, as it were, +opposite to the whole coast of Africa. It is commonly divided into two +provinces, Pamphagonia and Ivronia, the former of which is of the same +length and breadth as Great Britain (which I hope will not be taken as +any reflection), the other is equal to the High and Low Dutch Lands. +Both obey the same prince, are governed by the same laws, and differ +very little in their habit or their manners.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<h4><i>phagonia; or, Glutton's Paradise.</i></h4> + + +<p>Pamphagonia is of a triangular figure, like that of ancient Egypt, or +the Greek letter delta, Δ. It is mountainous, inclosed with very high +hills; its soil is of the richest, so that birds which come thither to +feed, if they tarry but three months, grow so very fat and weighty, that +they cannot fly back again over the mountains, but suffer themselves to +be taken up in the hand, and are as delicious as the ortolan or the +beccaficos of the Italians. And it is no wonder to them who know that +geese in Scotland are generated from leaves fallen into the water, and +believe the testimony of one of our ambassadors, that in the north-east +parts of the world lambs grow upon stalks like cabbages and eat up the +grass all around about them, to find the same sort of provisions in this +country. Besides, the fish upon that coast are in such plenty, and so +voracious (whether they conform themselves to the genius of the place +and people, or presage to themselves the honour of so magnificent a +sepulchre as was given to Nero's turbot), that, as soon as the hook is +cast in, they press to it as the ghosts in Lucian did to Charon's boat, +and cling to the iron as miners do to a rope that is let down when the +light of their candle forbodes some malignant exhalation.</p> + +<p>The sea-ports, with which this country abounds more than any other, are +of no other use than to receive and take in such things as are edible, +which they have for their superfluous wool and hides: nor may the +inhabitants export anything that has the least relation to the palate. +You see nothing there but fruit-trees. They hate plains, limes, and +willows, as being idle and barren, and yielding nothing useful but their +shade. There are hops, pears, plums, and apples, in the hedge-rows, as +there is in all Ivronia; from whence the Lombards, and some counties in +the west of England, have learned their improvements. In ancient times, +Frugonia, or the Land of Frugality, took in this country as one of its +provinces; and histories tell us, that, in Saturn's time, the Frugonian +princes gave laws to all this part of the world, and had their palace +there; and that their country was called Fagonia, from the simplicity of +their diet, which consisted only in beech-mast. But that yoke has been +long ago shaken off; their manners are wholly changed, and, from the +universality of their food, they have obtained, in their own country +language, the title of Pamphagones.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<h4><i>The First Province of Pamphagonia.</i></h4> + + +<p>Friviandy, or Tight-bittia (that we may take the provinces in their +order), were it not for a temperament peculiar to the place, is rather +of the hottest to produce those who are properly called good +trencher-men. Its utmost point, which other geographers call the +Promontory of the Terra Australis, is of the same latitude as the most +southerly parts of Castile, and is about forty-two degrees distant from +the equator. The inhabitants have curled hair and dusky complexions, and +regard more the delicacy than the largeness and number of their dishes. +In this very promontory, which we shall call the black one from its +colour (for it is a very smoky region, partly from the frequent vapours +of the place, partly from its vicinity to the Terra del Fogo, which, by +the common consent of geographers, lies on the right hand of it, but +rather nearer than they have placed it), is the city Lucina, whose +buildings are lofty, but apt to be smoky and offensive to the smell; +from whence a colony went, perhaps, as far as the Indies, where it +remains to this day by the name of Cochin-China.</p> + +<p>Here is the famous temple of the great deity Omasius Gorgut, or +Gorbelly. It is a vast pile, and contains a thousand hearths, and as +many altars, which are constantly employed in the Rucal Festivals. In +the midst is a high pyramid, as lofty as the hand of man can erect it, +little inferior to those of Memphis. It is called the Cheminean Tower. +This, rising high, gives the signal of war to the adjoining countries: +for, as we by beacons lighted upon a high hill discover the danger of an +approaching enemy, so these, on the contrary, do the same by letting +their smoke cease and their fires go out: for, when the perpetual vapour +ceases to roll forth in thick and dark clouds of smoke, it is a token +that the Hambrians are drawing nearer, than whom there can be no enemy +more terrible to this nation. There are several smaller towns, that lie +under the dominion of this supreme city. Charbona is the largest +village, and, what is seldom seen elsewhere, lies all under ground. Upon +its barren soil arises another, though of less note, called Favillia. +After these lies Tenaille, a narrow town, and Batillû, a broad one, both +considerable. On the left are some subservient petty hamlets, as +Assadora, Marmitta, Culliera, as useful for the reception of strangers, +amongst which, that of Marmitta is watered by the river Livenza; which, +as is said of a fountain in the Peak of Derby, boils over twice in +four-and-twenty hours.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<h4><i>The Second Province of Pamphagonia.</i></h4> + + +<p>Next to this is the Golosinian district, the most pleasant part of +Pamphagonia, covered with dates, almonds, figs, olives, pomegranates, +oranges, citrons, and pistaches; through which run the smoothest of +streams, called the Oglium. Here is the beautiful city of Marzapane, +with noble turrets glittering with gold, but lying too open to the +enemy. Over it hang the Zucker hills, out of whose bowels they draw +something that is hard, white, and sparkling, but sweet as that moisture +which the ancients gathered out of the reeds which grew in Arabia and +the Indies. You shall find few people here, who are grown up, but what +have lost their teeth, and have stinking breaths. Near to this is the +little city Seplasium, which admits of no tradesmen but perfumers. It is +a town of great commerce with the people of Viraginia, especially the +Locanians, who use to change their looking-glass with them for oils and +pastils. The agreeableness of the place, and the bounty of the heavens, +is favourable to their art; for the whole track of land, at certain +seasons, is covered with aromatic comfits, that fall like hail-stones: +which Anathumiasis I take to be essentially the same as that aerial +honey which we often find upon our oaks, especially in the spring, and +that it differs only in thickness; for whereas that honey is sprinkled +in drops, the little globules are hardened by the intense cold of the +middle region, and rebound in falling.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<h4><i>Of the Third Province of Pamphagonia.</i></h4> + + +<p>In the fifty-fifth degree, we come into the plains of Lecania, and so +into the very heart of Pamphagonia, where the chief city we meet with is +Cibinium, which is washed with the acid streams of the river Assagion. +In the forum, or market-place, is the tomb (as I conjecture by the +footsteps of some letters now remaining) of Apicius, that famous Roman, +not very beautiful, but antique. It is engraved upon the shell of a +sea-crab; and it might happen, notwithstanding what Seneca says, that +this famous epicure, after having sought for larger shell-fish than the +coast of Gallia could supply him with, and then going in vain to Africa +to make a farther inquiry, might hear some rumour concerning this coast, +steer his course thither, and there die of a surfeit. But this I leave +to the critics. Here I shall only mention the most fertile fields of +Lardana and Ossulia. The delicious situation of Mortadella, the +pleasantest of places, had wonderfully delighted me, had it not been for +the salt-works which often approach too near it. There is an offensive +stinking town called Formagium, alias Butterboxia, and Mantica, a boggy +place near the confines of Ivronia.</p> + +<p>I hasten to the metropolis of the whole region, which, whether you +respect the uniformity of the building, the manners of the people, or +their way of living, their rules for behaviour, their law and justice, +will show as much as if I were to descend to particulars.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<h4><i>Of the Metropolis of Pamphagonia, and the Customs of the Inhabitants.</i></h4> + + +<p>There are but very few villages in this country, as well as in some +others; from whence a traveller may conjecture, that the country towns +are devoured by the cities, which are not so many in number as they are +large and populous; of which the mother and governess is called +Artocreopolis. The report goes, that in ancient times there were two +famous cities, Artopolis and Creatium, which had many and long contests +about the superiority: for so it happens to places, as well as men, that +increase in power; insomuch as the two most flourishing Universities in +the world (to both of which I bear the relation of a son, though I am +more peculiarly obliged to one of them for my education), +notwithstanding they are sisters, could not abstain from so ungrateful a +contention.</p> + +<p>Artopolis boasted of its antiquity, and that it had flourished in the +Saturnian age, when it had as yet no rival. Creatium set forth its own +splendour, pleasantness, and power. At last, a council being called, +Creatium got the preference by the universal votes of the assembly; for +such is the iniquity of the times, that though the head be covered with +grey hairs, yet nothing is allowed to the reverence of antiquity, when +encountered by a proud and upstart novelty. The other city is now so far +neglected, that the ruins or footsteps of its magnificence are scarce +remaining, any more than of Verulam, as is most elegantly set forth by +our noble poet Spenser in his verses on that subject; the latter +usurping the name of the other, as well as the other has now the double +title of Artocreopolis. The city is more extensive than beautiful: it is +fortified with a large and deep ditch of running water, which washes +almost all the streets, wherein are a thousand several ponds for fish; +upon which swim ducks, geese, swans, and all sorts of water-fowl, which +has been wisely imitated by the people of Augsburg. This ditch is called +Gruessa. There are two walls, whose materials were furnished by the +flesh-market; for they are made of bones, the larger serving for the +foundations, the lesser for the superstructure, whilst the smallest fill +up what is wanting in the middle; being all cemented with the whites of +eggs, by a wonderful artifice. The houses are not very beautiful, nor +built high after the manner of other cities; so that there is no need of +an Augustus to restrain the buildings to the height of seventy feet, as +was done at Rome; nor is there room for a Seneca or Juvenal to complain +of the multitude of their stairs and number of their stories.</p> + +<p>They have no regard for staircases; for indeed none of the citizens care +for them, partly from the trouble of getting up them (especially when, +as they often do, they have drunk heartily) as much as for the danger of +getting down again. Their houses are all covered with large blade-bones, +very neatly joined together. There are no free citizens admitted, but +such whose employment has more immediately some relation to the table. +Husbandmen, smiths, millers, and butchers, live in their colonies, who, +when they have a belly of an unwieldy bulk, are promoted to be +burgesses; to which degree none were anciently admitted but cooks, +bakers, victuallers, and the gravest senators, who are chosen here, as +in other places, not for their prudence, riches, or length of beard; but +for their measure, which they must come up to yearly if they will +pretend to bear any office in the public. As any one grows in +dimensions, he rises in honour; so that I have seen some who, from the +meanest and most contemptible village, have, for their merits, been +promoted to a more famous town, and at last obtained the senatorial +dignity in this most celebrated city: and yet, when by some disease (as +it often happens), or by age, they have grown leaner than they are +allowed to be by the statutes, have lost their honour, together with the +bulk of their carcass. Their streets were paved with polished marble; +which seemed strange amongst a people so incurious, both because the +workmanship was troublesome, and there might be danger in its being +slippery. But the true reason of it was, that they might not be forced +to lift their feet higher than ordinary by the inequality of the +pavement, and likewise that the chairs of the senators might the more +easily be pushed forward; for they never go on foot, or on horseback, +nor even in a coach, to the exchange, or their public feasts, because of +their weight; but they are moved about in great easy elbow-chairs, with +four wheels to them, and continue sitting so fixed, in the same posture, +snoring and flabbering till they are wheeled home again.</p> + +<p>At the four gates of the city, whose form is circular, there sit in +their turns as many senators, who are called Buscadores. These carefully +examine all who come in and go out, those that go out, lest they should +presume by chance to do it fasting, which they can easily judge of by +the extent of their bellies, and the matter being proved, they are fined +in a double supper: those that come in, to see what they bring with them +upon their return; for they must neither depart with empty stomachs, nor +come back with empty hands. Every month, according to the laws, which +they unwillingly transgress, there are stated feasts, at which all the +senators are obliged to be present, that after dinner (for no person can +give his vote before he has dined) they may deliberate concerning the +public affairs. The name of their common-hall is Pythanoscome. Every one +knows his own seat, and his conveniences and a couch to repose upon when +the heat of their wine and seasoned dainties incline them to it. Their +greatest delicacies are served up at the first course; for they think it +foolish not to eat the best things with the greatest appetite: nor do +they cut their boars, sheep, goats, and lambs into joints or quarters, +as commonly we do, but convey them whole to table, by the help of +machines, as I remember to have read in Petronius Arbiter. They are +fineable who rise before they have set six hours; for then the edge of +their stomach is blunted. They eat and drink so leisurely, for the same +reason as the famous Epicure of old wished that his neck were as long as +a crane's. They measure the seasonable time for their departure after +this method: they have a door to their town-house, which is wide enough +for the largest man to enter when he is fasting: through this the guests +pass; and when any one would depart, if he stops in this passage, he is +trusted to go out at another door; but if it be as easy as if he were +fasting, the master of the ceremonies makes him tarry till he comes to +be of a statutable magnitute: after which example, Willfrid's needle in +Belvior Castle was a pleasant trial of Roman Catholic sanctity. They +have gardens of many acres extent, but not like those of Adonis or +Alcinoüs; for nothing delightful is to be expected in them, neither +order, nor regularity of walk, nor grass-plots, nor variety of flowers +in the borders: but you will find all planted with cabbages, turnips, +garlick, and musk-melons, which were carried hence to Italy, and are in +quantity sufficient to feast an hundred Pythagoreans.</p> + +<p>There is a public college, or hospital, whither they are sent who have +got the dropsy, gout, or asthma, by their eating and drinking; and there +they are nourished at the public expense. As for such as have lost their +teeth by their luxury, or broken them by eating too greedily or +incautiously, they are provided for in the island of Sorbonia. All the +richer sort have several servants, in the nature of vassals, to +cultivate their gardens, and be employed in inferior offices, who have +their liberty when they can arrive at such a bulkiness. If any of the +grandees of the country die of a surfeit, he is given, as being all made +up of the most exquisite dainties, to be eaten up by his servants; and +this they do that nothing should be lost that is so delicate. The men +are thick and fat to a miracle; nor will any one salute another whose +chin does not come to the midst of his breast, and his paunch falls to +his knees. The women are not unlike them, and in shape resemble the +Italians, and have breasts like the Hottentots. They go almost naked, +having no regard to their garments. The magistrates and persons of +better figure have gowns made of the skins of such beasts as they have +eaten at one meal. All wear a knife, with a large spoon, hanging upon +their right arm. Before their breasts they wear a smooth skin, instead +of a napkin, to receive what falls out of their mouths, and to wipe them +upon occasion; which whether it be more black or greasy, is hard to +determine.</p> + +<p>They are of a very slow apprehension, and no way fit for any science; +but yet understand such arts as they have occasion for. Their schools +are public-houses, where they are educated in the sciences of eating, +drinking, and carving; over which, one Archisilenius, an exquisite +Epicure, was then provost, who, instead of grammar, read some fragments +of Apicius. Instead of a library, there is a public repository of +drinking-vessels, in which cups of all orders and sizes are disposed +into certain classes. Cups and dishes are instead of books. The younger +scholars have less, the elder have greater; one has a quart, the other a +pottle, the other a gallon: this has a hen, that a goose, a third a lamb +or a porker: nor have they any liberty, or recess, till the whole is +finished; and if by a seven years' stuffing they are no proficients in +fatness, are presently banished into the Fancetic Islands; nor are they +suffered long to stay there idle and without improvement. Hither +likewise are sent all physicians who prescribe a course of diet to any +person. When any one is sick, without recourse to Æsculapius, they make +him eat radish, and drink warm water; which, according to Celsus, will +purge and vomit him. Venison is that which they most delight in; but +they never take it in hunting, but by nets and gins. They look upon the +swine as the most profitable and best of all animals; whether it is for +the likeness of its manners, as being good for nothing but the table, or +else from its growing fat on the sudden with the worst of nutriment. It +may not seem credible, yet parsimony appears in the midst of their +profuseness: but then it is very ill placed, for it is in crumbs, bones, +and crusts. They do not so much as keep any dogs, cats, hawks, or +anything that eats flesh. If any person suffer meat to stink, he is +impaled; but venison and rabbits are to have the <i>haut-gout</i>: and then +their cheese is kept till it is overrun with little animals, which they +devour with mustard and sugar. This is an odd sort of custom, derived +from the Dutch.</p> + +<p>The country abounds with rivers, which ebb and flow according to their +digestion, and generally overflow at the beginning of January, and +towards the end of February, and do mischief to the neighbouring +country.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<h4><i>Of the Wars of the Pamphagonians.</i></h4> + + +<p>The Pamphagones have perpetual wars with the Hambrians, or the Fancetic +Islands, and the Frugonians.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p><i>Cætera desunt.</i></p> + + +<p class="center">THE END.</p> + + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 5em;"><small>PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO.<br /> LONDON AND EDINBURGH</small></p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ideal Commonwealths, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS *** + +***** This file should be named 18638-h.htm or 18638-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/6/3/18638/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Graeme Mackreth and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ideal Commonwealths + +Author: Various + +Editor: Henry Morley + +Release Date: June 20, 2006 [EBook #18638] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Graeme Mackreth and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS + + +PLUTARCH'S LYCURGUS + +MORE'S UTOPIA + +BACON'S NEW ATLANTIS + +CAMPANELLA'S CITY OF THE SUN + +AND A FRAGMENT OF + +HALL'S MUNDUS ALTER ET IDEM + + +_WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY HENRY MORLEY_ + +LL.D., PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON + +FIFTH EDITION + +LONDON +GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, LIMITED +BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL +GLASGOW, MANCHESTER, AND NEW YORK + +1890 + +MORLEY'S UNIVERSAL LIBRARY. + + +1. _Sheridan's Plays._ + +2. _Plays from Moliere._ By English Dramatists. + +3. _Marlowe's Faustus_ and _Goethe's Faust._ + +4. _Chronicle of the Cid._ + +5. _Rabelais' Gargantua_ and the _Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel._ + +6. _Machiavelli's Prince._ + +7. _Bacon's Essays._ + +8. _Defoe's Journal of the Plague Year._ + +9. _Locke on Civil Government_ and _Filmer's "Patriarcha"._ + +10. _Butler's Analogy of Religion._ + +11. _Dryden's Virgil._ + +12. _Scott's Demonology and Witchcraft._ + +13. _Herrick's Hesperides._ + +14. _Coleridge's Table-Talk._ + +15. _Boccaccio's Decameron._ + +16. _Sterne's Tristram Shandy._ + +17. _Chapman's Homer's Iliad._ + +18. _Mediaeval Tales._ + +19. _Voltaire's Candide_, and _Johnson's Rasselas._ + +20. _Jonson's Plays and Poems._ + +21. _Hobbes's Leviathan._ + +22. _Samuel Butler's Hudibras._ + +23. _Ideal Commonwealths._ + +24. _Cavendish's Life of Wolsey._ + +25 & 26. _Don Quixote._ + +27. _Burlesque Plays and Poems._ + +28. _Dante's Divine Comedy._ LONGFELLOW'S Translation. + +29. _Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield, Plays, and Poems._ + +30. _Fables and Proverbs from the Sanskrit. (Hitopadesa.)_ + +31. _Lamb's Essays of Elia._ + +32. _The History of Thomas Ellwood._ + +33. _Emerson's Essays, &c._ + +34. _Southey's Life of Nelson._ + +35. _De Quincey's Confession of an Opium-Eater, &c._ + +36. _Stories of Ireland._ By Miss EDGEWORTH. + +37. _Frere's Aristophanes: Acharnians, Knights, Birds._ + +38. _Burke's Speeches and Letters._ + +39. _Thomas a Kempis._ + +40. _Popular Songs of Ireland._ + +41. _Potter's AEschylus._ + +42. _Goethe's Faust: Part II._ ANSTER'S Translation. + +43. _Famous Pamphlets._ + +44. _Francklin's Sophocles._ + +45. _M.G. Lewis's Tales of Terror and Wonder._ + +46. _Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation._ + +47. _Drayton's Barons' Wars, Nymphidia, &c._ + +48. _Cobbett's Advice to Young Men._ + +49. _The Banquet of Dante._ + +50. _Walker's Original._ + +51. _Schiller's Poems and Ballads._ + +52. _Peele's Plays and Poems._ + +53. _Harrington's Oceana._ + +54. _Euripides: Alcestis and other Plays._ + +55. _Praed's Essays._ + +56. _Traditional Tales._ ALLAN CUNNINGHAM. + +57. _Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity. Books I.-IV._ + +58. _Euripides: The Bacchanals and other Plays._ + +59. _Izaak Walton's Lives._ + +60. _Aristotle's Politics._ + +61. _Euripides: Hecuba and other Plays._ + +62. _Rabelais--Sequel to Pantagruel._ + +63. _A Miscellany._ + +"Marvels of clear type and general neatness."--_Daily Telegraph._ + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Plato in his "Republic" argues that it is the aim of Individual Man as +of the State to be wise, brave and temperate. In a State, he says, there +are three orders, the Guardians, the Auxiliaries, the Producers. Wisdom +should be the special virtue of the Guardians; Courage of the +Auxiliaries; and Temperance of all. These three virtues belong +respectively to the Individual Man, Wisdom to his Rational part; Courage +to his Spirited; and Temperance to his Appetitive: while in the State as +in the Man it is Injustice that disturbs their harmony. + +Because the character of Man appears in the State unchanged, but in a +larger form, Plato represented Socrates as studying the ideal man +himself through an Ideal Commonwealth. + +In another of his dialogues, "Critias," of which we have only the +beginning, Socrates wishes that he could see how such a commonwealth +would work, if it were set moving. Critias undertakes to tell him. For +he has received tradition of events that happened more than nine +thousand years ago, when the Athenians themselves were such ideal +citizens. Critias has received this tradition, he says, from a +ninety-year-old grandfather, whose father, Dropides, was the friend of +Solon. Solon, lawgiver and poet, had heard it from the priests of the +goddess Neith or Athene at Sais, and had begun to shape it into a heroic +poem. + +This was the tradition:--Nine thousand years before the time of Solon, +the goddess Athene, who was worshipped also in Sais, had given to her +Athenians a healthy climate, a fertile soil, and temperate people strong +in wisdom and courage. Their Republic was like that which Socrates +imagined, and it had to bear the shock of a great invasion by the people +of the vast island Atlantis. This island, larger than all Libya and Asia +put together, was once in the sea westward beyond the Atlantic +waves,--thus America was dreamed of long before it was discovered. +Atlantis had ten kings, descended from ten sons of Poseidon (Neptune), +who was the god magnificently worshipped by its people. Vast power and +dominion, that extended through all Libya as far as Egypt, and over a +part of Europe, caused the Atlantid kings to grow ambitious and unjust. +Then they entered the Mediterranean and fell upon Athens with enormous +force. But in the little band of citizens, temperate, brave, and wise, +there were forces of Reason able to resist and overcome brute strength. +Now, however, gone are the Atlantids, gone are the old virtues of +Athens. Earthquakes and deluges laid waste the world. The whole great +island of Atlantis, with its people and its wealth, sank to the bottom +of the ocean. The ideal warriors of Athens, in one day and night, were +swallowed by an earthquake, and were to be seen no more. + +Plato, a philosopher with the soul of a poet, died in the year 347 +before Christ. Plutarch was writing at the close of the first century +after Christ, and in his parallel Lives of Greeks and Romans, the most +famous of his many writings, he took occasion to paint an Ideal +Commonwealth as the conception of Lycurgus, the half mythical or all +mythical Solon of Sparta. To Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus, as well as to +Plato, Thomas More and others have been indebted for some part of the +shaping of their philosophic dreams. + +The discovery of the New World at the end of the fifteenth century +followed hard upon the diffusion of the new invention of printing, and +came at a time when the fall of Constantinople by scattering Greek +scholars, who became teachers in Italy, France and elsewhere, spread the +study of Greek, and caused Plato to live again. Little had been heard of +him through the Arabs, who cared little for his poetic method. But with +the revival of learning he had become a force in Europe, a strong aid to +the Reformers. + +Sir Thomas More's Utopia was written in the years 1515-16, when its +author's age was about thirty-seven. He was a young man of twenty when +Columbus first touched the continent named after the Florentine Amerigo +Vespucci, who made his voyages to it in the years 1499-1503. More wrote +his Utopia when imaginations of men were stirred by the sudden +enlargement of their conceptions of the world, and Amerigo Vespucci's +account of his voyages, first printed in 1507, was fresh in every +scholar's mind. He imagined a traveller, Raphael Hythloday--whose name +is from Greek words that mean "Knowing in Trifles"--who had sailed with +Vespucci on his three last voyages, but had not returned from the last +voyage until, after separation from his comrades, he had wandered into +some farther discovery of his own. Thus he had found, somewhere in those +parts, the island of Utopia. Its name is from Greek words meaning +Nowhere. More had gone on an embassy to Brussels with Cuthbert Tunstal +when he wrote his philosophical satire upon European, and more +particularly English, statecraft, in the form of an Ideal Commonwealth +described by Hythloday as he had found it in Utopia. It was printed at +Louvain in the latter part of the year 1516, under the editorship of +Erasmus, and that enlightened young secretary to the municipality of +Antwerp, Peter Giles, or AEgidius, who is introduced into the story. +"Utopia" was not printed in England in the reign of Henry VIII., and +could not be, for its satire was too direct to be misunderstood, even +when it mocked English policy with ironical praise for doing exactly +what it failed to do. More was a wit and a philosopher, but at the same +time so practical and earnest that Erasmus tells of a burgomaster at +Antwerp who fastened upon the parable of Utopia with such goodwill that +he learnt it by heart. And in 1517 Erasmus advised a correspondent to +send for Utopia, if he had not yet read it, and if he wished to see the +true source of all political evils. + +Francis Bacon's "New Atlantis," first written in Latin, was published in +1629, three years after its author's death. Bacon placed his Ideal +Commonwealth in those seas where a great Austral continent was even then +supposed to be, but had not been discovered. As the old Atlantis implied +a foreboding of the American continent, so the New Atlantis implied +foreboding of the Australian. Bacon in his philosophy sought through +experimental science the dominion of men over things, "for Nature is +only governed by obeying her." In his Ideal World of the New Atlantis, +Science is made the civilizer who binds man to man, and is his leader to +the love of God. + +Thomas Campanella was Bacon's contemporary, a man only seven years +younger; and an Italian who suffered for his ardour in the cause of +science. He was born in Calabria in 1568, and died in 1639. He entered +the Dominican order when a boy, but had a free and eager appetite for +knowledge. He urged, like Bacon, that Nature should be studied through +her own works, not through books; he attacked, like Bacon, the dead +faith in Aristotle, that instead of following his energetic spirit of +research, lapsed into blind idolatry. Campanella strenuously urged that +men should reform all sciences by following Nature and the books of God. +He had been stirring in this way for ten years, when there arose in +Calabria a conspiracy against the Spanish rule. Campanella, who was an +Italian patriot was seized and sent to Naples. The Spanish inquisition +joined in attack on him. He was accused of books he had not written and +of opinions he did not hold; he was seven times put to the question and +suffered, with firmness of mind, the most cruel tortures. The Pope +interceded in vain for him with the King of Spain. He suffered +imprisonment for twenty-seven years, during which time he wrote much, +and one piece of his prison work was his ideal of "The City of the Sun." + +Released at last from his prison, Campanella went to Rome, where he was +defended by Pope Urban VIII. against continued violence of attack. But +he was compelled at last to leave Rome, and made his escape as a servant +in the livery of the French ambassador. In Paris, Richelieu became +Campanella's friend; the King of France gave him a pension of three +thousand livres; the Sorbonne vouched for the orthodoxy of his writings. +He died in Paris, at the age of seventy-one, in the Convent of the +Dominicans. + +Of Campanella's "Civitas Solis," which has not hitherto been translated +into English, the translation here given, with one or two omissions of +detail which can well be spared, has been made for me by my old pupil +and friend, Mr. Thomas W. Halliday. + +In the works (published in 1776) of the witty Dr. William King, who +played much with the subject of cookery, is a fragment found among his +remaining papers, and given by his editors as an original piece in the +manner of Rabelais. It seems never to have been observed that this is +only a translation of that part of Joseph Hall's "Mundus Alter es Idem," +which deals with the kitchen side of life. The fragment will be found at +the end of this volume, preceded by a short description of the other +parts of Hall's World which is other than ours, and yet the same. + +H.M. + +_March 1885._ + + + + +PLUTARCH'S + +LIFE OF LYCURGUS. + + + + +LIFE OF LYCURGUS. + + +Of Lycurgus the lawgiver we have nothing to relate that is certain and +uncontroverted. For there are different accounts of his birth, his +travels, his death, and especially of the laws and form of government +which he established. But least of all are the times agreed upon in +which this great man lived. For some say he flourished at the same time +with Iphitus, and joined with him in settling the cessation of arms +during the Olympic games. Among these is Aristotle the philosopher, who +alleges for proof an Olympic quoit, on which was preserved the +inscription of Lycurgus's name. But others who, with Eratosthenes and +Apollodorus, compute the time by the succession of the Spartan kings, +place him much earlier than the first Olympiad. Timaeus, however, +supposes that, as there were two Lycurguses in Sparta at different +times, the actions of both are ascribed to one, on account of his +particular renown; and that the more ancient of them lived not long +after Homer: nay, some say he had seen him. Xenophon too confirms the +opinion of his antiquity, when he makes him contemporary with the +Heraclidae. It is true, the latest of the Lacedaemonian kings were of the +lineage of the Heraclidae; but Xenophon there seems to speak of the first +and more immediate descendants of Hercules. As the history of those +times is thus involved, in relating the circumstances of Lycurgus's +life, we shall endeavour to select such as are least controverted, and +follow authors of the greatest credit. + +Simonides the poet, tells us, that Prytanis, not Eunomus, was father to +Lycurgus. But most writers give us the genealogy of Lycurgus and Eunomus +in a different manner; for, according to them, Sous was the son of +Patrocles, and grandson of Aristodemus, Eurytion the son of Sous, +Prytanis of Eurytion, and Eunomus of Prytanis; to this Eunomus was born +Polydectes, by a former wife, and by a second, named Dianassa, Lycurgus. +Eutychidas, however, says Lycurgus was the sixth from Patrocles, and the +eleventh from Hercules. The most distinguished of his ancestors was +Sous, under whom the Lacedaemonians made the Helotes their slaves, and +gained an extensive tract of land from the Arcadians. Of this Sous it is +related, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in a difficult post +where there was no water, he agreed to give up all his conquests, +provided that himself and all his army should drink of the neighbouring +spring. When these conditions were sworn to, he assembled his forces, +and offered his kingdom to the man that would forbear drinking; not one +of them, however, would deny himself, but they all drank. Then Sous went +down to the spring himself, and having only sprinkled his face in sight +of the enemy, he marched off, and still held the country, because all +had not drank. Yet, though he was highly honoured for this, the family +had not their name from him, but from his son, were called Eurytionidae; +and this, because Eurytion seems to be the first who relaxed the +strictness of kingly government, inclining to the interest of the +people, and ingratiating himself with them. Upon this relaxation their +encroachments increased, and the succeeding kings, either becoming +odious, treating them with greater rigour, or else giving way through +weakness or in hopes of favour, for a long time anarchy and confusion +prevailed in Sparta; by which one of its kings, the father of Lycurgus, +lost his life. For while he was endeavouring to part some persons who +were concerned in a fray, he received a wound by a kitchen knife, of +which he died, leaving the kingdom to his eldest son Polydectes. + +But he too dying soon after, the general voice gave it for Lycurgus to +ascend the throne; and he actually did so, till it appeared that his +brother's widow was pregnant. As soon as he perceived this, he declared +that the kingdom belonged to her issue, provided it were male, and he +kept the administration in his hands only as his guardian. This he did +with the title of Prodicos, which the Lacedaemonians give to the +guardians of infant kings. Soon after, the queen made him a private +overture, that she would destroy her child, upon condition that he would +marry her when king of Sparta. Though he detested her wickedness, he +said nothing against the proposal, but pretending to approve it, charged +her not to take any drugs to procure an abortion, lest she should +endanger her own health or life; for he would take care that the child, +as soon as born, should be destroyed. Thus he artfully drew on the woman +to her full time, and, when he heard she was in labour, he sent persons +to attend and watch her delivery, with orders, if it were a girl, to +give it to the women, but if a boy, to bring it to him, in whatever +business he might be engaged. It happened that he was at supper with the +magistrates when she was delivered of a boy, and his servants, who were +present, carried the child to him. When he received it, he is reported +to have said to the company, "Spartans, see here your new-born king." He +then laid him down upon the chair of state, and named him Charilaus, +because of the joy and admiration of his magnanimity and justice +testified by all present. Thus the reign of Lycurgus lasted only eight +months. But the citizens had a great veneration for him on other +accounts, and there were more that paid him their attentions, and were +ready to execute his commands, out of regard to his virtues, than those +that obeyed him as a guardian to the king, and director of the +administration. There were not, however, wanting those that envied him, +and opposed his advancement, as too high for so young a man; +particularly the relations and friends of the queen-mother, who seemed +to have been treated with contempt. Her brother Leonidas, one day boldly +attacked him with virulent language, and scrupled not to tell him that +he was well assured he would soon be king; thus preparing suspicions, +and matter of accusation against Lycurgus, in case any accident should +befall the king. Insinuations of the same kind were likewise spread by +the queen-mother. Moved with this ill-treatment, and fearing some dark +design, he determined to get clear of all suspicion, by travelling into +other countries, till his nephew should be grown up, and have a son to +succeed him in the kingdom. + +He set sail, therefore, and landed in Crete. There having observed the +forms of government, and conversed with the most illustrious personages, +he was struck with admiration of some of their laws, and resolved at his +return to make use of them in Sparta. Some others he rejected. Among the +friends he gained in Crete was Thales, with whom he had interest enough +to persuade him to go and settle at Sparta. Thales was famed for his +wisdom and political abilities: he was withal a lyric poet, who under +colour of exercising his art, performed as great things as the most +excellent lawgivers. For his odes were so many persuasives to obedience +and unanimity, as by means of melody and numbers they had great grace +and power, they softened insensibly the manners of the audience, drew +them off from the animosities which then prevailed, and united them in +zeal for excellence and virtue. So that, in some measure, he prepared +the way for Lycurgus towards the instruction of the Spartans. From Crete +Lycurgus passed to Asia, desirous, as is said, to compare the Ionian +expense and luxury with the Cretan frugality and hard diet, so as to +judge what effect each had on their several manners and governments; +just as physicians compare bodies that are weak and sickly with the +healthy and robust. There also, probably, he met with Homer's poems, +which were preserved by the posterity of Cleophylus. Observing that many +moral sentences and much political knowledge were intermixed with his +stories, which had an irresistible charm, he collected them into one +body, and transcribed them with pleasure, in order to take them home +with him. For his glorious poetry was not yet fully known in Greece; +only some particular pieces were in a few hands, as they happened to be +dispersed. Lycurgus was the first that made them generally known. The +Egyptians likewise suppose that he visited them; and as of all their +institutions he was most pleased with their distinguishing the military +men from the rest of the people, he took the same method at Sparta, and, +by separating from these the mechanics and artificers, he rendered the +constitution more noble and more of a piece. This assertion of the +Egyptians is confirmed by some of the Greek writers. But we know of no +one, except Aristocrates, son of Hipparchus, and a Spartan, who has +affirmed that he went to Libya and Spain, and in his Indian excursions +conversed with the Gymnosophists. + +The Lacedaemonians found the want of Lycurgus when absent, and sent many +embassies to entreat him to return. For they perceived that their kings +had barely the title and outward appendages of royalty, but in nothing +else differed from the multitude; whereas Lycurgus had abilities from +nature to guide the measures of government, and powers of persuasion, +that drew the hearts of men to him. The kings, however, where consulted +about his return, and they hoped that in his presence they should +experience less insolence amongst the people. Returning then to a city +thus disposed, he immediately applied himself to alter the whole frame +of the constitution; sensible that a partial change, and the introducing +of some new laws, would be of no sort of advantage; but, as in the case +of a body diseased and full of bad humours, whose temperament is to be +corrected and new formed by medicines, it was necessary to begin a new +regimen. With these sentiments he went to Delphi, and when he had +offered and consulted the god, he returned with that celebrated oracle, +in which the priestess called him "Beloved of the gods, and rather a god +than a man." As to his request that he might enact good laws, she told +him, Apollo had heard his request, and promised that the constitution he +should establish would be the most excellent in the world. Thus +encouraged, he applied to the nobility, and desired them to put their +hands to the work; addressing himself privately at first to his friends, +and afterwards by degrees, trying the disposition of others, and +preparing them to concur in the business. When matters were ripe, he +ordered thirty of the principal citizens to appear armed in the +market-place by break of day, to strike terror into such as might desire +to oppose him. Hermippus has given us the names of twenty of the most +eminent of them; but he that had the greatest share in the whole +enterprise, and gave Lycurgus the best assistance in the establishing of +his laws, was called Arithmiades. Upon the first alarm, king Charilaus, +apprehending it to be a design against his person, took refuge in the +Chalcioicos. But he was soon satisfied, and accepted of their oath. Nay, +so far from being obstinate, he joined in the undertaking. Indeed, he +was so remarkable for the gentleness of his disposition, that Archelaus, +his partner in the throne, is reported to have said to some that were +praising the young king, "Yes, Charilaus is a good man to be sure, who +cannot find in his heart to punish the bad." Among the many new +institutions of Lycurgus, the first and most important was that of a +senate; which sharing, as Plato says, in the power of the kings, too +imperious and unrestrained before, and having equal authority with them, +was the means of keeping them within the bounds of moderation, and +highly contributed to the preservation of the state. For before it had +been veering and unsettled, sometimes inclining to arbitrary power, and +sometimes towards a pure democracy; but this establishment of a senate, +an intermediate body, like ballast, kept it in a just equilibrium, and +put it in a safe posture: the twenty-eight senators adhering to the +kings, whenever they saw the people too encroaching, and, on the other +hand, supporting the people, when the kings attempted to make themselves +absolute. This, according to Aristotle, was the number of senators fixed +upon, because two of the thirty associates of Lycurgus deserted the +business through fear. But Sphaerus tells us there were only twenty-eight +at first entrusted with the design. Something, perhaps, there is in its +being a perfect number, formed of seven multiplied by four, and withal +the first number, after six, that is equal to all its parts. But I +rather think, just so many senators were created, that, together with +the two kings, the whole body might consist of thirty members. + +He had this institution so much at heart, that he obtained from Delphi +an oracle in its behalf, called _rhetra_, or the decree. This was +couched in very ancient and uncommon terms, which interpreted, ran thus: +"When you have built a temple to the Syllanian Jupiter, and the +Syllanian Minerva, divided the people into tribes and classes, and +established a senate of thirty persons, including the two kings, you +shall occasionally summon the people to an assembly between Babyce and +Cnacion, and they shall have the determining voice." Babyce and Cnacion +are now called Oenus. But Aristotle thinks, by Cnacion is meant the +river, and by Babyce the bridge. Between these they held their +assemblies, having neither halls, nor any kind of building for that +purpose. These things he thought of no advantage to their councils, but +rather a disservice; as they distracted the attention, and turned it +upon trifles, on observing the statues and pictures, the splendid roofs, +and every other theatrical ornament. The people thus assembled had no +right to propose any subject of debate, and were only authorized to +ratify or reject what might be proposed to them by the senate and the +kings. But because, in process of time, the people, by additions or +retrenchments, changed the terms, and perverted the sense of the +decrees, the kings Polydorus and Theopompus inserted in the _rhetra_ +this clause: "If the people attempt to corrupt any law, the senate and +chiefs shall retire:" that is, they shall dissolve the assembly, and +annul the alterations. And they found means to persuade the Spartans +that this too was ordered by Apollo; as we learn from these verses of +Tyrtaeus: + + Ye sons of Sparta, who at Phoebus' shrine + Your humble vows prefer, attentive hear + The god's decision. O'er your beauteous lands + Two guardian kings, a senate, and the voice + Of the concurring people, lasting laws + Shall with joint power establish. + +Though the government was thus tempered by Lycurgus, yet soon after it +degenerated into an oligarchy, whose power was exercised with such +wantonness and violence, that it wanted indeed a bridle, as Plato +expresses it. This curb they found in the authority of the Ephori, about +a hundred and thirty years after Lycurgus. Elatus was the first invested +with this dignity, in the reign of Theopompus; who, when his wife +upbraided him, that he would leave the regal power to his children less +than he received it, replied, "Nay but greater, because more lasting." +And, in fact, the prerogative, so stripped of all extravagant +pretensions, no longer occasioned either envy or danger to its +possessors. By these means they escaped the miseries which befell the +Messenian and Argive kings, who would not in the least relax the +severity of their power in favour of the people. Indeed, from nothing +more does the wisdom and foresight of Lycurgus appear, than from the +disorderly governments, and the bad understanding that subsisted between +the kings and people of Messena and Argos, neighbouring states, and +related in blood to Sparta. For, as at first they were in all respects +equal to her, and possessed of a better country, and yet preserved no +lasting happiness, but, through the insolence of the kings and +disobedience of the people, were harassed with perpetual troubles, they +made it very evident that it was really a felicity more than human, a +blessing from heaven to the Spartans, to have a legislator who knew so +well how to frame and temper their government. But this was an event of +a later date. + +A second and bolder political enterprise of Lycurgus was a new division +of the lands. For he found a prodigious inequality, the city overcharged +with many indigent persons, who had no land, and the wealth centred in +the hands of a few. Determined, therefore, to root out the evils of +insolence, envy, avarice, and luxury, and those distempers of a state +still more inveterate and fatal, I mean poverty and riches, he persuaded +them to cancel all former divisions of land, and to make new ones, in +such a manner that they might be perfectly equal in their possessions +and way of living. Hence, if they were ambitious of distinction they +might seek it in virtue, as no other difference was left between them +but that which arises from the dishonour of base actions and the praise +of good ones. His proposal was put in practice. He made nine thousand +lots for the territory of Sparta, which he distributed among so many +citizens, and thirty thousand for the inhabitants of the rest of +Laconia. But some say he made only six thousand shares for the city, and +that Polydorus added three thousand afterwards; others, that Polydorus +doubled the number appointed by Lycurgus, which were only four thousand +five hundred. Each lot was capable of producing (one year with another) +seventy bushels of grain for each man, and twelve for each woman, +besides a quantity of wine and oil in proportion. Such a provision they +thought sufficient for health and a good habit of body, and they wanted +nothing more. A story goes of our legislator, that some time after +returning from a journey through the fields just reaped, and seeing the +shocks standing parallel and equal, he smiled, and said to some that +were by, "How like is Laconia to an estate newly divided among many +brothers!" + +After this, he attempted to divide also the movables, in order to take +away all appearance of inequality; but he soon perceived that they could +not bear to have their goods directly taken from them, and therefore +took another method, counterworking their avarice by a stratagem. First +he stopped the currency of the gold and silver coin, and ordered that +they should make use of iron money only, then to a great quantity and +weight of this he assigned but a small value; so that to lay up ten +_minae_, a whole room was required, and to remove it, nothing less than a +yoke of oxen. When this became current, many kinds of injustice ceased +in Lacedaemon. Who would steal or take a bribe, who would defraud or rob, +when he could not conceal the booty; when he could neither be dignified +by the possession of it, nor if cut in pieces be served by its use? For +we are told that when hot, they quenched it in vinegar, to make it +brittle and unmalleable, and consequently unfit for any other service. +In the next place, he excluded unprofitable and superfluous arts: +indeed, if he had not done this, most of them would have fallen of +themselves, when the new money took place, as the manufactures could not +be disposed of. Their iron coin would not pass in the rest of Greece, +but was ridiculed and despised; so that the Spartans had no means of +purchasing any foreign or curious wares; nor did any merchant-ship +unlade in their harbours. There were not even to be found in all their +country either sophists, wandering fortune-tellers, keepers of infamous +houses, or dealers in gold and silver trinkets, because there was no +money. Thus luxury, losing by degrees the means that cherished and +supported it, died away of itself: even they who had great possessions, +had no advantage from them, since they could not be displayed in public, +but must lie useless, in unregarded repositories. Hence it was, that +excellent workmanship was shown in their useful and necessary furniture, +as beds, chairs, and tables; and the Lacedaemonian cup called _cothon_, +as Critias informs us, was highly valued, particularly in campaigns: for +the water, which must then of necessity be drank, though it would often +otherwise offend the sight, had its muddiness concealed by the colour of +the cup, and the thick part stopping at the shelving brim, it came +clearer to the lips. Of these improvements the lawgiver was the cause; +for the workmen having no more employment in matters of mere curiosity, +showed the excellence of their art in necessary things. + +Desirous to complete the conquest of luxury, and exterminate the love of +riches, he introduced a third institution, which was wisely enough and +ingeniously contrived. This was the use of public tables, where all were +to eat in common of the same meat, and such kinds of it as were +appointed by law. At the same time they were forbidden to eat at home, +upon expensive couches and tables, to call in the assistance of butchers +and cooks, or to fatten like voracious animals in private. For so not +only their manners would be corrupted, but their bodies disordered; +abandoned to all manner of sensuality and dissoluteness, they would +require long sleep, warm baths, and the same indulgence as in perpetual +sickness. To effect this was certainly very great; but it was greater +still, to secure riches from rapine and from envy, as Theophrastus +expresses it, or rather by their eating in common, and by the frugality +of their table, to take from riches their very being. For what use or +enjoyment of them, what peculiar display of magnificence could there be, +where the poor man went to the same refreshment with the rich? Hence the +observation, that it was only at Sparta where Plutus (according to the +proverb) was kept blind, and like an image, destitute of life or motion. +It must further be observed, that they had not the privilege to eat at +home, and so to come without appetite to the public repast: they made a +point of it to observe any one that did not eat and drink with them, and +to reproach him as an intemperate and effeminate person that was sick of +the common diet. + +The rich, therefore (we are told), were more offended with this +regulation than with any other, and, rising in a body, they loudly +expressed their indignation: nay, they proceeded so far as to assault +Lycurgus with stones, so that he was forced to fly from the assembly and +take refuge in a temple. Unhappily, however, before he reached it, a +young man named Alcander, hasty in his resentments, though not otherwise +ill-tempered, came up with him, and, upon his turning round, struck out +one of his eyes with a stick. Lycurgus then stopped short, and, without +giving way to passion, showed the people his eye beat out, and his face +streaming with blood. They were so struck with shame and sorrow at the +sight, that they surrendered Alcander to him, and conducted him home +with the utmost expressions of regret. Lycurgus thanked them for their +care of his person, and dismissed them all except Alcander. He took him +into his house, but showed no ill treatment either by word or action; +only ordering him to wait upon him, instead of his usual servants and +attendants. The youth, who was of an ingenuous disposition, without +murmuring, did as he was commanded. Living in this manner with Lycurgus, +and having an opportunity to observe the mildness and goodness of his +heart, his strict temperance and indefatigable industry, he told his +friends that Lycurgus was not that proud and severe man he might have +been taken for, but, above all others, gentle and engaging in his +behaviour. This, then, was the chastisement, and this punishment he +suffered, of a wild and headstrong young man to become a very modest and +prudent citizen. In memory of his misfortune, Lycurgus built a temple to +Minerva Optiletis, so called by him from a term which the Dorians use +for the eye. Yet Dioscorides, who wrote a treatise concerning the +Lacedaemonian government, and others, relate that his eye was hurt, but +not put out, and that he built the temple in gratitude to the goddess +for his cure. However, the Spartans never carried staves to their +assemblies afterwards. + +The public repasts were called by the Cretans Andria; but the +Lacedaemonians styled them Phiditia, either from their tendency to +friendship and mutual benevolence, _phiditia_ being used instead of +_philitia_; or else from their teaching frugality and parsimony, which +the word _pheido_ signifies. But it is not all impossible that the first +letter might by some means or other be added, and so _phiditia_ take +place of _editia_, which barely signifies eating. There were fifteen +persons to a table, or a few more or less. Each of them was obliged to +bring in monthly a bushel of meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of +cheese, two pounds and a half of figs, and a little money to buy flesh +and fish. If any of them happened to offer a sacrifice of first fruits, +or to kill venison, he sent a part of it to the public table: for after +a sacrifice or hunting, he was at liberty to sup at home: but the rest +were to appear at the usual place. For a long time this eating in common +was observed with great exactness: so that when king Agis returned from +a successful expedition against the Athenians, and from a desire to sup +with his wife, requested to have his portion at home, the Polemarchs +refused to send it: nay, when, through resentment, he neglected, the day +following, to offer the sacrifice usual on occasion of victory, they set +a fine upon him. Children also were introduced at these public tables, +as so many schools of sobriety. There they heard discourses concerning +government, and were instructed in the most liberal breeding. There they +were allowed to jest without scurrility, and were not to take it ill +when the raillery was returned. For it was reckoned worthy of a +Lacedaemonian to bear a jest: but if any one's patience failed, he had +only to desire them to be quiet, and they left off immediately. When +they first entered, the oldest man present pointed to the door, and +said, "Not a word spoken in this company goes out there." The admitting +of any man to a particular table was under the following regulation. +Each member of that small society took a little ball of soft bread in +his hand. This he was to drop, without saying a word, into a vessel +called _caddos_, which the waiter carried upon his head. In case he +approved of the candidate, he did it without altering the figure, if +not, he first pressed it flat in his hand; for a flatted ball was +considered as a negative. And if but one such was found, the person was +not admitted, as they thought it proper that the whole company should be +satisfied with each other. He who thus rejected, was said to have no +luck in the _caddos_. The dish that was in the highest esteem amongst +them was the black broth. The old men were so fond of it that they +ranged themselves on one side and eat it, leaving the meat to the young +people. It is related of a king of Pontus, that he purchased a +Lacedaemonian cook, for the sake of this broth. But when he came to taste +it he strongly expressed his dislike; and the cook made answer, "Sir, to +make this broth relish, it is necessary first to bathe in the Eurotas." +After they had drank moderately, they went home without lights. Indeed, +they were forbidden to walk with a light either on this or any other +occasion, that they might accustom themselves to march in the darkest +night boldly and resolutely. Such was the order of their public +repasts. + +Lycurgus left none of his laws in writing; it was ordered in one of the +_Rhetrae_ that none should be written. For what he thought most conducive +to the virtue and happiness of a city, was principles interwoven with +the manners and breeding of the people. These would remain immovable, as +founded in inclination, and be the strongest and most lasting tie; and +the habits which education produced in the youth, would answer in each +the purpose of a lawgiver. As for smaller matters, contracts about +property, and whatever occasionally varied, it was better not to reduce +these to a written form and unalterable method, but to suffer them to +change with the times, and to admit of additions or retrenchments at the +pleasure of persons so well educated. For he resolved the whole business +of legislation into the bringing up of youth. And this, as we have +observed, was the reason why one of his ordinances forbad them to have +any written laws. + +Another ordinance levelled against magnificence and expense, directed +that the ceilings of houses should be wrought with no tool but the axe +and the doors with nothing but the saw. For, as Epaminondas is reported +to have said afterwards, of his table, "Treason lurks not under such a +dinner," so Lycurgus perceived before him, that such a house admits of +no luxury and needless splendour. Indeed, no man could be so absurd as +to bring into a dwelling so homely and simple, bedsteads with silver +feet, purple coverlets, golden cups, and a train of expense that follows +these: but all would necessarily have the bed suitable to the room, the +coverlet of the bed and the rest of their utensils and furniture to +that. From this plain sort of dwellings, proceeded the question of +Leotychidas the elder to his host, when he supped at Corinth, and saw +the ceiling of the room very splendid and curiously wrought, "Whether +trees grew square in his country." + +A third ordinance of Lycurgus was, that they should not often make war +against the same enemy, lest, by being frequently put upon defending +themselves, they too should become able warriors in their turn. And this +they most blamed king Agesilaus for afterwards, that by frequent and +continued incursions into Boeotia, he taught the Thebans to make head +against the Lacedaemonians. This made Antalcidas say, when he saw him +wounded, "The Thebans pay you well for making them good soldiers who +neither were willing nor able to fight you before." These ordinances he +called _Rhetrae_, as if they had been oracles and decrees of the Deity +himself. + +As for the education of youth, which he looked upon as the greatest and +most glorious work of a lawgiver, he began with it at the very source, +taking into consideration their conception and birth, by regulating the +marriages. For he did not (as Aristotle says) desist from his attempt to +bring the women under sober rules. They had, indeed, assumed great +liberty and power on account of the frequent expeditions of their +husbands, during which they were left sole mistresses at home, and so +gained an undue deference and improper titles; but notwithstanding this +he took all possible care of them. He ordered the virgins to exercise +themselves in running, wrestling, and throwing quoits and darts; that +their bodies being strong and vigorous, the children afterwards produced +from them might be the same; and that, thus fortified by exercise, they +might the better support the pangs of child-birth, and be delivered with +safety. In order to take away the excessive tenderness and delicacy of +the sex, the consequence of a recluse life, he accustomed the virgins +occasionally to be seen naked as well as the young men, and to dance and +sing in their presence on certain festivals. There they sometimes +indulged in a little raillery upon those that had misbehaved themselves, +and sometimes they sung encomiums on such as deserved them, thus +exciting in the young men a useful emulation and love of glory. For he +who was praised for his bravery and celebrated among the virgins, went +away perfectly happy: while their satirical glances thrown out in sport, +were no less cutting than serious admonitions; especially as the kings +and senate went with the other citizens to see all that passed. As for +the virgins appearing naked, there was nothing disgraceful in it, +because everything was conducted with modesty, and without one indecent +word or action. Nay, it caused a simplicity of manners and an emulation +for the best habit of body; their ideas too were naturally enlarged, +while they were not excluded from their share of bravery and honour. +Hence they were furnished with sentiments and language, such as Gorgo +the wife of Leonidas is said to have made use of. When a woman of +another country said to her, "You of Lacedaemon are the only women in the +world that rule the men;" she answered, "We are the only women that +bring forth men." + +These public dances and other exercises of the young maidens naked, in +sight of the young men, were, moreover, incentives to marriage: and, to +use Plato's expression, drew them almost as necessarily by the +attractions of love, as a geometrical conclusion follows from the +premises. To encourage it still more, some marks of infamy were set upon +those that continued bachelors. For they were not permitted to see these +exercises of the naked virgins; and the magistrates commanded them to +march naked round the market-place in the winter, and to sing a song +composed against themselves, which expressed how justly they were +punished for their disobedience to the laws. They were also deprived of +that honour and respect which the younger people paid to the old; so +that nobody found fault with what was said to Dercyllidas, though an +eminent commander. It seems, when he came one day into company, a young +man, instead of rising up and giving place, told him, "You have no child +to give place to me, when I am old." + +In their marriages, the bridegroom carried off the bride by violence; +and she was never chosen in a tender age, but when she had arrived at +full maturity. Then the woman that had the direction of the wedding, cut +the bride's hair close to the skin, dressed her in man's clothes, laid +her upon a mattrass, and left her in the dark. The bridegroom, neither +oppressed with wine nor enervated with luxury, but perfectly sober, as +having always supped at the common table, went in privately, untied her +girdle, and carried her to another bed. Having stayed there a short +time, he modestly retired to his usual apartment, to sleep with the +other young men; and observed the same conduct afterwards, spending the +day with his companions, and reposing himself with them in the night, +nor even visiting his bride but with great caution and apprehensions of +being discovered by the rest of the family; the bride at the same time +exerted all her art to contrive convenient opportunities for their +private meetings. And this they did not for a short time only, but some +of them even had children before they had an interview with their wives +in the daytime. This kind of commerce not only exercised their +temperance and chastity, but kept their bodies fruitful, and the first +ardour of their love fresh and unabated; for as they were not satiated +like those that are always with their wives, there still was place for +unextinguished desire. When he had thus established a proper regard to +modesty and decorum with respect to marriage, he was equally studious to +drive from that state the vain and womanish passion of jealousy; by +making it quite as reputable to have children in common with persons of +merit, as to avoid all offensive freedom in their own behaviour to their +wives. He laughed at those who revenge with wars and bloodshed the +communication of a married woman's favours; and allowed, that if a man +in years should have a young wife, he might introduce to her some +handsome and honest young man, whom he most approved of, and when she +had a child of this generous race, bring it up as his own. On the other +hand, he allowed, that if a man of character should entertain a passion +for a married woman on account of her modesty and the beauty of her +children, he might treat with her husband for admission to her company, +that so planting in a beauty-bearing soil, he might produce excellent +children, the congenial offspring of excellent parents. For, in the +first place, Lycurgus considered children, not so much the property of +their parents as of the state; and therefore he would not have them +begot by ordinary persons, but by the best men in it. In the next place, +he observed the vanity and absurdity of other nations, where people +study to have their horses and dogs of the finest breed they can procure +either by interest or money; and yet keep their wives shut up, that they +may have children by none but themselves, though they may happen to be +doting, decrepit, or infirm. As if children, when sprung from a bad +stock, and consequently good for nothing, were no detriment to those +whom they belong to, and who have the trouble of bringing them up, nor +any advantage, when well descended and of a generous disposition. These +regulations tending to secure a healthy offspring, and consequently +beneficial to the state, were so far from encouraging that +licentiousness of the women which prevailed afterwards, that adultery +was not known amongst them. A saying, upon this subject of Geradas, an +ancient Spartan, is thus related. A stranger had asked him, "What +punishment their law appointed for adulterers?" He answered, "My friend, +there are no adulterers in our country." The other replied, "But what if +there should be one?" "Why then," says Geradas, "he must forfeit a bull +so large that he might drink of the Eurotas from the top of Mount +Taygetus." When the stranger expressed his surprise at this, and said, +"How can such a bull be found?" Geradas answered with a smile, "How can +an adulterer be found in Sparta?" This is the account we have of their +marriages. + +It was not left to the father to rear what children he pleased, but he +was obliged to carry the child to a place called Lesche, to be examined +by the most ancient men of the tribe, who were assembled there. If it +was strong and well-proportioned, they gave orders for its education, +and assigned it one of the nine thousand shares of land; but if it was +weakly and deformed, they ordered it to be thrown into the place called +Apothetae, which is a deep cavern near the mountain Taygetus; concluding +that its life could be no advantage either to itself or to the public, +since nature had not given it at first any strength or goodness of +constitution. For the same reason the women did not wash their new-born +infants with water, but with wine, thus making some trial of their habit +of body; imagining that sickly and epileptic children sink and die under +the experiment, while healthy became more vigorous and hardy. Great care +and art was also exerted by the nurses; for, as they never swathed the +infants, their limbs had a freer turn, and their countenances a more +liberal air; besides, they used them to any sort of meat, to have no +terrors in the dark, nor to be afraid of being alone, and to leave all +ill humour and unmanly crying. Hence people of other countries purchased +Lacedaemonian nurses for their children; and Alcibiades the Athenian is +said to have been nursed by Amicla, a Spartan. But if he was fortunate +in a nurse, he was not so in a preceptor: for Zopyrus, appointed to that +office by Pericles, was, as Plato tells us, no better qualified than a +common slave. The Spartan children were not in that manner, under tutors +purchased or hired with money, nor were the parents at liberty to +educate them as they pleased: but as soon as they were seven years old, +Lycurgus ordered them to be enrolled in companies, where they were all +kept under the same order and discipline, and had their exercises and +recreations in common. He who showed the most conduct and courage +amongst them, was made captain of the company. The rest kept their eyes +upon him, obeyed his orders, and bore with patience the punishment he +inflicted: so that their whole education was an exercise of obedience. +The old men were present at their diversions, and often suggested some +occasion of dispute or quarrel, that they might observe with exactness +the spirit of each, and their firmness in battle. + +As for learning, they had just what was absolutely necessary. All the +rest of their education was calculated to make them subject to command, +to endure labour, to fight and conquer. They added, therefore, to their +discipline, as they advance in age; cutting their hair very close, +making them go barefoot, and play, for the most part, quite naked. At +twelve years of age, their under garment was taken away, and but one +upper one a year allowed them. Hence they were necessarily dirty in +their persons, and not indulged the great favour of baths, and oils, +except on some particular days of the year. They slept in companies, on +beds made of the tops of reeds, which they gathered with their own +hands, without knives, and brought from the banks of the Eurotas. In +winter they were permitted to add a little thistle-down, as that seemed +to have some warmth in it. + +At this age, the most distinguished amongst them became the favourite +companions of the elder; and the old men attended more constantly their +places of exercise, observing their trials of strength and wit, not +slightly and in a cursory manner, but as their fathers, guardians, and +governors: so that there was neither time nor place where persons were +wanting to instruct and chastise them. One of the best and ablest men of +the city was, moreover, appointed inspector of the youth: and he gave +the command of each company to the discreetest and most spirited of +those called Irens. An Iren was one that had been two years out of the +class of boys: a Melliren one of the oldest lads. This Iren, then, a +youth twenty years old, gives orders to those under his command in their +little battles, and has them to serve him at his house. He sends the +oldest of them to fetch wood, and the younger to gather pot-herbs: these +they steal where they can find them, either slily getting into gardens, +or else craftily and warily creeping to the common tables. But if any +one be caught, he is severely flogged for negligence or want of +dexterity. They steal, too, whatever victuals they possibly can, +ingeniously contriving to do it when persons are asleep, or keep but +indifferent watch. If they are discovered, they are punished not only +with whipping, but with hunger. Indeed, their supper is but slender at +all times, that, to fence against want, they may be forced to exercise +their courage and address. This is the first intention of their spare +diet: a subordinate one is, to make them grow tall. For when the animal +spirits are not too much oppressed by a great quantity of food, which +stretches itself out in breadth and thickness, they mount upwards by +their natural lightness, and the body easily and freely shoots up in +height. This also contributes to make them handsome; for thin and +slender habits yield more freely to nature, which then gives a fine +proportion to the limbs; whilst the heavy and gross resist her by their +weight. So women that take physic during their pregnancy, have slighter +children indeed, but of a finer and more delicate turn, because the +suppleness of the matter more readily obeys the plastic power. However, +these are speculations which we shall leave to others. + +The boys steal with so much caution, that one of them having conveyed a +young fox under his garment, suffered the creature to tear out his +bowels with his teeth and claws, choosing rather to die than to be +detected. Nor does this appear incredible, if we consider what their +young men can endure to this day; for we have seen many of them expire +under the lash at the altar of Diana Orthia. + +The Iren, reposing himself after supper, used to order one of the boys +to sing a song; to another he put some question which required a +judicious answer: for example, "Who was the best man in the city?" or +"What he thought of such an action?" This accustomed them from their +childhood to judge of the virtues, to enter into the affairs of their +countrymen. For if one of them was asked, "Who is a good citizen, or who +an infamous one," and hesitated in his answer, he was considered a boy +of slow parts, and of a soul that would not aspire to honour. The answer +was likewise to have a reason assigned for it, and proof conceived in +few words. He whose account of the matter was wrong, by way of +punishment had his thumb bit by the Iren. The old men and magistrates +often attended these little trials, to see whether the Iren exercised +his authority in a rational and proper manner. He was permitted, indeed, +to inflict the penalties; but when the boys were gone, he was to be +chastised himself, if he had punished them either with too much severity +or remissness. + +The adopters of favourites also shared both in the honour and disgrace +of their boys: and one of them is said to have been mulcted by the +magistrates, because the boy whom he had taken into his affections let +some ungenerous word or cry escape him as he was fighting. This love was +so honourable and in so much esteem, that the virgins too had their +lovers amongst the most virtuous matrons. A competition of affection +caused no misunderstanding, but rather a mutual friendship between those +that had fixed their regards upon the same youth, and an united +endeavour to make him as accomplished as possible. + +The boys were also taught to use sharp repartee, seasoned with humour, +and whatever they said was to be concise and pithy. For Lycurgus, as we +have observed, fixed but a small value on a considerable quantity of his +iron money; but, on the contrary, the worth of speech was to consist in +its being comprised in a few plain words, pregnant with a great deal of +sense: and he contrived that by long silence they might learn to be +sententious and acute in their replies. As debauchery often causes +weakness and sterility in the body, so the intemperance of the tongue +makes conversation empty and insipid. King Agis, therefore, when a +certain Athenian laughed at the Lacedaemonian short swords, and said, +"The jugglers would swallow them with ease upon the stage," answered in +his laconic way, "And yet we can reach our enemies' hearts with them." +Indeed, to me there seems to be something in this concise manner of +speaking which immediately reaches the object aimed at, and forcibly +strikes the mind of the hearer. Lycurgus himself was short and +sententious in his discourse, if we may judge by some of his answers +which are recorded; that, for instance, concerning the constitution. +When one advised him to establish a popular government in Lacedaemon, +"Go," said he, "and first make a trial of it in thy own family." That +again, concerning sacrifices to the Deity, when he was asked why he +appointed them so trifling and of so little value, "That we might never +be in want," said he, "of something to offer him." Once more, when they +inquired of him, what sort of martial exercises he allowed of, he +answered, "All, except those in which you stretch out your hands." +Several such like replies of his are said to be taken from the letters +which he wrote to his countrymen: as to their question, "How shall we +best guard against the invasion of an enemy?"--"By continuing poor, and +not desiring in your possessions to be one above another." And to the +question, whether they should enclose Sparta with walls, "That city is +well fortified, which has a wall of men instead of brick." Whether these +and some other letters ascribed to him are genuine or not, is no easy +matter to determine. However, that they hated long speeches, the +following apophthegms are a farther proof. King Leonidas said to one +who discoursed at an improper time about affairs of some concern, "My +friend, you should not talk so much to the purpose, of what it is not to +the purpose to talk of." Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, being asked +why his uncle had made so few laws, answered, "To men of few words, few +laws are sufficient." Some people finding fault with Hecataeus the +sophist, because, when admitted to one of the public repasts, he said +nothing all the time, Archidamidas replied, "He that knows how to speak, +knows also when to speak." + +The manner of their repartees, which, as I said, were seasoned with +humour, may be gathered from these instances. When a troublesome fellow +was pestering Demaratus with impertinent questions, and this in +particular several times repeated, "Who is the best man in Sparta?" He +answered, "He that is least like you." To some who were commending the +Eleans for managing the Olympic games with so much justice and +propriety, Agis said, "What great matter is it, if the Eleans do justice +once in five years?" When a stranger was professing his regard for +Theopompus, and saying that his own countrymen called him Philolacon (a +lover of the Lacedaemonians), the king answered him, "My good friend, it +were much better, if they called you Philopolites" (a lover of your own +countrymen). Plistonax, the son of Pausanias, replied to an orator of +Athens, who said the Lacedaemonians had no learning. "True, for we are +the only people of Greece that have learned no ill of you." To one who +asked what number of men there was in Sparta, Archidamidas said, "Enough +to keep bad men at a distance." + +Even when they indulged a vein of pleasantry, one might perceive that +they would not use one unnecessary word, nor let an expression escape +them that had not some sense worth attending to. For one being asked to +go and hear a person who imitated the nightingale to perfection, +answered, "I have heard the nightingale herself." Another said, upon +reading this epitaph, + + Victims of Mars, at Selinus they fell, + Who quench'd the rage of tyranny-- + +"And they deserved to fall, for, instead of _quenching_ it, they should +have let it _burn out_." A young man answered one that promised him some +game-cocks that would stand their death, "Give me those that will be the +death of others." Another seeing some people carried into the country in +litters, said, "May I never sit in any place where I cannot rise before +the aged!" This was the manner of their apophthegms: so that it has been +justly enough observed that the term _lakonizein_ (to act the +Lacedaemonian) is to be referred rather to the exercises of the mind, +than those of the body. + +Nor were poetry and music less cultivated among them, than a concise +dignity of expression. Their songs had a spirit, which could rouse the +soul, and impel it in an enthusiastic manner to action. The language was +plain and manly, the subject serious and moral. For they consisted +chiefly of the praises of heroes that had died for Sparta, or else of +expressions of detestation for such wretches as had declined the +glorious opportunity, and rather chose to drag on life in misery and +contempt. Nor did they forget to express an ambition for glory suitable +to their respective ages. Of this it may not be amiss to give an +instance. There were three choirs on their festivals, corresponding with +the three ages of man. The old men began, + + Once in battle bold we shone; + +the young men answered, + + Try us: our vigour is not gone; + +and the boys concluded, + + The palm remains for us alone. + +Indeed, if we consider with some attention such of the Lacedaemonian +poems as are still extant, and get into those airs which were played +upon the flute when they marched to battle, we must agree that Terpander +and Pindar have very fitly joined valour and music together. The former +thus speaks of Lacedaemon, + + There gleams the youth's bright falchion: there the muse + Lifts her sweet voice: there awful Justice opes + Her wide pavilion. + +And Pindar sings, + + There in grave council sits the sage; + There burns the youth's resistless rage + To hurl the quiv'ring lance; + The Muse with glory crowns their arms, + And Melody exerts her charms, + And Pleasure leads the dance. + +Thus we are informed, not only of their warlike turn, but their skill in +music. For as the Spartan poet says, + + To swell the bold notes of the lyre, + Becomes the warrior's lofty fire. + +And the king always offered sacrifice to the muses before a battle, +putting his troops in mind, I suppose, of their early education and of +the judgment that would be passed upon them; as well as that those +divinities might teach them to despite danger, while they performed some +exploit fit for them to celebrate. + +On these occasions they relaxed the severity of their discipline, +permitting their men to be curious in dressing their hair, and elegant +in their arms and apparel, while they expressed their alacrity, like +horses full of fire and neighing for the race. They let their hair, +therefore, grow from their youth, but took more particular care, when +they expected an action, to have it well combed and shining; remembering +a saying of Lycurgus, that "a large head of hair made the handsome more +graceful, and the ugly more terrible." The exercises, too, of the young +men, during the campaigns, were more moderate, their diet not so hard, +and their whole treatment more indulgent: so that they were the only +people in the world with whom military discipline wore, in time of war, +a gentler face than usual. When the army was drawn up, and the enemy +near, the king sacrificed a goat, and commanded them all to set garlands +upon their heads, and the musicians to play Castro's march, while +himself began the paean, which was the signal to advance. It was at once +a solemn and dreadful sight to see them measuring their steps to the +sound of music, and without the least disorder in their ranks or tumult +of spirits, moving forward cheerfully and composedly, with harmony, to +battle. Neither fear nor rashness was likely to approve men so disposed, +possessed as they were of a firm presence of mind, with courage and +confidence of success, as under the conduct of heaven. When the king +advanced against the enemy, he had always with him some one that had +been crowned in the public games of Greece. And they tell us, that a +Lacedaemonian, when large sums were offered him on condition that he +would not enter the Olympic lists, refused them, having with much +difficulty thrown his antagonist, one put this question to him, +"Spartan, what will you get by this victory?" He answered with a smile, +"I shall have the honour to fight foremost in the ranks before my +prince." When they had routed the enemy, they continued the pursuit till +they were assured of the victory: after that they immediately desisted; +deeming it neither generous nor worthy of a Grecian to destroy those who +made no farther resistance. This was not only a proof of magnanimity, +but of great service to their cause. For when their adversaries found +that they killed such as stood it out, but spared the fugitives, they +concluded it was better to fly than to meet their fate upon the spot. + +Hippias the sophist tells us, that Lycurgus himself was a man of great +personal valour, and an experienced commander. Philostephanus also +ascribes to him the first division of cavalry into troops of fifty, who +were drawn up in a square body. But Demetrius the Phalerean says, that +he never had any military employment, and that there was the profoundest +peace imaginable when he established the constitution of Sparta. His +providing for a cessation of arms during the Olympic games is likewise a +mark of the humane and peaceable man. Some, however, acquaint us, and +among the rest Hermippus, that Lucurgus at first had no communication +with Iphitus; but coming that way, and happening to be a spectator, he +heard behind him a human voice (as he thought) which expressed some +wonder and displeasure that he did not put his countrymen upon resorting +to so great an assembly. He turned round immediately, to discover whence +the voice came, and as there was no man to be seen, concluded it was +from heaven. He joined Iphitus, therefore; and ordering, along with him, +the ceremonies of the festival, rendered it more magnificent and +lasting. + +The discipline of the Lacedaemonians continued after they were arrived at +years of maturity. For no man was at liberty to live as he pleased; the +city being like one great camp, where all had their stated allowance, +and knew their public charge, each man concluding that he was born, not +for himself, but for his country. Hence, if they had no particular +orders, they employed themselves in inspecting the boys, and teaching +them something useful, or in learning of those that were older than +themselves. One of the greatest privileges that Lycurgus procured his +countrymen, was the enjoyment of leisure, the consequence of his +forbidding them to exercise any mechanic trade. It was not worth their +while to take great pains to raise a fortune, since riches there were of +no account: and the Helotes, who tilled the ground, were answerable for +the produce above-mentioned. To this purpose we have a story of a +Lacedaemonian, who, happening to be at Athens while the court sat, was +informed of a man who was fined for idleness; and when the poor fellow +was returning home in great dejection, attended by his condoling +friends, he desired the company to show him the person that was +condemned for keeping up his dignity. So much beneath them they reckoned +all attention to mechanics arts, and all desire of riches! + +Lawsuits were banished from Lacedaemon with money. The Spartans knew +neither riches nor poverty, but possessed an equal competency, and had a +cheap and easy way of supplying their few wants. Hence, when they were +not engaged in war, their time was taken up with dancing, feasting, +hunting, or meeting to exercise, or converse. They went not to market +under thirty years of age, all their necessary concerns being managed by +their relations and adopters. Nor was it reckoned a credit to the old to +be seen sauntering in the market-place; it was deemed more suitable for +them to pass great part of the day in the schools of exercise, or places +of conversation. Their discourse seldom turned upon money, or business, +or trade, but upon the praise of the excellent, or the contempt of the +worthless; and the last was expressed with that pleasantry and humour, +which conveyed instruction and correction without seeming to intend it. +Nor was Lycurgus himself immoderately severe in his manner; but, as +Sosibius tells us, he dedicated a little statue to the god of laughter +in each hall. He considered facetiousness as a seasoning of their hard +exercise and diet, and therefore ordered it to take place on all proper +occasions, in their common entertainments and parties of pleasure. + +Upon the whole, he taught his citizens to think nothing more +disagreeable than to live by (or for) themselves. Like bees, they acted +with one impulse for the public good, and always assembled about their +prince. They were possessed with a thirst of honour, an enthusiasm +bordering upon insanity, and had not a wish but for their country. These +sentiments are confirmed by some of their aphorisms. When Paedaretus lost +his election for one of the "three hundred," he went away "rejoicing +that there were three hundred better men than himself found in the +city." Pisistratidas going with some others, ambassador to the king of +Persia's lieutenants, was asked whether they came with a public +commission, or on their own account, to which he answered, "If +successful, for the public; if unsuccessful, for ourselves." Agrileonis, +the mother of Brasidas, asking some Amphipolitans that waited upon her +at her house, whether Brasidas died honourably and as became a Spartan? +they greatly extolled his merit, and said there was not such a man left +in Sparta; whereupon she replied, "Say not so, my friends; for Brasidas +was indeed a man of honour, but Lacedaemon can boast of many better men +than he." + +The senate, as I said before, consisted at first of those that were +assistants to Lycurgus in his great enterprise. Afterwards, to fill up +any vacancy that might happen, he ordered the most worthy men to be +selected, of those that were full threescore years old. This was the +most respectable dispute in the world, and the contest was truly +glorious; for it was not who should be swiftest among the swift, or +strongest of the strong, but who was the wisest and best among the good +and wise. He who had the preference was to bear this mark of superior +excellence through life, this great authority, which put into his hands +the lives and honour of the citizens, and every other important affair. +The manner of the election was this: when the people were assembled, +some persons appointed for the purpose were shut up in a room near the +place; where they could neither see nor be seen, and only hear the +shouts of the constituents: for by them they decided this and most +other affairs. Each candidate walked silently through the assembly, one +after another according to lot. Those that were shut up had writing +tables, in which they set down in different columns the number and +loudness of the shouts, without knowing who they were for; only they +marked them as first, second, third, and so on, according to the number +of the competitors. He that had the most and loudest acclamations, was +declared duly elected. Then he was crowned with a garland, and went +round to give thanks to the gods: a number of young men followed, +striving which should extol him most, and the women celebrated his +virtues in their songs, and blessed his worthy life and conduct. Each of +his relations offered him a repast, and their address on the occasion +was, "Sparta honours you with this collation." When he had finished the +procession, he went to the common table, and lived as before. Only two +portions were set before him, one of which he carried away: and as all +the women related to him attended at the gates of the public hall, he +called her for whom he had the greatest esteem, and presented her with +the portion, saying at the same time, "That which I received as a mark +of honour, I give to you." Then she was conducted home with great +applause by the rest of the women. + +Lycurgus likewise made good regulations with respect to burials. In the +first place, to take away all superstition, he ordered the dead to be +buried in the city, and even permitted their monuments to be erected +near the temples; accustoming the youth to such sights from their +infancy, that they might have no uneasiness from them, nor any horror +for death, as if people were polluted with the touch of a dead body, or +with treading upon a grave. In the next place, he suffered nothing to be +buried with the corpse, except the red cloth and the olive leaves in +which it was wrapped. Nor would he suffer the relations to inscribe any +names upon the tombs, except of those men that fell in battle, or those +women who died in some sacred office. He fixed eleven days for the time +of mourning: on the twelfth they were to put an end to it, after +offering sacrifice to Ceres. No part of life was left vacant and +unimproved, but even with their necessary actions he interwove the +praise of virtue and the contempt of vice: and he so filled the city +with living examples, that it was next to impossible, for persons who +had these from their infancy before their eyes, not to be drawn and +formed to honour. + +For the same reason he would not permit all that desired to go abroad +and see other countries, lest they should contract foreign manners, gain +traces of a life of little discipline, and of a different form of +government. He forbid strangers too to resort to Sparta, who could not +assign a good reason for their coming; not, as Thucydides says, out of +fear they should imitate the constitution of that city, and make +improvements in virtue, but lest they should teach his own people some +evil. For along with foreigners come new subjects of discourse; new +discourse produces new opinions; and from these there necessarily spring +new passions and desires, which, like discords in music, would disturb +the established government. He, therefore, thought it more expedient for +the city to keep out of it corrupt customs and manners, than even to +prevent the introduction of a pestilence. + +Thus far, then, we can perceive no vestiges of a disregard to right and +wrong, which is the fault some people find with the laws of Lycurgus, +allowing them well enough calculated to produce valour, but not to +promote justice. Perhaps it was the Cryptia, as they called it, or +ambuscade, if that was really one of this lawgiver's institutions, as +Aristotle says it was, which gave Plato so bad an impression both of +Lycurgus and his laws. The governors of the youth ordered the shrewdest +of them from time to time to disperse themselves in the country, +provided only with daggers and some necessary provisions. In the daytime +they hid themselves, and rested in the most private places they could +find, but at night they sallied out into the roads, and killed all the +Helotes they could meet with. Nay, sometimes by day, they fell upon them +in the fields, and murdered the ablest and strongest of them. Thucydides +relates in his history of the Peloponnesian war, that the Spartans +selected such of them as were distinguished for their courage, to the +number of two thousand or more, declared them free, crowned them with +garlands, and conducted them to the temples of the gods; but soon after +they all disappeared; and no one could, either then or since, give +account in what manner they were destroyed. Aristotle particularly says, +that the Ephori, as soon as they were invested in their office, declared +war against the Helotes, that they might be massacred under pretence of +law. In other respects they treated them with great inhumanity: +sometimes they made them drink till they were intoxicated, and in that +condition led them into the public halls, to show the young men what +drunkenness was. They ordered them too to sing mean songs, and to dance +ridiculous dances, but not to meddle with any that were genteel and +graceful. Thus they tell us, that when the Thebans afterwards invaded +Laconia, and took a great number of the Helotes prisoners, they ordered +them to sing the odes of Terpander, Aleman, or Spendon the Lacedaemonian, +but they excused themselves, alleging that it was forbidden by their +masters. Those who say that a freeman in Sparta was most a freeman, and +a slave most a slave, seem well to have considered the difference of +states. But in my opinion, it was in after-times that these cruelties +took place among the Lacedaemonians, chiefly after the great earthquake, +when, as history informs us, the Helotes, joining the Messenians, +attacked them, did infinite damage to the country, and brought the city +to the greatest extremity. I can never ascribe to Lycurgus so +abominable an act as that of the ambuscade. I would judge in this case +by the mildness and justice which appeared in the rest of his conduct, +to which also the gods gave their sanction. + +When his principal institutions had taken root in the manners of the +people, and the government was come to such maturity as to be able to +support and preserve itself, then, as Plato says of the Deity, that he +rejoiced when he had created the world, and given it its first motion; +so Lycurgus was charmed with the beauty and greatness of his political +establishment, when he saw it exemplified in fact, and move on in due +order. He was next desirous to make it immortal, so far as human wisdom +could effect it, and to deliver it down unchanged to the latest times. +For this purpose he assembled all the people, and told them the +provisions he had already made for the state were indeed sufficient for +virtue and happiness, but the greatest and most important matter was +still behind, which he could not disclose to them till he had consulted +the oracle; that they must therefore inviolably observe his laws, +without altering anything in them, till he returned from Delphi; and +then he would acquaint them with the pleasure of Apollo. When they had +all promised to do so, and desired him to set forward, he took an oath +of the kings and senators, and afterwards of all the citizens, that they +would abide by the present establishment till Lycurgus came back. He +then took his journey to Delphi. + +When he arrived there, he offered sacrifice to the gods, and consulted +the oracle, whether his laws were sufficient to promote virtue, and +secure the happiness of the state. Apollo answered, that the laws were +excellent, and that the city which kept to the constitution he had +established, would be the most glorious in the world. This oracle +Lycurgus took down in writing, and sent it to Sparta. He then offered +another sacrifice, and embraced his friends and his son, determined +never to release his citizens from their oath, but voluntarily there to +put a period to his life; while he was yet of an age when life was not a +burden, when death was not desirable, and while he was not unhappy in +any one circumstance. He, therefore, destroyed himself by abstaining +from food, persuaded that the very death of lawgivers should have its +use, and their exit, so far from being insignificant, have its share of +virtue, and be considered as a great action. To him, indeed, whose +performances were so illustrious, the conclusion of life was the crown +of happiness, and his death was left guardian of those invaluable +blessings he had procured his countrymen through life, as they had taken +an oath not to depart from his establishment till his return. Nor was he +deceived in his expectations. Sparta continued superior to the rest of +Greece, both in its government at home and reputation abroad, so long as +it retained the institution of Lycurgus: and this it did during the +space of five hundred years, and the reign of fourteen successive kings, +down to Agis the son of Archidamus. As for the appointment of the +Ephori, it was so far from weakening the constitution, that it gave it +additional vigour, and though it seemed to be established in favour of +the people, it strengthened the aristocracy. + +But in the reign of Agis money found its way into Sparta, and with money +came its inseparable attendant--avarice. This was by means of Lysander; +who, though himself incapable of being corrupted by money, filled his +country with the love of it, and with luxury too. He brought both gold +and silver from the wars, and thereby broke through the laws of +Lycurgus. While these were in force, Sparta was not so much under the +political regulations of a commonwealth, as the strict rules of a +philosophic life; and as the poets feign of Hercules, that only with a +club and lion's skin he travelled over the world, clearing it of lawless +ruffians and cruel tyrants; so the Lacedaemonians with a piece of +parchment and coarse coat kept Greece in a voluntary obedience, +destroyed usurpation and tyranny in the states, put an end to wars, and +laid seditions asleep, very often without either shield or lance, and +only by sending one ambassador; to whose directions all parties +concerned immediately submitted. Thus bees, when their prince appears, +compose their quarrels and unite in one swarm. So much did justice and +good government prevail in that state, that I am surprised at those who +say the Lacedaemonians knew indeed how to obey, but not how to govern: +and on this occasion quote the saying of king Theopompus, who, when one +told him that Sparta was preserved by the good administration of its +kings, replied, "Nay, rather by the obedience of their subjects." It is +certain that people will not continue pliant to those who know not how +to command; but it is the part of a good governor to teach obedience. He +who knows how to lead well, is sure to be well followed: and as it is by +the art of horsemanship that a horse is made gentle and tractable, so it +is by the abilities of him that fills the throne that the people become +ductile and submissive. Such was the conduct of the Lacedaemonians, that +people did not only endure, but even desired to be their subjects. They +asked not of them either ships, money or troops, but only a Spartan +general. When they had received him, they treated him with the greatest +honour and respect; so Gylippus was revered by the Sicilians, Brasidas +by the Chalcidians, Lysander, Callicratidas, and Agesilaus by all the +people of Asia. These, and such as these, wherever they came, were +called moderators and reformers, both of the magistrates and people, and +Sparta itself was considered as a school of discipline, where the beauty +of life and political order were taught in the utmost perfection. Hence +Stratonicus seems facetiously enough to have said, that he would order +"the Athenians to have the conduct of mysteries and processions; the +Eleans to preside in games, as their particular province; and the +Lacedaemonians to be beaten, if the other did amiss." This was spoken in +jest: but Antisthenes, one of the scholars of Socrates, said (more +seriously) of the Thebans, when he saw them pluming themselves upon +their success at Leuctra, "They were just like so many school-boys +rejoicing that they had beaten their master." + +It was not, however, the principal design of Lycurgus that his city +should govern many others, but he considered its happiness like that of +a private man, as flowing from virtue and self-consistency: he therefore +so ordered and disposed it, that by the freedom and sobriety of its +inhabitants, and their having a sufficiency within themselves, its +continuance might be the more secure. Plato, Diogenes, Zeno, and other +writers upon government, have taken Lycurgus for their model: and these +have attained great praise, though they left only an idea of something +excellent. Yet he who, not in idea and in words, but in fact produced a +most inimitable form of government, and by showing a whole city of +philosophers, confounded those who imagine that the so much talked of +strictness of a philosophic life is impracticable; he, I say, stands in +the rank of glory far beyond the founders of all the other Grecian +states. Therefore Aristotle is of opinion, that the honours paid him in +Lacedaemon were far beneath his merit. Yet those honours were very great; +for he has a temple there, and they offer him a yearly sacrifice, as a +god. It is also said, that when his remains were brought home, his tomb +was struck with lightning: a seal of divinity which no other man, +however eminent, has had, except Euripides, who died and was buried at +Arethusa in Macedonia. This was matter of great satisfaction and triumph +to the friends of Euripides, that the same thing should befall him after +death, which had formerly happened to the most venerable of men, and the +most favoured of heaven. Some say, Lycurgus died at Cirrha; but +Apollothemis will have it, that he was brought to Elis and died there; +and Timaeus and Aristoxenus write, that he ended his days in Crete; nay, +Aristoxenus adds, that the Cretans show his tomb at Pergamia, near the +high road. We are told, he left an only son named Antiorus: and as he +died without issue, the family was extinct. His friends and relations +observed his anniversary, which subsisted for many ages, and the days on +which they met for that purpose they called Lycurgidae. Aristocrates, the +son of Hipparchus, relates, that the friends of Lycurgus, with whom he +sojourned, and at last died in Crete, burned his body, and, at his +request, threw his ashes into the sea. Thus he guarded against the +possibility of his remains being brought back to Sparta by the +Lacedaemonians, lest they should then think themselves released from +their oath, on the pretence that he was returned, and make innovations +in the government. This is what we had to say of Lycurgus. + + + + +SIR THOMAS MORE'S + +UTOPIA. + + + + +UTOPIA. + + + + +BOOK I. + + +Henry the Eighth, the unconquered King of England, a prince adorned with +all the virtues that become a great monarch, having some differences of +no small consequence with Charles the most serene prince of Castile, +sent me into Flanders, as his ambassador, for treating and composing +matters between them. I was colleague and companion to that incomparable +man Cuthbert Tonstal, whom the king with such universal applause lately +made Master of the Rolls; but of whom I will say nothing; not because I +fear that the testimony of a friend will be suspected, but rather +because his learning and virtues are too great for me to do them +justice, and so well known, that they need not my commendations unless I +would, according to the proverb, "Show the sun with a lanthorn." Those +that were appointed by the prince to treat with us met us at Bruges, +according to agreement; they were all worthy men. The Margrave of Bruges +was their head, and the chief man among them; but he that was esteemed +the wisest, and that spoke for the rest, was George Temse, the Provost +of Casselsee; both art and nature had concurred to make him eloquent: he +was very learned in the law; and as he had a great capacity, so by a +long practice in affairs he was very dextrous at unravelling them. +After we had several times met without coming to an agreement, they went +to Brussels for some days to know the prince's pleasure. And since our +business would admit it, I went to Antwerp. While I was there, among +many that visited me, there was one that was more acceptable to me than +any other, Peter Giles, born at Antwerp, who is a man of great honour, +and of a good rank in his town, though less than he deserves; for I do +not know if there be anywhere to be found a more learned and a better +bred young man: for as he is both a very worthy and a very knowing +person, so he is so civil to all men, so particularly kind to his +friends, and so full of candour and affection, that there is not perhaps +above one or two anywhere to be found that is in all respects so perfect +a friend. He is extraordinarily modest, there is no artifice in him; and +yet no man has more of a prudent simplicity: his conversation was so +pleasant and so innocently cheerful, that his company in a great measure +lessened any longings to go back to my country, and to my wife and +children, which an absence of four months had quickened very much. One +day as I was returning home from Mass at St. Mary's, which is the chief +church, and the most frequented of any in Antwerp, I saw him by accident +talking with a stranger, who seemed past the flower of his age; his face +was tanned, he had a long beard, and his cloak was hanging carelessly +about him, so that by his looks and habit I concluded he was a seaman. +As soon as Peter saw me, he came and saluted me; and as I was returning +his civility, he took me aside, and pointing to him with whom he had +been discoursing, he said, "Do you see that man? I was just thinking to +bring him to you." I answered, "He should have been very welcome on your +account." "And on his own too," replied he, "if you knew the man, for +there is none alive that can give so copious an account of unknown +nations and countries as he can do; which I know you very much desire." +Then said I, "I did not guess amiss, for at first sight I took him for +a seaman." "But you are much mistaken," said he, "for he has not sailed +as a seaman, but as a traveller, or rather a philosopher. This Raphael, +who from his family carries the name of Hythloday, is not ignorant of +the Latin tongue, but is eminently learned in the Greek, having applied +himself more particularly to that than to the former, because he had +given himself much to philosophy, in which he knew that the Romans have +left us nothing that is valuable, except what is to be found in Seneca +and Cicero. He is a Portuguese by birth, and was so desirous of seeing +the world, that he divided his estate among his brothers, run the same +hazard as Americus Vesputius, and bore a share in three of his four +voyages, that are now published; only he did not return with him in his +last, but obtained leave of him almost by force, that he might be one of +those twenty-four who were left at the farthest place at which they +touched, in their last voyage to New Castile. The leaving him thus did +not a little gratify one that was more fond of travelling than of +returning home, to be buried in his own country; for he used often to +say, that the way to heaven was the same from all places; and he that +had no grave, had the heaven still over him. Yet this disposition of +mind had cost him dear, if God had not been very gracious to him; for +after he, with five Castilians, had travelled over many countries, at +last, by strange good fortune, he got to Ceylon, and from thence to +Calicut, where he very happily found some Portuguese ships; and, beyond +all men's expectations, returned to his native country." When Peter had +said this to me, I thanked him for his kindness, in intending to give me +the acquaintance of a man whose conversation he knew would be so +acceptable; and upon that Raphael and I embraced each other. After those +civilities were past which are usual with strangers upon their first +meeting, we all went to my house, and entering into the garden, sat down +on a green bank, and entertained one another in discourse. He told us, +that when Vesputius had sailed away, he and his companions that stayed +behind in New Castile, by degrees insinuated themselves into the +affections of the people of the country, meeting often with them, and +treating them gently: and at last they not only lived among them without +danger, but conversed familiarly with them; and got so far into the +heart of a prince, whose name and country I have forgot, that he both +furnished them plentifully with all things necessary, and also with the +conveniences of travelling; both boats when they went by water, and +waggons when they travelled over land: he sent with them a very faithful +guide, who was to introduce and recommend them to such other princes as +they had a mind to see: and after many days' journey, they came to +towns, and cities, and to commonwealths, that were both happily governed +and well peopled. Under the equator, and as far on both sides of it as +the sun moves, there lay vast deserts that were parched with the +perpetual heat of the sun; the soil was withered, all things looked +dismally, and all places were either quite uninhabited, or abounded with +wild beasts and serpents, and some few men, that were neither less wild +nor less cruel than the beasts themselves. But as they went farther, a +new scene opened, all things grew milder, the air less burning, the soil +more verdant, and even the beasts were less wild: and at last there were +nations, towns, and cities, that had not only mutual commerce among +themselves, and with their neighbours, but traded both by sea and land, +to very remote countries. There they found the conveniences of seeing +many countries on all hands, for no ship went any voyage into which he +and his companions were not very welcome. The first vessels that they +saw were flat-bottomed, their sails were made of reeds and wicker woven +close together, only some were of leather; but afterwards they found +ships made with round keels, and canvas sails, and in all respects like +our ships; and the seamen understood both astronomy and navigation. He +got wonderfully into their favour, by showing them the use of the +needle, of which till then they were utterly ignorant. They sailed +before with great caution, and only in summer-time, but now they count +all seasons alike, trusting wholly to the loadstone, in which they are +perhaps more secure than safe; so that there is reason to fear that this +discovery, which was thought would prove so much to their advantage, may +by their imprudence become an occasion of much mischief to them. But it +were too long to dwell on all that he told us he had observed in every +place; it would be too great a digression from our present purpose: +whatever is necessary to be told, concerning those wise and prudent +institutions which he observed among civilized nations, may perhaps be +related by us on a more proper occasion. We asked him many questions +concerning all these things, to which he answered very willingly; only +we made no inquiries after monsters, than which nothing is more common; +for everywhere one may hear of ravenous dogs and wolves, and cruel +men-eaters; but it is not so easy to find states that are well and +wisely governed. + +As he told us of many things that were amiss in those new-discovered +countries, so he reckoned up not a few things from which patterns might +be taken for correcting the errors of these nations among whom we live; +of which an account may be given, as I have already promised, at some +other time; for at present I intend only to relate those particulars +that he told us of the manners and laws of the Utopians: but I will +begin with the occasion that led us to speak of that commonwealth. After +Raphael had discoursed with great judgment on the many errors that were +both among us and these nations; had treated of the wise institutions +both here and there, and had spoken as distinctly of the customs and +government of every nation through which he had passed, as if he had +spent his whole life in it; Peter being struck with admiration, said, "I +wonder, Raphael, how it comes that you enter into no king's service, for +I am sure there are none to whom you would not be very acceptable: for +your learning and knowledge, both of men and things, is such, that you +would not only entertain them very pleasantly, but be of great use to +them, by the examples you could set before them, and the advices you +could give them; and by this means you would both serve your own +interest, and be of great use to all your friends."--"As for my +friends," answered he, "I need not be much concerned, having already +done for them all that was incumbent on me; for when I was not only in +good health, but fresh and young, I distributed that among my kindred +and friends which other people do not part with till they are old and +sick; when they then unwillingly give that which they can enjoy no +longer themselves. I think my friends ought to rest contented with this, +and not to expect that for their sakes I should enslave myself to any +king whatsoever."--"Soft and fair," said Peter, "I do not mean that you +should be a slave to any king, but only that you should assist them, and +be useful to them."--"The change of the word," said he, "does not alter +the matter."--"But term it as you will," replied Peter, "I do not see +any other way in which you can be so useful, both in private to your +friends, and to the public, and by which you can make your own condition +happier."--"Happier!" answered Raphael, "is that to be compassed in a +way so abhorrent to my genius? Now I live as I will, to which I believe +few courtiers can pretend. And there are so many that court the favour +of great men, that there will be no great loss if they are not troubled +either with me or with others of my temper." Upon this, said I, "I +perceive, Raphael, that you neither desire wealth nor greatness; and +indeed I value and admire such a man much more than I do any of the +great men in the world. Yet I think you would do what would well become +so generous and philosophical a soul as yours is, if you would apply +your time and thoughts to public affairs, even though you may happen to +find it a little uneasy to yourself: and this you can never do with so +much advantage, as by being taken into the counsel of some great prince, +and putting him on noble and worthy actions, which I know you would do +if you were in such a post; for the springs both of good and evil flow +from the prince, over a whole nation, as from a lasting fountain. So +much learning as you have, even without practice in affairs, or so great +a practice as you have had, without any other learning, would render you +a very fit counsellor to any king whatsoever."--"You are doubly +mistaken," said he, "Mr. More, both in your opinion of me, and in the +judgment you make of things: for as I have not that capacity that you +fancy I have; so, if I had it, the public would not be one jot the +better, when I had sacrificed my quiet to it. For most princes apply +themselves more to affairs of war than to the useful arts of peace; and +in these I neither have any knowledge, nor do I much desire it: they are +generally more set on acquiring new kingdoms, right or wrong, than on +governing well those they possess. And among the ministers of princes, +there are none that are not so wise as to need no assistance, or at +least that do not think themselves so wise, that they imagine they need +none; and if they court any, it is only those for whom the prince has +much personal favour, whom by their fawnings and flatteries they +endeavour to fix to their own interests: and indeed Nature has so made +us, that we all love to be flattered, and to please ourselves with our +own notions. The old crow loves his young, and the ape her cubs. Now if +in such a Court, made up of persons who envy all others, and only admire +themselves, a person should but propose anything that he had either read +in history, or observed in his travels, the rest would think that the +reputation of their wisdom would sink, and that their interest would be +much depressed, if they could not run it down: and if all other things +failed, then they would fly to this, that such or such things pleased +our ancestors, and it were well for us if we could but match them. They +would set up their rest on such an answer, as a sufficient confutation +of all that could be said; as if it were a great misfortune, that any +should be found wiser than his ancestors; but though they willingly let +go all the good things that were among those of former ages, yet if +better things are proposed they cover themselves obstinately with this +excuse of reverence to past times. I have met with these proud, morose, +and absurd judgments of things in many places, particularly once in +England."--"Was you ever there?" said I.--"Yes, I was," answered he, +"and stayed some months there, not long after the rebellion in the west +was suppressed with a great slaughter of the poor people that were +engaged in it. + +"I was then much obliged to that reverend prelate, John Morton, +Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal, and Chancellor of England: a man," +said he, "Peter (for Mr. More knows well what he was), that was not less +venerable for his wisdom and virtues, than for the high character he +bore. He was of a middle stature, not broken with age; his looks begot +reverence rather than fear; his conversation was easy, but serious and +grave; he sometimes took pleasure to try the force of those that came as +suitors to him upon business, by speaking sharply, though decently to +them, and by that he discovered their spirit and presence of mind, with +which he was much delighted, when it did not grow up to impudence, as +bearing a great resemblance to his own temper; and he looked on such +persons as the fittest men for affairs. He spoke both gracefully and +weightily; he was eminently skilled in the law, had a vast +understanding, and a prodigious memory; and those excellent talents with +which Nature had furnished him, were improved by study and experience. +When I was in England the king depended much on his counsels, and the +government seemed to be chiefly supported by him; for from his youth he +had been all along practised in affairs; and having passed through many +traverses of fortune, he had with great cost acquired a vast stock of +wisdom, which is not soon lost when it is purchased so dear. One day +when I was dining with him there happened to be at table one of the +English lawyers, who took occasion to run out in a high commendation of +the severe execution of justice upon thieves, who, as he said, were then +hanged so fast, that there were sometimes twenty on one gibbet; and upon +that he said he could not wonder enough how it came to pass, that since +so few escaped, there were yet so many thieves left who were still +robbing in all places. Upon this, I who took the boldness to speak +freely before the Cardinal, said, there was no reason to wonder at the +matter, since this way of punishing thieves was neither just in itself +nor good for the public; for as the severity was too great, so the +remedy was not effectual; simple theft not being so great a crime that +it ought to cost a man his life, no punishment how severe soever being +able to restrain those from robbing who can find out no other way of +livelihood. 'In this,' said I, 'not only you in England, but a great +part of the world imitate some ill masters that are readier to chastise +their scholars than to teach them. There are dreadful punishments +enacted against thieves, but it were much better to make such good +provisions by which every man might be put in a method how to live, and +so be preserved from the fatal necessity of stealing and of dying for +it.'--'There has been care enough taken for that,' said he, 'there are +many handicrafts, and there is husbandry, by which they may make a shift +to live unless they have a greater mind to follow ill courses.'--'That +will not serve your turn,' said I, 'for many lose their limbs in civil +or foreign wars, as lately in the Cornish rebellion, and some time ago +in your wars with France, who being thus mutilated in the service of +their king and country, can no more follow their old trades, and are +too old to learn new ones: but since wars are only accidental things, +and have intervals, let us consider those things that fall out every +day. There is a great number of noblemen among you, that are themselves +as idle as drones, that subsist on other men's labour, on the labour of +their tenants, whom, to raise their revenues, they pare to the quick. +This indeed is the only instance of their frugality, for in all other +things they are prodigal, even to the beggaring of themselves: but +besides this, they carry about with them a great number of idle fellows, +who never learned any art by which they may gain their living; and +these, as soon as either their lord dies, or they themselves fall sick, +are turned out of doors; for your lords are readier to feed idle people, +than to take care of the sick; and often the heir is not able to keep +together so great a family as his predecessor did. Now when the stomachs +of those that are thus turned out of doors, grow keen, they rob no less +keenly; and what else can they do? for when, by wandering about, they +have worn out both their health and their clothes, and are tattered, and +look ghastly, men of quality will not entertain them, and poor men dare +not do it; knowing that one who has been bred up in idleness and +pleasure, and who was used to walk about with his sword and buckler, +despising all the neighbourhood with an insolent scorn, as far below +him, is not fit for the spade and mattock: nor will he serve a poor man +for so small a hire, and in so low a diet as he can afford to give him.' +To this he answered, 'This sort of men ought to be particularly +cherished, for in them consists the force of the armies for which we +have occasion; since their birth inspires them with a nobler sense of +honour, than is to be found among tradesmen or ploughmen.'--'You may as +well say,' replied I, 'that you must cherish thieves on the account of +wars, for you will never want the one, as long as you have the other; +and as robbers prove sometimes gallant soldiers, so soldiers often prove +brave robbers; so near an alliance there is between those two sorts of +life. But this bad custom, so common among you, of keeping many +servants, is not peculiar to this nation. In France there is yet a more +pestiferous sort of people, for the whole country is full of soldiers, +still kept up in time of peace; if such a state of a nation can be +called a peace: and these are kept in pay upon the same account that you +plead for those idle retainers about noblemen; this being a maxim of +those pretended statesmen that it is necessary for the public safety, to +have a good body of veteran soldiers ever in readiness. They think raw +men are not to be depended on, and they sometimes seek occasions for +making war, that they may train up their soldiers in the art of cutting +throats; or as Sallust observed, for keeping their hands in use, that +they may not grow dull by too long an intermission. But France has +learned to its cost, how dangerous it is to feed such beasts. The fate +of the Romans, Carthaginians, and Syrians, and many other nations and +cities, which were both overturned and quite ruined by those standing +armies, should make others wiser: and the folly of this maxim of the +French, appears plainly even from this, that their trained soldiers +often find your raw men prove too hard for them; of which I will not say +much, lest you may think I flatter the English. Every day's experience +shows, that the mechanics in the towns, or the clowns in the country, +are not afraid of fighting with those idle gentlemen, if they are not +disabled by some misfortune in their body, or dispirited by extreme +want, so that you need not fear that those well-shaped and strong men +(for it is only such that noblemen love to keep about them, till they +spoil them) who now grow feeble with ease, and are softened with their +effeminate manner of life, would be less fit for action if they were +well bred and well employed. And it seems very unreasonable, that for +the prospect of a war, which you need never have but when you please, +you should maintain so many idle men, as will always disturb you in +time of peace, which is ever to be more considered than war. But I do +not think that this necessity of stealing arises only from hence; there +is another cause of it more peculiar to England.'--'What is that?' said +the Cardinal.--'The increase of pasture,' said I, 'by which your sheep, +which are naturally mild, and easily kept in order, may be said now to +devour men, and unpeople, not only villages, but towns; for wherever it +is found that the sheep of any soil yield a softer and richer wool than +ordinary, there the nobility and gentry, and even those holy men the +abbots, not contented with the old rents which their farms yielded, nor +thinking it enough that they, living at their ease, do no good to the +public, resolve to do it hurt instead of good. They stop the course of +agriculture, destroying houses and towns, reserving only the churches, +and enclose grounds that they may lodge their sheep in them. As if +forests and parks had swallowed up too little of the land, those worthy +countrymen turn the best inhabited places in solitudes; for when an +insatiable wretch, who is a plague to his country, resolves to inclose +many thousand acres of ground, the owners, as well as tenants, are +turned out of their possessions, by tricks, or by main force, or being +wearied out with ill usage, they are forced to sell them. By which means +those miserable people, both men and women, married and unmarried, old +and young, with their poor but numerous families (since country business +requires many hands), are all forced to change their seats, not knowing +whither to go; and they must sell almost for nothing their household +stuff, which could not bring them much money, even though they might +stay for a buyer. When that little money is at an end, for it will be +soon spent; what is left for them to do, but either to steal and so to +be hanged (God knows how justly), or to go about and beg? And if they do +this, they are put in prison as idle vagabonds; while they would +willingly work, but can find none that will hire them; for there is no +more occasion for country labour, to which they have been bred, when +there is no arable ground left. One shepherd can look after a flock, +which will stock an extent of ground that would require many hands, if +it were to be ploughed and reaped. This likewise in many places raises +the price of corn. The price of wool is also so risen, that the poor +people who were wont to make cloth are no more able to buy it; and this +likewise makes many of them idle. For since the increase of pasture, God +has punished the avarice of the owners, by a rot among the sheep, which +has destroyed vast numbers of them; to us it might have seemed more just +had it fell on the owners themselves. But suppose the sheep should +increase ever so much, their price is not like to fall; since though +they cannot be called a monopoly, because they are not engrossed by one +person, yet they are in so few hands, and these are so rich, that as +they are not pressed to sell them sooner than they have a mind to it, so +they never do it till they have raised the price as high as possible. +And on the same account it is, that the other kinds of cattle are so +dear, because many villages being pulled down, and all country labour +being much neglected, there are none who make it their business to breed +them. The rich do not breed cattle as they do sheep, but buy them lean, +and at low prices; and after they have fattened them on their grounds, +sell them again at high rates. And I do not think that all the +inconveniences this will produce are yet observed; for as they sell the +cattle dear, so if they are consumed faster than the breeding countries +from which they are brought can afford them, then the stock must +decrease, and this must needs end in great scarcity; and by these means +this your island, which seemed as to this particular the happiest in the +world, will suffer much by the cursed avarice of a few persons; besides +this, the rising of corn makes all people lessen their families as much +as they can; and what can those who are dismissed by them do, but +either beg or rob? And to this last, a man of a great mind is much +sooner drawn than to the former. Luxury likewise breaks in apace upon +you, to set forward your poverty and misery; there is an excessive +vanity in apparel, and great cost in diet; and that not only in +noblemen's families, but even among tradesmen, among the farmers +themselves, and among all ranks of persons. You have also many infamous +houses, and besides those that are known, the taverns and alehouses are +no better; add to these, dice, cards, tables, foot-ball, tennis, and +quoits, in which money runs fast away; and those that are initiated into +them, must in the conclusion betake themselves to robbing for a supply. +Banish these plagues, and give orders that those who have dispeopled so +much soil, may either rebuild the villages they have pulled down, or let +out their grounds to such as will do it: restrain those engrossings of +the rich, that are as bad almost as monopolies; leave fewer occasions to +idleness; let agriculture be set up again, and the manufacture of the +wool be regulated, that so there may be work found for those companies +of idle people whom want forces to be thieves, or who now being idle +vagabonds, or useless servants, will certainly grow thieves at last. If +you do not find a remedy to these evils, it is a vain thing to boast of +your severity in punishing theft, which though it may have the +appearance of justice, yet in itself is neither just nor convenient. For +if you suffer your people to be ill educated, and their manners to be +corrupted from their infancy, and then punish them for those crimes to +which their first education disposed them, what else is to be concluded +from this, but that you first make thieves and then punish them?' + +"While I was talking thus, the counsellor who was present had prepared +an answer, and had resolved to resume all I had said, according to the +formality of a debate, in which things are generally repeated more +faithfully than they are answered; as if the chief trial to be made +were of men's memories. 'You have talked prettily for a stranger,' said +he, 'having heard of many things among us which you have not been able +to consider well; but I will make the whole matter plain to you, and +will first repeat in order all that you have said, then I will show how +much your ignorance of our affairs has misled you, and will in the last +place answer all your arguments. And that I may begin where I promised, +there were four things----' 'Hold your peace,' said the Cardinal, 'this +will take up too much time; therefore we will at present ease you of the +trouble of answering, and reserve it to our next meeting, which shall be +to-morrow, if Raphael's affairs and yours can admit of it. But, +Raphael,' said he to me, 'I would gladly know upon what reason it is +that you think theft ought not to be punished by death? Would you give +way to it? Or do you propose any other punishment that will be more +useful to the public? For since death does not restrain theft, if men +thought their lives would be safe, what fear or force could restrain ill +men? On the contrary, they would look on the mitigation of the +punishment as an invitation to commit more crimes.' I answered, 'It +seems to me a very unjust thing to take away a man's life for a little +money; for nothing in the world can be of equal value with a man's life: +and if it is said, that it is not for the money that one suffers, but +for his breaking the law, I must say, extreme justice is an extreme +injury; for we ought not to approve of these terrible laws that make the +smallest offences capital, nor of that opinion of the Stoics, that makes +all crimes equal, as if there were no difference to be made between the +killing a man and the taking his purse, between which, if we examine +things impartially, there is no likeness nor proportion. God has +commanded us not to kill, and shall we kill so easily for a little +money? But if one shall say, that by that law we are only forbid to kill +any, except when the laws of the land allow of it; upon the same +grounds, laws may be made in some cases to allow of adultery and +perjury: for God having taken from us the right of disposing, either of +our own or of other people's lives, if it is pretended that the mutual +consent of man in making laws can authorize man-slaughter in cases in +which God has given us no example, that it frees people from the +obligation of the divine law, and so makes murder a lawful action; what +is this, but to give a preference to human laws before the divine? And +if this is once admitted, by the same rule men may in all other things +put what restrictions they please upon the laws of God. If by the +Mosaical law, though it was rough and severe, as being a yoke laid on an +obstinate and servile nation, men were only fined, and not put to death +for theft, we cannot imagine that in this new law of mercy, in which God +treats us with the tenderness of a father, He has given us a greater +license to cruelty than He did to the Jews. Upon these reasons it is, +that I think putting thieves to death is not lawful; and it is plain and +obvious that it is absurd, and of ill consequence to the commonwealth, +that a thief and a murderer should be equally punished; for if a robber +sees that his danger is the same, if he is convicted of theft as if he +were guilty of murder, this will naturally incite him to kill the person +whom otherwise he would only have robbed, since if the punishment is the +same, there is more security, and less danger of discovery, when he that +can best make it is put out of the way; so that terrifying thieves too +much, provokes them to cruelty. + +"'But as to the question, what more convenient way of punishment can be +found? I think it is much more easier to find out that, than to invent +anything that is worse; why should we doubt but the way that was so long +in use among the old Romans, who understood so well the arts of +government, was very proper for their punishment? They condemned such as +they found guilty of great crimes, to work their whole lives in +quarries, or to dig in mines with chains about them. But the method that +I liked best, was that which I observed in my travels in Persia, among +the Polylerits, who are a considerable and well-governed people. They +pay a yearly tribute to the King of Persia; but in all other respects +they are a free nation, and governed by their own laws. They lie far +from the sea, and are environed with hills; and being contented with the +productions of their own country, which is very fruitful, they have +little commerce with any other nation; and as they, according to the +genius of their country, have no inclination to enlarge their borders; +so their mountains, and the pension they pay to the Persian, secure them +from all invasions. Thus they have no wars among them: they live rather +conveniently than with splendour, and may be rather called a happy +nation, than either eminent or famous; for I do not think that they are +known so much as by name to any but their next neighbours. Those that +are found guilty of theft among them, are bound to make restitution to +the owner, and not as it is in other places, to the prince, for they +reckon that the prince has no more right to the stolen goods than the +thief; but if that which was stolen is no more in being, then the goods +of the thieves are estimated, and restitution being made out of them, +the remainder is given to their wives and children: and they themselves +are condemned to serve in the public works, but are neither imprisoned, +nor chained, unless there happened to be some extraordinary +circumstances in their crimes. They go about loose and free, working for +the public. If they are idle or backward to work, they are whipped; but +if they work hard, they are well used and treated without any mark of +reproach, only the lists of them are called always at night, and then +they are shut up. They suffer no other uneasiness, but this of constant +labour; for as they work for the public, so they are well entertained +out of the public stock, which is done differently in different places. +In some places, whatever is bestowed on them, is raised by a charitable +contribution; and though this way may seem uncertain, yet so merciful +are the inclinations of that people, that they are plentifully supplied +by it; but in other places, public revenues are set aside for them; or +there is a constant tax of a poll-money raised for their maintenance. In +some places they are set to no public work, but every private man that +has occasion to hire workmen, goes to the market-places and hires them +of the public, a little lower than he would do a freeman: if they go +lazily about their task, he may quicken them with the whip. By this +means there is always some piece of work or other to be done by them; +and beside their livelihood, they earn somewhat still to the public. +They all wear a peculiar habit, of one certain colour, and their hair is +cropped a little above their ears, and a piece of one of their ears is +cut off. Their friends are allowed to give them either meat, drink, or +clothes, so they are of their proper colour; but it is death, both to +the giver and taker, if they give them money; nor is it less penal for +any freeman to take money from them, upon any account whatsoever: and it +is also death for any of these slaves (so they are called) to handle +arms. Those of every division of the country are distinguished by a +peculiar mark; which it is capital for them to lay aside, to go out of +their bounds, or to talk with a slave of another jurisdiction; and the +very attempt of an escape is no less penal than an escape itself; it is +death for any other slave to be accessory to it; and if a freeman +engages in it he is condemned to slavery. Those that discover it are +rewarded; if freemen, in money; and if slaves, with liberty, together +with a pardon for being accessory to it; that so they might find their +account, rather in repenting of their engaging in such a design, than in +persisting in it. + +"These are their laws and rules in relation to robbery; and it is +obvious that they are as advantageous as they are mild and gentle; +since vice is not only destroyed, and men preserved, but they treated in +such a manner as to make them see the necessity of being honest, and of +employing the rest of their lives in repairing the injuries they have +formerly done to society. Nor is there any hazard of their falling back +to their old customs: and so little do travellers apprehend mischief +from them, that they generally make use of them for guides, from one +jurisdiction to another; for there is nothing left them by which they +can rob, or be the better for it, since as they are disarmed, so the +very having of money is a sufficient conviction: and as they are +certainly punished if discovered, so they cannot hope to escape; for +their habit being in all the parts of it different from what is commonly +worn, they cannot fly away, unless they would go naked, and even then +their cropped ear would betray them. The only danger to be feared from +them, is their conspiring against the government: but those of one +division and neighbourhood can do nothing to any purpose, unless a +general conspiracy were laid amongst all the slaves of the several +jurisdictions, which cannot be done, since they cannot meet or talk +together; nor will any venture on a design where the concealment would +be so dangerous, and the discovery so profitable. None are quite +hopeless of recovering their freedom, since by their obedience and +patience, and by giving good grounds to believe that they will change +their manner of life for the future, they may expect at last to obtain +their liberty: and some are every year restored to it, upon the good +character that is given of them.--When I had related all this, I added, +that I did not see why such a method might not be followed with more +advantage, than could ever be expected from that severe justice which +the counsellor magnified so much. To this he answered, that it could +never take place in England, without endangering the whole nation. As he +said this, he shook his head, made some grimaces, and held his peace, +while all the company seemed of his opinion, except the Cardinal, who +said that it was not easy to form a judgment of its success, since it +was a method that never yet had been tried. 'But if,' said he, 'when the +sentence of death was passed upon a thief, the prince would reprieve him +for a while, and make the experiment upon him, denying him the privilege +of a sanctuary; and then if it had a good effect upon him, it might take +place; and if it did not succeed, the worst would be, to execute the +sentence on the condemned persons at last. And I do not see,' added he, +'why it would be either unjust, inconvenient, or at all dangerous, to +admit of such a delay: in my opinion, the vagabonds ought to be treated +in the same manner; against whom, though we have made many laws, yet we +have not been able to gain our end.' When the Cardinal had done, they +all commended the motion, though they had despised it when it came from +me; but more particularly commended what related to the vagabonds, +because it was his own observation. + +"I do not know whether it be worth while to tell what followed, for it +was very ridiculous; but I shall venture at it, for as it is not foreign +to this matter, so some good use may be made of it. There was a jester +standing by, that counterfeited the fool so naturally, that he seemed to +be really one. The jests which he offered were so cold and dull, that we +laughed more at him than at them; yet sometimes he said, as it were by +chance, things that were not unpleasant; so as to justify the old +proverb, 'That he who throws the dice often, will sometimes have a lucky +hit.' When one of the company had said, that I had taken care of the +thieves, and the Cardinal had taken care of the vagabonds, so that there +remained nothing but that some public provision might be made for the +poor, whom sickness or old age had disabled from labour. 'Leave that to +me,' said the fool, 'and I shall take care of them; for there is no +sort of people whose sight I abhor more, having been so often vexed +with them, and with their sad complaints; but as dolefully soever as +they have told their tale, they could never prevail so far as to draw +one penny from me: for either I had no mind to give them anything, or +when I had a mind to do it, I had nothing to give them: and they now +know me so well, that they will not lose their labour, but let me pass +without giving me any trouble, because they hope for nothing, no more in +faith than if I were a priest: but I would have a law made, for sending +all these beggars to monasteries, the men to the Benedictines to be made +lay-brothers, and the women to be nuns.' The Cardinal smiled, and +approved of it in jest; but the rest liked it in earnest. There was a +divine present, who though he was a grave morose man, yet he was so +pleased with this reflection that was made on the priests and the monks, +that he began to play with the fool, and said to him, 'This will not +deliver you from all beggars, except you take care of us friars.'--'That +is done already,' answered the fool, 'for the Cardinal has provided for +you, by what he proposed for restraining vagabonds, and setting them to +work, for I know no vagabonds like you.' This was well entertained by +the whole company, who looking at the Cardinal, perceived that he was +not ill pleased at it; only the friar himself was vexed, as may be +easily imagined, and fell into such a passion, that he could not forbear +railing at the fool, and calling him knave, slanderer, back-biter, and +son of perdition, and then cited some dreadful threatenings out of the +Scriptures against him. Now the jester thought he was in his element, +and laid about him freely. 'Good friar,' said he, 'be not angry, for it +is written, "In patience possess your soul."'--The friar answered (for I +shall give you his own words), 'I am not angry, you hangman; at least I +do not sin in it, for the Psalmist says, "Be ye angry, and sin +not."'--Upon this the Cardinal admonished him gently, and wished him to +govern his passions. 'No, my lord,' said he, 'I speak not but from a +good zeal, which I ought to have; for holy men have had a good zeal, as +it is said, "The zeal of thy house hath eaten me up;" and we sing in our +church, that those who mocked Elisha as he went up to the house of God, +felt the effects of his zeal; which that mocker, that rogue, that +scoundrel, will perhaps feel.'--'You do this perhaps with a good +intention,' said the Cardinal; 'but in my opinion, it were wiser in you, +and perhaps better for you, not to engage in so ridiculous a contest +with a fool.'--'No, my lord,' answered he, 'that were not wisely done; +for Solomon, the wisest of men, said, "Answer a fool according to his +folly;" which I now do, and show him the ditch into which he will fall, +if he is not aware of it; for if the many mockers of Elisha, who was but +one bald man, felt the effect of his zeal, what will become of one +mocker of so many friars, among whom there are so many bald men? We have +likewise a Bull, by which all that jeer us are excommunicated.'--When +the Cardinal saw that there was no end of this matter, he made a sign to +the fool to withdraw, turned the discourse another way; and soon after +rose from the table, and dismissing us, went to hear causes. + +"Thus, Mr. More, I have run out into a tedious story, of the length of +which I had been ashamed, if, as you earnestly begged it of me, I had +not observed you to hearken to it, as if you had no mind to lose any +part of it. I might have contracted it, but I resolved to give it you at +large, that you might observe how those that despised what I had +proposed, no sooner perceived that the Cardinal did not dislike it, but +presently approved of it, fawned so on him, and flattered him to such a +degree, that they in good earnest applauded those things that he only +liked in jest. And from hence you may gather, how little courtiers would +value either me or my counsels." + +To this I answered, "You have done me a great kindness in this +relation; for as everything has been related by you, both wisely and +pleasantly, so you have made me imagine that I was in my own country, +and grown young again, by recalling that good Cardinal to my thoughts, +in whose family I was bred from my childhood: and though you are upon +other accounts very dear to me, yet you are the dearer, because you +honour his memory so much; but after all this I cannot change my +opinion; for I still think that if you could overcome that aversion +which you have to the Courts of Princes, you might, by the advice which +it is in your power to give, do a great deal of good to mankind; and +this is the chief design that every good man ought to propose to himself +in living: for your friend Plato thinks that nations will be happy, when +either philosophers become kings, or kings become philosophers; it is no +wonder if we are so far from that happiness, while philosophers will not +think it their duty to assist kings with their councils."--"They are not +so base-minded," said he, "but that they would willingly do it; many of +them have already done it by their books, if those that are in power +would but hearken to their good advice. But Plato judged right, that +except kings themselves became philosophers, they who from their +childhood are corrupted with false notions, would never fall in entirely +with the councils of philosophers, and this he himself found to be true +in the person of Dionysius. + +"Do not you think, that if I were about any king, proposing good laws to +him, and endeavouring to root out all the cursed seeds of evil that I +found in him, I should either be turned out of his Court, or at least be +laughed at for my pains? For instance, what could it signify if I were +about the King of France, and were called into his cabinet-council, +where several wise men, in his hearing, were proposing many expedients; +as by what arts and practices Milan may be kept; and Naples, that had so +oft slipped out of their hands, recovered; how the Venetians, and after +them the rest of Italy, may be subdued; and then how Flanders, Brabant, +and all Burgundy, and some other kingdoms which he has swallowed already +in his designs, may be added to his empire. One proposes a league with +the Venetians, to be kept as long as he finds his account in it, and +that he ought to communicate councils with them, and give them some +share of the spoil, till his success makes him need or fear them less, +and then it will be easily taken out of their hands. Another proposes +the hiring the Germans, and the securing the Switzers by pensions. +Another proposes the gaining the Emperor by money, which is omnipotent +with him. Another proposes a peace with the King of Arragon, and in +order to cement it, the yielding up the King of Navarre's pretensions. +Another thinks the Prince of Castile is to be wrought on, by the hope of +an alliance; and that some of his courtiers are to be gained to the +French faction by pensions. The hardest point of all is what to do with +England: a treaty of peace is to be set on foot, and if their alliance +is not to be depended on, yet it is to be made as firm as possible; and +they are to be called friends, but suspected as enemies: therefore the +Scots are to be kept in readiness, to be let loose upon England on every +occasion: and some banished nobleman is to be supported underhand (for +by the league it cannot be done avowedly) who has a pretension to the +crown, by which means that suspected prince may be kept in awe. Now when +things are in so great a fermentation, and so many gallant men are +joining councils, how to carry on the war, if so mean a man as I should +stand up, and wish them to change all their councils, to let Italy +alone, and stay at home, since the kingdom of France was indeed greater +than could be well governed by one man; that therefore he ought not to +think of adding others to it: and if after this, I should propose to +them the resolutions of the Achorians, a people that lie on the +south-east of Utopia, who long ago engaged in war, in order to add to +the dominions of their prince another kingdom, to which he had some +pretensions by an ancient alliance. This they conquered, but found that +the trouble of keeping it was equal to that by which it was gained; that +the conquered people were always either in rebellion or exposed to +foreign invasions, while they were obliged to be incessantly at war, +either for or against them, and consequently could never disband their +army; that in the meantime they were oppressed with taxes, their money +went out of the kingdom, their blood was spilt for the glory of their +king, without procuring the least advantage to the people, who received +not the smallest benefit from it even in time of peace; and that their +manners being corrupted by a long war, robbery and murders everywhere +abounded, and their laws fell into contempt; while their king, +distracted with the care of two kingdoms, was the less able to apply his +mind to the interests of either. When they saw this, and that there +would be no end to these evils, they by joint councils made an humble +address to their king, desiring him to choose which of the two kingdoms +he had the greatest mind to keep, since he could not hold both; for they +were too great a people to be governed by a divided king, since no man +would willingly have a groom that should be in common between him and +another. Upon which the good prince was forced to quit his new kingdom +to one of his friends (who was not long after dethroned), and to be +contented with his old one. To this I would add, that after all those +warlike attempts, the vast confusions, and the consumption both of +treasure and of people that must follow them; perhaps upon some +misfortune, they might be forced to throw up all at last; therefore it +seemed much more eligible that the king should improve his ancient +kingdom all he could, and make it flourish as much as possible; that he +should love his people, and be beloved of them; that he should live +among them, govern them gently, and let other kingdoms alone, since that +which had fallen to his share was big enough, if not too big for him. +Pray how do you think would such a speech as this be heard?"--"I +confess," said I, "I think not very well." + +"But what," said he, "if I should sort with another kind of ministers, +whose chief contrivances and consultations were, by what art the +prince's treasures might be increased. Where one proposes raising the +value of specie when the king's debts are large, and lowering it when +his revenues were to come in, that so he might both pay much with a +little, and in a little receive a great deal: another proposes a +pretence of a war, that money might be raised in order to carry it on, +and that a peace be concluded as soon as that was done; and this with +such appearances of religion as might work on the people, and make them +impute it to the piety of their prince, and to his tenderness for the +lives of his subjects. A third offers some old musty laws, that have +been antiquated by a long disuse; and which, as they had been forgotten +by all the subjects, so they had been also broken by them; and proposes +the levying the penalties of these laws, that as it would bring in a +vast treasure, so there might be a very good pretence for it, since it +would look like the executing a law, and the doing of justice. A fourth +proposes the prohibiting of many things under severe penalties, +especially such as were against the interest of the people, and then the +dispensing with these prohibitions upon great compositions, to those who +might find their advantage in breaking them. This would serve two ends, +both of them acceptable to many; for as those whose avarice led them to +transgress would be severely fined, so the selling licenses dear would +look as if a prince were tender of his people, and would not easily, or +at low rates, dispense with anything that might be against the public +good. Another proposes that the judges must be made sure, that they may +declare always in favour of the prerogative, that they must be often +sent for to Court, that the king may hear them argue those points in +which he is concerned; since how unjust soever any of his pretensions +may be, yet still some one or other of them, either out of contradiction +to others, or the pride of singularity, or to make their court, would +find out some pretence or other to give the king a fair colour to carry +the point: for if the judges but differ in opinion, the clearest thing +in the world is made by that means disputable, and truth being once +brought in question, the king may then take advantage to expound the law +for his own profit; while the judges that stand out will be brought +over, either out of fear or modesty; and they being thus gained, all of +them may be sent to the bench to give sentence boldly, as the king would +have it: for fair pretences will never be wanting when sentence is to be +given in the prince's favour. It will either be said that equity lies of +his side, or some words in the law will be found sounding that way, or +some forced sense will be put on them; and when all other things fail, +the king's undoubted prerogative will be pretended, as that which is +above all law; and to which a religious judge ought to have a special +regard. Thus all consent to that maxim of Crassus, that a prince cannot +have treasure enough, since he must maintain his armies out of it: that +a king, even though he would, can do nothing unjustly; that all property +is in him, not excepting the very persons of his subjects: and that no +man has any other property, but that which the king out of his goodness +thinks fit to leave him. And they think it is the prince's interest, +that there be as little of this left as may be, as if it were his +advantage that his people should have neither riches nor liberty; since +these things make them less easy and less willing to submit to a cruel +and unjust government; whereas necessity and poverty blunts them, makes +them patient, beats them down, and breaks that height of spirit, that +might otherwise dispose them to rebel. Now what if after all these +propositions were made, I should rise up and assert, that such councils +were both unbecoming a king, and mischievous to him: and that not only +his honour but his safety consisted more in his people's wealth, than in +his own; if I should show that they choose a king for their own sake, +and not for his; that by his care and endeavours they may be both easy +and safe; and that therefore a prince ought to take more care of his +people's happiness than of his own, as a shepherd is to take more care +of his flock than of himself. It is also certain, that they are much +mistaken that think the poverty of a nation is a means of the public +safety. Who quarrel more than beggars? Who does more earnestly long for +a change, than he that is uneasy in his present circumstances? And who +run to create confusions with so desperate a boldness, as those who have +nothing to lose, hope to gain by them? If a king should fall under such +contempt or envy, that he could not keep his subjects in their duty, but +by oppression and ill usage, and by rendering them poor and miserable, +it were certainly better for him to quit his kingdom, than to retain it +by such methods, as makes him while he keeps the name of authority, lose +the majesty due to it. Nor is it so becoming the dignity of a king to +reign over beggars, as over rich and happy subjects. And therefore +Fabricius, a man of a noble and exalted temper, said, he would rather +govern rich men, than be rich himself; since for one man to abound in +wealth and pleasure, when all about him are mourning and groaning, is to +be a gaoler and not a king. He is an unskilful physician, that cannot +cure one disease without casting his patient into another: so he that +can find no other way for correcting the errors of his people, but by +taking from them the conveniences of life, shows that he knows not what +it is to govern a free nation. He himself ought rather to shake off his +sloth, or to lay down his pride; for the contempt or hatred that his +people have for him, takes its rise from the vices in himself. Let him +live upon what belongs to him, without wronging others, and accommodate +his expense to his revenue. Let him punish crimes, and by his wise +conduct let him endeavour to prevent them, rather than be severe when he +has suffered them to be too common: let him not rashly revive laws that +are abrogated by disuse, especially if they have been long forgotten, +and never wanted; and let him never take any penalty for the breach of +them, to which a judge would not give way in a private man, but would +look on him as a crafty and unjust person for pretending to it. To these +things I would add, that law among the Macarians, a people that lie not +far from Utopia, by which their king, on the day on which he begins to +reign, is tied by an oath confirmed by solemn sacrifices, never to have +at once above a thousand pounds of gold in his treasures, or so much +silver as is equal to that in value. This law, they tell us, was made by +an excellent king, who had more regard to the riches of his country than +to his own wealth; and therefore provided against the heaping up of so +much treasure, as might impoverish the people. He thought that moderate +sum might be sufficient for any accident; if either the king had +occasion for it against rebels, or the kingdom against the invasion of +an enemy; but that it was not enough to encourage a prince to invade +other men's rights, a circumstance that was the chief cause of his +making that law. He also thought that it was a good provision for that +free circulation of money, so necessary for the course of commerce and +exchange: and when a king must distribute all those extraordinary +accessions that increase treasure beyond the due pitch, it makes him +less disposed to oppress his subjects. Such a king as this will be the +terror of ill men, and will be beloved by all the good. + +"If, I say, I should talk of these or such like things, to men that had +taken their bias another way, how deaf would they be to all I could +say?"--"No doubt, very deaf," answered I; and no wonder, for one is +never to offer at propositions or advice that we are certain will not be +entertained. Discourses so much out of the road could not avail +anything, nor have any effect on men whose minds were prepossessed with +different sentiments. This philosophical way of speculation is not +unpleasant among friends in a free conversation, but there is no room +for it in the Courts of Princes where great affairs are carried on by +authority."--"That is what I was saying," replied he, "that there is no +room for philosophy in the Courts of Princes."--"Yes, there is," said I, +"but not for this speculative philosophy that makes everything to be +alike fitting at all times: but there is another philosophy that is more +pliable, that knows its proper scene, accommodates itself to it, and +teaches a man with propriety and decency to act that part which has +fallen to his share. If when one of Plautus's comedies is upon the stage +and a company of servants are acting their parts, you should come out in +the garb of a philosopher, and repeat out of 'Octavia' a discourse of +Seneca's to Nero, would it not be better for you to say nothing than by +mixing things of such different natures to make an impertinent +tragi-comedy? For you spoil and corrupt the play that is in hand when +you mix with it things of an opposite nature, even though they are much +better. Therefore go through with the play that is acting the best you +can, and do not confound it because another that is pleasanter comes +into your thoughts. It is even so in a commonwealth, and in the councils +of princes; if ill opinions cannot be quite rooted out, and you cannot +cure some received vice according to your wishes, you must not therefore +abandon the commonwealth, for the same reasons you should not forsake +the ship in a storm because you cannot command the winds. You are not +obliged to assault people with discourses that are out of their road, +when you see that their received notions must prevent your making an +impression upon them. You ought rather to cast about and to manage +things with all the dexterity in your power, so that if you are not +able to make them go well they may be as little ill as possible; for +except all men were good everything cannot be right, and that is a +blessing that I do not at present hope to see. According to your +arguments," answered he, "all that I could be able to do would be to +preserve myself from being mad while I endeavoured to cure the madness +of others; for if I speak truth, I must repeat what I have said to you; +and as for lying, whether a philosopher can do it or not, I cannot tell, +I am sure I cannot do it. But though these discourses may be uneasy and +ungrateful to them, I do not see why they should seem foolish or +extravagant: indeed if I should either propose such things as Plato has +contrived in his commonwealth, or as the Utopians practise in theirs, +though they might seem better, as certainly they are, yet they are so +different from our establishment, which is founded on property, there +being no such thing among them, that I could not expect that it would +have any effect on them; but such discourses as mine, which only call +past evils to mind and give warning of what may follow, have nothing in +them that is so absurd that they may not be used at any time, for they +can only be unpleasant to those who are resolved to run headlong the +contrary way; and if we must let alone everything as absurd or +extravagant which by reason of the wicked lives of many may seem +uncouth, we must, even among Christians, give over pressing the greatest +part of those things that Christ hath taught us, though He has commanded +us not to conceal them, but to proclaim on the house-tops that which He +taught in secret. The greatest parts of His precepts are more opposite +to the lives of the men of this age than any part of my discourse has +been; but the preachers seemed to have learned that craft to which you +advise me, for they observing that the world would not willingly suit +their lives to the rules that Christ has given, have fitted His doctrine +as if it had been a leaden rule, to their lives, that so some way or +other they might agree with one another. But I see no other effect of +this compliance except it be that men become more secure in their +wickedness by it. And this is all the success that I can have in a +Court, for I must always differ from the rest, and then I shall signify +nothing; or if I agree with them, I shall then only help forward their +madness. I do not comprehend what you mean by your casting about, or by +the bending and handling things so dexterously, that if they go not well +they may go as little ill as may be; for in Courts they will not bear +with a man's holding his peace or conniving at what others do. A man +must barefacedly approve of the worst counsels, and consent to the +blackest designs: so that he would pass for a spy, or possibly for a +traitor, that did but coldly approve of such wicked practices: and +therefore when a man is engaged in such a society, he will be so far +from being able to mend matters by his casting about, as you call it, +that he will find no occasions of doing any good: the ill company will +sooner corrupt him, than be the better for him: or if notwithstanding +all their ill company, he still remains steady and innocent, yet their +follies and knavery will be imputed to him; and by mixing counsels with +them, he must bear his share of all the blame that belongs wholly to +others. + +"It was no ill simile by which Plato set forth the unreasonableness of a +philosopher's meddling with government. If a man, says he, was to see a +great company run out every day into the rain, and take delight in being +wet; if he knew that it would be to no purpose for him to go and +persuade them to return to their houses, in order to avoid the storm, +and that all that could be expected by his going to speak to them would +be that he himself should be as wet as they, it would be best for him to +keep within doors; and since he had not influence enough to correct +other people's folly, to take care to preserve himself. + +"Though to speak plainly my real sentiments, I must freely own, that as +long as there is any property, and while money is the standard of all +other things, I cannot think that a nation can be governed either justly +or happily: not justly, because the best things will fall to the share +of the worst men; nor happily, because all things will be divided among +a few (and even these are not in all respects happy), the rest being +left to be absolutely miserable. Therefore when I reflect on the wise +and good constitution of the Utopians, among whom all things are so well +governed, and with so few laws; where virtue hath its due reward, and +yet there is such an equality, that every man lives in plenty; when I +compare with them so many other nations that are still making new laws, +and yet can never bring their constitution to a right regulation, where +notwithstanding every one has his property; yet all the laws that they +can invent have not the power either to obtain or preserve it, or even +to enable men certainly to distinguish what is their own from what is +another's; of which the many lawsuits that every day break out, and are +eternally depending, give too plain a demonstration; when, I say, I +balance all these things in my thoughts, I grow more favourable to +Plato, and do not wonder that he resolved not to make any laws for such +as would not submit to a community of all things: for so wise a man +could not but foresee that the setting all upon a level was the only way +to make a nation happy, which cannot be obtained so long as there is +property: for when every man draws to himself all that he can compass, +by one title or another, it must needs follow, that how plentiful soever +a nation may be, yet a few dividing the wealth of it among themselves, +the rest must fall into indigence. So that there will be two sorts of +people among them, who deserve that their fortunes should be +interchanged; the former useless, but wicked and ravenous; and the +latter, who by their constant industry serve the public more than +themselves, sincere and modest men. From whence I am persuaded, that +till property is taken away there can be no equitable or just +distribution of things, nor can the world be happily governed: for as +long as that is maintained, the greatest and the far best part of +mankind will be still oppressed with a load of cares and anxieties. I +confess without taking it quite away, those pressures that lie on a +great part of mankind may be made lighter; but they can never be quite +removed. For if laws were made to determine at how great an extent in +soil, and at how much money every man must stop, to limit the prince +that he might not grow too great, and to restrain the people that they +might not become too insolent, and that none might factiously aspire to +public employments; which ought neither to be sold, nor made burthensome +by a great expense; since otherwise those that serve in them would be +tempted to reimburse themselves by cheats and violence, and it would +become necessary to find out rich men for undergoing those employments +which ought rather to be trusted to the wise. These laws, I say, might +have such effects, as good diet and care might have on a sick man, whose +recovery is desperate: they might allay and mitigate the disease, but it +could never be quite healed, nor the body politic be brought again to a +good habit, as long as property remains; and it will fall out as in a +complication of diseases, that by applying a remedy to one sore, you +will provoke another; and that which removes the one ill symptom +produces others, while the strengthening one part of the body weakens +the rest."--"On the contrary," answered I, "it seems to me that men +cannot live conveniently, where all things are common: how can there be +any plenty, where every man will excuse himself from labour? For as the +hope of gain doth not excite him, so the confidence that he has in other +men's industry may make him slothful: if people come to be pinched with +want, and yet cannot dispose of anything as their own; what can follow +upon this but perpetual sedition and bloodshed, especially when the +reverence and authority due to magistrates falls to the ground? For I +cannot imagine how that can be kept up among those that are in all +things equal to one another."--"I do not wonder," said he, "that it +appears so to you, since you have no notion, or at least no right one, +of such a constitution: but if you had been in Utopia with me, and had +seen their laws and rules, as I did, for the space of five years, in +which I lived among them; and during which time I was so delighted with +them, that indeed I should never have left them, if it had not been to +make the discovery of that new world to the Europeans; you would then +confess that you had never seen a people so well constituted as +they,"--"You will not easily persuade me," said Peter, "that any nation +in that new world is better governed than those among us. For as our +understandings are not worse than theirs, so our government, if I +mistake not, being more ancient, a long practice has helped us to find +out many conveniences of life: and some happy chances have discovered +other things to us, which no man's understanding could ever have +invented."--"As for the antiquity, either of their government, or of +ours," said he, "you cannot pass a true judgment of it, unless you had +read their histories; for if they are to be believed, they had towns +among them before these parts were so much as inhabited. And as for +those discoveries, that have been either hit on by chance, or made by +ingenious men, these might have happened there as well as here. I do not +deny but we are more ingenious than they are, but they exceed us much in +industry and application. They knew little concerning us before our +arrival among them; they call us all by a general name of the nations +that lie beyond the Equinoctial Line; for their Chronicle mentions a +shipwreck that was made on their coast 1,200 years ago; and that some +Romans and Egyptians that were in the ship, getting safe ashore, spent +the rest of their days amongst them; and such was their ingenuity, that +from this single opportunity they drew the advantage of learning from +those unlooked-for guests, and acquired all the useful arts that were +then among the Romans, and which were known to these shipwrecked men: +and by the hints that they gave them, they themselves found out even +some of those arts which they could not fully explain; so happily did +they improve that accident, of having some of our people cast upon their +shore. But if such an accident has at any time brought any from thence +into Europe, we have been so far from improving it, that we do not so +much as remember it; as in after-times perhaps it will be forgot by our +people that I was ever there. For though they from one such accident +made themselves masters of all the good inventions that were among us; +yet I believe it would be long before we should learn or put in practice +any of the good institutions that are among them. And this is the true +cause of their being better governed, and living happier than we, though +we come not short of them in point of understanding or outward +advantages."--Upon this I said to him, "I earnestly beg you would +describe that island very particularly to us. Be not too short, but set +out in order all things relating to their soil, their rivers, their +towns, their people, their manners, constitution, laws, and, in a word, +all that you imagine we desire to know. And you may well imagine that we +desire to know everything concerning them, of which we are hitherto +ignorant."--"I will do it very willingly," said he, "for I have digested +the whole matter carefully; but it will take up some time,"--"Let us go +then," said I, "first and dine, and then we shall have leisure enough." +He consented. We went in and dined, and after dinner came back, and sat +down in the same place. I ordered my servants to take care that none +might come and interrupt us. And both Peter and I desired Raphael to be +as good as his word. When he saw that we were very intent upon it, he +paused a little to recollect himself, and began in this manner. + + + + +BOOK II. + + +The island of Utopia is in the middle two hundred miles broad, and holds +almost at the same breadth over a great part of it; but it grows +narrower towards both ends. Its figure is not unlike a crescent: between +its horns, the sea comes in eleven miles broad, and spreads itself into +a great bay, which is environed with land to the compass of about five +hundred miles, and is well secured from winds. In this bay there is no +great current, the whole coast is, as it were, one continued harbour, +which gives all that live in the island great convenience for mutual +commerce; but the entry into the bay, occasioned by rocks on the one +hand, and shallows on the other, is very dangerous. In the middle of it +there is one single rock which appears above water, and may therefore be +easily avoided, and on the top of it there is a tower in which a +garrison is kept, the other rocks lie under water, and are very +dangerous. The channel is known only to the natives, so that if any +stranger should enter into the bay, without one of their pilots, he +would run great danger of shipwreck; for even they themselves could not +pass it safe, if some marks that are on the coast did not direct their +way; and if these should be but a little shifted, any fleet that might +come against them, how great soever it were, would be certainly lost. On +the other side of the island there are likewise many harbours; and the +coast is so fortified, both by nature and art, that a small number of +men can hinder the descent of a great army. But they report (and there +remains good marks of it to make it credible) that this was no island at +first, but a part of the continent. Utopus that conquered it (whose name +it still carries, for Abraxa was its first name) brought the rude and +uncivilized inhabitants into such a good government, and to that measure +of politeness, that they now far excel all the rest of mankind; having +soon subdued them, he designed to separate them from the continent, and +to bring the sea quite round them. To accomplish this, he ordered a deep +channel to be dug fifteen miles long; and that the natives might not +think he treated them like slaves, he not only forced the inhabitants, +but also his own soldiers, to labour in carrying it on. As he set a vast +number of men to work, he beyond all men's expectations brought it to a +speedy conclusion. And his neighbours who at first laughed at the folly +of the undertaking, no sooner saw it brought to perfection, than they +were struck with admiration and terror. + +There are fifty-four cities in the island, all large and well built: the +manners, customs, and laws of which are the same, and they are all +contrived as near in the same manner as the ground on which they stand +will allow. The nearest lie at least twenty-four miles distance from one +another, and the most remote are not so far distant, but that a man can +go on foot in one day from it, to that which lies next it. Every city +sends three of their wisest senators once a year to Amaurot, to consult +about their common concerns; for that is chief town of the island, being +situated near the centre of it, so that it is the most convenient place +for their assemblies. The jurisdiction of every city extends at least +twenty miles: and where the towns lie wider, they have much more ground: +no town desires to enlarge its bounds, for the people consider +themselves rather as tenants than landlords. They have built over all +the country, farmhouses for husbandmen, which are well contrived, and +are furnished with all things necessary for country labour. Inhabitants +are sent by turns from the cities to dwell in them; no country family +has fewer than forty men and women in it, besides two slaves. There is a +master and a mistress set over every family; and over thirty families +there is a magistrate. Every year twenty of this family come back to the +town, after they have stayed two years in the country; and in their +room there are other twenty sent from the town, that they may learn +country work from those that have been already one year in the country, +as they must teach those that come to them the next from the town. By +this means such as dwell in those country farms are never ignorant of +agriculture, and so commit no errors, which might otherwise be fatal, +and bring them under a scarcity of corn. But though there is every year +such a shifting of the husbandmen, to prevent any man being forced +against his will to follow that hard course of life too long; yet many +among them take such pleasure in it, that they desire leave to continue +in it many years. These husbandmen till the ground, breed cattle, hew +wood, and convey it to the towns, either by land or water, as is most +convenient. They breed an infinite multitude of chickens in a very +curious manner; for the hens do not sit and hatch them, but vast number +of eggs are laid in a gentle and equal heat, in order to be hatched, and +they are no sooner out of the shell, and able to stir about, but they +seem to consider those that feed them as their mothers, and follow them +as other chickens do the hen that hatched them. They breed very few +horses, but those they have are full of mettle, and are kept only for +exercising their youth in the art of sitting and riding them; for they +do not put them to any work, either of ploughing or carriage, in which +they employ oxen; for though their horses are stronger, yet they find +oxen can hold out longer; and as they are not subject to so many +diseases, so they are kept upon a less charge, and with less trouble; +and even when they are so worn out, that they are no more fit for +labour, they are good meat at last. They sow no corn, but that which is +to be their bread; for they drink either wine, cyder, or perry, and +often water, sometimes boiled with honey or liquorice, with which they +abound; and though they know exactly how much corn will serve every +town, and all that tract of country which belongs to it, yet they sow +much more, and breed more cattle than are necessary for their +consumption; and they give that overplus of which they make no use to +their neighbours. When they want anything in the country which it does +not produce, they fetch that from the town, without carrying anything in +exchange for it. And the magistrates of the town take care to see it +given them; for they meet generally in the town once a month, upon a +festival day. When the time of harvest comes, the magistrates in the +country send to those in the towns, and let them know how many hands +they will need for reaping the harvest; and the number they call for +being sent to them, they commonly despatch it all in one day. + + +OF THEIR TOWNS, PARTICULARLY OF AMAUROT. + +He that knows one of their towns, knows them all, they are so like one +another, except where the situation makes some difference. I shall +therefore describe one of them; and none is so proper as Amaurot; for as +none is more eminent, all the rest yielding in precedence to this, +because it is the seat of their supreme council; so there was none of +them better known to me, I having lived five years altogether in it. + +It lies upon the side of a hill, or rather a rising ground: its figure +is almost square, for from the one side of it, which shoots up almost to +the top of the hill, it runs down in a descent for two miles to the +river Anider; but it is a little broader the other way that runs along +by the bank of that river. The Anider rises about eighty miles above +Amaurot in a small spring at first; but other brooks falling into it, of +which two are more considerable than the rest. As it runs by Amaurot, it +is grown half a mile broad; but it still grows larger and larger, till +after sixty miles course below it, it is lost in the ocean, between the +town and the sea, and for some miles above the town, it ebbs and flows +every six hours, with a strong current. The tide comes up for about +thirty miles so full, that there is nothing but salt water in the river, +the fresh water being driven back with its force; and above that, for +some miles, the water is brackish; but a little higher, as it runs by +the town, it is quite fresh; and when the tide ebbs, it continues fresh +all along to the sea. There is a bridge cast over the river, not of +timber, but of fair stone, consisting of many stately arches; it lies at +that part of the town which is farthest from the sea, so that ships +without any hindrance lie all along the side of the town. There is +likewise another river that runs by it, which though it is not great, +yet it runs pleasantly, for it rises out of the same hill on which the +town stands, and so runs down through it, and falls into the Anider. The +inhabitants have fortified the fountain-head of this river, which +springs a little without the towns; that so if they should happen to be +besieged, the enemy might not be able to stop or divert the course of +the water, nor poison it; from thence it is carried in earthen pipes to +the lower streets; and for those places of the town to which the water +of that small river cannot be conveyed, they have great cisterns for +receiving the rain-water, which supplies the want of the other. The town +is compassed with a high and thick wall, in which there are many towers +and forts; there is also a broad and deep dry ditch, set thick with +thorns, cast round three sides of the town, and the river is instead of +a ditch on the fourth side. The streets are very convenient for all +carriage, and are well sheltered from the winds. Their buildings are +good, and are so uniform, that a whole side of a street looks like one +house. The streets are twenty feet broad; there lie gardens behind all +their houses; these are large but enclosed with buildings, that on all +hands face the streets; so that every house has both a door to the +street, and a back door to the garden. Their doors have all two leaves, +which, as they are easily opened, so they shut of their own accord; and +there being no property among them, every man may freely enter into any +house whatsoever. At every ten years end they shift their houses by +lots. They cultivate their gardens with great care, so that they have +both vines, fruits, herbs, and flowers in them; and all is so well +ordered, and so finely kept, that I never saw gardens anywhere that were +both so fruitful and so beautiful as theirs. And this humour of ordering +their gardens so well, is not only kept up by the pleasure they find in +it, but also by an emulation between the inhabitants of the several +streets, who vie with each other; and there is indeed nothing belonging +to the whole town that is both more useful and more pleasant. So that he +who founded the town, seems to have taken care of nothing more than of +their gardens; for they say, the whole scheme of the town was designed +at first by Utopus, but he left all that belonged to the ornament and +improvement of it, to be added by those that should come after him, that +being too much for one man to bring to perfection. Their records, that +contain the history of their town and state, are preserved with an exact +care, and run backwards 1,760 years. From these it appears that their +houses were at first low and mean, like cottages, made of any sort of +timber, and were built with mud walls and thatched with straw. But now +their houses are three stories high: the fronts of them are faced either +with stone, plastering, or brick; and between the facings of their walls +they throw in their rubbish. Their roofs are flat, and on them they lay +a sort of plaster, which costs very little, and yet is so tempered that +it is not apt to take fire, and yet resists the weather more than lead. +They have great quantities of glass among them, with which they glaze +their windows. They use also in their windows a thin linen cloth, that +is so oiled or gummed that it both keeps out the wind and gives free +admission to the light. + + +OF THEIR MAGISTRATES. + +Thirty families choose every year a magistrate, who was anciently called +the Syphogrant, but is now called the Philarch; and over every ten +Syphogrants, with the families subject to them, there is another +magistrate, who was anciently called the Tranibor, but of late the +Archphilarch. All the Syphogrants, who are in number 200, choose the +Prince out of a list of four, who are named by the people of the four +divisions of the city; but they take an oath before they proceed to an +election, that they will choose him whom they think most fit for the +office. They give their voices secretly, so that it is not known for +whom every one gives his suffrage. The Prince is for life, unless he is +removed upon suspicion of some design to enslave the people. The +Tranibors are new chosen every year, but yet they are for the most part +continued. All their other magistrates are only annual. The Tranibors +meet every third day, and oftener if necessary, and consult with the +Prince, either concerning the affairs of the state in general, or such +private differences as may arise sometimes among the people; though that +falls out but seldom. There are always two Syphogrants called into the +council-chamber, and these are changed every day. It is a fundamental +rule of their government, that no conclusion can be made in anything +that relates to the public, till it has been first debated three several +days in their council. It is death for any to meet and consult +concerning the state, unless it be either in their ordinary council, or +in the assembly of the whole body of the people. + +These things have been so provided among them, that the Prince and the +Tranibors may not conspire together to change the government, and +enslave the people; and therefore when anything of great importance is +set on foot, it is sent to the Syphogrants; who after they have +communicated it to the families that belong to their divisions, and have +considered it among themselves, make report to the senate; and upon +great occasions, the matter is referred to the council of the whole +island. One rule observed in their council, is, never to debate a thing +on the same day in which it is first proposed; for that is always +referred to the next meeting, that so men may not rashly, and in the +heat of discourse, engage themselves too soon, which might bias them so +much, that instead of consulting the good of the public, they might +rather study to support their first opinions, and by a perverse and +preposterous sort of shame, hazard their country rather than endanger +their own reputation, or venture the being suspected to have wanted +foresight in the expedients that they at first proposed. And therefore +to prevent this, they take care that they may rather be deliberate than +sudden in their motions. + + +OF THEIR TRADES, AND MANNER OF LIFE. + +Agriculture is that which is so universally understood among them, that +no person, either man or woman, is ignorant of it; they are instructed +in it from their childhood, partly by what they learn at school, and +partly by practice; they being led out often into the fields, about the +town, where they not only see others at work, but are likewise exercised +in it themselves. Besides agriculture, which is so common to them all, +every man has some peculiar trade to which he applies himself, such as +the manufacture of wool, or flax, masonry, smith's work, or carpenter's +work; for there is no sort of trade that is in great esteem among them. +Throughout the island they wear the same sort of clothes without any +other distinction, except what is necessary to distinguish the two +sexes, and the married and unmarried. The fashion never alters; and as +it is neither disagreeable nor uneasy, so it is suited to the climate, +and calculated both for their summers and winters. Every family makes +their own clothes; but all among them, women as well men, learn one or +other of the trades formerly mentioned. Women, for the most part, deal +in wool and flax, which suit best with their weakness, leaving the ruder +trades to the men. The same trade generally passes down from father to +son, inclinations often following descent; but if any man's genius lies +another way, he is by adoption translated into a family that deals in +the trade to which he is inclined: and when that is to be done, care is +taken not only by his father, but by the magistrate, that he may be put +to a discreet and good man. And if after a person has learned one trade, +he desires to acquire another, that is also allowed, and is managed in +the same manner as the former. When he has learned both, he follows that +which he likes best, unless the public has more occasion for the other. + +The chief, and almost the only business of the Syphogrants, is to take +care that no man may live idle, but that every one may follow his trade +diligently: yet they do not wear themselves out with perpetual toil, +from morning to night, as if they were beasts of burden, which as it is +indeed a heavy slavery, so it is everywhere the common course of life +amongst all mechanics except the Utopians; but they dividing the day and +night into twenty-four hours, appoint six of these for work; three of +which are before dinner; and three after. They then sup, and at eight +o'clock, counting from noon, go to bed and sleep eight hours. The rest +of their time besides that taken up in work, eating and sleeping, is +left to every man's discretion; yet they are not to abuse that interval +to luxury and idleness, but must employ it in some proper exercise +according to their various inclinations, which is for the most part +reading. It is ordinary to have public lectures every morning before +daybreak; at which none are obliged to appear but those who are marked +out for literature; yet a great many, both men and women of all ranks, +go to hear lectures of one sort or other, according to their +inclinations. But if others, that are not made for contemplation, choose +rather to employ themselves at that time in their trades, as many of +them do, they are not hindered, but are rather commended, as men that +take care to serve their country. After supper, they spend an hour in +some diversion, in summer in their gardens, and in winter in the halls +where they eat; where they entertain each other, either with music or +discourse. They do not so much as know dice, or any such foolish and +mischievous games: they have, however, two sorts of games not unlike our +chess; the one is between several numbers, in which one number, as it +were, consumes another: the other resembles a battle between the virtues +and the vices, in which the enmity in the vices among themselves, and +their agreement against virtue, is not unpleasantly represented; +together with the special oppositions between the particular virtues and +vices; as also the methods by which vice either openly assaults or +secretly undermines virtue; and virtue on the other hand resists it. But +the time appointed for labour is to be narrowly examined, otherwise you +may imagine, that since there are only six hours appointed for work, +they may fall under a scarcity of necessary provisions. But it is so far +from being true, that this time is not sufficient for supplying them +with plenty of all things, either necessary or convenient; that it is +rather too much; and this you will easily apprehend, if you consider how +great a part of all other nations is quite idle. First, women generally +do little, who are the half of mankind; and if some few women are +diligent, their husbands are idle: then consider the great company of +idle priests, and of those that are called religious men; add to these +all rich men, chiefly those that have estates in land, who are called +noblemen and gentlemen, together with their families, made up of idle +persons, that are kept more for show than use; add to these, all those +strong and lusty beggars, that go about pretending some disease, in +excuse for their begging; and upon the whole account you will find that +the number of those by whose labours mankind is supplied, is much less +than you perhaps imagined. Then consider how few of those that work are +employed in labours that are of real service; for we who measure all +things by money, give rise to many trades that are both vain and +superfluous, and serve only to support riot and luxury. For if those who +work were employed only in such things as the conveniences of life +require, there would be such an abundance of them, that the prices of +them would so sink, that tradesmen could not be maintained by their +gains; if all those who labour about useless things, were set to more +profitable employments, and if all they that languish out their lives in +sloth and idleness, every one of whom consumes as much as any two of the +men that are at work, were forced to labour, you may easily imagine that +a small proportion of time would serve for doing all that is either +necessary, profitable, or pleasant to mankind, especially while pleasure +is kept within its due bounds. This appears very plainly in Utopia, for +there, in a great city, and in all the territory that lies round it, you +can scarce find five hundred, either men or women, by their age and +strength, are capable of labour, that are not engaged in it; even the +Syphogrants, though excused by the law, yet do not excuse themselves, +but work, that by their examples they may excite the industry of the +rest of the people. The like exemption is allowed to those, who being +recommended to the people by the priests, are by the secret suffrages of +the Syphogrants privileged from labour, that they may apply themselves +wholly to study; and if any of these fall short of those hopes that they +seemed at first to give, they are obliged to return to work. And +sometimes a mechanic, that so employs his leisure hours, as to make a +considerable advancement in learning, is eased from being a tradesman, +and ranked among their learned men. Out of these they choose their +ambassadors, their priests, their Tranibors, and the Prince himself; +anciently called their Barzenes, but is called of late their Ademus. + +And thus from the great numbers among them that are neither suffered to +be idle, nor to be employed in any fruitless labour, you may easily make +the estimate how much may be done in those few hours in which they are +obliged to labour. But besides all that has been already said, it is to +be considered that the needful arts among them are managed with less +labour than anywhere else. The building or the repairing of houses among +us employ many hands, because often a thriftless heir suffers a house +that his father built to fall into decay, so that his successor must, at +a great cost, repair that which he might have kept up with a small +charge: it frequently happens, that the same house which one person +built at a vast expense, is neglected by another, who thinks he has a +more delicate sense of the beauties of architecture; and he suffering it +to fall to ruin, builds another at no less charge. But among the +Utopians, all things are so regulated that men very seldom build upon a +new piece of ground; and are not only very quick in repairing their +houses, but show their foresight in preventing their decay: so that +their buildings are preserved very long, with but little labour; and +thus the builders to whom that care belongs are often without +employment, except the hewing of timber, and the squaring of stones, +that the materials may be in readiness for raising a building very +suddenly, when there is any occasion for it. As to their clothes, +observe how little work is spent in them: while they are at labour, they +are clothed with leather and skins, cast carelessly about them, which +will last seven years; and when they appear in public they put on an +upper garment, which hides the other; and these are all of one colour, +and that is the natural colour of the wool. As they need less woollen +cloth than is used anywhere else, so that which they make use of is much +less costly. They use linen cloth more; but that is prepared with less +labour, and they value cloth only by the whiteness of the linen, or the +cleanness of the wool, without much regard to the fineness of the +thread: while in other places, four or five upper garments of woollen +cloth, of different colours, and as many vests of silk, will scarce +serve one man; and while those that are nicer think ten too few, every +man there is content with one, which very often serves him two years. +Nor is there anything that can tempt a man to desire more; for if he had +them, he would neither be the warmer, nor would he make one jot the +better appearance for it. And thus, since they are all employed in some +useful labour, and since they content themselves with fewer things, it +falls out that there is a great abundance of all things among them: so +that it frequently happens, that for want of other work, vast numbers +are sent out to mend the highways. But when no public undertaking is to +be performed, the hours of working are lessened. The magistrates never +engage the people in unnecessary labour, since the chief end of the +constitution is to regulate labour by the necessities of the public, and +to allow all the people as much time as is necessary for the improvement +of their minds, in which they think the happiness of life consists. + + +OF THEIR TRAFFIC. + +But it is now time to explain to you the mutual intercourse of this +people, their commerce, and the rules by which all things are +distributed among them. + +As their cities are composed of families, so their families are made up +of those that are nearly related to one another. Their women, when they +grow up, are married out; but all the males, both children and +grandchildren, live still in the same house, in great obedience to their +common parent, unless age has weakened his understanding; and in that +case, he that is next to him in age comes in his room. But lest any city +should become either too great, or by any accident be dispeopled, +provision is made that none of their cities may contain above six +thousand families, besides those of the country round it. No family may +have less than ten, and more than sixteen persons in it; but there can +be no determined number for the children under age. This rule is easily +observed, by removing some of the children of a more fruitful couple to +any other family that does not abound so much in them. By the same rule, +they supply cities that do not increase so fast, from others that breed +faster; and if there is any increase over the whole island, then they +draw out a number of their citizens out of the several towns, and send +them over to the neighbouring continent; where, if they find that the +inhabitants have more soil than they can well cultivate, they fix a +colony, taking the inhabitants into their society, if they are willing +to live with them; and where they do that of their own accord, they +quickly enter into their method of life, and conform to their rules, and +this proves a happiness to both nations: for according to their +constitution, such care is taken of the soil, that it becomes fruitful +enough for both, though it might be otherwise too narrow and barren for +any one of them. But if the natives refuse to conform themselves to +their laws, they drive them out of those bounds which they mark out for +themselves, and use force if they resist. For they account it a very +just cause of war, for a nation to hinder others from possessing a part +of that soil, of which they make no use, but which is suffered to lie +idle and uncultivated; since every man has by the law of Nature a right +to such a waste portion of the earth as is necessary for his +subsistence. If an accident has so lessened the number of the +inhabitants of any of their towns, that it cannot be made up from the +other towns of the island, without diminishing them too much, which is +said to have fallen out but twice since they were first a people, when +great numbers were carried off by the plague; the loss is then supplied +by recalling as many as are wanted from their colonies; for they will +abandon these, rather than suffer the towns in the island to sink too +low. + +But to return to their manner of living in society, the oldest man of +every family, as has been already said, is its governor. Wives serve +their husbands, and children their parents, and always the younger +serves the elder. Every city is divided into four equal parts, and in +the middle of each there is a market-place: what is brought thither, and +manufactured by the several families, is carried from thence to houses +appointed for that purpose, in which all things of a sort are laid by +themselves; and thither every father goes and takes whatsoever he or his +family stand in need of, without either paying for it, or leaving +anything in exchange. There is no reason for giving a denial to any +person, since there is such plenty of everything among them; and there +is no danger of a man's asking for more than he needs; they have no +inducements to do this, since they are sure that they shall always be +supplied. It is the fear of want that makes any of the whole race of +animals either greedy or ravenous; but besides fear, there is in man a +pride that makes him fancy it a particular glory to excel others in pomp +and excess. But by the laws of the Utopians, there is no room for this. +Near these markets there are others for all sorts of provisions, where +there are not only herbs, fruits, and bread, but also fish, fowl, and +cattle. There are also, without their towns, places appointed near some +running water, for killing their beasts, and for washing away their +filth; which is done by their slaves: for they suffer none of their +citizens to kill their cattle, because they think that pity and +good-nature, which are among the best of those affections that are born +with us, are much impaired by the butchering of animals: nor do they +suffer anything that is foul or unclean to be brought within their +towns, lest the air should be infected by ill smells which might +prejudice their health. In every street there are great halls that lie +at an equal distance from each other, distinguished by particular names. +The Syphogrants dwell in those that are set over thirty families, +fifteen lying on one side of it, and as many on the other. In these +halls they all meet and have their repasts. The stewards of every one of +them come to the market-place at an appointed hour; and according to the +number of those that belong to the hall, they carry home provisions. But +they take more care of their sick than of any others: these are lodged +and provided for in public hospitals: they have belonging to every town +four hospitals, that are built without their walls, and are so large +that they may pass for little towns: by this means, if they had ever +such a number of sick persons, they could lodge them conveniently, and +at such a distance, that such of them as are sick of infectious diseases +may be kept so far from the rest that there can be no danger of +contagion. The hospitals are furnished and stored with all things that +are convenient for the ease and recovery of the sick; and those that are +put in them are looked after with such tender and watchful care, and are +so constantly attended by their skilful physicians, that as none is sent +to them against their will, so there is scarce one in a whole town that, +if he should fall ill, would not choose rather to go thither than lie +sick at home. + +After the steward of the hospitals has taken for the sick whatsoever the +physician prescribes, then the best things that are left in the market +are distributed equally among the halls, in proportion to their numbers, +only, in the first place, they serve the Prince, the chief priest, the +Tranibors, the ambassadors, and strangers, if there are any, which +indeed falls out but seldom, and for whom there are houses well +furnished, particularly appointed for their reception when they come +among them. At the hours of dinner and supper, the whole Syphogranty +being called together by sound of trumpet, they meet and eat together, +except only such as are in the hospitals, or lie sick at home. Yet after +the halls are served, no man is hindered to carry provisions home from +the market-place; for they know that none does that but for some good +reason; for though any that will may eat at home, yet none does it +willingly, since it is both ridiculous and foolish for any to give +themselves the trouble to make ready an ill dinner at home, when there +is a much more plentiful one made ready for him so near hand. All the +uneasy and sordid services about these halls are performed by their +slaves; but the dressing and cooking their meat, and the ordering their +tables, belong only to the women, all those of every family taking it by +turns. They sit at three or more tables, according to their number; the +men sit towards the wall, and the women sit on the other side, that if +any of them should be taken suddenly ill, which is no uncommon case +amongst women with child, she may, without disturbing the rest, rise and +go to the nurse's room, who are there with the sucking children; where +there is always clean water at hand, and cradles in which they may lay +the young children, if there is occasion for it, and a fire that they +may shift and dress them before it. Every child is nursed by its own +mother, if death or sickness does not intervene; and in that case the +Syphogrants' wives find out a nurse quickly, which is no hard matter; +for any one that can do it, offers herself cheerfully; for as they are +much inclined to that piece of mercy, so the child whom they nurse +considers the nurse as its mother. All the children under five years old +sit among the nurses, the rest of the younger sort of both sexes, till +they are fit for marriage, either serve those that sit at table; or if +they are not strong enough for that, stand by them in great silence, and +eat what is given them; nor have they any other formality of dining. In +the middle of the first table, which stands across the upper end of the +hall, sit the Syphogrant and his wife; for that is the chief and most +conspicuous place; next to him sit two of the most ancient, for there go +always four to a mess. If there is a temple within that Syphogranty, the +priest and his wife sit with the Syphogrant above all the rest: next +them there is a mixture of old and young, who are so placed, that as the +young are set near others, so they are mixed with the more ancient; +which they say was appointed on this account, that the gravity of the +old people, and the reverence that is due to them, might restrain the +younger from all indecent words and gestures. Dishes are not served up +to the whole table at first, but the best are first set before the old, +whose seats are distinguished from the young, and after them all the +rest are served alike. The old men distribute to the younger any curious +meats that happen to be set before them, if there is not such an +abundance of them that the whole company may be served alike. + +Thus old men are honoured with a particular respect; yet all the rest +fare as well as they. Both dinner and supper are begun with some lecture +of morality that is read to them; but it is so short, that it is not +tedious nor uneasy to them to hear it: from hence the old men take +occasion to entertain those about them, with some useful and pleasant +enlargements; but they do not engross the whole discourse so to +themselves, during their meals, that the younger may not put in for a +share: on the contrary, they engage them to talk, that so they may in +that free way of conversation find out the force of every one's spirit, +and observe his temper. They despatch their dinners quickly, but sit +long at supper; because they go to work after the one, and are to sleep +after the other, during which they think the stomach carries on the +concoction more vigorously. They never sup without music; and there is +always fruit served up after meat; while they are at table, some burn +perfumes, and sprinkle about fragrant ointments and sweet waters: in +short, they want nothing that may cheer up their spirits: they give +themselves a large allowance that way, and indulge themselves in all +such pleasures as are attended with no inconvenience. Thus do those that +are in the towns live together; but in the country, where they live at +great distance, every one eats at home, and no family wants any +necessary sort of provision, for it is from them that provisions are +sent unto those that live in the towns. + + +OF THE TRAVELLING OF THE UTOPIANS. + +If any man has a mind to visit his friends that live in some other town, +or desires to travel and see the rest of the country, he obtains leave +very easily from the Syphogrant and Tranibors, when there is no +particular occasion for him at home: such as travel, carry with them a +passport from the Prince, which both certifies the license that is +granted for travelling, and limits the time of their return. They are +furnished with a waggon and a slave, who drives the oxen, and looks +after them: but unless there are women in the company, the waggon is +sent back at the end of the journey as a needless encumbrance: while +they are on the road, they carry no provisions with them; yet they want +nothing, but are everywhere treated as if they were at home. If they +stay in any place longer than a night, every one follows his proper +occupation, and is very well used by those of his own trade: but if any +man goes out of the city to which he belongs, without leave, and is +found rambling without a passport, he is severely treated, he is +punished as a fugitive, and sent home disgracefully; and if he falls +again into the like fault, is condemned to slavery. If any man has a +mind to travel only over the precinct of his own city, he may freely do +it, with his father's permission and his wife's consent; but when he +comes into any of the country houses, if he expects to be entertained by +them, he must labour with them and conform to their rules: and if he +does this, he may freely go over the whole precinct; being thus as +useful to the city to which he belongs, as if he were still within it. +Thus you see that there are no idle persons among them, nor pretences of +excusing any from labour. There are no taverns, no alehouses nor stews +among them; nor any other occasions of corrupting each other, of getting +into corners, or forming themselves into parties: all men live in full +view, so that all are obliged, both to perform their ordinary task, and +to employ themselves well in their spare hours. And it is certain that a +people thus ordered must live in great abundance of all things; and +these being equally distributed among them, no man can want, or be +obliged to beg. + +In their great council at Amaurot, to which there are three sent from +every town once a year, they examine what towns abound in provisions, +and what are under any scarcity, that so the one may be furnished from +the other; and this is done freely, without any sort of exchange; for +according to their plenty or scarcity, they supply, or are supplied from +one another; so that indeed the whole island is, as it were, one family. +When they have thus taken care of their whole country, and laid up +stores for two years, which they do to prevent the ill consequences of +an unfavourable season, they order an exportation of the overplus, both +of corn, honey, wool, flax, wood, wax, tallow, leather, and cattle; +which they send out commonly in great quantities to other nations. They +order a seventh part of all these goods to be freely given to the poor +of the countries to which they send them, and sell the rest at moderate +rates. And by this exchange, they not only bring back those few things +that they need at home (for indeed they scarce need anything but iron), +but likewise a great deal of gold and silver; and by their driving this +trade so long, it is not to be imagined how vast a treasure they have +got among them: so that now they do not much care whether they sell off +their merchandise for money in hand, or upon trust. A great part of +their treasure is now in bonds; but in all their contracts no private +man stands bound, but the writing runs in the name of the town; and the +towns that owe them money, raise it from those private hands that owe it +to them, lay it up in their public chamber, or enjoy the profit of it +till the Utopians call for it; and they choose rather to let the +greatest part of it lie in their hands who make advantage by it, than to +call for it themselves: but if they see that any of their other +neighbours stand more in need of it, then they call it in and lend it to +them: whenever they are engaged in war, which is the only occasion in +which their treasure can be usefully employed, they make use of it +themselves. In great extremities or sudden accidents they employ it in +hiring foreign troops, whom they more willingly expose to danger than +their own people: they give them great pay, knowing well that this will +work even on their enemies, that it will engage them either to betray +their own side, or at least to desert it, and that it is the best means +of raising mutual jealousies among them: for this end they have an +incredible treasure; but they do not keep it as a treasure, but in such +a manner as I am almost afraid to tell, lest you think it so +extravagant, as to be hardly credible. This I have the more reason to +apprehend, because if I had not seen it myself, I could not have been +easily persuaded to have believed it upon any man's report. + +It is certain that all things appear incredible to us, in proportion as +they differ from own customs. But one who can judge aright, will not +wonder to find, that since their constitution differs so much from ours, +their value of gold and silver should be measured by a very different +standard; for since they have no use for money among themselves, but +keep it as a provision against events which seldom happen, and between +which there are generally long intervening intervals; they value it no +farther than it deserves, that is, in proportion to its use. So that it +is plain, they must prefer iron either to gold or silver: for men can no +more live without iron, than without fire or water; but Nature has +marked out no use for the other metals, so essential as not easily to be +dispensed with. The folly of men has enhanced the value of gold and +silver, because of their scarcity. Whereas, on the contrary, it is their +opinion that Nature, as an indulgent parent, has freely given us all the +best things in great abundance, such as water and earth, but has laid up +and hid from us the things that are vain and useless. + +If these metals were laid up in any tower in the kingdom, it would raise +a jealousy of the Prince and Senate, and give birth to that foolish +mistrust into which the people are apt to fall, a jealousy of their +intending to sacrifice the interest of the public to their own private +advantage. If they should work it into vessels, or any sort of plate, +they fear that the people might grow too fond of it, and so be unwilling +to let the plate be run down, if a war made it necessary to employ it in +paying their soldiers. To prevent all these inconveniences, they have +fallen upon an expedient, which as it agrees with their other policy, so +is it very different from ours, and will scarce gain belief among us, +who value gold so much, and lay it up so carefully. They eat and drink +out of vessels of earth, or glass, which make an agreeable appearance +though formed of brittle materials: while they make their chamber-pots +and close-stools of gold and silver; and that not only in their public +halls, but in their private houses: of the same metals they likewise +make chains and fetters for their slaves; to some of which, as a badge +of infamy, they hang an ear-ring of gold, and make others wear a chain +or a coronet of the same metal; and thus they take care, by all possible +means, to render gold and silver of no esteem. And from hence it is, +that while other nations part with their gold and silver, as unwillingly +as if one tore out their bowels, those of Utopia would look on their +giving in all they possess of those (metals, when there were any use for +them) but as the parting with a trifle, or as we would esteem the loss +of a penny. They find pearls on their coast; and diamonds and carbuncles +on their rocks; they do not look after them, but if they find them by +chance, they polish them, and with them they adorn their children, who +are delighted with them, and glory in them during their childhood; but +when they grow to years, and see that none but children use such +baubles, they of their own accord, without being bid by their parents, +lay them aside; and would be as much ashamed to use them afterwards, as +children among us, when they come to years, are of their puppets and +other toys. + +I never saw a clearer instance of the opposite impressions that +different customs make on people, than I observed in the ambassadors of +the Anemolians, who came to Amaurot when I was there. As they came to +treat of affairs of great consequence, the deputies from several towns +met together to wait for their coming. The ambassadors of the nations +that lie near Utopia, knowing their customs, and that fine clothes are +in no esteem among them, that silk is despised, and gold is a badge of +infamy, use to come very modestly clothed; but the Anemolians lying more +remote, and having had little commerce with them, understanding that +they were coarsely clothed, and all in the same manner, took it for +granted that they had none of those fine things among them of which they +made no use; and they being a vain-glorious rather than a wise people, +resolved to set themselves out with so much pomp, that they should look +like gods, and strike the eyes of the poor Utopians with their +splendour. Thus three ambassadors made their entry with an hundred +attendants, all clad in garments of different colours, and the greater +part in silk; the ambassadors themselves, who were of the nobility of +their country, were in cloth of gold, and adorned with massy chains, +ear-rings and rings of gold: their caps were covered with bracelets set +full of pearls and other gems: in a word, they were set out with all +those things that, among the Utopians, were either the badges of +slavery, the marks of infamy, or the playthings of children. It was not +unpleasant to see, on the one side, how they looked big, when they +compared their rich habits with the plain clothes of the Utopians, who +were come out in great numbers to see them make their entry: and, on the +other, to observe how much they were mistaken in the impression which +they hoped this pomp would have made on them. It appeared so ridiculous +a show to all that had never stirred out of their country, and had not +seen the customs of other nations, that though they paid some reverence +to those that were the most meanly clad, as if they had been the +ambassadors, yet when they saw the ambassadors themselves, so full of +gold and chains, they looked upon them as slaves, and forbore to treat +them with reverence. You might have seen the children, who were grown +big enough to despise their playthings, and who had thrown away their +jewels, call to their mothers, push them gently, and cry out, "See that +great fool that wears pearls and gems, as if he were yet a child." While +their mothers very innocently replied, "Hold your peace, this I believe +is one of the ambassador's fools." Others censured the fashion of their +chains, and observed that they were of no use; for they were too slight +to bind their slaves, who could easily break them; and besides hung so +loose about them, that they thought it easy to throw them away, and so +get from them. But after the ambassadors had stayed a day among them, +and saw so vast a quantity of gold in their houses, which was as much +despised by them as it was esteemed in other nations, and beheld more +gold and silver in the chains and fetters of one slave than all their +ornaments amounted to, their plumes fell, and they were ashamed of all +that glory for which they had formerly valued themselves, and +accordingly laid it aside; a resolution that they immediately took, when +on their engaging in some free discourse with the Utopians, they +discovered their sense of such things and their other customs. The +Utopians wonder how any man should be so much taken with the glaring +doubtful lustre of a jewel or a stone, that can look up to a star, or to +the sun himself; or how any should value himself because his cloth is +made of a finer thread: for how fine soever that thread may be, it was +once no better than the fleece of a sheep, and that sheep was a sheep +still for all its wearing it. They wonder much to hear that gold which +in itself is so useless a thing, should be everywhere so much esteemed, +that even men for whom it was made, and by whom it has its value, should +yet be thought of less value than this metal. That a man of lead, who +has no more sense than a log of wood, and is as bad as he is foolish, +should have many wise and good men to serve him, only because he has a +great heap of that metal; and that if it should happen that by some +accident or trick of law (which sometimes produces as great changes as +chance itself) all this wealth should pass from the master to the +meanest varlet of his whole family, he himself would very soon become +one of his servants, as if he were a thing that belonged to his wealth, +and so were bound to follow its fortune. But they much more admire and +detest the folly of those who when they see a rich man, though they +neither owe him anything, nor are in any sort dependent on his bounty, +yet merely because he is rich give him little less than divine honours; +even though they know him to be so covetous and base-minded, that +notwithstanding all his wealth, he will not part with one farthing of it +to them as long as he lives. + +These and such like notions has that people imbibed, partly from their +education, being bred in a country whose customs and laws are opposite +to all such foolish maxims, and partly from their learning and studies; +for though there are but few in any town that are so wholly excused from +labour as to give themselves entirely up to their studies, these being +only such persons as discover from their childhood an extraordinary +capacity and disposition for letters; yet their children, and a great +part of the nation, both men and women, are taught to spend those hours +in which they are not obliged to work in reading: and this they do +through the whole progress of life. They have all their learning in +their own tongue, which is both a copious and pleasant language, and in +which a man can fully express his mind. It runs over a great tract of +many countries, but it is not equally pure in all places. They had never +so much as heard of the names of any of those philosophers that are so +famous in these parts of the world, before we went among them; and yet +they had made the same discoveries as the Greeks, both in music, logic, +arithmetic, and geometry. But as they are almost in everything equal to +the ancient philosophers, so they far exceed our modern logicians; for +they have never yet fallen upon the barbarous niceties that our youth +are forced to learn in those trifling logical schools that are among us; +they are so far from minding chimeras, and fantastical images made in +the mind, that none of them could comprehend what we meant when we +talked to them of a man in the abstract, as common to all men in +particular (so that though we spoke of him as a thing that we could +point at with our fingers, yet none of them could perceive him), and yet +distinct from every one, as if he were some monstrous Colossus or +giant. Yet for all this ignorance of these empty notions, they knew +astronomy, and were perfectly acquainted with the motions of the +heavenly bodies, and have many instruments, well contrived and divided, +by which they very accurately compute the course and positions of the +sun, moon, and stars. But for the cheat, of divining by the stars by +their oppositions or conjunctions, it has not so much as entered into +their thoughts. They have a particular sagacity, founded upon much +observation, in judging of the weather, by which they know when they may +look for rain, wind, or other alterations in the air; but as to the +philosophy of these things, the causes of the saltness of the sea, of +its ebbing and flowing, and of the original and nature both of the +heavens and the earth; they dispute of them, partly as our ancient +philosophers have done, and partly upon some new hypothesis, in which, +as they differ from them, so they do not in all things agree among +themselves. + +As to moral philosophy, they have the same disputes among them as we +have here: they examine what are properly good both for the body and the +mind, and whether any outward thing can be called truly good, or if that +term belong only to the endowments of the soul. They inquire likewise +into the nature of virtue and pleasure; but their chief dispute is +concerning the happiness of a man, and wherein it consists? Whether in +some one thing, or in a great many? They seem, indeed, more inclinable +to that opinion that places, if not the whole, yet the chief part of a +man's happiness in pleasure; and, what may seem more strange, they make +use of arguments even from religion, notwithstanding its severity and +roughness, for the support of that opinion so indulgent to pleasure; for +they never dispute concerning happiness without fetching some arguments +from the principles of religion, as well as from natural reason, since +without the former they reckon that all our inquiries after happiness +must be but conjectural and defective. + +These are their religious principles, that the soul of man is immortal, +and that God of His goodness has designed that it should be happy; and +that He has therefore appointed rewards for good and virtuous actions, +and punishments for vice, to be distributed after this life. Though +these principles of religion are conveyed down among them by tradition, +they think that even reason itself determines a man to believe and +acknowledge them, and freely confess that if these were taken away no +man would be so insensible as not to seek after pleasure by all possible +means, lawful or unlawful; using only this caution, that a lesser +pleasure might not stand in the way of a greater, and that no pleasure +ought to be pursued that should draw a great deal of pain after it; for +they think it the maddest thing in the world to pursue virtue, that is a +sour and difficult thing; and not only to renounce the pleasures of +life, but willingly to undergo much pain and trouble, if a man has no +prospect of a reward. And what reward can there be for one that has +passed his whole life, not only without pleasure, but in pain, if there +is nothing to be expected after death? Yet they do not place happiness +in all sorts of pleasures, but only in those that in themselves are good +and honest. There is a party among them who place happiness in bare +virtue; others think that our natures are conducted by virtue to +happiness, as that which is the chief good of man. They define virtue +thus, that it is a living according to Nature, and think that we are +made by God for that end; they believe that a man then follows the +dictates of Nature when he pursues or avoids things according to the +direction of reason; they say that the first dictate of reason is the +kindling in us a love and reverence for the Divine Majesty, to whom we +owe both all that we have, and all that we can ever hope for. In the +next place, reason directs us to keep our minds as free from passion and +as cheerful as we can, and that we should consider ourselves as bound by +the ties of good-nature and humanity to use our utmost endeavours to +help forward the happiness of all other persons; for there never was any +man such a morose and severe pursuer of virtue, such an enemy to +pleasure, that though he set hard rules for men to undergo much pain, +many watchings, and other rigours, yet did not at the same time advise +them to do all they could, in order to relieve and ease the miserable, +and who did not represent gentleness and good-nature as amiable +dispositions. And from thence they infer that if a man ought to advance +the welfare and comfort of the rest of mankind, there being no virtue +more proper and peculiar to our nature, than to ease the miseries of +others, to free from trouble and anxiety, in furnishing them with the +comforts of life, in which pleasure consists, Nature much more +vigorously leads them to do all this for himself. A life of pleasure is +either a real evil, and in that case we ought not to assist others in +their pursuit of it, but on the contrary, to keep them from it all we +can, as from that which is most hurtful and deadly; or if it is a good +thing, so that we not only may, but ought to help others to it, why then +ought not a man to begin with himself? Since no man can be more bound to +look after the good of another than after his own; for Nature cannot +direct us to be good and kind to others, and yet at the same time to be +unmerciful and cruel to ourselves. Thus, as they define virtue to be +living according to Nature, so they imagine that Nature prompts all +people on to seek after pleasure, as the end of all they do. They also +observe that in order to our supporting the pleasures of life, Nature +inclines us to enter into society; for there is no man so much raised +above the rest of mankind as to be the only favourite of Nature, who, on +the contrary, seems to have placed on a level all those that belong to +the same species. Upon this they infer that no man ought to seek his own +conveniences so eagerly as to prejudice others; and therefore they think +that not only all agreements between private persons ought to be +observed; but likewise that all those laws ought to be kept, which +either a good prince has published in due form, or to which a people, +that is neither oppressed with tyranny nor circumvented by fraud, has +consented, for distributing those conveniences of life which afford us +all our pleasures. + +They think it is an evidence of true wisdom for a man to pursue his own +advantages, as far as the laws allow it. They account it piety to prefer +the public good to one's private concerns; but they think it unjust for +a man to seek for pleasure, by snatching another man's pleasures from +him. And on the contrary, they think it a sign of a gentle and good +soul, for a man to dispense with his own advantage for the good of +others; and that by this means a good man finds as much pleasure one +way, as he parts with another; for as he may expect the like from others +when he may come to need it, so if that should fail him, yet the sense +of a good action, and the reflections that he makes on the love and +gratitude of those whom he has so obliged, gives the mind more pleasure +than the body could have found in that from which it had restrained +itself. They are also persuaded that God will make up the loss of those +small pleasures, with a vast and endless joy, of which religion easily +convinces a good soul. + +Thus upon an inquiry into the whole matter, they reckon that all our +actions, and even all our virtues, terminate in pleasure, as in our +chief end and greatest happiness; and they call every motion or state, +either of body or mind, in which Nature teaches us to delight, a +pleasure. Thus they cautiously limit pleasure only to those appetites to +which Nature leads us; for they say that Nature leads us only to those +delights to which reason as well as sense carries us, and by which we +neither injure any other person, nor lose the possession of greater +pleasures, and of such as draw no troubles after them; but they look +upon those delights which men by a foolish, though common, mistake call +pleasure, as if they could change as easily the nature of things as the +use of words; as things that greatly obstruct their real happiness, +instead of advancing it, because they so entirely possess the minds of +those that are once captivated by them with a false notion of pleasure, +that there is no room left for pleasures of a truer or purer kind. + +There are many things that in themselves have nothing that is truly +delightful; on the contrary, they have a good deal of bitterness in +them; and yet from our perverse appetites after forbidden objects, are +not only ranked among the pleasures, but are made even the greatest +designs of life. Among those who pursue these sophisticated pleasures, +they reckon such as I mentioned before, who think themselves really the +better for having fine clothes; in which they think they are doubly +mistaken, both in the opinion that they have of their clothes, and in +that they have of themselves; for if you consider the use of clothes, +why should a fine thread be thought better than a coarse one? And yet +these men, as if they had some real advantages beyond others, and did +not owe them wholly to their mistakes, look big, seem to fancy +themselves to be more valuable, and imagine that a respect is due to +them for the sake of a rich garment, to which they would not have +pretended if they had been more meanly clothed; and even resent it as an +affront, if that respect is not paid them. It is also a great folly to +be taken with outward marks of respect, which signify nothing: for what +true or real pleasure can one man find in another's standing bare, or +making legs to him? Will the bending another man's knees give ease to +yours? And will the head's being bare cure the madness of yours? And yet +it is wonderful to see how this false notion of pleasure bewitches many +who delight themselves with the fancy of their nobility, and are pleased +with this conceit, that they are descended from ancestors, who have been +held for some successions rich, and who have had great possessions; for +this is all that makes nobility at present; yet they do not think +themselves a whit the less noble, though their immediate parents have +left none of this wealth to them, or though they themselves have +squandered it away. The Utopians have no better opinion of those who are +much taken with gems and precious stones, and who account it a degree of +happiness, next to a divine one, if they can purchase one that is very +extraordinary; especially if it be of that sort of stones that is then +in greatest request; for the same sort is not at all times universally +of the same value; nor will men buy it unless it be dismounted and taken +out of the gold; the jeweller is then made to give good security, and +required solemnly to swear that the stone is true, that by such an exact +caution a false one might not be bought instead of a true: though if you +were to examine it, your eye could find no difference between the +counterfeit and that which is true; so that they are all one to you as +much as if you were blind. Or can it be thought that they who heap up an +useless mass of wealth, not for any use that it is to bring them, but +merely to please themselves with the contemplation of it, enjoy any true +pleasure in it? The delight they find is only a false shadow of joy. +Those are no better whose error is somewhat different from the former, +and who hide it, out of their fear of losing it; for what other name can +fit the hiding it in the earth, or rather the restoring it to it again, +it being thus cut off from being useful, either to its owner or to the +rest of mankind? And yet the owner having hid it carefully, is glad, +because he thinks he is now sure of it. If it should be stole, the +owner, though he might live perhaps ten years after the theft, of which +he knew nothing, would find no difference between his having or losing +it; for both ways it was equally useless to him. + +Among those foolish pursuers of pleasure, they reckon all that delight +in hunting, in fowling, or gaming: of whose madness they have only +heard, for they have no such things among them. But they have asked us, +what sort of pleasure is it that men can find in throwing the dice? For +if there were any pleasure in it, they think the doing of it so often +should give one a surfeit of it: and what pleasure can one find in +hearing the barking and howling of dogs, which seem rather odious than +pleasant sounds? Nor can they comprehend the pleasure of seeing dogs run +after a hare, more than of seeing one dog run after another; for if the +seeing them run is that which gives the pleasure, you have the same +entertainment to the eye on both these occasions; since that is the same +in both cases: but if the pleasure lies in seeing the hare killed and +torn by the dogs, this ought rather to stir pity, that a weak, harmless +and fearful hare should be devoured by strong, fierce, and cruel dogs. +Therefore all this business of hunting is, among the Utopians, turned +over to their butchers; and those, as has been already said, are all +slaves; and they look on hunting as one of the basest parts of a +butcher's work: for they account it both more profitable and more decent +to kill those beasts that are more necessary and useful to mankind; +whereas the killing and tearing of so small and miserable an animal can +only attract the huntsman with a false show of pleasure, from which he +can reap but small advantage. They look on the desire of the bloodshed, +even of beasts, as a mark of a mind that is already corrupted with +cruelty, or that at least by the frequent returns of so brutal a +pleasure must degenerate into it. + +Thus, though the rabble of mankind look upon these, and on innumerable +other things of the same nature, as pleasures; the Utopians, on the +contrary, observing that there is nothing in them truly pleasant, +conclude that they are not to be reckoned among pleasures: for though +these things may create some tickling in the senses (which seems to be a +true notion of pleasure), yet they imagine that this does not arise +from the thing itself, but from a depraved custom, which may so vitiate +a man's taste, that bitter things may pass for sweet; as women with +child think pitch or tallow taste sweeter than honey; but as a man's +sense when corrupted, either by a disease or some ill habit, does not +change the nature of other things, so neither can it change the nature +of pleasure. + +They reckon up several sorts of pleasures, which they call true ones: +some belong to the body and others to the mind. The pleasures of the +mind lie in knowledge, and in that delight which the contemplation of +truth carries with it; to which they add the joyful reflections on a +well-spent life, and the assured hopes of a future happiness. They +divide the pleasures of the body into two sorts; the one is that which +gives our senses some real delight, and is performed, either by +recruiting nature, and supplying those parts which feed the internal +heat of life by eating and drinking; or when nature is eased of any +surcharge that oppresses it; when we are relieved from sudden pain, or +that which arises from satisfying the appetite which Nature has wisely +given to lead us to the propagation of the species. There is another +kind of pleasure that arises neither from our receiving what the body +requires, nor its being relieved when overcharged, and yet by a secret, +unseen virtue affects the senses, raises the passions, and strikes the +mind with generous impressions; this is the pleasure that arises from +music. Another kind of bodily pleasure is that which results from an +undisturbed and vigorous constitution of body, when life and active +spirits seem to actuate every part. This lively health, when entirely +free from all mixture of pain, of itself gives an inward pleasure, +independent of all external objects of delight; and though this pleasure +does not so powerfully affect us, nor act so strongly on the senses as +some of the others, yet it may be esteemed as the greatest of all +pleasures, and almost all the Utopians reckon it the foundation and +basis of all the other joys of life; since this alone makes the state +of life easy and desirable; and when this is wanting, a man is really +capable of no other pleasure. They look upon freedom from pain, if it +does not rise from perfect health, to be a state of stupidity rather +than of pleasure. This subject has been very narrowly canvassed among +them; and it has been debated whether a firm and entire health could be +called a pleasure or not? Some have thought that there was no pleasure +but what was excited by some sensible motion in the body. But this +opinion has been long ago excluded from among them, so that now they +almost universally agree that health is the greatest of all bodily +pleasures; and that as there is a pain in sickness, which is as opposite +in its nature to pleasure as sickness itself is to health; so they hold, +that health is accompanied with pleasure: and if any should say that +sickness is not really pain, but that it only carries pain along with +it, they look upon that as a fetch of subtilty, that does not much alter +the matter. It is all one, in their opinion, whether it be said that +health is in itself a pleasure, or that it begets a pleasure, as fire +gives heat; so it be granted, that all those whose health is entire have +a true pleasure in the enjoyment of it: and they reason thus--what is +the pleasure of eating, but that a man's health which had been weakened, +does, with the assistance of food, drive away hunger, and so recruiting +itself recovers its former vigour? And being thus refreshed, it finds a +pleasure in that conflict; and if the conflict is pleasure, the victory +must yet breed a greater pleasure, except we fancy that it becomes +stupid as soon as it has obtained that which it pursued, and so neither +knows nor rejoices in its own welfare. If it is said that health cannot +be felt, they absolutely deny it; for what man is in health that does +not perceive it when he is awake? Is there any man that is so dull and +stupid as not to acknowledge that he feels a delight in health? And what +is delight but another name for pleasure? + +But of all pleasures, they esteem those to be most valuable that lie in +the mind; the chief of which arises out of true virtue, and the witness +of a good conscience. They account health the chief pleasure that +belongs to the body; for they think that the pleasure of eating and +drinking, and all the other delights of sense, are only so far desirable +as they give or maintain health. But they are not pleasant in +themselves, otherwise than as they resist those impressions that our +natural infirmities are still making upon us: for as a wise man desires +rather to avoid diseases than to take physic; and to be freed from pain, +rather than to find ease by remedies; so it is more desirable not to +need this sort of pleasure, than to be obliged to indulge it. If any man +imagines that there is a real happiness in these enjoyments, he must +then confess that he would be the happiest of all men if he were to lead +his life in perpetual hunger, thirst, and itching, and by consequence in +perpetual eating, drinking, and scratching himself; which any one may +easily see would be not only a base, but a miserable state of a life. +These are indeed the lowest of pleasures, and the least pure; for we can +never relish them, but when they are mixed with the contrary pains. The +pain of hunger must give us the pleasure of eating; and here the pain +out-balances the pleasure; and as the pain is more vehement, so it lasts +much longer; for as it begins before the pleasure, so it does not cease +but with the pleasure that extinguishes it, and both expire together. +They think, therefore, none of those pleasures are to be valued any +further than as they are necessary; yet they rejoice in them, and with +due gratitude acknowledge the tenderness of the great Author of Nature, +who has planted in us appetites, by which those things that are +necessary for our preservation are likewise made pleasant to us. For how +miserable a thing would life be, if those daily diseases of hunger and +thirst were to be carried off by such bitter drugs as we must use for +those diseases that return seldomer upon us? And thus these pleasant as +well as proper gifts of Nature maintain the strength and the +sprightliness of our bodies. + +They also entertain themselves with the other delights let in at their +eyes, their ears, and their nostrils, as the pleasant relishes and +seasonings of life, which Nature seems to have marked out peculiarly for +man; since no other sort of animals contemplates the figure and beauty +of the universe; nor is delighted with smells, any farther than as they +distinguish meats by them; not do they apprehend the concords or +discords of sound; yet in all pleasures whatsoever they take care that a +lesser joy does not hinder a greater, and that pleasure may never breed +pain, which they think always follows dishonest pleasures. But they +think it madness for a man to wear out the beauty of his face, or the +force of his natural strength; to corrupt the sprightliness of his body +by sloth and laziness, or to waste it by fasting; that it is madness to +weaken the strength of his constitution, and reject the other delights +of life; unless by renouncing his own satisfaction, he can either serve +the public or promote the happiness of others, for which he expects a +greater recompense from God. So that they look on such a course of life +as the mark of a mind that is both cruel to itself, and ungrateful to +the Author of Nature, as if we would not be beholden to Him for His +favours, and therefore rejects all His blessings; as one who should +afflict himself for the empty shadow of virtue; or for no better end +than to render himself capable of bearing those misfortunes which +possibly will never happen. + +This is their notion of virtue and of pleasure; they think that no man's +reason can carry him to a truer idea of them, unless some discovery from +Heaven should inspire him with sublimer notions. I have not now the +leisure to examine whether they think right or wrong in this matter: nor +do I judge it necessary, for I have only undertaken to give you an +account of their constitution, but not to defend all their principles. I +am sure, that whatsoever may be said of their notions, there is not in +the whole world either a better people or a happier government: their +bodies are vigorous and lively; and though they are but of a middle +stature, and have neither the fruitfullest soil nor the purest air in +the world, yet they fortify themselves so well by their temperate course +of life, against the unhealthiness of their air, and by their industry +they so cultivate their soil, that there is nowhere to be seen a greater +increase both of corn and cattle, nor are there anywhere healthier men, +and freer from diseases: for one may there see reduced to practice, not +only all the art that the husbandman employs in manuring and improving +an ill soil, but whole woods plucked up by the roots, and in other +places new ones planted, where there were none before. Their principal +motive for this is the convenience of carriage, that their timber may be +either near their towns, or growing on the banks of the sea, or of some +rivers, so as to be floated to them; for it is a harder work to carry +wood at any distance over land, than corn. The people are industrious, +apt to learn, as well as cheerful and pleasant; and none can endure more +labour, when it is necessary; but except in that case they love their +ease. They are unwearied pursuers of knowledge; for when we had given +them some hints of the learning and discipline of the Greeks, concerning +whom we only instructed them (for we know that there was nothing among +the Romans, except their historians and their poets, that they would +value much), it was strange to see how eagerly they were set on learning +that language. We began to read a little of it to them, rather in +compliance with their importunity, than out of any hopes of their +reaping from it any great advantage. But after a very short trial, we +found they made such progress, that we saw our labour was like to be +more successful than we could have expected. They learned to write +their characters, and to pronounce their language so exactly, had so +quick an apprehension, they remembered it so faithfully, and became so +ready and correct in the use of it, that it would have looked like a +miracle if the greater part of those whom we taught had not been men +both of extraordinary capacity and of a fit age for instruction. They +were for the greatest part chosen from among their learned men, by their +chief council, though some studied it of their own accord. In three +years' time they became masters of the whole language, so that they read +the best of the Greek authors very exactly. I am indeed apt to think +that they learned that language the more easily, from its having some +relation to their own. I believe that they were a colony of the Greeks; +for though their language comes nearer the Persian, yet they retain many +names, both for their towns and magistrates, that are of Greek +derivation. I happened to carry a great many books with me, instead of +merchandise, when I sailed my fourth voyage; for I was so far from +thinking of soon coming back, that I rather thought never to have +returned at all, and I gave them all my books, among which were many of +Plato's and some of Aristotle's works. I had also Theophrastus on +Plants, which, to my great regret, was imperfect; for having laid it +carelessly by, while we were at sea, a monkey had seized upon it, and in +many places torn out the leaves. They have no books of grammar but +Lascares, for I did not carry Theodorus with me; nor have they any +dictionaries but Hesichius and Dioscorides. They esteem Plutarch highly, +and were much taken with Lucian's wit, and with his pleasant way of +writing. As for the poets, they have Aristophanes, Homer, Euripides, and +Sophocles of Aldus's edition; and for historians Thucydides, Herodotus +and Herodian. One of my companions, Thricius Apinatus, happened to carry +with him some of Hippocrates's works, and Galen's Microtechne, which +they hold in great estimation; for though there is no nation in the +world that needs physic so little as they do, yet there is not any that +honours it so much: they reckon the knowledge of it one of the +pleasantest and most profitable parts of philosophy, by which, as they +search into the secrets of Nature, so they not only find this study +highly agreeable, but think that such inquiries are very acceptable to +the Author of Nature; and imagine that as He, like the inventors of +curious engines amongst mankind, has exposed this great machine of the +universe to the view of the only creatures capable of contemplating it, +so an exact and curious observer, who admires His workmanship, is much +more acceptable to Him than one of the herd, who like a beast incapable +of reason, looks on this glorious scene with the eyes of a dull and +unconcerned spectator. + +The minds of the Utopians when fenced with a love for learning, are very +ingenious in discovering all such arts as are necessary to carry it to +perfection. Two things they owe to us, the manufacture of paper, and the +art of printing: yet they are not so entirely indebted to us for these +discoveries, but that a great part of the invention was their own. We +showed them some books printed by Aldus, we explained to them the way of +making paper, and the mystery of printing; but as we had never practised +these arts, we described them in a crude and superficial manner. They +seized the hints we gave them, and though at first they could not arrive +at perfection, yet by making many essays they at last found out and +corrected all their errors, and conquered every difficulty. Before this +they only wrote on parchment, on reeds, or on the barks of trees; but +now they have established the manufactures of paper, and set up +printing-presses, so that if they had but a good number of Greek authors +they would be quickly supplied with many copies of them: at present, +though they have no more than those I have mentioned, yet by several +impressions they have multiplied them into many thousands. If any man +was to go among them that had some extraordinary talent, or that by +much travelling had observed the customs of many nations (which made us +to be so well received), he would receive a hearty welcome; for they are +very desirous to know the state of the whole world. Very few go among +them on the account of traffic, for what can a man carry to them but +iron, or gold, or silver, which merchants desire rather to export than +import to a strange country: and as for their exportation, they think it +better to manage that themselves than to leave it to foreigners, for by +this means, as they understand the state of the neighbouring countries +better, so they keep up the art of navigation, which cannot be +maintained but by much practice. + + +OF THEIR SLAVES, AND OF THEIR MARRIAGES. + +They do not make slaves of prisoners of war, except those that are taken +in battle; nor of the sons of their slaves, nor of those of other +nations: the slaves among them are only such as are condemned to that +state of life for the commission of some crime, or, which is more +common, such as their merchants find condemned to die in those parts to +which they trade, whom they sometimes redeem at low rates; and in other +places have them for nothing. They are kept at perpetual labour, and are +always chained, but with this difference, that their own natives are +treated much worse than others; they are considered as more profligate +than the rest, and since they could not be restrained by the advantages +of so excellent an education, are judged worthy of harder usage. Another +sort of slaves are the poor of the neighbouring countries, who offer of +their own accord to come and serve them; they treat these better, and +use them in all other respects as well as their own countrymen, except +their imposing more labour upon them, which is no hard task to those +that have been accustomed to it; and if any of these have a mind to go +back to their own country, which indeed falls out but seldom, as they do +not force them to stay, so they do not send them away empty-handed. + +I have already told you with what care they look after their sick, so +that nothing is left undone that can contribute either to their ease or +health: and for those who are taken with fixed and incurable diseases, +they use all possible ways to cherish them, and to make their lives as +comfortable as possible. They visit them often, and take great pains to +make their time pass off easily: but when any is taken with a torturing +and lingering pain, so that there is no hope, either of recovery or +ease, the priests and magistrates come and exhort them, that since they +are now unable to go on with the business of life, are become a burden +to themselves and to all about them, and they have really outlived +themselves, they should no longer nourish such a rooted distemper, but +choose rather to die, since they cannot live but in much misery: being +assured, that if they thus deliver themselves from torture, or are +willing that others should do it, they shall be happy after death. Since +by their acting thus, they lose none of the pleasures, but only the +troubles of life; they think they behave not only reasonably, but in a +manner consistent with religion and piety; because they follow the +advice given them by their priests, who are the expounders of the will +of God. Such as are wrought on by these persuasions, either starve +themselves of their own accord, or take opium, and by that means die +without pain. But no man is forced on this way of ending his life; and +if they cannot be persuaded to it, this does not induce them to fail in +their attendance and care of them; but as they believe that a voluntary +death, when it is chosen upon such an authority, is very honourable, so +if any man takes away his own life, without the approbation of the +priests and the Senate, they give him none of the honours of a decent +funeral, but throw his body into a ditch. + +Their women are not married before eighteen, nor their men before +two-and-twenty, and if any of them run into forbidden embraces before +marriage they are severely punished, and the privilege of marriage is +denied them, unless they can obtain a special warrant from the Prince. +Such disorders cast a great reproach upon the master and mistress of the +family in which they happen, for it is supposed that they have failed in +their duty. The reason of punishing this so severely is, because they +think that if they were not strictly restrained from all vagrant +appetites, very few would engage in a state in which they venture the +quiet of their whole lives, by being confined to one person, and are +obliged to endure all the inconveniences with which it is accompanied. +In choosing their wives they use a method that would appear to us very +absurd and ridiculous, but it is constantly observed among them, and is +accounted perfectly consistent with wisdom. Before marriage some grave +matron presents the bride naked, whether she is a virgin or a widow, to +the bridegroom; and after that some grave man presents the bridegroom +naked to the bride. We indeed both laughed at this, and condemned it as +very indecent. But they, on the other hand, wondered at the folly of the +men of all other nations, who, if they are but to buy a horse of a small +value, are so cautious that they will see every part of him, and take +off both his saddle and all his other tackle, that there may be no +secret ulcer hid under any of them; and that yet in the choice of a +wife, on which depends the happiness or unhappiness of the rest of his +life, a man should venture upon trust, and only see about a +hand's-breadth of the face, all the rest of the body being covered, +under which there may lie hid what may be contagious, as well as +loathsome. All men are not so wise as to choose a woman only for her +good qualities; and even wise men consider the body as that which adds +not a little to the mind: and it is certain there may be some such +deformity covered with the clothes as may totally alienate a man from +his wife when it is too late to part with her. If such a thing is +discovered after marriage, a man has no remedy but patience. They +therefore think it is reasonable that there should be good provision +made against such mischievous frauds. + +There was so much the more reason for them to make a regulation in this +matter, because they are the only people of those parts that neither +allow of polygamy, nor of divorces, except in the case of adultery, or +insufferable perverseness; for in these cases the Senate dissolves the +marriage, and grants the injured person leave to marry again; but the +guilty are made infamous, and are never allowed the privilege of a +second marriage. None are suffered to put away their wives against their +wills, from any great calamity that may have fallen on their persons; +for they look on it as the height of cruelty and treachery to abandon +either of the married persons when they need most the tender care of +their comfort, and that chiefly in the case of old age, which as it +carries many diseases along with it, so it is a disease of itself. But +it frequently falls out that when a married couple do not well agree, +they by mutual consent separate, and find out other persons with whom +they hope they may live more happily. Yet this is not done without +obtaining leave of the Senate, which never admits of a divorce, but upon +a strict inquiry made, both by the senators and their wives, into the +grounds upon which it is desired; and even when they are satisfied +concerning the reasons of it, they go on but slowly, for they imagine +that too great easiness in granting leave for new marriages would very +much shake the kindness of married people. They punish severely those +that defile the marriage-bed. If both parties are married they are +divorced, and the injured persons may marry one another, or whom they +please; but the adulterer and the adulteress are condemned to slavery. +Yet if either of the injured persons cannot shake off the love of the +married person, they may live with them still in that state, but they +must follow them to that labour to which the slaves are condemned; and +sometimes the repentance of the condemned, together with the unshaken +kindness of the innocent and injured person, has prevailed so far with +the Prince that he has taken off the sentence; but those that relapse +after they are once pardoned are punished with death. + +Their law does not determine the punishment for other crimes; but that +is left to the Senate, to temper it according to the circumstances of +the fact. Husbands have power to correct their wives, and parents to +chastise their children, unless the fault is so great that a public +punishment is thought necessary for striking terror into others. For the +most part, slavery is the punishment even of the greatest crimes; for as +that is no less terrible to the criminals themselves than death, so they +think the preserving them in a state of servitude is more for the +interest of the commonwealth than killing them; since as their labour is +a greater benefit to the public than their death could be, so the sight +of their misery is a more lasting terror to other men than that which +would be given by their death. If their slaves rebel, and will not bear +their yoke, and submit to the labour that is enjoined them, they are +treated as wild beasts that cannot be kept in order, neither by a +prison, nor by their chains; and are at last put to death. But those who +bear their punishment patiently, and are so much wrought on by that +pressure that lies so hard on them that it appears they are really more +troubled for the crimes they have committed than for the miseries they +suffer, are not out of hope but that at last either the Prince will, by +his prerogative, or the people by their intercession, restore them again +to their liberty, or at least very much mitigate their slavery. He that +tempts a married woman to adultery, is no less severely punished than he +that commits it; for they believe that a deliberate design to commit a +crime, is equal to the fact itself: since its not taking effect does +not make the person that miscarried in his attempt at all the less +guilty. + +They take great pleasure in fools, and as it is thought a base and +unbecoming thing to use them ill, so they do not think it amiss for +people to divert themselves with their folly: and, in their opinion, +this is a great advantage to the fools themselves: for if men were so +sullen and severe as not at all to please themselves with their +ridiculous behaviour and foolish sayings, which is all that they can do +to recommend themselves to others, it could not be expected that they +would be so well provided for, nor so tenderly used as they must +otherwise be. If any man should reproach another for his being misshaped +or imperfect in any part of his body, it would not at all be thought a +reflection on the person so treated, but it would be accounted +scandalous in him that had upbraided another with what he could not +help. It is thought a sign of a sluggish and sordid mind not to preserve +carefully one's natural beauty; but it is likewise infamous among them +to use paint. They all see that no beauty recommends a wife so much to +her husband as the probity of her life, and her obedience: for as some +few are catched and held only by beauty, so all are attracted by the +other excellences which charm all the world. + +As they fright men from committing crimes by punishments, so they invite +them to the love of virtue by public honours: therefore they erect +statues to the memories of such worthy men as have deserved well of +their country, and set these in their market-places, both to perpetuate +the remembrance of their actions, and to be an incitement to their +posterity to follow their example. + +If any man aspires to any office, he is sure never to compass it: they +all live easily together, for none of the magistrates are either +insolent or cruel to the people: they affect rather to be called +fathers, and by being really so, they well deserve the name; and the +people pay them all the marks of honour the more freely, because none +are exacted from them. The Prince himself has no distinction, either of +garments, or of a crown; but is only distinguished by a sheaf of corn +carried before him; as the high priest is also known by his being +preceded by a person carrying a wax light. + +They have but few laws, and such is their constitution that they need +not many. They very much condemn other nations, whose laws, together +with the commentaries on them, swell up to so many volumes; for they +think it an unreasonable thing to oblige men to obey a body of laws that +are both of such a bulk, and so dark as not to be read and understood by +every one of the subjects. + +They have no lawyers among them, for they consider them as a sort of +people whose profession it is to disguise matters, and to wrest the +laws; and therefore they think it is much better that every man should +plead his own cause, and trust it to the judge, as in other places the +client trusts it to a counsellor. By this means they both cut off many +delays, and find out truth more certainly: for after the parties have +laid open the merits of the cause, without those artifices which lawyers +are apt to suggest, the judge examines the whole matter, and supports +the simplicity of such well-meaning persons, whom otherwise crafty men +would be sure to run down: and thus they avoid those evils which appear +very remarkably among all those nations that labour under a vast load of +laws. Every one of them is skilled in their law, for as it is a very +short study, so the plainest meaning of which words are capable is +always the sense of their laws. And they argue thus: all laws are +promulgated for this end, that every man may know his duty; and +therefore the plainest and most obvious sense of the words is that which +ought to be put upon them; since a more refined exposition cannot be +easily comprehended, and would only serve to make the laws become +useless to the greater part of mankind, and especially to those who need +most the direction of them: for it is all one, not to make a law at +all, or to couch it in such terms that without a quick apprehension, and +much study, a man cannot find out the true meaning of it; since the +generality of mankind are both so dull, and so much employed in their +several trades, that they have neither the leisure nor the capacity +requisite for such an inquiry. + +Some of their neighbours, who are masters of their own liberties, having +long ago, by the assistance of the Utopians, shaken off the yoke of +tyranny, and being much taken with those virtues which they observe +among them, have come to desire that they would send magistrates to +govern them; some changing them every year, and others every five years. +At the end of their government they bring them back to Utopia, with +great expressions of honour and esteem, and carry away others to govern +in their stead. In this they seem to have fallen upon a very good +expedient for their own happiness and safety; for since the good or ill +condition of a nation depends so much upon their magistrates, they could +not have made a better choice than by pitching on men whom no advantages +can bias; for wealth is of no use to them, since they must so soon go +back to their own country; and they being strangers among them, are not +engaged in any of their heats or animosities; and it is certain that +when public judicatories are swayed, either by avarice or partial +affections, there must follow a dissolution of justice, the chief sinew +of society. + +The Utopians call those nations that come and ask magistrates from them, +neighbours; but those to whom they have been of more particular service, +friends. And as all other nations are perpetually either making leagues +or breaking them, they never enter into an alliance with any state. They +think leagues are useless things, and believe that if the common ties of +humanity do not knit men together, the faith of promises will have no +great effect; and they are the more confirmed in this by what they see +among the nations round about them, who are no strict observers of +leagues and treaties. We know how religiously they are observed in +Europe, more particularly where the Christian doctrine is received, +among whom they are sacred and inviolable. Which is partly owing to the +justice and goodness of the princes themselves, and partly to the +reverence they pay to the popes; who as they are most religious +observers of their own promises, so they exhort all other princes to +perform theirs; and when fainter methods do not prevail, they compel +them to it by the severity of the pastoral censure, and think that it +would be the most indecent thing possible if men who are particularly +distinguished by the title of the faithful, should not religiously keep +the faith of their treaties. But in that new-found world, which is not +more distant from us in situation than the people are in their manners +and course of life, there is no trusting to leagues, even though they +were made with all the pomp of the most sacred ceremonies; on the +contrary, they are on this account the sooner broken, some slight +pretence being found in the words of the treaties, which are purposely +couched in such ambiguous terms that they can never be so strictly bound +but they will always find some loophole to escape at; and thus they +break both their leagues and their faith. And this is done with such +impudence, that those very men who value themselves on having suggested +these expedients to their princes, would with a haughty scorn declaim +against such craft, or to speak plainer, such fraud and deceit, if they +found private men make use of it in their bargains, and would readily +say that they deserved to be hanged. + +By this means it is, that all sort of justice passes in the world for a +low-spirited and vulgar virtue, far below the dignity of royal +greatness. Or at least, there are set up two sorts of justice; the one +is mean, and creeps on the ground, and therefore becomes none but the +lower part of mankind, and so must be kept in severely by many +restraints that it may not break out beyond the bounds that are set to +it. The other is the peculiar virtue of princes, which as it is more +majestic than that which becomes the rabble, so takes a freer compass; +and thus lawful and unlawful are only measured by pleasure and interest. +These practices of the princes that lie about Utopia, who make so little +account of their faith, seem to be the reasons that determine them to +engage in no confederacies; perhaps they would change their mind if they +lived among us; but yet though treaties were more religiously observed, +they would still dislike the custom of making them; since the world has +taken up a false maxim upon it, as if there were no tie of Nature +uniting one nation to another, only separated perhaps by a mountain or a +river, and that all were born in a state of hostility, and so might +lawfully do all that mischief to their neighbours against which there is +no provision made by treaties; and that when treaties are made, they do +not cut off the enmity, or restrain the license of preying upon each +other, if by the unskilfulness of wording them there are not effectual +provisoes made against them. They, on the other hand, judge that no man +is to be esteemed our enemy that has never injured us; and that the +partnership of the human nature is instead of a league. And that +kindness and good-nature unite men more effectually and with greater +strength than any agreements whatsoever; since thereby the engagements +of men's hearts become stronger than the bond and obligation of words. + + +OF THEIR MILITARY DISCIPLINE. + +They detest war as a very brutal thing; and which, to the reproach of +human nature, is more practised by men than by any sort of beasts. They, +in opposition to the sentiments of almost all other nations, think that +there is nothing more inglorious than that glory that is gained by war. +And therefore though they accustom themselves daily to military +exercises and the discipline of war, in which not only their men but +their women likewise are trained up, that in cases of necessity they may +not be quite useless; yet they do not rashly engage in war, unless it be +either to defend themselves, or their friends, from any unjust +aggressors; or out of good-nature or in compassion assist an oppressed +nation in shaking off the yoke of tyranny. They indeed help their +friends, not only in defensive, but also in offensive wars; but they +never do that unless they had been consulted before the breach was made, +and being satisfied with the grounds on which they went, they had found +that all demands of reparation were rejected, so that a war was +unavoidable. This they think to be not only just, when one neighbour +makes an inroad on another, by public order, and carry away the spoils; +but when the merchants of one country are oppressed in another, either +under pretence of some unjust laws, or by the perverse wresting of good +ones. This they count a juster cause of war than the other, because +those injuries are done under some colour of laws. This was the only +ground of that war in which they engaged with the Nephelogetes against +the Aleopolitanes, a little before our time; for the merchants of the +former having, as they thought, met with great injustice among the +latter, which, whether it was in itself right or wrong, drew on a +terrible war, in which many of their neighbours were engaged; and their +keenness in carrying it on being supported by their strength in +maintaining it, it not only shook some very flourishing states, and very +much afflicted others, but after a series of much mischief ended in the +entire conquest and slavery of the Aleopolitanes, who though before the +war they were in all respects much superior to the Nephelogetes, were +yet subdued; but though the Utopians had assisted them in the war, yet +they pretended to no share of the spoil. + +But though they so vigorously assist their friends in obtaining +reparation for the injuries they have received in affairs of this +nature, yet if any such frauds was committed against themselves, +provided no violence was done to their persons, they would only on their +being refused satisfaction forbear trading with such a people. This is +not because they consider their neighbours more than their own citizens; +but since their neighbours trade every one upon his own stock, fraud is +a more sensible injury to them than it is to the Utopians, among whom +the public in such a case only suffers. As they expect nothing in return +for the merchandises they export but that in which they so much abound, +and is of little use to them, the loss does not much affect them; they +think therefore it would be too severe to revenge a loss attended with +so little inconvenience either to their lives, or their subsistence, +with the death of many persons; but if any of their people is either +killed or wounded wrongfully, whether it be done by public authority or +only by private men, as soon as they hear of it they send ambassadors, +and demand that the guilty persons may be delivered up to them; and if +that is denied, they declare war; but if it be complied with, the +offenders are condemned either to death or slavery. + +They would be both troubled and ashamed of a bloody victory over their +enemies, and think it would be as foolish a purchase as to buy the most +valuable goods at too high a rate. And in no victory do they glory so +much as in that which is gained by dexterity and good conduct, without +bloodshed. In such cases they appoint public triumphs, and erect +trophies to the honour of those who have succeeded; for then do they +reckon that a man acts suitably to his nature when he conquers his enemy +in such a way as that no other creature but a man could be capable of, +and that is by the strength of his understanding. Bears, lions, boars, +wolves, and dogs, and all other animals employ their bodily force one +against another, in which as many of them are superior to men, both in +strength and fierceness, so they are all subdued by his reason and +understanding. + +The only design of the Utopians in war is to obtain that by force, which +if it had been granted them in time would have prevented the war; or if +that cannot be done, to take so severe a revenge on those that have +injured them that they may be terrified from doing the like for the time +to come. By these ends they measure all their designs, and manage them +so that it is visible that the appetite of fame or vain-glory does not +work so much on them as a just care of their own security. + +As soon as they declare war, they take care to have a great many +schedules, that are sealed with their common seal, affixed in the most +conspicuous places of their enemies' country. This is carried secretly, +and done in many places all at once. In these they promise great rewards +to such as shall kill the prince, and lesser in proportion to such as +shall kill any other persons, who are those on whom, next to the prince +himself, they cast the chief balance of the war. And they double the sum +to him that, instead of killing the person so marked out, shall take him +alive and put him in their hands. They offer not only indemnity, but +rewards, to such of the persons themselves that are so marked, if they +will act against their countrymen: by this means those that are named in +their schedules become not only distrustful of their fellow-citizens, +but are jealous of one another, and are much distracted by fear and +danger; for it has often fallen out that many of them, and even the +Prince himself, have been betrayed by those in whom they have trusted +most: for the rewards that the Utopians offer are so unmeasurably great, +that there is no sort of crime to which men cannot be drawn by them. +They consider the risk that those run who undertake such services, and +offer a recompense proportioned to the danger; not only a vast deal of +gold, but great revenues in lands, that lie among other nations that are +their friends, where they may go and enjoy them very securely; and they +observe the promises they make of this kind most religiously. They very +much approve of this way of corrupting their enemies, though it appears +to others to be base and cruel; but they look on it as a wise course, to +make an end of what would be otherwise a long war, without so much as +hazarding one battle to decide it. They think it likewise an act of +mercy and love to mankind to prevent the great slaughter of those that +must otherwise be killed in the progress of the war, both on their own +side and on that of their enemies, by the death of a few that are most +guilty; and that in so doing they are kind even to their enemies, and +pity them no less than their own people, as knowing that the greater +part of them do not engage in the war of their own accord, but are +driven into it by the passions of their prince. + +If this method does not succeed with them, then they sow seeds of +contention among their enemies, and animate the prince's brother, or +some of the nobility, to aspire to the crown. If they cannot disunite +them by domestic broils, then they engage their neighbours against them, +and make them set on foot some old pretensions, which are never wanting +to princes when they have occasion for them. These they plentifully +supply with money, though but very sparingly with any auxiliary troops: +for they are so tender of their own people, that they would not +willingly exchange one of them, even with the prince of their enemies' +country. + +But as they keep their gold and silver only for such an occasion, so +when that offers itself they easily part with it, since it would be no +inconvenience to them though they should reserve nothing of it to +themselves. For besides the wealth that they have among them at home, +they have a vast treasure abroad, many nations round about them being +deep in their debt: so that they hire soldiers from all places for +carrying on their wars, but chiefly from the Zapolets, who live five +hundred miles east of Utopia. They are a rude, wild, and fierce nation, +who delight in the woods and rocks, among which they were born and bred +up. They are hardened both against heat, cold and labour, and know +nothing of the delicacies of life. They do not apply themselves to +agriculture, nor do they care either for their houses or their clothes. +Cattle is all that they look after; and for the greatest part they live +either by hunting, or upon rapine; and are made, as it were, only for +war. They watch all opportunities of engaging in it, and very readily +embrace such as are offered them. Great numbers of them will frequently +go out, and offer themselves for a very low pay, to serve any that will +employ them: they know none of the arts of life, but those that lead to +the taking it away; they serve those that hire them, both with much +courage and great fidelity; but will not engage to serve for any +determined time, and agree upon such terms, that the next day they may +go over to the enemies of those whom they serve, if they offer them a +greater encouragement: and will perhaps return to them the day after +that, upon a higher advance of their pay. There are few wars in which +they make not a considerable part of the armies of both sides: so it +often falls out that they who are related, and were hired in the same +country, and so have lived long and familiarly together, forgetting both +their relations and former friendship, kill one another upon no other +consideration than that of being hired to it for a little money, by +princes of different interests; and such a regard have they for money, +that they are easily wrought on by the difference of one penny a day to +change sides. So entirely does their avarice influence them; and yet +this money, which they value so highly, is of little use to them; for +what they purchase thus with their blood, they quickly waste on luxury, +which among them is but of a poor and miserable form. + +This nation serves the Utopians against all people whatsoever, for they +pay higher than any other. The Utopians hold this for a maxim, that as +they seek out the best sort of men for their own use at home, so they +make use of this worst sort of men for the consumption of war, and +therefore they hire them with the offers of vast rewards, to expose +themselves to all sorts of hazards, out of which the greater part never +returns to claim their promises. Yet they make them good most +religiously to such as escape. This animates them to adventure again, +whenever there is occasion for it; for the Utopians are not at all +troubled how many of these happen to be killed, and reckon it a service +done to mankind if they could be a means to deliver the world from such +a lewd and vicious sort of people, that seem to have run together as to +the drain of human nature. Next to these they are served in their wars +with those upon whose account they undertake them, and with the +auxiliary troops of their other friends, to whom they join a few of +their own people, and send some men of eminent and approved virtue to +command in chief. There are two sent with him, who during his command +are but private men, but the first is to succeed him if he should happen +to be either killed or taken; and in case of the like misfortune to him, +the third comes in his place; and thus they provide against ill events, +that such accidents as may befall their generals may not endanger their +armies. When they draw out troops of their own people, they take such +out of every city as freely offer themselves, for none are forced to go +against their wills, since they think that if any man is pressed that +wants courage, he will not only act faintly, but by his cowardice +dishearten others. But if an invasion is made on their country they make +use of such men, if they have good bodies, though they are not brave; +and either put them aboard their ships or place them on the walls of +their towns, that being so posted they may find no opportunity of flying +away; and thus either shame, the heat of action, or the impossibility of +flying, bears down their cowardice; they often make a virtue of +necessity and behave themselves well, because nothing else is left them. +But as they force no man to go into any foreign war against his will, so +they do not hinder those women who are willing to go along with their +husbands; on the contrary, they encourage and praise them, and they +stand often next their husbands in the front of the army. They also +place together those who are related, parents and children, kindred, and +those that are mutually allied, near one another; that those whom Nature +has inspired with the greatest zeal for assisting one another, may be +the nearest and readiest to do it; and it is matter of great reproach if +husband or wife survive one another, or if a child survives his parents, +and therefore when they come to be engaged in action they continue to +fight to the last man, if their enemies stand before them. And as they +use all prudent methods to avoid the endangering their own men, and if +it is possible let all the action and danger fall upon the troops that +they hire, so if it becomes necessary for themselves to engage, they +then charge with as much courage as they avoided it before with +prudence: nor is it a fierce charge at first, but it increases by +degrees; and as they continue in action, they grow more obstinate and +press harder upon the enemy, insomuch that they will much sooner die +than give ground; for the certainty that their children will be well +looked after when they are dead, frees them from all that anxiety +concerning them which often masters men of great courage; and thus they +are animated by a noble and invincible resolution. Their skill in +military affairs increases their courage; and the wise sentiments which, +according to the laws of their country are instilled into them in their +education, give additional vigour to their minds: for as they do not +undervalue life so as prodigally to throw it away, they are not so +indecently fond of it as to preserve it by base and unbecoming methods. +In the greatest heat of action, the bravest of their youth, who have +devoted themselves to that service, single out the general of their +enemies, set on him either openly or by ambuscade, pursue him +everywhere, and when spent and wearied out, are relieved by others, who +never give over the pursuit; either attacking him with close weapons +when they can get near him, or with those which wound at a distance, +when others get in between them; so that unless he secures himself by +flight, they seldom fail at last to kill or to take him prisoner. When +they have obtained a victory, they kill as few as possible, and are much +more bent on taking many prisoners than on killing those that fly before +them; nor do they ever let their men so loose in the pursuit of their +enemies, as not to retain an entire body still in order; so that if they +have been forced to engage the last of their battalions before they +could gain the day, they will rather let their enemies all escape than +pursue them, when their own army is in disorder; remembering well what +has often fallen out to themselves, that when the main body of their +army has been quite defeated and broken, when their enemies imagining +the victory obtained, have let themselves loose into an irregular +pursuit, a few of them that lay for a reserve, waiting a fit +opportunity, have fallen on them in their chase, and when straggling in +disorder and apprehensive of no danger, but counting the day their own, +have turned the whole action, and wresting out of their hands a victory +that seemed certain and undoubted, while the vanquished have suddenly +become victorious. + +It is hard to tell whether they are more dexterous in laying or avoiding +ambushes. They sometimes seem to fly when it is far from their thoughts; +and when they intend to give ground, they do it so that it is very hard +to find out their design. If they see they are ill posted, or are like +to be overpowered by numbers, they then either march off in the night +with great silence, or by some stratagem delude their enemies: if they +retire in the daytime, they do it in such order, that it is no less +dangerous to fall upon them in a retreat than in a march. They fortify +their camps with a deep and large trench, and throw up the earth that is +dug out of it for a wall; nor do they employ only their slaves in this, +but the whole army works at it, except those that are then upon the +guard; so that when so many hands are at work, a great line and a strong +fortification is finished in so short a time that it is scarce credible. +Their armour is very strong for defence, and yet is not so heavy as to +make them uneasy in their marches; they can even swim with it. All that +are trained up to war, practise swimming. Both horse and foot make great +use of arrows, and are very expert. They have no swords, but fight with +a pole-axe that is both sharp and heavy, by which they thrust or strike +down an enemy. They are very good at finding out warlike machines, and +disguise them so well, that the enemy does not perceive them till he +feels the use of them; so that he cannot prepare such a defence as would +render them useless; the chief consideration had in the making them, is +that they may be easily carried and managed. + +If they agree to a truce, they observe it so religiously that no +provocations will make them break it. They never lay their enemies' +country waste, nor burn their corn, and even in their marches they take +all possible care that neither horse nor foot may tread it down, for +they do not know but that they may have use for it themselves. They hurt +no man whom they find disarmed, unless he is a spy. When a town is +surrendered to them, they take it into their protection: and when they +carry a place by storm, they never plunder it, but put those only to the +sword that opposed the rendering of it up, and make the rest of the +garrison slaves, but for the other inhabitants, they do them no hurt; +and if any of them had advised a surrender, they give them good rewards +out of the estates of those that they condemn, and distribute the rest +among their auxiliary troops, but they themselves take no share of the +spoil. + +When a war is ended, they do not oblige their friends to reimburse their +expenses; but they obtain them of the conquered, either in money, which +they keep for the next occasion, or in lands, out of which a constant +revenue is to be paid them; by many increases, the revenue which they +draw out from several countries on such occasions, is now risen to above +700,000 ducats a year. They send some of their own people to receive +these revenues, who have orders to live magnificently, and like princes, +by which means they consume much of it upon the place; and either bring +over the rest to Utopia, or lend it to that nation in which it lies. +This they most commonly do, unless some great occasion, which falls out +but very seldom, should oblige them to call for it all. It is out of +these lands that they assign rewards to such as they encourage to +adventure on desperate attempts. If any prince that engages in war with +them is making preparations for invading their country, they prevent +him, and make his country the seat of the war; for they do not willingly +suffer any war to break in upon their island; and if that should happen, +they would only defend themselves by their own people, but would not +call for auxiliary troops to their assistance. + + +OF THE RELIGIONS OF THE UTOPIANS. + +There are several sorts of religions, not only in different parts of the +island, but even in every town; some worshipping the sun, others the +moon, or one of the planets; some worship such men as have been eminent +in former times for virtue, or glory, not only as ordinary deities, but +as the supreme God: yet the greater and wiser sort of them worship none +of these, but adore one eternal, invisible, infinite, and +incomprehensible Deity; as a Being that is far above all our +apprehensions, that is spread over the whole universe, not by His bulk, +but by His power and virtue; Him they call the Father of All, and +acknowledge that the beginnings, the increase, the progress, the +vicissitudes, and the end of all things come only from Him; nor do they +offer divine honours to any but to Him alone. And indeed, though they +differ concerning other things, yet all agree in this, that they think +there is one supreme Being that made and governs the world, whom they +call in the language of their country Mithras. They differ in this, that +one thinks the God whom he worships is this supreme Being, and another +thinks that his idol is that God; but they all agree in one principle, +that whoever is this supreme Being, He is also that great Essence to +whose glory and majesty all honours are ascribed by the consent of all +nations. + +By degrees, they fall off from the various superstitions that are among +them, and grow up to that one religion that is the best and most in +request; and there is no doubt to be made but that all the others had +vanished long ago, if some of those who advised them to lay aside their +superstitions had not met with some unhappy accident, which being +considered as inflicted by Heaven, made them afraid that the God whose +worship had like to have been abandoned, had interposed, and revenged +themselves on those who despised their authority. + +After they had heard from us an account of the doctrine, the course of +life, and the miracles of Christ, and of the wonderful constancy of so +many martyrs, whose blood, so willingly offered up by them, was the +chief occasion of spreading their religion over a vast number of +nations; it is not to be imagined how inclined they were to receive it. +I shall not determine whether this proceeded from any secret inspiration +of God, or whether it was because it seemed so favourable to that +community of goods, which is an opinion so particular as well as so dear +to them; since they perceived that Christ and His followers lived by +that rule, and that it was still kept up in some communities among the +sincerest sort of Christians. From whichsoever of these motives it might +be, true it is that many of them came over to our religion, and were +initiated into it by baptism. But as two of our number were dead, so +none of the four that survived were in priest's orders; we therefore +could only baptize them; so that to our great regret they could not +partake of the other sacraments, that can only be administered by +priests; but they are instructed concerning them, and long most +vehemently for them. They have had great disputes among themselves, +whether one chosen by them to be a priest would not be thereby qualified +to do all the things that belong to that character, even though he had +no authority derived from the Pope; and they seemed to be resolved to +choose some for that employment, but they had not done it when I left +them. + +Those among them that have not received our religion, do not fright any +from it, and use none ill that goes over to it; so that all the while I +was there, one man was only punished on this occasion. He being newly +baptized, did, notwithstanding all that we could say to the contrary, +dispute publicly concerning the Christian religion with more zeal than +discretion; and with so much heat, that he not only preferred our +worship to theirs, but condemned all their rites as profane; and cried +out against all that adhered to them, as impious and sacrilegious +persons, that were to be damned to everlasting burnings. Upon his having +frequently preached in this manner, he was seized, and after trial he +was condemned to banishment, not for having disparaged their religion, +but for his inflaming the people to sedition: for this is one of their +most ancient laws, that no man ought to be punished for his religion. At +the first constitution of their government, Utopus having understood +that before his coming among them the old inhabitants had been engaged +in great quarrels concerning religion, by which they were so divided +among themselves, that he found it an easy thing to conquer them, since +instead of uniting their forces against him, every different party in +religion fought by themselves; after he had subdued them, he made a law +that every man might be of what religion he pleased, and might endeavour +to draw others to it by the force of argument, and by amicable and +modest ways, but without bitterness against those of other opinions; but +that he ought to use no other force but that of persuasion, and was +neither to mix with it reproaches nor violence; and such as did +otherwise were to be condemned to banishment or slavery. + +This law was made by Utopus, not only for preserving the public peace, +which he saw suffered much by daily contentions and irreconcilable +heats, but because he thought the interest of religion itself required +it. He judged it not fit to determine anything rashly, and seemed to +doubt whether those different forms of religion might not all come from +God, who might inspire men in a different manner, and be pleased with +this variety; he therefore thought it indecent and foolish for any man +to threaten and terrify another to make him believe what did not appear +to him to be true. And supposing that only one religion was really true, +and the rest false, he imagined that the native force of truth would at +last break forth and shine bright, if supported only by the strength of +argument, and attended to with a gentle and unprejudiced mind; while, on +the other hand, if such debates were carried on with violence and +tumults, as the most wicked are always the most obstinate, so the best +and most holy religion might be choked with superstition, as corn is +with briars and thorns; he therefore left men wholly to their liberty, +that they might be free to believe as they should see cause; only he +made a solemn and severe law against such as should so far degenerate +from the dignity of human nature as to think that our souls died with +our bodies, or that the world was governed by chance, without a wise +overruling Providence: for they all formerly believed that there was a +state of rewards and punishments to the good and bad after this life; +and they now look on those that think otherwise as scarce fit to be +counted men, since they degrade so noble a being as the soul, and reckon +it no better than a beast's: thus they are far from looking on such men +as fit for human society, or to be citizens of a well-ordered +commonwealth; since a man of such principles must needs, as oft as he +dares do it, despise all their laws and customs: for there is no doubt +to be made that a man who is afraid of nothing but the law, and +apprehends nothing after death, will not scruple to break through all +the laws of his country, either by fraud or force, when by this means he +may satisfy his appetites. They never raise any that hold these maxims, +either to honours or offices, nor employ them in any public trust, but +despise them, as men of base and sordid minds: yet they do not punish +them, because they lay this down as a maxim that a man cannot make +himself believe anything he pleases; nor do they drive any to dissemble +their thoughts by threatenings, so that men are not tempted to lie or +disguise their opinions; which being a sort of fraud, is abhorred by the +Utopians. They take care indeed to prevent their disputing in defence of +these opinions, especially before the common people; but they suffer, +and even encourage them to dispute concerning them in private with their +priests and other grave men, being confident that they will be cured of +those mad opinions by having reason laid before them. There are many +among them that run far to the other extreme, though it is neither +thought an ill nor unreasonable opinion, and therefore is not at all +discouraged. They think that the souls of beasts are immortal, though +far inferior to the dignity of the human soul, and not capable of so +great a happiness. They are almost all of them very firmly persuaded +that good men will be infinitely happy in another state; so that though +they are compassionate to all that are sick, yet they lament no man's +death, except they see him loth to depart with life; for they look on +this as a very ill presage, as if the soul, conscious to itself of +guilt, and quite hopeless, was afraid to leave the body, from some +secret hints of approaching misery. They think that such a man's +appearance before God cannot be acceptable to Him, who, being called on, +does not go out cheerfully, but is backward and unwilling, and is, as it +were, dragged to it. They are struck with horror when they see any die +in this manner, and carry them out in silence and with sorrow, and +praying God that He would be merciful to the errors of the departed +soul, they lay the body in the ground; but when any die cheerfully, and +full of hope, they do not mourn for them, but sing hymns when they carry +out their bodies, and commending their souls very earnestly to God: +their whole behaviour is then rather grave than sad, they burn the body, +and set up a pillar where the pile was made, with an inscription to the +honour of the deceased. When they come from the funeral, they discourse +of his good life and worthy actions, but speak of nothing oftener and +with more pleasure than of his serenity at the hour of death. They think +such respect paid to the memory of good men is both the greatest +incitement to engage others to follow their example, and the most +acceptable worship that can be offered them; for they believe that +though by the imperfection of human sight they are invisible to us, yet +they are present among us, and hear those discourses that pass +concerning themselves. They believe it inconsistent, with the happiness +of departed souls not to be at liberty to be where they will, and do +not imagine them capable of the ingratitude of not desiring to see +those friends with whom they lived on earth in the strictest bonds of +love and kindness: besides they are persuaded that good men after death +have these affections and all other good dispositions increased rather +than diminished, and therefore conclude that they are still among the +living, and observe all they say or do. From hence they engage in all +their affairs with the greater confidence of success, as trusting to +their protection; while this opinion of the presence of their ancestors +is a restraint that prevents their engaging in ill designs. + +They despise and laugh at auguries, and the other vain and superstitious +ways of divination, so much observed among other nations; but have great +reverence for such miracles as cannot flow from any of the powers of +Nature, and look on them as effects and indications of the presence of +the supreme Being, of which they say many instances have occurred among +them; and that sometimes their public prayers, which upon great and +dangerous occasions they have solemnly put up to God, with assured +confidence of being heard, have been answered in a miraculous manner. + +They think the contemplating God in His works, and the adoring Him for +them, is a very acceptable piece of worship to Him. + +There are many among them, that upon a motive of religion neglect +learning, and apply themselves to no sort of study; nor do they allow +themselves any leisure time, but are perpetually employed, believing +that by the good things that a man does he secures to himself that +happiness that comes after death. Some of these visit the sick; others +mend highways, cleanse ditches, repair bridges, or dig turf, gravel, or +stones. Others fell and cleave timber, and bring wood, corn, and other +necessaries on carts into their towns. Nor do these only serve the +public, but they serve even private men, more than the slaves +themselves do; for if there is anywhere a rough, hard, and sordid piece +of work to be done, from which many are frightened by the labour and +loathsomeness of it, if not the despair of accomplishing it, they +cheerfully, and of their own accord, take that to their share; and by +that means, as they ease others very much, so they afflict themselves, +and spend their whole life in hard labour; and yet they do not value +themselves upon this, nor lessen other people's credit to raise their +own; but by their stooping to such servile employments, they are so far +from being despised, that they are so much the more esteemed by the +whole nation. + +Of these there are two sorts; some live unmarried and chaste, and +abstain from eating any sort of flesh; and thus weaning themselves from +all the pleasures of the present life, which they account hurtful, they +pursue, even by the hardest and painfullest methods possible, that +blessedness which they hope for hereafter; and the nearer they approach +to it, they are the more cheerful and earnest in their endeavours after +it. Another sort of them is less willing to put themselves to much toil, +and therefore prefer a married state to a single one; and as they do not +deny themselves the pleasure of it, so they think the begetting of +children is a debt which they owe to human nature and to their country; +nor do they avoid any pleasure that does not hinder labour, and +therefore eat flesh so much the more willingly, as they find that by +this means they are the more able to work; the Utopians look upon these +as the wiser sect, but they esteem the others as the most holy. They +would indeed laugh at any man, who from the principles of reason would +prefer an unmarried state to a married, or a life of labour to an easy +life; but they reverence and admire such as do it from the motives of +religion. There is nothing in which they are more cautious than in +giving their opinion positively concerning any sort of religion. The men +that lead those severe lives are called in the language of their +country Brutheskas, which answers to those we call religious orders. + +Their priests are men of eminent piety, and therefore they are but few, +for there are only thirteen in every town, one for every temple; but +when they go to war, seven of these go out with their forces, and seven +others are chosen to supply their room in their absence; but these enter +again upon their employment when they return; and those who served in +their absence attend upon the high-priest, till vacancies fall by death; +for there is one set over all the rest. They are chosen by the people as +the other magistrates are, by suffrages given in secret, for preventing +of factions; and when they are chosen they are consecrated by the +college of priests. The care of all sacred things, the worship of God, +and an inspection into the manners of the people, are committed to them. +It is a reproach to a man to be sent for by any of them, or for them to +speak to him in secret, for that always gives some suspicion. All that +is incumbent on them is only to exhort and admonish the people; for the +power of correcting and punishing ill men belongs wholly to the Prince +and to the other magistrates. The severest thing that the priest does, +is the excluding those that are desperately wicked from joining in their +worship. There is not any sort of punishment more dreaded by them than +this, for as it loads them with infamy, so it fills them with secret +horrors, such is their reverence to their religion; nor will their +bodies be long exempted from their share of trouble; for if they do not +very quickly satisfy the priests of the truth of their repentance, they +are seized on by the Senate, and punished for their impiety. The +education of youth belongs to the priests, yet they do not take so much +care of instructing them in letters as in forming their minds and +manners aright; they use all possible methods to infuse very early into +the tender and flexible minds of children such opinions as are both good +in themselves and will be useful to their country. For when deep +impressions of these things are made at that age, they follow men +through the whole course of their lives, and conduce much to preserve +the peace of the government, which suffers by nothing more than by vices +that rise out of ill opinions. The wives of their priests are the most +extraordinary women of the whole country; sometimes the women themselves +are made priests, though that falls out but seldom, nor are any but +ancient widows chosen into that order. + +None of the magistrates have greater honour paid them than is paid the +priests; and if they should happen to commit any crime, they would not +be questioned for it. Their punishment is left to God, and to their own +consciences; for they do not think it lawful to lay hands on any man, +how wicked soever he is, that has been in a peculiar manner dedicated to +God; nor do they find any great inconvenience in this, both because they +have so few priests, and because these are chosen with much caution, so +that it must be a very unusual thing to find one who merely out of +regard to his virtue, and for his being esteemed a singularly good man, +was raised up to so great a dignity, degenerate into corruption and +vice. And if such a thing should fall out, for man is a changeable +creature, yet there being few priests, and these having no authority but +what rises out of the respect that is paid them, nothing of great +consequence to the public can proceed from the indemnity that the +priests enjoy. + +They have indeed very few of them, lest greater numbers sharing in the +same honour might make the dignity of that order which they esteem so +highly to sink in its reputation. They also think it difficult to find +out many of such an exalted pitch of goodness, as to be equal to that +dignity which demands the exercise of more than ordinary virtues. Nor +are the priests in greater veneration among them than they are among +their neighbouring nations, as you may imagine by that which I think +gives occasion for it. + +When the Utopians engage in battle, the priests who accompany them to +the war, apparelled in their sacred vestments, kneel down during the +action, in a place not far from the field; and lifting up their hands to +heaven, pray, first for peace, and then for victory to their own side, +and particularly that it may be gained without the effusion of much +blood on either side; and when the victory turns to their side, they run +in among their own men to restrain their fury; and if any of their +enemies see them, or call to them, they are preserved by that means; and +such as can come so near them as to touch their garments, have not only +their lives, but their fortunes secured to them; it is upon this account +that all the nations roundabout consider them so much, and treat them +with such reverence, that they have been often no less able to preserve +their own people from the fury of their enemies, than to save their +enemies from their rage; for it has sometimes fallen out, that when +their armies have been in disorder, and forced to fly, so that their +enemies were running upon the slaughter and spoil, the priests by +interposing have separated them from one another, and stopped the +effusion of more blood; so that by their mediation a peace has been +concluded on very reasonable terms; nor is there any nation about them +so fierce, cruel, or barbarous as not to look upon their persons as +sacred and inviolable. + +The first and the last day of the month, and of the year, is a festival. +They measure their months by the course of the moon, and their years by +the course of the sun. The first days are called in their language the +Cynemernes, and the last the Trapemernes; which answers in our language +to the festival that begins, or ends the season. + +They have magnificent temples, that are not only nobly built, but +extremely spacious; which is the more necessary, as they have so few of +them; they are a little dark within, which proceeds not from any error +in the architecture, but is done with design; for their priests think +that too much light dissipates the thoughts, and that a more moderate +degree of it both recollects the mind and raises devotion. Though there +are many different forms of religion among them, yet all these, how +various soever, agree in the main point, which is the worshipping the +Divine Essence; and therefore there is nothing to be seen or heard in +their temples in which the several persuasions among them may not agree; +for every sect performs those rites that are peculiar to it, in their +private houses, nor is there anything in the public worship that +contradicts the particular ways of those different sects. There are no +images for God in their temples, so that every one may represent Him to +his thoughts, according to the way of his religion; nor do they call +this one God by any other name but that of Mithras, which is the common +name by which they all express the Divine Essence, whatsoever otherwise +they think it to be; nor are there any prayers among them but such as +every one of them may use without prejudice to his own opinion. + +They meet in their temples on the evening of the festival that concludes +a season: and not having yet broke their fast, they thank God for their +good success during that year or month, which is then at an end; and the +next day being that which begins the new season, they meet early in +their temples, to pray for the happy progress of all their affairs +during that period upon which they then enter. In the festival which +concludes the period, before they go to the temple, both wives and +children fall on their knees before their husbands or parents, and +confess everything in which they have either erred or failed in their +duty, and beg pardon for it. Thus all little discontents in families are +removed, that they may offer up their devotions with a pure and serene +mind; for they hold it a great impiety to enter upon them with disturbed +thoughts, or with a consciousness of their bearing hatred or anger in +their hearts to any person whatsoever; and think that they should become +liable to severe punishments if they presumed to offer sacrifices +without cleansing their hearts, and reconciling all their differences. +In the temples, the two sexes are separated, the men go to the right +hand, and the women to the left; and the males and females all place +themselves before the head and master or mistress of that family to +which they belong; so that those who have the government of them at home +may see their deportment in public; and they intermingle them so, that +the younger and the older may be set by one another; for if the younger +sort were all set together, they would perhaps trifle away that time too +much in which they ought to beget in themselves that religious dread of +the supreme Being, which is the greatest and almost the only incitement +to virtue. + +They offer up no living creature in sacrifice, nor do they think it +suitable to the divine Being, from whose bounty it is that these +creatures have derived their lives, to take pleasure in their deaths, or +the offering up their blood. They burn incense and other sweet odours, +and have a great number of wax lights during their worship; not out of +any imagination that such oblations can add anything to the divine +Nature, which even prayers cannot do; but as it is a harmless and pure +way of worshipping God, so they think those sweet savours and lights, +together with some other ceremonies, by a secret and unaccountable +virtue, elevate men's souls, and inflame them with greater energy and +cheerfulness during the divine worship. + +All the people appear in the temples in white garments, but the priest's +vestments are parti-coloured, and both the work and colours are +wonderful. They are made of no rich materials, for they are neither +embroidered nor set with precious stones, but are composed of the plumes +of several birds, laid together with so much art and so neatly, that the +true value of them is far beyond the costliest materials. They say that +in the ordering and placing those plumes some dark mysteries are +represented, which pass down among their priests in a secret tradition +concerning them; and that they are as hieroglyphics, putting them in +mind of the blessings that they have received from God, and of their +duties both to Him and to their neighbours. As soon as the priest +appears in those ornaments, they all fall prostrate on the ground, with +so much reverence and so deep a silence that such as look on cannot but +be struck with it, as if it were the effect of the appearance of a +Deity. After they have been for some time in this posture, they all +stand up, upon a sign given by the priest, and sing hymns to the honour +of God, some musical instruments playing all the while. These are quite +of another form than those used among us: but as many of them are much +sweeter than ours, so others are made use of by us. Yet in one thing +they very much exceed us; all their music, both vocal and instrumental, +is adapted to imitate and express the passions, and is so happily suited +to every occasion, that whether the subject of the hymn be cheerful or +formed to soothe or trouble the mind, or to express grief or remorse, +the music takes the impression of whatever is represented, affects and +kindles the passions, and works the sentiments deep into the hearts of +the hearers. When this is done, both priests and people offer up very +solemn prayers to God in a set form of words; and these are so composed, +that whatsoever is pronounced by the whole assembly may be likewise +applied by every man in particular to his own condition; in these they +acknowledge God to be the author and governor of the world, and the +fountain of all the good they receive, and therefore offer up to Him +their thanksgiving; and in particular bless Him for His goodness in +ordering it so, that they are born under the happiest government in the +world, and are of a religion which they hope is the truest of all +others: but if they are mistaken, and if there is either a better +government or a religion more acceptable to God, they implore His +goodness to let them know it, vowing that they resolve to follow Him +whithersoever He leads them. But if their government is the best, and +their religion the truest, then they pray that He may fortify them in +it, and bring all the world both to the same rules of life, and to the +same opinions concerning himself; unless, according to the +unsearchableness of His mind, He is pleased with a variety of religions. +Then they pray that God may give them an easy passage at last to +himself; not presuming to set limits to Him, how early or late it should +be; but if it may be wished for, without derogating from His supreme +authority, they desire to be quickly delivered, and to be taken to +himself, though by the most terrible kind of death, rather than to be +detained long from seeing Him by the most prosperous course of life. +When this prayer is ended, they all fall down again upon the ground, and +after a little while they rise up, go home to dinner, and spend the rest +of the day in diversion or military exercises. + +Thus have I described to you, as particularly as I could, the +constitution of that commonwealth, which I do not only think the best in +the world, but indeed the only commonwealth that truly deserves that +name. In all other places it is visible, that while people talk of a +commonwealth, every man only seeks his own wealth; but there, where no +man has any property, all men zealously pursue the good of the public: +and, indeed, it is no wonder to see men act so differently; for in other +commonwealths, every man knows that unless he provides for himself, how +flourishing soever the commonwealth may be, he must die of hunger; so +that he sees the necessity of preferring his own concerns to the public; +but in Utopia, where every man has a right to everything, they all know +that if care is taken to keep the public stores full, no private man can +want anything; for among them there is no unequal distribution, so that +no man is poor, none in necessity; and though no man has anything, yet +they are all rich; for what can make a man so rich as to lead a serene +and cheerful life, free from anxieties; neither apprehending want +himself, nor vexed with the endless complaints of his wife? He is not +afraid of the misery of his children, nor is he contriving how to raise +a portion for his daughters, but is secure in this, that both he and his +wife, his children and grandchildren, to as many generations as he can +fancy, will all live both plentifully and happily; since among them +there is no less care taken of those who were once engaged in labour, +but grow afterwards unable to follow it, than there is elsewhere of +these that continue still employed. I would gladly hear any man compare +the justice that is among them with that of all other nations; among +whom, may I perish, if I see anything that looks either like justice or +equity: for what justice is there in this, that a nobleman, a goldsmith, +a banker, or any other man, that either does nothing at all, or at best +is employed in things that are of no use to the public, should live in +great luxury and splendour, upon what is so ill acquired; and a mean +man, a carter, a smith, or a ploughman, that works harder even than the +beasts themselves, and is employed in labours so necessary, that no +commonwealth could hold out a year without them, can only earn so poor a +livelihood, and must lead so miserable a life, that the condition of the +beasts is much better than theirs? For as the beasts do not work so +constantly, so they feed almost as well, and with more pleasure; and +have no anxiety about what is to come, whilst these men are depressed by +a barren and fruitless employment, and tormented with the apprehensions +of want in their old age; since that which they get by their daily +labour does but maintain them at present, and is consumed as fast as it +comes in, there is no overplus left to lay up for old age. + +Is not that government both unjust and ungrateful, that is so prodigal +of its favours to those that are called gentlemen, or goldsmiths, or +such others who are idle, or live either by flattery, or by contriving +the arts of vain pleasure; and on the other hand, takes no care of those +of a meaner sort, such as ploughmen, colliers, and smiths, without whom +it could not subsist? But after the public has reaped all the advantage +of their service, and they come to be oppressed with age, sickness, and +want, all their labours and the good they have done is forgotten; and +all the recompense given them is that they are left to die in great +misery. The richer sort are often endeavouring to bring the hire of +labourers lower, not only by their fraudulent practices, but by the laws +which they procure to be made to that effect; so that though it is a +thing most unjust in itself, to give such small rewards to those who +deserve so well of the public, yet they have given those hardships the +name and colour of justice, by procuring laws to be made for regulating +them. + +Therefore I must say that, as I hope for mercy, I can have no other +notion of all the other governments that I see or know, than that they +are a conspiracy of the rich, who on pretence of managing the public +only pursue their private ends, and devise all the ways and arts they +can find out; first, that they may, without danger, preserve all that +they have so ill acquired, and then that they may engage the poor to +toil and labour for them at as low rates as possible, and oppress them +as much as they please. And if they can but prevail to get these +contrivances established by the show of public authority, which is +considered as the representative of the whole people, then they are +accounted laws. Yet these wicked men after they have, by a most +insatiable covetousness, divided that among themselves with which all +the rest might have been well supplied, are far from that happiness that +is enjoyed among the Utopians: for the use as well as the desire of +money being extinguished, much anxiety and great occasions of mischief +is cut off with it. And who does not see that the frauds, thefts, +robberies, quarrels, tumults, contentions, seditions, murders, +treacheries, and witchcrafts, which are indeed rather punished than +restrained by the severities of law, would all fall off, if money were +not any more valued by the world? Men's fears, solicitudes, cares, +labours, and watchings, would all perish in the same moment with the +value of money: even poverty itself, for the relief of which money seems +most necessary, would fall. But, in order to the apprehending this +aright, take one instance. + +Consider any year that has been so unfruitful that many thousands have +died of hunger; and yet if at the end of that year a survey was made of +the granaries of all the rich men that have hoarded up the corn, it +would be found that there was enough among them to have prevented all +that consumption of men that perished in misery; and that if it had been +distributed among them, none would have felt the terrible effects of +that scarcity; so easy a thing would it be to supply all the necessities +of life, if that blessed thing called money, which is pretended to be +invented for procuring them, was not really the only thing that +obstructed their being procured! + +I do not doubt but rich men are sensible of this, and that they well +know how much a greater happiness it is to want nothing necessary than +to abound in many superfluities, and to be rescued out of so much misery +than to abound with so much wealth; and I cannot think but the sense of +every man's interest, added to the authority of Christ's commands, who +as He was infinitely wise, knew what was best, and was not less good in +discovering it to us, would have drawn all the world over to the laws of +the Utopians, if pride, that plague of human nature, that source of so +much misery, did not hinder it; for this vice does not measure happiness +so much by its own conveniences as by the miseries of others; and would +not be satisfied with being thought a goddess, if none were left that +were miserable, over whom she might insult. Pride thinks its own +happiness shines the brighter by comparing it with the misfortunes of +other persons; that by displaying its own wealth, they may feel their +poverty the more sensibly. This is that infernal serpent that creeps +into the breasts of mortals, and possesses them too much to be easily +drawn out; and therefore I am glad that the Utopians have fallen upon +this form of government, in which I wish that all the world could be so +wise as to imitate them; for they have indeed laid down such a scheme +and foundation of policy, that as men live happily under it, so it is +like to be of great continuance; for they having rooted out of the minds +of their people all the seeds both of ambition and faction, there is no +danger of any commotion at home; which alone has been the ruin of many +states, that seemed otherwise to be well secured; but as long as they +live in peace at home, and are governed by such good laws, the envy of +all their neighbouring princes, who have often though in vain attempted +their ruin, will never be able to put their state into any commotion or +disorder. + + * * * * * + +When Raphael had thus made an end of speaking, though many things +occurred to me, both concerning the manners and laws of that people, +that seemed very absurd, as well as their way of making war, as in their +notions of religion and divine matters; together with several other +particulars, but chiefly what seemed the foundation of all the rest, +their living in common, without the use of money, by which all nobility, +magnificence, splendour, and majesty, which, according to the common +opinion, are the true ornaments of a nation, would be quite taken away; +yet since I perceived that Raphael was weary, and was not sure whether +he could easily bear contradiction, remembering that he had taken notice +of some who seemed to think they were bound in honour to support the +credit of their own wisdom, by finding out something to censure in all +other men's inventions, besides their own; I only commended their +constitution, and the account he had given of it in general; and so +taking him by the hand, carried him to supper, and told him I would find +out some other time for examining this subject more particularly, and +for discoursing more copiously upon it; and indeed I shall be glad to +embrace an opportunity of doing it. In the meanwhile, though it must be +confessed that he is both a very learned man, and a person who has +obtained a great knowledge of the world, I cannot perfectly agree to +everything he has related; however, there are many things in the +Commonwealth of Utopia that I rather wish, than hope, to see followed in +our governments. + + + + +BACON'S + +NEW ATLANTIS. + + + + +NEW ATLANTIS. + + +We sailed from Peru, where we had continued by the space of one whole +year, for China and Japan, by the South Sea, taking with us victuals for +twelve months; and had good winds from the east, though soft and weak, +for five months' space and more. But then the wind came about, and +settled in the west for many days, so as we could make little or no way, +and were sometimes in purpose to turn back. But then again there arose +strong and great winds from the south, with a point east; which carried +us up, for all that we could do, towards the north: by which time our +victuals failed us, though we had made good spare of them. So that +finding ourselves, in the midst of the greatest wilderness of waters in +the world, without victual, we gave ourselves for lost men, and prepared +for death. Yet we did lift up our hearts and voices to God above, who +showeth His wonders in the deep; beseeching Him of his mercy, that as in +the beginning He discovered the face of the deep, and brought forth dry +land, so He would now discover land to us, that we might not perish. And +it came to pass, that the next day about evening we saw within a kenning +before us, towards the north, as it were thick clouds, which did put us +in some hope of land: knowing how that part of the South Sea was utterly +unknown: and might have islands or continents, that hitherto were not +come to light. Wherefore we bent out course thither, where we saw the +appearance of land, all that night: and in the dawning of next day, we +might plainly discern that it was a land flat to our sight, and full of +boscage, which made it show the more dark. And after an hour and a +half's sailing, we entered into a good haven, being the port of a fair +city. Not great indeed, but well built, and that gave a pleasant view +from the sea. And we thinking every minute long till we were on land, +came close to the shore and offered to land. But straightways we saw +divers of the people, with bastons in their hands, as it were forbidding +us to land: yet without any cries or fierceness, but only as warning us +off, by signs that they made. Whereupon being not a little discomfited, +we were advising with ourselves what we should do. During which time +there made forth to us a small boat, with about eight persons in it, +whereof one of them had in his hand a tipstaff of a yellow cane, tipped +at both ends with blue, who made aboard our ship, without any show of +distrust at all. And when he saw one of our number present himself +somewhat afore the rest, he drew forth a little scroll of parchment +(somewhat yellower than our parchment, and shining like the leaves of +writing tables, but otherwise soft and flexible), and delivered it to +our foremost man. In which scroll were written in ancient Hebrew, and in +ancient Greek, and in good Latin of the school, and in Spanish these +words: "Land ye not, none of you, and provide to be gone from this coast +within sixteen days, except you have further time given you; meanwhile, +if you want fresh water, or victual, or help for your sick, or that your +ship needeth repair, write down your wants, and you shall have that +which belongeth to mercy." This scroll was signed with a stamp of +cherubim's wings, not spread, but hanging downwards; and by them a +cross. This being delivered, the officer returned, and left only a +servant with us to receive our answer. Consulting hereupon amongst +ourselves, we were much perplexed. The denial of landing, and hasty +warning us away, troubled us much: on the other side, to find that the +people had languages, and were so full of humanity, did comfort us not a +little. And above all, the sign of the cross to that instrument, was to +us a great rejoicing, and as it were a certain presage of good. Our +answer was in the Spanish tongue, "That for our ship, it was well; for +we had rather met with calms and contrary winds, than any tempests. For +our sick, they were many, and in very ill case; so that if they were not +permitted to land, they ran in danger of their lives." Our other wants +we set down in particular, adding, "That we had some little store of +merchandise, which if it pleased them to deal for, it might supply our +wants, without being chargeable unto them." We offered some reward in +pistolets unto the servant, and a piece of crimson velvet to be +presented to the officer; but the servant took them not, nor would +scarce look upon them; and so left us, and went back in another little +boat which was sent for him. + +About three hours after we had despatched our answer there came towards +us a person (as it seemed) of a place. He had on him a gown with wide +sleeves, of a kind of water chamolet, of an excellent azure colour, far +more glossy than ours: his under apparel was green, and so was his hat, +being in the form of a turban, daintily made, and not so huge as the +Turkish turbans; and the locks of his hair came down below the brims of +it. A reverend man was he to behold. He came in a boat, gilt in some +part of it, with four persons more only in that boat; and was followed +by another boat, wherein were some twenty. When he was come within a +flight-shot of our ship, signs were made to us that we should send forth +some to meet him upon the water, which we presently did in our +ship-boat, sending the principal man amongst us save one, and four of +our number with him. When we were come within six yards of their boat, +they called to us to stay, and not to approach farther, which we did. +And thereupon the man, whom I before described, stood up, and with a +loud voice in Spanish, asked, "Are ye Christians?" We answered, "We +were;" fearing the less, because of the cross we had seen in the +subscription. At which answer the said person lift up his right hand +towards heaven, and drew it softly to his mouth (which is the gesture +they use, when they thank God), and then said: "If ye will swear, all of +you, by the merits of the Saviour, that ye are no pirates; nor have shed +blood, lawfully nor unlawfully, within forty days past; you may have +license to come on land." We said, "We were all ready to take that +oath." Whereupon one of those that were with him, being (as it seemed) a +notary, made an entry of this act. Which done, another of the attendants +of the great person, which was with him in the same boat, after his lord +had spoken a little to him, said aloud: "My lord would have you know, +that it is not of pride, or greatness, that he cometh not aboard your +ship: but for that, in your answer, you declare that you have many sick +amongst you, he was warned by the conservator of health of the city that +he should keep a distance." We bowed ourselves towards him, and +answered: "We were his humble servants; and accounted for great honour +and singular humanity towards us, that which was already done: but hoped +well, that the nature of the sickness of our men was not infectious." So +he returned; and a while after came the notary to us aboard our ship; +holding in his hand a fruit of that country, like an orange, but of +colour between orange-tawny and scarlet: which cast a most excellent +odour. He used it (as it seemed) for a preservative against infection. +He gave us our oath, "By the name of Jesus, and His merits:" and after +told us, that the next day by six of the clock in the morning, we should +be sent to, and brought to the strangers' house (so he called it), where +we should be accommodated of things, both for our whole and for our +sick. So he left us; and when we offered him some pistolets, he +smiling, said, "He must not be twice paid for one labour:" meaning (as I +take it) that he had salary sufficient of the state for his service. For +(as I after learned) they call an officer that taketh rewards +twice-paid. + +The next morning early, there came to us the same officer that came to +us at first with his cane, and told us: "He came to conduct us to the +strangers' house: and that he had prevented the hour, because we might +have the whole day before us for our business. For (said he) if you will +follow my advice, there shall first go with me some few of you, and see +the place, and how it may be made convenient for you: and then you may +send for your sick, and the rest of your number, which ye will bring on +land." We thanked him, and said, "That his care which he took of +desolate strangers, God would reward." And so six of us went on land +with him; and when we were on land, he went before us, and turned to us, +and said, "He was but our servant, and our guide." He led us through +three fair streets; and all the way we went there were gathered some +people on both sides, standing in a row; but in so civil a fashion, as +if it had been, not to wonder at us, but to welcome us; and divers of +them, as we passed by them, put their arms a little abroad, which is +their gesture when they bid any welcome. The strangers' house is a fair +and spacious house, built of brick, of somewhat a bluer colour than our +brick; and with handsome windows, some of glass, some of a kind of +cambric oiled. He brought us first into a fair parlour above stairs, and +then asked us, "What number of persons we were? and how many sick?" We +answered, "We were in all (sick and whole) one and fifty persons, +whereof our sick were seventeen." He desired us to have patience a +little, and to stay till he came back to us, which was about an hour +after; and then he led us to see the chambers which were provided for +us, being in number nineteen. They having cast it (as it seemeth) that +four of those chambers, which were better than the rest, might receive +four of the principal men of our company; and lodge them alone by +themselves; and the other fifteen chambers were to lodge us, two and two +together. The chambers were handsome and cheerful chambers, and +furnished civilly. Then he led us to a long gallery, like a dorture, +where he showed us all along the one side (for the other side was but +wall and window) seventeen cells, very neat ones, having partitions of +cedar wood. Which gallery and cells, being in all forty (many more than +we needed), were instituted as an infirmary for sick persons. And he +told us withal, that as any of our sick waxed well, he might be removed +from his cell to a chamber: for which purpose there were set forth ten +spare chambers, besides the number we spake of before. This done, he +brought us back to the parlour, and lifting up his cane a little (as +they do when they give any charge or command), said to us, "Ye are to +know that the custom of the land requireth, that after this day and +to-morrow (which we give you for removing your people from your ship), +you are to keep within doors for three days. But let it not trouble you, +nor do not think yourselves restrained, but rather left to your rest and +ease. You shall want nothing; and there are six of our people appointed +to attend you for any business you may have abroad." We gave him thanks +with all affection and respect, and said, "God surely is manifested in +this land." We offered him also twenty pistolets; but he smiled, and +only said: "What? Twice paid!" And so he left us. Soon after our dinner +was served in; which was right good viands, both for bread and meat: +better than any collegiate diet that I have known in Europe. We had also +drink of three sorts, all wholesome and good; wine of the grape; a drink +of grain, such as is with us our ale, but more clear; and a kind of +cider made of a fruit of that country; a wonderful pleasing and +refreshing drink. Besides, there were brought in to us great store of +those scarlet oranges for our sick; which (they said) were an assured +remedy for sickness taken at sea. There was given us also a box of small +grey or whitish pills, which they wished our sick should take, one of +the pills every night before sleep; which (they said) would hasten their +recovery. The next day, after that our trouble of carriage and removing +of our men and goods out of our ship was somewhat settled and quiet, I +thought good to call our company together, and when they were assembled, +said unto them, "My dear friends, let us know ourselves, and how it +standeth with us. We are men cast on land, as Jonas was out of the +whale's belly, when we were as buried in the deep; and now we are on +land, we are but between death and life, for we are beyond both the old +world and the new; and whether ever we shall see Europe, God only +knoweth. It is a kind of miracle hath brought us hither, and it must be +little less that shall bring us hence. Therefore in regard of our +deliverance past, and our danger present and to come, let us look up to +God, and every man reform his own ways. Besides we are come here amongst +a Christian people, full of piety and humanity. Let us not bring that +confusion of face upon ourselves, as to show our vices or unworthiness +before them. Yet there is more, for they have by commandment (though in +form of courtesy) cloistered us within these walls for three days; who +knoweth whether it be not to take some taste of our manners and +conditions? And if they find them bad, to banish us straightways; if +good, to give us further time. For these men that they have given us for +attendance, may withal have an eye upon us. Therefore, for God's love, +and as we love the weal of our souls and bodies, let us so behave +ourselves, as we may be at peace with God, and may find grace in the +eyes of this people." Our company with one voice thanked me for my good +admonition, and promised me to live soberly and civilly, and without +giving any the least occasion of offence. So we spent our three days +joyfully, and without care, in expectation what would be done with us +when they were expired. During which time, we had every hour joy of the +amendment of our sick, who thought themselves cast into some divine pool +of healing, they mended so kindly and so fast. + +The morrow after our three days were past, there came to us a new man, +that we had not seen before, clothed in blue as the former was, save +that his turban was white with a small red cross on the top. He had also +a tippet of fine linen. At his coming in, he did bend to us a little, +and put his arms abroad. We of our parts saluted him in a very lowly and +submissive manner; as looking that from him we should receive sentence +of life or death. He desired to speak with some few of us. Whereupon six +of us only stayed, and the rest avoided the room. He said, "I am by +office governor of this house of strangers, and by vocation I am a +Christian priest; and therefore am come to you, to offer you my service, +both as strangers, and chiefly as Christians. Some things I may tell +you, which I think you will not be unwilling to hear. The state hath +given you license to stay on land for the space of six weeks: and let it +not trouble you, if your occasions ask further time, for the law in this +point is not precise; and I do not doubt, but myself shall be able to +obtain for you such further time as shall be convenient. Ye shall also +understand, that the strangers' house is at this time rich, and much +aforehand; for it hath laid up revenue these thirty-seven years: for so +long it is since any stranger arrived in this part; and therefore take +ye no care; the state will defray you all the time you stay. Neither +shall you stay one day the less for that. As for any merchandise you +have brought, ye shall be well used, and have your return, either in +merchandise or in gold and silver: for to us it is all one. And if you +have any other request to make, hide it not; for ye shall find we will +not make your countenance to fall by the answer ye shall receive. Only +this I must tell you, that none of you must go above a karan (that is +with them a mile and a half) from the walls of the city, without special +leave." We answered, after we had looked a while upon one another, +admiring this gracious and parent-like usage, that we could not tell +what to say, for we wanted words to express our thanks; and his noble +free offers left us nothing to ask. It seemed to us, that we had before +us a picture of our salvation in heaven; for we that were a while since +in the jaws of death, were now brought into a place where we found +nothing but consolations. For the commandment laid upon us, we would not +fail to obey it, though it was impossible but our hearts should be +inflamed to tread further upon this happy and holy ground. We added, +that our tongues should first cleave to the roofs of our mouths, ere we +should forget, either this reverend person, or this whole nation, in our +prayers. We also most humbly besought him to accept of us as his true +servants, by as just a right as ever men on earth were bounden; laying +and presenting both our persons and all we had at his feet. He said, he +was a priest, and looked lot a priest's reward; which was our brotherly +love, and the good of our souls and bodies. So he went from us, not +without tears of tenderness in his eyes, and left us also confused with +joy and kindness, saying amongst ourselves, that we were come into a +land of angels, which did appear to us daily, and prevent us with +comforts, which we thought not of, much less expected. + +The next day, about ten of the clock, the governor came to us again, and +after salutations, said familiarly, that he was come to visit us; and +called for a chair, and sat him down; and we being some ten of us (the +rest were of the meaner sort, or else gone abroad), sat down with him; +and when we were set, he began thus: "We of this island of Bensalem +(for so they called it in their language) have this: that by means of +our solitary situation, and of the laws of secrecy, which we have for +our travellers, and our rare admission of strangers; we know well most +part of the habitable world, and are ourselves unknown. Therefore +because he that knoweth least is fittest to ask questions, it is more +reason, for the entertainment of the time, that ye ask me questions, +than that I ask you." We answered, that we humbly thanked him, that he +would give us leave so to do. And that we conceived by the taste we had +already, that there was no worldly thing on earth more worthy to be +known than the state of that happy land. But above all (we said) since +that we were met from the several ends of the world, and hoped assuredly +that we should meet one day in the kingdom of heaven (for that we were +both parts Christians), we desired to know (in respect that land was so +remote, and so divided by vast and unknown seas from the land where our +Saviour walked on earth) who was the apostle of that nation, and how it +was converted to the faith? It appeared in his face, that he took great +contentment in this our question; he said, "Ye knit my heart to you, by +asking this question in the first place: for it showeth that you first +seek the kingdom of heaven: and I shall gladly, and briefly, satisfy +your demand. + +"About twenty years after the ascension of our Saviour it came to pass, +that there was seen by the people of Renfusa (a city upon the eastern +coast of our island, within sight, the night was cloudy and calm), as it +might be some mile in the sea, a great pillar of light; not sharp, but +in form of a column, or cylinder, rising from the sea, a great way up +towards heaven; and on the top of it was seen a large cross of light, +more bright and resplendent than the body of the pillar. Upon which so +strange a spectacle, the people of the city gathered apace together upon +the sands, to wonder; and so after put themselves into a number of +small boats to go nearer to this marvellous sight. But when the boats +were come within about sixty yards of the pillar, they found themselves +all bound, and could go no further, yet so as they might move to go +about, but might not approach nearer; so as the boats stood all as in a +theatre, beholding this light, as an heavenly sign. It so fell out, that +there was in one of the boats one of the wise men of the Society of +Salomon's House; which house or college, my good brethren, is the very +eye of this kingdom, who having a while attentively and devoutly viewed +and contemplated this pillar and cross, fell down upon his face; and +then raised himself upon his knees, and lifting up his hands to heaven, +made his prayers in this manner: + +"'Lord God of heaven and earth; thou hast vouchsafed of thy grace, to +those of our order to know thy works of creation, and true secrets of +them; and to discern (as far as appertaineth to the generations of men) +between divine miracles, works of Nature, works of art and impostures, +and illusions of all sorts. I do here acknowledge and testify before +this people, that the thing we now see before our eyes, is thy finger, +and a true miracle. And forasmuch as we learn in our books, that thou +never workest miracles, but to a divine and excellent end (for the laws +of Nature are thine own laws, and thou exceedest them not but upon great +cause), we most humbly beseech thee to prosper this great sign, and to +give us the interpretation and use of it in mercy; which thou dost in +some part secretly promise, by sending it unto us.' + +"When he had made his prayer, he presently found the boat he was in +movable and unbound; whereas all the rest remained still fast; and +taking that for an assurance of leave to approach, he caused the boat to +be softly and with silence rowed towards the pillar; but ere he came +near it, the pillar and cross of light broke up, and cast itself abroad, +as it were into a firmament of many stars, which also vanished soon +after; and there was nothing left to be seen but a small ark, or chest +of cedar, dry and not wet at all with water, though it swam; and in the +fore-end of it, which was towards him, grew a small green branch of +palm; and when the wise man had taken it with all reverence into his +boat, it opened of itself, and there were found in it a book and a +letter, both written in fine parchment, and wrapped in sindons of linen. +The book contained all the canonical books of the Old and New Testament, +according as you have them (for we know well what the churches with you +receive), and the Apocalypse itself; and some other books of the New +Testament, which were not at that time written, were nevertheless in the +book. And for the letter, it was in these words: + +"'I Bartholomew, a servant of the Highest, and apostle of Jesus Christ, +was warned by an angel that appeared to me in a vision of glory, that I +should commit this ark to the floods of the sea. Therefore I do testify +and declare unto that people where God shall ordain this ark to come to +land, that in the same day is come unto them salvation and peace, and +goodwill from the Father, and from the Lord Jesus.' + +"There was also in both these writings, as well the book as the letter, +wrought a great miracle, conform to that of the apostles, in the +original gift of tongues. For there being at that time, in this land, +Hebrews, Persians, and Indians, besides the natives, every one read upon +the book and letter, as if they had been written in his own language. +And thus was this land saved from infidelity (as the remain of the old +world was from water) by an ark, through the apostolical and miraculous +evangelism of St. Bartholomew." And here he paused, and a messenger +came, and called him forth from us. So this was all that passed in that +conference. + +The next day, the same governor came again to us, immediately after +dinner, and excused himself, saying, "That the day before he was called +from us somewhat abruptly, but now he would make us amends, and spend +time with us, if we held his company and conference agreeable." We +answered, that we held it so agreeable and pleasing to us, as we forgot +both dangers past, and fears to come, for the time we heard him speak; +and that we thought an hour spent with him was worth years of our former +life. He bowed himself a little to us, and after we were set again, he +said, "Well, the questions are on your part." One of our number said, +after a little pause, that there was a matter we were no less desirous +to know than fearful to ask, lest we might presume too far. But +encouraged by his rare humanity towards us (that could scarce think +ourselves strangers, being his vowed and professed servants), we would +take the hardness to propound it; humbly beseeching him, if he thought +it not fit to be answered, that he would pardon it, though he rejected +it. We said, we well observed those his words, which he formerly spake, +that this happy island, where we now stood, was known to few, and yet +knew most of the nations of the world, which we found to be true, +considering they had the languages of Europe, and knew much of our state +and business; and yet we in Europe (notwithstanding all the remote +discoveries and navigations of this last age) never heard any of the +least inkling or glimpse of this island. This we found wonderful +strange; for that all nations have interknowledge one of another, either +by voyage into foreign parts, or by strangers that come to them; and +though the traveller into a foreign country doth commonly know more by +the eye than he that stayeth at home can by relation of the traveller; +yet both ways suffice to make a mutual knowledge, in some degree, on +both parts. But for this island, we never heard tell of any ship of +theirs, that had been seen to arrive upon any shore of Europe; no, nor +of either the East or West Indies, nor yet of any ship of any other +part of the world, that had made return for them. And yet the marvel +rested not in this. For the situation of it (as his lordship said) in +the secret conclave of such a vast sea might cause it. But then, that +they should have knowledge of the languages, books, affairs, of those +that lie such a distance from them, it was a thing we could not tell +what to make of; for that it seemed to us a condition and propriety of +divine powers and beings, to be hidden and unseen to others, and yet to +have others open, and as in a light to them. At this speech the governor +gave a gracious smile and said, that we did well to ask pardon for this +question we now asked, for that it imported, as if we thought this land +a land of magicians, that sent forth spirits of the air into all parts, +to bring them news and intelligence of other countries. It was answered +by us all, in all possible humbleness, but yet with a countenance taking +knowledge, that we knew that he spake it but merrily. That we were apt +enough to think, there was somewhat supernatural in this island, but yet +rather as angelical than magical. But to let his lordship know truly +what it was that made us tender and doubtful to ask this question, it +was not any such conceit, but because we remembered he had given a touch +in his former speech, that this land had laws of secrecy touching +strangers. To this he said, "You remember it aright; and therefore in +that I shall say to you, I must reserve some particulars, which it is +not lawful for me to reveal, but there will be enough left to give you +satisfaction. + +"You shall understand (that which perhaps you will scarce think +credible) that about three thousand years ago, or somewhat more, the +navigation of the world (especially for remote voyages) was greater than +at this day. Do not think with yourselves, that I know not how much it +is increased with you, within these threescore years; I know it well, +and yet I say, greater then than now; whether it was, that the example +of the ark, that saved the remnant of men from the universal deluge, +gave men confidence to adventure upon the waters, or what it was; but +such is the truth. The Phoenicians, and especially the Tyrians, had +great fleets; so had the Carthaginians their colony, which is yet +farther west. Toward the east the shipping of Egypt, and of Palestine, +was likewise great. China also, and the great Atlantis (that you call +America), which have now but junks and canoes, abounded then in tall +ships. This island (as appeareth by faithful registers of those times) +had then fifteen hundred strong ships, of great content. Of all this +there is with you sparing memory, or none; but we have large knowledge +thereof. + +"At that time, this land was known and frequented by the ships and +vessels of all the nations before named. And (as it cometh to pass) they +had many times men of other countries, that were no sailors, that came +with them; as Persians, Chaldeans, Arabians, so as almost all nations of +might and fame resorted hither; of whom we have some stirps and little +tribes with us at this day. And for our own ships, they went sundry +voyages, as well to your straits, which you call the Pillars of +Hercules, as to other parts in the Atlantic and Mediterranean Seas; as +to Paguin (which is the same with Cambalaine) and Quinzy, upon the +Oriental Seas, as far as to the borders of the East Tartary. + +"At the same time, and an age after or more, the inhabitants of the +great Atlantis did flourish. For though the narration and description +which is made by a great man with you, that the descendants of Neptune +planted there, and of the magnificent temple, palace, city and hill; and +the manifold streams of goodly navigable rivers, which as so many chains +environed the same site and temple; and the several degrees of ascent, +whereby men did climb up to the same, as if it had been a Scala Coeli; +be all poetical and fabulous; yet so much is true, that the said country +of Atlantis, as well that of Peru, then called Coya, as that of Mexico, +then named Tyrambel, were mighty and proud kingdoms, in arms, shipping, +and riches; so mighty, as at one time, or at least within the space of +ten years, they both made two great expeditions; they of Tyrambel +through the Atlantic to the Mediterranean Sea; and they of Coya, through +the South Sea upon this our island; and for the former of these, which +was into Europe, the same author amongst you, as it seemeth, had some +relation from the Egyptian priest, whom he citeth. For assuredly, such a +thing there was. But whether it were the ancient Athenians that had the +glory of the repulse and resistance of those forces, I can say nothing; +but certain it is there never came back either ship or man from that +voyage. Neither had the other voyage of those of Coya upon us had better +fortune, if they had not met with enemies of greater clemency. For the +king of this island, by name Altabin, a wise man and a great warrior, +knowing well both his own strength and that of his enemies, handled the +matter so, as he cut off their land forces from their ships, and +entoiled both their navy and their camp with a greater power than +theirs, both by sea and land; and compelled them to render themselves +without striking a stroke; and after they were at his mercy, contenting +himself only with their oath, that they should no more bear arms against +him, dismissed them all in safety. But the divine revenge overtook not +long after those proud enterprises. For within less than the space of +one hundred years the Great Atlantis was utterly lost and destroyed; not +by a great earthquake, as your man saith, for that whole tract is little +subject to earthquakes, but by a particular deluge, or inundation; those +countries having at this day far greater rivers, and far higher +mountains to pour down waters, than any part of the old world. But it is +true that the same inundation was not deep, not past forty foot, in most +places, from the ground, so that although it destroyed man and beast +generally, yet some few wild inhabitants of the wood escaped. Birds also +were saved by flying to the high trees and woods. For as for men, +although they had buildings in many places higher than the depth of the +water, yet that inundation, though it were shallow, had a long +continuance, whereby they of the vale that were not drowned perished for +want of food, and other things necessary. So as marvel you not at the +thin population of America, nor at the rudeness and ignorance of the +people; for you must account your inhabitants of America as a young +people, younger a thousand years at the least than the rest of the +world, for that there was so much time between the universal flood and +their particular inundation. For the poor remnant of human seed which +remained in their mountains, peopled the country again slowly, by little +and little, and being simple and a savage people (not like Noah and his +sons, which was the chief family of the earth), they were not able to +leave letters, arts, and civility to their posterity; and having +likewise in their mountainous habitations been used, in respect of the +extreme cold of those regions, to clothe themselves with the skins of +tigers, bears, and great hairy goats, that they have in those parts; +when after they came down into the valley, and found the intolerable +heats which are there, and knew no means of lighter apparel, they were +forced to begin the custom of going naked, which continueth at this day. +Only they take great pride and delight in the feathers of birds, and +this also they took from those their ancestors of the mountains, who +were invited unto it, by the infinite flight of birds, that came up to +the high grounds, while the waters stood below. So you see, by this main +accident of time, we lost our traffic with the Americans, with whom of +all others, in regard they lay nearest to us, we had most commerce. As +for the other parts of the world, it is most manifest that in the ages +following (whether it were in respect of wars, or by a natural +revolution of time) navigation did everywhere greatly decay, and +specially far voyages (the rather by the use of galleys, and such +vessels as could hardly brook the ocean) were altogether left and +omitted. So then, that part of intercourse which could be from other +nations, to sail to us, you see how it hath long since ceased; except it +were by some rare accident, as this of yours. But now of the cessation +of that other part of intercourse, which might be by our sailing to +other nations, I must yield you some other cause. For I cannot say, if I +shall say truly, but our shipping, for number, strength, mariners, +pilots, and all things that appertain to navigation, is as great as +ever; and therefore why we should sit at home, I shall now give you an +account by itself; and it will draw nearer, to give you satisfaction, to +your principal question. + +"There reigned in this island, about 1,900 years ago, a king, whose +memory of all others we most adore; not superstitiously, but as a divine +instrument, though a mortal man: his name was Salomona; and we esteem +him as the lawgiver of our nation. This king had a large heart, +inscrutable for good; and was wholly bent to make his kingdom and people +happy. He therefore taking into consideration how sufficient and +substantive this land was, to maintain itself without any aid at all of +the foreigner; being 5,000 miles in circuit, and of rare fertility of +soil, in the greatest part thereof; and finding also the shipping of +this country might be plentifully set on work, both by fishing and by +transportations from port to port, and likewise by sailing unto some +small islands that are not far from us, and are under the crown and laws +of this state; and recalling into his memory the happy and flourishing +estate wherein this land then was, so as it might be a thousand ways +altered to the worse, but scarce any one way to the better; though +nothing wanted to his noble and heroical intentions, but only (as far as +human foresight might reach) to give perpetuity to that which was in +his time so happily established, therefore amongst his other fundamental +laws of this kingdom he did ordain the interdicts and prohibitions which +we have touching entrance of strangers; which at that time (though it +was after the calamity of America) was frequent; doubting novelties and +commixture of manners. It is true, the like law against the admission of +strangers without license is an ancient law in the kingdom of China, and +yet continued in use. But there it is a poor thing; and hath made them a +curious, ignorant, fearful foolish nation. But our lawgiver made his law +of another temper. For first, he hath preserved all points of humanity, +in taking order and making provision for the relief of strangers +distressed; whereof you have tasted." At which speech (as reason was) we +all rose up, and bowed ourselves. He went on: "That king also still +desiring to join humanity and policy together; and thinking it against +humanity, to detain strangers here against their wills; and against +policy, that they should return, and discover their knowledge of this +estate, he took this course; he did ordain, that of the strangers that +should be permitted to land, as many at all times might depart as many +as would; but as many as would stay, should have very good conditions, +and means to live from the state. Wherein he saw so far, that now in so +many ages since the prohibition, we have memory not of one ship that +ever returned, and but of thirteen persons only, at several times, that +chose to return in our bottoms. What those few that returned may have +reported abroad, I know not. But you must think, whatsoever they have +said, could be taken where they came but for a dream. Now for our +travelling from hence into parts abroad, our lawgiver thought fit +altogether to restrain it. So is it not in China. For the Chinese sail +where they will, or can; which showeth, that their law of keeping out +strangers is a law of pusillanimity and fear. But this restraint of ours +hath one only exception, which is admirable; preserving the good which +cometh by communicating with strangers, and avoiding the hurt: and I +will now open it to you. And here I shall seem a little to digress, but +you will by-and-by find it pertinent. Ye shall understand, my dear +friends, that amongst the excellent acts of that king, one above all +hath the pre-eminence. It was the erection and institution of an order, +or society, which we call Salomon's House; the noblest foundation, as we +think, that ever was upon the earth, and the lantern of this kingdom. It +is dedicated to the study of the works and creatures of God. Some think +it beareth the founder's name a little corrupted, as if it should be +Solomon's House. But the records write it as it is spoken. So as I take +it to be denominate of the king of the Hebrews, which is famous with +you, and no strangers to us; for we have some parts of his works which +with you are lost; namely, that natural history which he wrote of all +plants, from the cedar of Libanus to the moss that groweth out of the +wall; and of all things that have life and motion. This maketh me think +that our king finding himself to symbolize, in many things, with that +king of the Hebrews, which lived many years before him, honoured him +with the title of this foundation. And I am the rather induced to be of +this opinion, for that I find in ancient records, this order or society +is sometimes called Solomon's House, and sometimes the College of the +Six Days' Works; whereby I am satisfied that our excellent king had +learned from the Hebrews that God had created the world, and all that +therein is, within six days: and therefore he instituted that house, for +the finding out of the true nature of all things, whereby God might have +the more glory in the workmanship of them, and men the more fruit in +their use of them, did give it also that second name. But now to come to +our present purpose. When the king had forbidden to all his people +navigation into any part that was not under his crown, he made +nevertheless this ordinance; that every twelve years there should be +set forth out of this kingdom, two ships, appointed to several voyages; +that in either of these ships there should be a mission of three of the +fellows or brethren of Salomon's House, whose errand was only to give us +knowledge of the affairs and state of those countries to which they were +designed; and especially of the sciences, arts, manufactures, and +inventions of all the world; and withal to bring unto us books, +instruments, and patterns in every kind: that the ships, after they had +landed the brethren, should return; and that the brethren should stay +abroad till the new mission, the ships are not otherwise fraught than +with store of victuals, and good quantity of treasure to remain with the +brethren, for the buying of such things, and rewarding of such persons, +as they should think fit. Now for me to tell you how the vulgar sort of +mariners are contained from being discovered at land, and how they that +must be put on shore for any time, colour themselves under the names of +other nations, and to what places these voyages have been designed; and +what places of rendezvous are appointed for the new missions, and the +like circumstances of the practice, I may not do it, neither is it much +to your desire. But thus you see we maintain a trade, not for gold, +silver, or jewels, nor for silks, nor for spices, nor any other +commodity of matter; but only for God's first creature, which was light; +to have light, I say, of the growth of all parts of the world." And when +he had said this, he was silent, and so were we all; for indeed we were +all astonished to hear so strange things so probably told. And he +perceiving that we were willing to say somewhat, but had it not ready, +in great courtesy took us off, and descended to ask us questions of our +voyage and fortunes, and in the end concluded that we might do well to +think with ourselves, what time of stay we would demand of the state, +and bade us not to scant ourselves; for he would procure such time as we +desired. Whereupon we all rose up and presented ourselves to kiss the +skirt of his tippet, but he would not suffer us, and so took his leave. +But when it came once amongst our people, that the state used to offer +conditions to strangers that would stay, we had work enough to get any +of our men to look to our ship, and to keep them from going presently to +the governor, to crave conditions; but with much ado we restrained them, +till we might agree what course to take. + +We took ourselves now for freemen, seeing there was no danger of our +utter perdition, and lived most joyfully, going abroad and seeing what +was to be seen in the city and places adjacent, within our tedder; and +obtaining acquaintance with many of the city, not of the meanest +quality, at whose hands we found such humanity, and such a freedom and +desire to take strangers, as it were, into their bosom, as was enough to +make us forget all that was dear to us in our own countries; and +continually we met with many things, right worthy of observation and +relation; as indeed, if there be a mirror in the world, worthy to hold +men's eyes, it is that country. One day there were two of our company +bidden to a feast of the family, as they call it; a most natural, pious, +and reverend custom it is, showing that nation to be compounded of all +goodness. This is the manner of it; it is granted to any man that shall +live to see thirty persons descended of his body, alive together, and +all above three years old, to make this feast, which is done at the cost +of the state. The father of the family, whom they call the Tirsan, two +days before the feast, taketh to him three of such friends as he liketh +to choose, and is assisted also by the governor of the city or place +where the feast is celebrated, and all the persons of the family, of +both sexes, are summoned to attend him. These two days the Tirsan +sitteth in consultation, concerning the good estate of the family. +There, if there be any discord or suits between any of the family, they +are compounded and appeased. There, if any of the family be distressed +or decayed, order is taken for their relief, and competent means to +live. There, if any be subject to vice, or take ill courses, they are +reproved and censured. So likewise direction is given touching +marriages, and the courses of life which any of them should take, with +divers other the like orders and advices. The governor assisteth to the +end, to put in execution, by his public authority, the decrees and +orders of the Tirsan, if they should be disobeyed, though that seldom +needeth; such reverence and obedience they give to the order of Nature. +The Tirsan doth also then ever choose one man from amongst his sons, to +live in house with him; who is called ever after the Son of the Vine. +The reason will hereafter appear. On the feast day, the father or Tirsan +cometh forth after divine service into a large room where the feast is +celebrated; which room hath an half-pace at the upper end. Against the +wall, in the middle of the half-pace, is a chair placed for him, with a +table and carpet before it. Over the chair is a state, made round or +oval, and it is of ivy; an ivy somewhat whiter than ours, like the leaf +of a silver asp, but more shining; for it is green all winter. And the +state is curiously wrought with silver and silk of divers colours, +broiding or binding in the ivy; and is ever of the work of some of the +daughters of the family; and veiled over at the top, with a fine net of +silk and silver. But the substance of it is true ivy; whereof after it +is taken down, the friends of the family are desirous to have some leaf +or sprig to keep. The Tirsan cometh forth with all his generation or +lineage, the males before him, and the females following him; and if +there be a mother, from whose body the whole lineage is descended, there +is a traverse placed in a loft above on the right hand of the chair, +with a privy door, and a carved window of glass, leaded with gold and +blue; where she sitteth, but is not seen. When the Tirsan is come forth, +he sitteth down in the chair; and all the lineage place themselves +against the wall, both at his back, and upon the return of the +half-pace, in order of their years, without difference of sex, and stand +upon their feet. When he is set, the room being always full of company, +but well kept and without disorder, after some pause there cometh in +from the lower end of the room a Taratan (which is as much as an +herald), and on either side of him two young lads: whereof one carrieth +a scroll of their shining yellow parchment, and the other a cluster of +grapes of gold, with a long foot or stalk. The herald and children are +clothed with mantles of sea-water green satin; but the herald's mantle +is streamed with gold, and hath a train. Then the herald with three +curtsies, or rather inclinations, cometh up as far as the half-pace, and +there first taketh into his hand the scroll. This scroll is the king's +charter, containing gift of revenue, and many privileges, exemptions, +and points of honour, granted to the father of the family; and it is +ever styled and directed, "To such an one, our well-beloved friend and +creditor," which is a title proper only to this case. For they say, the +king is debtor to no man, but for propagation of his subjects; the seal +set to the king's charter is the king's image, embossed or moulded in +gold; and though such charters be expedited of course, and as of right, +yet they are varied by discretion, according to the number and dignity +of the family. This charter the herald readeth aloud; and while it is +read, the father or Tirsan standeth up, supported by two of his sons, +such as he chooseth. Then the herald mounteth the half-pace, and +delivereth the charter into his hand: and with that there is an +acclamation, by all that are present, in their language, which is thus +much, "Happy are the people of Bensalem." Then the herald taketh into +his hand from the other child the cluster of grapes, which is of gold; +both the stalk, and the grapes. But the grapes are daintily enamelled; +and if the males of the family be the greater number, the grapes are +enamelled purple, with a little sun set on the top; if the females, then +they are enamelled into a greenish yellow, with a crescent on the top. +The grapes are in number as many as there are descendants of the family. +This golden cluster the herald delivereth also to the Tirsan; who +presently delivereth it over to that son that he had formerly chosen, to +be in house with him: who beareth it before his father, as an ensign of +honour, when he goeth in public ever after; and is thereupon called the +Son of the Vine. After this ceremony ended the father or Tirsan +retireth; and after some time cometh forth again to dinner, where he +sitteth alone under the state, as before; and none of his descendants +sit with him, of what degree or dignity so ever, except he hap to be of +Salomon's House. He is served only by his own children, such as are +male; who perform unto him all service of the table upon the knee, and +the women only stand about him, leaning against the wall. The room below +his half-pace hath tables on the sides for the guests that are bidden; +who are served with great and comely order; and towards the end of +dinner (which in the greatest feasts with them lasteth never above an +hour and a half) there is an hymn sung, varied according to the +invention of him that composeth it (for they have excellent poesy), but +the subject of it is always the praises of Adam, and Noah, and Abraham; +whereof the former two peopled the world, and the last was the father of +the faithful: concluding ever with a thanksgiving for the nativity of +our Saviour, in whose birth the births of all are only blessed. Dinner +being done, the Tirsan retireth again; and having withdrawn himself +alone into a place, where he maketh some private prayers, he cometh +forth the third time, to give the blessing; with all his descendants, +who stand about him as at the first. Then he calleth them forth by one +and by one, by name as he pleaseth, though seldom the order of age be +inverted. The person that is called (the table being before removed) +kneeleth down before the chair, and the father layeth his hand upon his +head, or her head, and giveth the blessing in these words: "Son of +Bensalem (or daughter of Bensalem), thy father saith it; the man by whom +thou hast breath and life speaketh the word; the blessing of the +everlasting Father, the Prince of Peace, and the Holy Dove be upon thee, +and make the days of thy pilgrimage good and many." This he saith to +every of them; and that done, if there be any of his sons of eminent +merit and virtue, so they be not above two, he calleth for them again, +and saith, laying his arm over their shoulders, they standing: "Sons, it +is well you are born, give God the praise, and persevere to the end." +And withal delivereth to either of them a jewel, made in the figure of +an ear of wheat, which they ever after wear in the front of their +turban, or hat; this done, they fall to music and dances, and other +recreations, after their manner, for the rest of the day. This is the +full order of that feast. + +By that time six or seven days were spent, I was fallen into straight +acquaintance with a merchant of that city, whose name was Joabin. He was +a Jew and circumcised; for they have some few stirps of Jews yet +remaining among them, whom they leave to their own religion. Which they +may the better do, because they are of a far differing disposition from +the Jews in other parts. For whereas they hate the name of Christ, and +have a secret inbred rancour against the people amongst whom they live; +these, contrariwise, give unto our Saviour many high attributes, and +love the nation of Bensalem extremely. Surely this man of whom I speak +would ever acknowledge that Christ was born of a Virgin; and that He was +more than a man; and he would tell how God made Him ruler of the +seraphims, which guard His throne; and they call Him also the Milken +Way, and the Eliah of the Messiah, and many other high names, which +though they be inferior to His divine majesty, yet they are far from the +language of other Jews. And for the country of Bensalem, this man would +make no end of commending it, being desirous by tradition among the Jews +there to have it believed that the people thereof were of the +generations of Abraham, by another son, whom they call Nachoran; and +that Moses by a secret cabala ordained the laws of Bensalem which they +now use; and that when the Messias should come, and sit in His throne at +Hierusalem, the King of Bensalem should sit at His feet, whereas other +kings should keep a great distance. But yet setting aside these Jewish +dreams, the man was a wise man and learned, and of great policy, and +excellently seen in the laws and customs of that nation. Amongst other +discourses one day I told him, I was much affected with the relation I +had from some of the company of their custom in holding the feast of the +family, for that, methought, I had never heard of a solemnity wherein +Nature did so much preside. And because propagation of families +proceedeth from the nuptial copulation, I desired to know of him what +laws and customs they had concerning marriage, and whether they kept +marriage well, and whether they were tied to one wife? For that where +population is so much affected, and such as with them it seemed to be, +there is commonly permission of plurality of wives. To this he said: +"You have reason for to commend that excellent institution of the feast +of the family; and indeed we have experience, that those families that +are partakers of the blessings of that feast, do flourish and prosper +ever after, in an extraordinary manner. But hear me now, and I will tell +you what I know. You shall understand that there is not under the +heavens so chaste a nation as this of Bensalem, nor so free from all +pollution or foulness. It is the virgin of the world; I remember, I have +read in one of your European books, of an holy hermit amongst you, that +desired to see the spirit of fornication, and there appeared to him a +little foul ugly Ethiope; but if he had desired to see the spirit of +chastity of Bensalem, it would have appeared to him in the likeness of a +fair beautiful cherubim. For there is nothing, amongst mortal men, more +fair and admirable than the chaste minds of this people. Know, +therefore, that with them there are no stews, no dissolute houses, no +courtezans, nor anything of that kind. Nay, they wonder, with +detestation, at you in Europe, which permit such things. They say ye +have put marriage out of office; for marriage is ordained a remedy for +unlawful concupiscence; and natural concupiscence seemeth as a spur to +marriage. But when men have at hand a remedy, more agreeable to their +corrupt will, marriage is almost expulsed. And therefore there are with +you seen infinite men that marry not, but choose rather a libertine and +impure single life, than to be yoked in marriage; and many that do +marry, marry late, when the prime and strength of their years is past. +And when they do marry, what is marriage to them but a very bargain; +wherein is sought alliance, or portion, or reputation, with some desire +(almost indifferent) of issue; and not the faithful nuptial union of man +and wife, that was first instituted. Neither is it possible, that those +that have cast away so basely so much of their strength, should greatly +esteem children (being of the same matter) as chaste men do. So likewise +during marriage is the case much amended, as it ought to be if those +things were tolerated only for necessity; no, but they remain still as a +very affront to marriage. The haunting of those dissolute places, or +resort to courtezans, are no more punished in married men than in +bachelors. And the depraved custom of change, and the delight in +meretricious embracements (where sin is turned into art), maketh +marriage a dull thing, and a kind of imposition or tax. They hear you +defend these things, as done to avoid greater evils; as advoutries, +deflowering of virgins, unnatural lust, and the like. But they say, this +is a preposterous wisdom; and they call it Lot's offer, who to save his +guests from abusing, offered his daughters; nay, they say further, that +there is little gained in this; for that the same vices and appetites do +still remain and abound, unlawful lust being like a furnace, that if you +stop the flames altogether it will quench, but if you give it any vent +it will rage; as for masculine love, they have no touch of it; and yet +there are not so faithful and inviolate friendships in the world again +as are there, and to speak generally (as I said before) I have not read +of any such chastity in any people as theirs. And their usual saying is +that whosoever is unchaste cannot reverence himself; and they say that +the reverence of a man's self, is, next religion, the chiefest bridle of +all vices." And when he had said this the good Jew paused a little; +whereupon I, far more willing to hear him speak on than to speak myself; +yet thinking it decent that upon his pause of speech I should not be +altogether silent, said only this; that I would say to him, as the widow +of Sarepta said to Elias: "that he was come to bring to memory our +sins;" and that I confess the righteousness of Bensalem was greater than +the righteousness of Europe. At which speech he bowed his head, and went +on this manner: "They have also many wise and excellent laws, touching +marriage. They allow no polygamy. They have ordained that none do +intermarry, or contract, until a month be past from their first +interview. Marriage without consent of parents they do not make void, +but they mulct it in the inheritors; for the children of such marriages +are not admitted to inherit above a third part of their parents' +inheritance. I have read in a book of one of your men, of a feigned +commonwealth, where the married couple are permitted, before they +contract, to see one another naked. This they dislike; for they think it +a scorn to give a refusal after so familiar knowledge; but because of +many hidden defects in men and women's bodies, they have a more civil +way; for they have near every town a couple of pools (which they call +Adam and Eve's pools), where it is permitted to one of the friends of +the man, and another of the friends of the woman, to see them severally +bathe naked." + +And as we were thus in conference, there came one that seemed to be a +messenger, in a rich huke, that spake with the Jew; whereupon he turned +to me, and said, "You will pardon me, for I am commanded away in haste." +The next morning he came to me again, joyful as it seemed, and said, +"There is word come to the governor of the city, that one of the fathers +of Salomon's House will be here this day seven-night; we have seen none +of them this dozen years. His coming is in state; but the cause of his +coming is secret. I will provide you and your fellows of a good standing +to see his entry." I thanked him, and told him I was most glad of the +news. The day being come he made his entry. He was a man of middle +stature and age, comely of person, and had an aspect as if he pitied +men. He was clothed in a robe of fine black cloth with wide sleeves, and +a cape: his under garment was of excellent white linen down to the foot, +girt with a girdle of the same; and a sindon or tippet of the same about +his neck. He had gloves that were curious, and set with stone; and shoes +of peach-coloured velvet. His neck was bare to the shoulders. His hat +was like a helmet, or Spanish montero; and his locks curled below it +decently; they were of colour brown. His beard was cut round and of the +same colour with his hair, somewhat lighter. He was carried in a rich +chariot, without wheels, litter-wise, with two horses at either end, +richly trapped in blue velvet embroidered; and two footmen on each side +in the like attire. The chariot was all of cedar, gilt and adorned with +crystal; save that the fore-end had panels of sapphires, set in borders +of gold, and the hinder-end the like of emeralds of the Peru colour. +There was also a sun of gold, radiant upon the top, in the midst; and on +the top before a small cherub of gold, with wings displayed. The chariot +was covered with cloth of gold tissued upon blue. He had before him +fifty attendants, young men all, in white satin loose coats up to the +mid-leg, and stockings of white silk; and shoes of blue velvet; and hats +of blue velvet, with fine plumes of divers colours, set round like +hat-bands. Next before the chariot went two men, bare-headed, in linen +garments down to the foot, girt, and shoes of blue velvet, who carried +the one a crosier, the other a pastoral staff like a sheep-hook; neither +of them of metal, but the crosier of balm-wood, the pastoral staff of +cedar. Horsemen he had none, neither before nor behind his chariot; as +it seemeth, to avoid all tumult and trouble. Behind his chariot went all +the officers and principals of the companies of the city. He sat alone, +upon cushions, of a kind of excellent plush, blue; and under his foot +curious carpets of silk of divers colours, like the Persian, but far +finer. He held up his bare hand, as he went, as blessing the people, but +in silence. The street was wonderfully well kept; so that there was +never any army had their men stand in better battle-array than the +people stood. The windows likewise were not crowded, but every one stood +in them, as if they had been placed. When the show was passed, the Jew +said to me, "I shall not be able to attend you as I would, in regard of +some charge the city hath laid upon me for the entertaining of this +great person." Three days after the Jew came to me again, and said, "Ye +are happy men; for the father of Salomon's House taketh knowledge of +your being here, and commanded me to tell you, that he will admit all +your company to his presence, and have private conference with one of +you, that ye shall choose; and for this hath appointed the next day +after to-morrow. And because he meaneth to give you his blessing, he +hath appointed it in the forenoon." We came at our day and hour, and I +was chosen by my fellows for the private access. We found him in a fair +chamber, richly hanged, and carpeted under foot, without any degrees to +the state; he was set upon a low throne richly adorned, and a rich cloth +of state over his head of blue satin embroidered. He was alone, save +that he had two pages of honour, on either hand one, finely attired in +white. His under garments were the like that we saw him wear in the +chariot; but instead of his gown, he had on him a mantle with a cape, of +the same fine black, fastened about him. When we came in, as we were +taught, we bowed low at our first entrance; and when we were come near +his chair, he stood up, holding forth his hand ungloved, and in posture +of blessing; and we every one of us stooped down, and kissed the end of +his tippet. That done, the rest departed, and I remained. Then he warned +the pages forth of the room, and caused me to sit down beside him, and +spake to me thus in the Spanish tongue: + +"God bless thee, my son; I will give thee the greatest jewel I have. For +I will impart unto thee, for the love of God and men, a relation of the +true state of Salomon's House. Son, to make you know the true state of +Salomon's House, I will keep this order. First, I will set forth unto +you the end of our foundation. Secondly, the preparations and +instruments we have for our works. Thirdly, the several employments and +functions whereto our fellows are assigned. And fourthly, the ordinances +and rites which we observe. + +"The end of our foundation is the knowledge of causes, and secret +motions of things; and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire, to +the effecting of all things possible. + +"The preparations and instruments are these. We have large and deep +caves of several depths; the deepest are sunk 600 fathoms; and some of +them are digged and made under great hills and mountains; so that if you +reckon together the depth of the hill, and the depth of the cave, they +are, some of them, above three miles deep. For we find that the depth of +an hill, and the depth of a cave from the flat, is the same thing; both +remote alike from the sun and heaven's beams, and from the open air. +These caves we call the lower region. And we use them for all +coagulations, indurations, refrigerations, and conservations of bodies. +We use them likewise for the imitation of natural mines and the +producing also of new artificial metals, by compositions and materials +which we use and lay there for many years. We use them also sometimes +(which may seem strange) for curing of some diseases, and for +prolongation of life, in some hermits that choose to live there, well +accommodated of all things necessary, and indeed live very long; by whom +also we learn many things. + +"We have burials in several earths, where we put divers cements, as the +Chinese do their porcelain. But we have them in greater variety, and +some of them more fine. We also have great variety of composts and +soils, for the making of the earth fruitful. + +"We have high towers, the highest about half a mile in height, and some +of them likewise set upon high mountains, so that the vantage of the +hill with the tower, is in the highest of them three miles at least. And +these places we call the upper region, account the air between the high +places and the low, as a middle region. We use these towers, according +to their several heights and situations, for insulation, refrigeration, +conservation, and for the view of divers meteors--as winds, rain, snow, +hail; and some of the fiery meteors also. And upon them, in some places, +are dwellings of hermits, whom we visit sometimes, and instruct what to +observe. + +"We have great lakes, both salt and fresh, whereof we have use for the +fish and fowl. We use them also for burials of some natural bodies, for +we find a difference in things buried in earth, or in air below the +earth, and things buried in water. We have also pools, of which some do +strain fresh water out of salt, and others by art do turn fresh water +into salt. We have also some rocks in the midst of the sea, and some +bays upon the shore for some works, wherein is required the air and +vapour of the sea. We have likewise violent streams and cataracts, which +serve us for many motions; and likewise engines for multiplying and +enforcing of winds to set also on divers motions. + +"We have also a number of artificial wells and fountains, made in +imitation of the natural sources and baths, as tincted upon vitriol, +sulphur, steel, brass, lead, nitre, and other minerals; and again, we +have little wells for infusions of many things, where the waters take +the virtue quicker and better than in vessels or basins. And amongst +them we have a water, which we call water of Paradise, being by that we +do it made very sovereign for health and prolongation of life. + +"We have also great and spacious houses, where we imitate and +demonstrate meteors--as snow, hail, rain, some artificial rains of +bodies, and not of water, thunders, lightnings; also generations of +bodies in air--as frogs, flies, and divers others. + +"We have also certain chambers, which we call chambers of health, where +we qualify the air as we think good and proper for the cure of divers +diseases, and preservation of health. + +"We have also fair and large baths, of several mixtures, for the cure of +diseases, and the restoring of man's body from arefaction; and others +for the confirming of it in strength of sinews, vital parts, and the +very juice and substance of the body. + +"We have also large and various orchards and gardens, wherein we do not +so much respect beauty as variety of ground and soil, proper for divers +trees and herbs, and some very spacious, where trees and berries are +set, whereof we make divers kinds of drinks, besides the vineyards. In +these we practise likewise all conclusions of grafting, and inoculating, +as well of wild-trees as fruit-trees, which produceth many effects. And +we make by art, in the same orchards and gardens, trees and flowers, to +come earlier or later than their seasons, and to come up and bear more +speedily than by their natural course they do. We make them also by art +greater much than their nature; and their fruit greater and sweeter, and +of differing taste, smell, colour, and figure, from their nature. And +many of them we so order, as that they become of medicinal use. + +"We have also means to make divers plants rise by mixtures of earths +without seeds, and likewise to make divers new plants, differing from +the vulgar, and to make one tree or plant turn into another. + +"We have also parks, and enclosures of all sorts, of beasts and birds; +which we use not only for view or rareness, but likewise for dissections +and trials, that thereby may take light what may be wrought upon the +body of man. Wherein we find many strange effects: as continuing life in +them, though divers parts, which you account vital, be perished and +taken forth; resuscitating of some that seem dead in appearance, and the +like. We try also all poisons, and other medicines upon them, as well of +chirurgery as physic. By art likewise we make them greater or smaller +than their kind is, and contrariwise dwarf them and stay their growth; +we make them more fruitful and bearing than their kind is, and +contrariwise barren and not generative. Also we make them differ in +colour, shape, activity, many ways. We find means to make commixtures +and copulations of divers kinds, which have produced many new kinds, and +them not barren, as the general opinion is. We make a number of kinds of +serpents, worms, flies, fishes of putrefaction, whereof some are +advanced (in effect) to be perfect creatures, like beasts or birds, and +have sexes, and do propagate. Neither do we this by chance, but we know +beforehand of what matter and commixture, what kind of those creatures +will arise. + +"We have also particular pools where we make trials upon fishes, as we +have said before of beasts and birds. + +"We have also places for breed and generation of those kinds of worms +and flies which are of special use; such as are with you your silkworms +and bees. + +"I will not hold you long with recounting of our brew-houses, +bake-houses, and kitchens, where are made divers drinks, breads, and +meats, rare and of special effects. Wines we have of grapes, and drinks +of other juice, of fruits, of grains, and of roots, and of mixtures with +honey, sugar, manna, and fruits dried and decocted; also of the tears or +wounding of trees, and of the pulp of canes. And these drinks are of +several ages, some to the age or last of forty years. We have drinks +also brewed with several herbs, and roots, and spices; yea, with several +fleshes, and white-meats; whereof some of the drinks are such as they +are in effect meat and drink both, so that divers, especially in age, do +desire to live with them with little or no meat or bread. And above all +we strive to have drinks of extreme thin parts, to insinuate into the +body, and yet without all biting, sharpness, or fretting; insomuch as +some of them put upon the back of your hand, will with a little stay +pass through to the palm, and yet taste mild to the mouth. We have also +waters, which we ripen in that fashion, as they become nourishing, so +that they are indeed excellent drinks, and many will use no other. Bread +we have of several grains, roots, and kernels; yea, and some of flesh, +and fish, dried; with divers kinds of leavings and seasonings; so that +some do extremely move appetites, some do nourish so, as divers do live +of them, without any other meat, who live very long. So for meats, we +have some of them so beaten, and made tender, and mortified, yet without +all corrupting, as a weak heat of the stomach will turn them into good +chilus, as well as a strong heat would meat otherwise prepared. We have +some meats also and bread, and drinks, which taken by men, enable them +to fast long after; and some other, that used make the very flesh of +men's bodies sensibly more hard and tough, and their strength far +greater than otherwise it would be. + +"We have dispensatories or shops of medicines; wherein you may easily +think, if we have such variety of plants, and living creatures, more +than you have in Europe (for we know what you have), the simples, drugs, +and ingredients of medicines, must likewise be in so much the greater +variety. We have them likewise of divers ages, and long fermentations. +And for their preparations, we have not only all manner of exquisite +distillations, and separations, and especially by gentle heats, and +percolations through divers strainers, yea, and substances; but also +exact forms of composition, whereby they incorporate almost as they were +natural simples. + +"We have also divers mechanical arts, which you have not; and stuffs +made by them, as papers, linen, silks, tissues, dainty works of feathers +of wonderful lustre, excellent dyes, and many others, and shops likewise +as well for such as are not brought into vulgar use amongst us, as for +those that are. For you must know, that of the things before recited, +many of them are grown into use throughout the kingdom, but yet, if they +did flow from our invention, we have of them also for patterns and +principals. + +"We have also furnaces of great diversities, and that keep great +diversity of heats; fierce and quick, strong and constant, soft and +mild, blown, quiet, dry, moist, and the like. But above all we have +heats, in imitation of the sun's and heavenly bodies' heats, that pass +divers inequalities, and as it were orbs, progresses, and returns +whereby we produce admirable effects. Besides, we have heats of dungs, +and of bellies and maws of living creatures and of their bloods and +bodies, and of hays and herbs laid up moist, of lime unquenched, and +such like. Instruments also which generate heat only by motion. And +farther, places for strong insulations; and again, places under the +earth, which by nature or art yield heat. These divers heats we use, as +the nature of the operation which we intend requireth. + +"We have also perspective-houses, where we make demonstrations of all +lights and radiations, and of all colours; and out of things uncoloured +and transparent, we can represent unto you all several colours, not in +rainbows, as it is in gems and prisms, but of themselves single. We +represent also all multiplications of light, which we carry to great +distance, and make so sharp, as to discern small points and lines. Also +all colourations of light: all delusions and deceits of the sight, in +figures, magnitudes, motions, colours; all demonstrations of shadows. We +find also divers means, yet unknown to you, of producing of light, +originally from divers bodies. We procure means of seeing objects afar +off, as in the heaven and remote places; and represent things near as +afar off, and things afar off as near; making feigned distances. We have +also helps for the sight far above spectacles and glasses in use; we +have also glasses and means to see small and minute bodies, perfectly +and distinctly; as the shapes and colours of small flies and worms, +grains, and flaws in gems, which cannot otherwise be seen, observations +in urine and blood not otherwise to be seen. We make artificial +rainbows, halos, and circles about light. We represent also all manner +of reflections, refractions, and multiplications of visual beams of +objects. + +"We have also precious stones, of all kinds, many of them of great +beauty and to you unknown; crystals likewise, and glasses of divers +kind; and amongst them some of metals vitrificated, and other materials, +besides those of which you make glass. Also a number of fossils, and +imperfect minerals, which you have not. Likewise loadstones of +prodigious virtue: and other rare stones, both natural and artificial. + +"We have also sound-houses, where we practise and demonstrate all sounds +and their generation. We have harmony which you have not, of +quarter-sounds and lesser slides of sounds. Divers instruments of music +likewise to you unknown, some sweeter than any you have; with bells and +rings that are dainty and sweet. We represent small sounds as great and +deep, likewise great sounds, extenuate and sharp; we make divers +tremblings and warblings of sounds, which in their original are entire. +We represent and imitate all articulate sounds and letters, and the +voices and notes of beasts and birds. We have certain helps, which set +to the ear do further the hearing greatly; we have also divers strange +and artificial echoes, reflecting the voice many times, and as it were +tossing it; and some that give back the voice louder than it came, some +shriller and some deeper; yea, some rendering the voice, differing in +the letters or articulate sound from that they receive. We have all +means to convey sounds in trunks and pipes, in strange lines and +distances. + +"We have also perfume-houses, wherewith we join also practices of taste. +We multiply smells which may seem strange: we imitate smells, making all +smells to breathe out of other mixtures than those that give them. We +make divers imitations of taste likewise, so that they will deceive any +man's taste. And in this house we contain also a confiture-house, where +we make all sweetmeats, dry and moist, and divers pleasant wines, milks, +broths, and salads, far in greater variety than you have. + +"We have also engine-houses, where are prepared engines and instruments +for all sorts of motions. There we imitate and practise to make swifter +motions than any you have, either out of your muskets or any engine that +you have; and to make them and multiply them more easily and with small +force, by wheels and other means, and to make them stronger and more +violent than yours are, exceeding your greatest cannons and basilisks. +We represent also ordnance and instruments of war and engines of all +kinds; and likewise new mixtures and compositions of gunpowder, +wild-fires burning in water and unquenchable, also fire-works of all +variety, both for pleasure and use. We imitate also flights of birds; we +have some degrees of flying in the air. We have ships and boats for +going under water and brooking of seas, also swimming-girdles and +supporters. We have divers curious clocks and other like motions of +return, and some perpetual motions. We imitate also motions of living +creatures by images of men, beasts, birds, fishes, and serpents; we have +also a great number of other various motions, strange for equality, +fineness and subtilty. + +"We have also a mathematical-house, where are represented all +instruments, as well of geometry as astronomy, exquisitely made. + +"We have also houses of deceits of the senses, where we represent all +manner of feats of juggling, false apparitions, impostures and +illusions, and their fallacies. And surely you will easily believe that +we, that have so many things truly natural which induce admiration, +could in a world of particulars deceive the senses if we would disguise +those things, and labour to make them more miraculous. But we do hate +all impostures and lies, insomuch as we have severely forbidden it to +all our fellows, under pain of ignominy and fines, that they do not show +any natural work or thing adorned or swelling, but only pure as it is, +and without all affectation of strangeness. + +"These are, my son, the riches of Salomon's House. + +"For the several employments and offices of our fellows, we have twelve +that sail into foreign countries under the names of other nations (for +our own we conceal), who bring us the books and abstracts, and patterns +of experiments of all other parts. These we call merchants of light. + +"We have three that collect the experiments which are in all books. +These we call deprepators. + +"We have three that collect the experiments of all mechanical arts, and +also of liberal sciences, and also of practices which are not brought +into arts. These we call mystery-men. + +"We have three that try new experiments. + +"Such as themselves think good. These we call pioneers or miners. + +"We have three that draw the experiments of the former four into titles +and tables, to give the better light for the drawing of observations and +axioms out of them. These we call compilers. We have three that bend +themselves, looking into the experiments of their fellows, and cast +about how to draw out of them things of use and practice for man's life +and knowledge, as well for works as for plain demonstration of causes, +means of natural divinations, and the easy and clear discovery of the +virtues and parts of bodies. These we call dowry-men or benefactors. + +"Then after divers meetings and consults of our whole number, to +consider of the former labours and collections, we have three that take +care out of them to direct new experiments, of a higher light, more +penetrating into Nature than the former. These we call lamps. + +"We have three others that do execute the experiment so directed, and +report them. These we call inoculators. + +"Lastly, we have three that raise the former discoveries by experiments +into greater observations, axioms, and aphorisms. These we call +interpreters of Nature. + +"We have also, as you must think, novices and apprentices, that the +succession of the former employed men do not fail; besides a great +number of servants and attendants, men and women. And this we do also: +we have consultations, which of the inventions and experiences which we +have discovered shall be published, and which not: and take all an oath +of secrecy for the concealing of those which we think fit to keep +secret: though some of those we do reveal sometime to the state, and +some not. + +"For our ordinances and rites, we have two very long and fair galleries: +in one of these we place patterns and samples of all manner of the more +rare and excellent inventions: in the other we place the statues of all +principal inventors. There we have the statue of your Columbus, that +discovered the West Indies: also the inventor of ships: your Monk that +was the inventor of ordnance and of gunpowder: the inventor of music: +the inventor of letters: the inventor of printing: the inventor of +observations of astronomy: the inventor of works in metal: the inventor +of glass: the inventor of silk of the worm: the inventor of wine: the +inventor of corn and bread: the inventor of sugars; and all these by +more certain tradition than you have. Then we have divers inventors of +our own, of excellent works; which since you have not seen, it were too +long to make descriptions of them; and besides, in the right +understanding of those descriptions you might easily err. For upon every +invention of value we erect a statue to the inventor, and give him a +liberal and honourable reward. These statues are some of brass, some of +marble and touchstone, some of cedar and other special woods gilt and +adorned; some of iron, some of silver, some of gold. + +"We have certain hymns and services, which we say daily, of laud and +thanks to God for His marvellous works. And forms of prayers, imploring +His aid and blessing for the illumination of our labours; and turning +them into good and holy uses. + +"Lastly, we have circuits or visits, of divers principal cities of the +kingdom; where as it cometh to pass we do publish such new profitable +inventions as we think good. And we do also declare natural divinations +of diseases, plagues, swarms of hurtful creatures, scarcity, tempest, +earthquakes, great inundations, comets, temperature of the year, and +divers other things; and we give counsel thereupon, what the people +shall do for the prevention and remedy of them." + +And when he had said this, he stood up; and I, as I had been taught, +knelt down; and he laid his right hand upon my head, and said, "God +bless thee, my son, and God bless this relation which I have made. I +give thee leave to publish it, for the good of other nations; for we +here are in God's bosom, a land unknown." And so he left me; having +assigned a value of about two thousand ducats for a bounty to me and my +fellows. For they give great largesses, where they come, upon all +occasions. + + +THE REST WAS NOT PERFECTED. + + + + +CAMPANELLA'S + +CITY OF THE SUN. + + + + +THE CITY OF THE SUN. + +_A Poetical Dialogue between a Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitallers +and a Genoese Sea-captain, his guest._ + +_G.M._ Prithee, now, tell me what happened to you during that voyage? + +_Capt._ I have already told you how I wandered over the whole earth. In +the course of my journeying I came to Taprobane, and was compelled to go +ashore at a place, where through fear of the inhabitants I remained in a +wood. When I stepped out of this I found myself on a large plain +immediately under the equator. + +_G.M._ And what befell you here? + +_Capt._ I came upon a large crowd of men and armed women, many of whom +did not understand our language, and they conducted me forthwith to the +City of the Sun. + +_G.M._ Tell me after what plan this city is built and how it is +governed? + +_Capt._ The greater part of the city is built upon a high hill, which +rises from an extensive plain, but several of its circles extend for +some distance beyond the base of the hill, which is of such a size that +the diameter of the city is upwards of two miles, so that its +circumference becomes about seven. On account of the humped shape of the +mountain, however, the diameter of the city is really more than if it +were built on a plain. + +It is divided into seven rings or huge circles named from the seven +planets, and the way from one to the other of these is by four streets +and through four gates, that look towards the four points of the +compass. Furthermore, it is so built that if the first circle were +stormed, it would of necessity entail a double amount of energy to storm +the second; still more to storm the third; and in each succeeding case +the strength and energy would have to be doubled; so that he who wishes +to capture that city must, as it were, storm it seven times. For my own +part, however, I think that not even the first wall could be occupied, +so thick are the earthworks and so well fortified is it with +breastworks, towers, guns and ditches. + +When I had been taken through the northern gate (which is shut with an +iron door so wrought that it can be raised and let down, and locked in +easily and strongly, its projections running into the grooves of the +thick posts by a marvellous device), I saw a level space seventy +paces[1] wide between the first and second walls. From hence can be seen +large palaces all joined to the wall of the second circuit, in such a +manner as to appear all one palace. Arches run on a level with the +middle height of the palaces, and are continued round the whole ring. +There are galleries for promenading upon these arches, which are +supported from beneath by thick and well-shaped columns, enclosing +arcades like peristyles, or cloisters of an abbey. + +[Footnote 1: A pace was 1-9/25 yards, 1,000 paces making a mile.] + +But the palaces have no entrances from below, except on the inner or +concave partition, from which one enters directly to the lower parts of +the building. The higher parts, however, are reached by flights of +marble steps, which lead to galleries for promenading on the inside +similar to those on the outside. From these one enters the higher rooms, +which are very beautiful, and have windows on the concave and convex +partitions. These rooms are divided from one another by richly +decorated walls. The convex or outer wall of the ring is about eight +spans thick; the concave, three; the intermediate walls are one, or +perhaps one and a half. Leaving this circle one gets to the second +plain, which is nearly three paces narrower than the first. Then the +first wall of the second ring is seen adorned above and below with +similar galleries for walking, and there is on the inside of it another +interior wall enclosing palaces. It has also similar peristyles +supported by columns in the lower part, but above are excellent +pictures, round the ways into the upper houses. And so on afterwards +through similar spaces and double walls, enclosing palaces, and adorned +with galleries for walking, extending along their outer side, and +supported by columns, till the last circuit is reached, the way being +still over a level plain. + +But when the two gates, that is to say, those of the outmost and the +inmost walls, have been passed, one mounts by means of steps so formed +that an ascent is scarcely discernible, since it proceeds in a slanting +direction, and the steps succeed one another at almost imperceptible +heights. On the top of the hill is a rather spacious plain, and in the +midst of this there rises a temple built with wondrous art. + +_G.M._ Tell on, I pray you! Tell on! I am dying to hear more. + +_Capt._ The temple is built in the form of a circle; it is not girt with +walls, but stands upon thick columns, beautifully grouped. A very large +dome, built with great care in the centre or pole, contains another +small vault as it were rising out of it, and in this is a spiracle, +which is right over the altar. There is but one altar in the middle of +the temple, and this is hedged round by columns. The temple itself is on +a space of more than three hundred and fifty paces. Without it, arches +measuring about eight paces extend from the heads of the columns +outwards, whence other columns rise about three paces from the thick, +strong and erect wall. Between these and the former columns there are +galleries for walking, with beautiful pavements, and in the recess of +the wall, which is adorned with numerous large doors, there are +immovable seats, placed as it were between the inside columns, +supporting the temple. Portable chairs are not wanting, many and well +adorned. Nothing is seen over the altar but a large globe, upon which +the heavenly bodies are painted, and another globe upon which there is a +representation of the earth. Furthermore, in the vault of the dome there +can be discerned representations of all the stars of heaven from the +first to the sixth magnitude, with their proper names and power to +influence terrestrial things marked in three little verses for each. +There are the poles and greater and lesser circles according to the +right latitude of the place, but these are not perfect because there is +no wall below. They seem, too, to be made in their relation to the +globes on the altar. The pavement of the temple is bright with precious +stones. Its seven golden lamps hang always burning, and these bear the +names of the seven planets. + +At the top of the building several small and beautiful cells surround +the small dome, and behind the level space above the bands or arches of +the exterior and interior columns there are many cells, both small and +large, where the priests and religious officers dwell to the number of +forty-nine. + +A revolving flag projects from the smaller dome, and this shows in what +quarter the wind is. The flag is marked with figures up to thirty-six, +and the priests know what sort of year the different kinds of winds +bring and what will be the changes of weather on land and sea. +Furthermore, under the flag a book is always kept written with letters +of gold. + +_G.M._ I pray you, worthy hero, explain to me their whole system of +government; for I am anxious to hear it. + +_Capt._ The great ruler among them is a priest whom they call by the +name HOH, though we should call him Metaphysic. He is head over all, in +temporal and spiritual matters, and all business and lawsuits are +settled by him, as the supreme authority. Three princes of equal +power--viz., Pon, Sin and Mor--assist him, and these in our tongue we +should call POWER, WISDOM and LOVE. To POWER belongs the care of all +matters relating to war and peace. He attends to the military arts, and, +next to Hoh, he is ruler in every affair of a warlike nature. He governs +the military magistrates and the soldiers, and has the management of the +munitions, the fortifications, the storming of places, the implements of +war, the armories, the smiths and workmen connected with matters of this +sort. + +But WISDOM is the ruler of the liberal arts, of mechanics, of all +sciences with their magistrates and doctors, and of the discipline of +the schools. As many doctors as there are, are under his control. There +is one doctor who is called Astrologus; a second, Cosmographus; a third, +Arithmeticus; a fourth, Geometra; a fifth, Historiographus; a sixth, +Poeta; a seventh, Logicus; an eighth, Rhetor; a ninth, Grammaticus; a +tenth, Medicus; an eleventh, Physiologus; a twelfth, Politicus; a +thirteenth, Moralis. They have but one book, which they call Wisdom, and +in it all the sciences are written with conciseness and marvellous +fluency of expression. This they read to the people after the custom of +the Pythagoreans. It is Wisdom who causes the exterior and interior, the +higher and lower walls of the city to be adorned with the finest +pictures, and to have all the sciences painted upon them in an admirable +manner. On the walls of the temple and on the dome, which is let down +when the priest gives an address, lest the sounds of his voice, being +scattered, should fly away from his audience, there are pictures of +stars in their different magnitudes, with the powers and motions of +each, expressed separately in three little verses. + +On the interior wall of the first circuit all the mathematical figures +are conspicuously painted--figures more in number than Archimedes or +Euclid discovered, marked symmetrically, and with the explanation of +them neatly written and contained each in a little verse. There are +definitions and propositions, &c. &c. On the exterior convex wall is +first an immense drawing of the whole earth, given at one view. +Following upon this, there are tablets setting forth for every separate +country the customs both public and private, the laws, the origins and +the power of the inhabitants; and the alphabets the different people use +can be seen above that of the City of the Sun. + +On the inside of the second circuit, that is to say of the second ring +of buildings, paintings of all kinds of precious and common stones, of +minerals and metals, are seen; and a little piece of the metal itself is +also there with an apposite explanation in two small verses for each +metal or stone. On the outside are marked all the seas, rivers, lakes +and streams which are on the face of the earth; as are also the wines +and the oils and the different liquids, with the sources from which the +last are extracted, their qualities and strength. There are also vessels +built into the wall above the arches, and these are full of liquids from +one to three hundred years old, which cure all diseases. Hail and snow, +storms and thunder, and whatever else takes place in the air, are +represented with suitable figures and little verses. The inhabitants +even have the art of representing in stone all the phenomena of the air, +such as the wind, rain, thunder, the rainbow, &c. + +On the interior of the third circuit all the different families of trees +and herbs are depicted, and there is a live specimen of each plant in +earthenware vessels placed upon the outer partition of the arches. With +the specimens there are explanations as to where they were first found, +what are their powers and natures, and resemblances to celestial things +and to metals: to parts of the human body and to things in the sea, and +also as to their uses in medicine, &c. On the exterior wall are all the +races of fish, found in rivers, lakes and seas, and their habits and +values, and ways of breeding, training and living, the purposes for +which they exist in the world, and their uses to man. Further, their +resemblances to celestial and terrestrial things, produced both by +nature and art, are so given that I was astonished when I saw a fish +which was like a bishop, one like a chain, another like a garment, a +fourth like a nail, a fifth like a star, and others like images of those +things existing among us, the relation in each case being completely +manifest. There are sea-urchins to be seen, and the purple shell-fish +and mussels; and whatever the watery world possesses worthy of being +known is there fully shown in marvellous characters of painting and +drawing. + +On the fourth interior wall all the different kinds of birds are +painted, with their natures, sizes, customs, colours, manner of living, +&c.; and the only real phoenix is possessed by the inhabitants of this +city. On the exterior are shown all the races of creeping animals, +serpents, dragons and worms; the insects, the flies, gnats, beetles, +&c., in their different states, strength, venoms and uses, and a great +deal more than you or I can think of. + +On the fifth interior they have all the larger animals of the earth, as +many in number as would astonish you. We indeed know not the thousandth +part of them, for on the exterior wall also a great many of immense size +are also portrayed. To be sure, of horses alone, how great a number of +breeds there is and how beautiful are the forms there cleverly +displayed! + +On the sixth interior are painted all the mechanical arts, with the +several instruments for each and their manner of use among different +nations. Alongside the dignity of such is placed, and their several +inventors are named. But on the exterior all the inventors in science, +in warfare, and in law are represented. There I saw Moses, Osiris, +Jupiter, Mercury, Lycurgus, Pompilius, Pythagoras, Zamolxis, Solon, +Charondas, Phoroneus, with very many others. They even have Mahomet, +whom nevertheless they hate as a false and sordid legislator. In the +most dignified position I saw a representation of Jesus Christ and of +the twelve Apostles, whom they consider very worthy and hold to be +great. Of the representations of men, I perceived Caesar, Alexander, +Pyrrhus and Hannibal in the highest place; and other very renowned +heroes in peace and war, especially Roman heroes, were painted in lower +positions, under the galleries. And when I asked with astonishment +whence they had obtained our history, they told me that among them there +was a knowledge of all languages, and that by perseverance they +continually send explorers and ambassadors over the whole earth, who +learn thoroughly the customs, forces, rule and histories of the nations, +bad and good alike. These they apply all to their own republic, and with +this they are well pleased. I learnt that cannon and typography were +invented by the Chinese before we knew of them. There are magistrates, +who announce the meaning of the pictures, and boys are accustomed to +learn all the sciences, without toil and as if for pleasure; but in the +way of history only until they are ten years old. + +LOVE is foremost in attending to the charge of the race. He sees that +men and women are so joined together, that they bring forth the best +offspring. Indeed, they laugh at us who exhibit a studious care for our +breed of horses and dogs, but neglect the breeding of human beings. Thus +the education of the children is under his rule. So also is the medicine +that is sold, the sowing and collecting of fruits of the earth and of +trees, agriculture, pasturage, the preparations for the months, the +cooking arrangements, and whatever has any reference to food, clothing, +and the intercourse of the sexes. Love himself is ruler, but there are +many male and female magistrates dedicated to these arts. + +Metaphysic then with these three rulers manage all the above-named +matters, and even by himself alone nothing is done; all business is +discharged by the four together, but in whatever Metaphysic inclines to +the rest are sure to agree. + +_G.M._ Tell me, please, of the magistrates, their services and duties, +of the education and mode of living, whether the government is a +monarchy, a republic, or an aristocracy. + +_Capt._ This race of men came there from India, flying from the sword of +the Magi, a race of plunderers and tyrants who laid waste their country, +and they determined to lead a philosophic life in fellowship with one +another. Although the community of wives is not instituted among the +other inhabitants of their province, among them it is in use after this +manner. All things are common with them, and their dispensation is by +the authority of the magistrates. Arts and honours and pleasures are +common, and are held in such a manner that no one can appropriate +anything to himself. + +They say that all private property is acquired and improved for the +reason that each one of us by himself has his own home and wife and +children. From this self-love springs. For when we raise a son to riches +and dignities, and leave an heir to much wealth, we become either ready +to grasp at the property of the state, if in any case fear should be +removed from the power which belongs to riches and rank; or avaricious, +crafty, and hypocritical, if any one is of slender purse, little +strength, and mean ancestry. But when we have taken away self-love, +there remains only love for the state. + +_G.M._ Under such circumstances no one will be willing to labour, while +he expects others to work, on the fruit of whose labours he can live, as +Aristotle argues against Plato. + +_Capt._ I do not know how to deal with that argument, but I declare to +you that they burn with so great a love for their fatherland, as I could +scarcely have believed possible; and indeed with much more than the +histories tell us belonged to the Romans, who fell willingly for their +country, inasmuch as they have to a greater extent surrendered their +private property. I think truly that the friars and monks and clergy of +our country, if they were not weakened by love for their kindred and +friends, or by the ambition to rise to higher dignities, would be less +fond of property, and more imbued with a spirit of charity towards all, +as it was in the time of the Apostles, and is now in a great many cases. + +_G.M._ St. Augustine may say that, but I say that among this race of +men, friendship is worth nothing; since they have not the chance of +conferring mutual benefits on one another. + +_Capt._ Nay, indeed. For it is worth the trouble to see that no one can +receive gifts from another. Whatever is necessary they have, they +receive it from the community, and the magistrate takes care that no one +receives more than he deserves. Yet nothing necessary is denied to any +one. Friendship is recognized among them in war, in infirmity, in the +art contests, by which means they aid one another mutually by teaching. +Sometimes they improve themselves mutually with praises, with +conversation, with actions and out of the things they need. All those of +the same age call one another brothers. They call all over twenty-two +years of age, fathers; those who are less than twenty-two are named +sons. Moreover, the magistrates govern well, so that no one in the +fraternity can do injury to another. + +_G.M._ And how? + +_Capt._ As many names of virtues as there are amongst us, so many +magistrates there are among them. There is a magistrate who is named +Magnanimity, another Fortitude, a third Chastity, a fourth Liberality, a +fifth Criminal and Civil Justice, a sixth Comfort, a seventh Truth, an +eighth Kindness, a tenth Gratitude, an eleventh Cheerfulness, a twelfth +Exercise, a thirteenth Sobriety, &c. They are elected to duties of that +kind, each one to that duty for excellence in which he is known from +boyhood to be most suitable. Wherefore among them neither robbery nor +clever murders, nor lewdness, incest, adultery, or other crimes of +which we accuse one another, can be found. They accuse themselves of +ingratitude and malignity when any one denies a lawful satisfaction to +another, of indolence, of sadness, of anger, of scurrility, of slander, +and of lying, which curseful thing they thoroughly hate. Accused persons +undergoing punishment are deprived of the common table, and other +honours, until the judge thinks that they agree with their correction. + +_G.M._ Tell me the manner in which the magistrates are chosen. + +_Capt._ You would not rightly understand this, unless you first learnt +their manner of living. That you may know then, men and women wear the +same kind of garment, suited for war. The women wear the toga below the +knee, but the men above. And both sexes are instructed in all the arts +together. When this has been done as a start, and before their third +year, the boys learn the language and the alphabet on the walls by +walking round them. They have four leaders, and four elders, the first +to direct them, the second to teach them, and these are men approved +beyond all others. After some time they exercise themselves with +gymnastics, running, quoits, and other games, by means of which all +their muscles are strengthened alike. Their feet are always bare, and so +are their heads as far as the seventh ring. Afterwards they lead them to +the offices of the trades, such as shoemaking, cooking, metal-working, +carpentry, painting, &c. In order to find out the bent of the genius of +each one, after their seventh year, when they have already gone through +the mathematics on the walls, they take them to the readings of all the +sciences; there are four lectures at each reading, and in the course of +four hours the four in their order explain everything. + +For some take physical exercise or busy themselves with public services +or functions, others apply themselves to reading. Leaving these studies +all are devoted to the more abstruse subjects, to mathematics, to +medicine, and to other sciences. There is continual debate and studied +argument amongst them, and after a time they become magistrates of those +sciences or mechanical arts in which they are the most proficient; for +every one follows the opinion of his leader and judge, and goes out to +the plains to the works of the field, and for the purpose of becoming +acquainted with the pasturage of the dumb animals. And they consider him +the more noble and renowned who has dedicated himself to the study of +the most arts and knows how to practise them wisely. Wherefore they +laugh at us in that we consider our workmen ignoble, and hold those to +be noble who have mastered no pursuit; but live in ease, and are so many +slaves given over to their own pleasure and lasciviousness; and thus as +it were from a school of vices so many idle and wicked fellows go forth +for the ruin of the state. + +The rest of the officials, however, are chosen by the four chiefs, Hoh, +Pon, Sin and Mor, and by the teachers of that art over which they are +fit to preside. And these teachers know well who is most suited for +rule. Certain men are proposed by the magistrates in council, they +themselves not seeking to become candidates, and he opposes who knows +anything against those brought forward for election, or if not, speaks +in favour of them. But no one attains to the dignity of Hoh except him +who knows the histories of the nations, and their customs and sacrifices +and laws, and their form of government, whether a republic or a +monarchy. He must also know the names of the lawgivers and the inventors +in science, and the laws and the history of the earth and the heavenly +bodies. They think it also necessary that he should understand all the +mechanical arts, the physical sciences, astrology and mathematics. +(Nearly every two days they teach our mechanical art. They are not +allowed to overwork themselves, but frequent practice and the paintings +render learning easy to them. Not too much care is given to the +cultivation of languages, as they have a goodly number of interpreters +who are grammarians in the state.) But beyond everything else it is +necessary that Hoh should understand metaphysics and theology; that he +should know thoroughly the derivations, foundations and demonstrations +of all the arts and sciences; the likeness and difference of things; +necessity, fate, and the harmonies of the universe; power, wisdom, and +the love of things and of God; the stages of life and its symbols; +everything relating to the heavens, the earth and the sea; and the ideas +of God, as much as mortal man can know of Him. He must also be well read +in the Prophets and in astrology. And thus they know long beforehand who +will be Hoh. He is not chosen to so great a dignity unless he has +attained his thirty-fifth year. And this office is perpetual, because it +is not known who may be too wise for it or who too skilled in ruling. + +_G.M._ Who indeed can be so wise? If even any one has a knowledge of the +sciences it seems that he must be unskilled in ruling. + +_Capt._ This very question I asked them and they replied thus: "We, +indeed, are more certain that such a very learned man has the knowledge +of governing, than you who place ignorant persons in authority, and +consider them suitable merely because they have sprung from rulers or +have been chosen by a powerful faction. But our Hoh, a man really the +most capable to rule, is for all that never cruel nor wicked, nor a +tyrant, inasmuch as he possesses so much wisdom. This, moreover, is not +unknown to you, that the same argument cannot apply among you, when you +consider that man the most learned who knows most of grammar, or logic, +or of Aristotle or any other author. For such knowledge as this of yours +much servile labour and memory work is required, so that a man is +rendered unskilful; since he has contemplated nothing but the words of +books and has given his mind with useless result to the consideration of +the dead signs of things. Hence he knows not in what way God rules the +universe, nor the ways and customs of Nature and the nations. Wherefore +he is not equal to our HOH. For that one cannot know so many arts and +sciences thoroughly, who is not esteemed for skilled ingenuity, very apt +at all things, and therefore at ruling especially. This also is plain to +us that he who knows only one science, does not really know either that +or the others, and he who is suited for only one science and has +gathered his knowledge from books, is unlearned and unskilled. But this +is not the case with intellects prompt and expert in every branch of +knowledge and suitable for the consideration of natural objects, as it +is necessary that our HOH should be. Besides in our state the sciences +are taught with a facility (as you have seen) by which more scholars are +turned out by us in one year than by you in ten, or even fifteen. Make +trial, I pray you, of these boys." In this matter I was struck with +astonishment at their truthful discourse and at the trial of their boys, +who did not understand my language well. Indeed it is necessary that +three of them should be skilled in our tongue, three in Arabic, three in +Polish, and three in each of the other languages, and no recreation is +allowed them unless they become more learned. For that they go out to +the plain for the sake of running about and hurling arrows and lances, +and of firing harquebuses, and for the sake of hunting the wild animals +and getting a knowledge of plants and stones, and agriculture and +pasturage; sometimes the band of boys does one thing, sometimes another. + +They do not consider it necessary that the three rulers assisting HOH +should know other than the arts having reference to their rule, and so +they have only a historical knowledge of the arts which are common to +all. But their own they know well, to which certainly one is dedicated +more than another. Thus POWER is the most learned in the equestrian art, +in marshalling the army, in marking out of camps, in the manufacture of +every kind of weapon and of warlike machines, in planning stratagems, +and in every affair of a military nature. And for these reasons, they +consider it necessary that these chiefs should have been philosophers, +historians, politicians, and physicists. Concerning the other two +triumvirs, understand remarks similar to those I have made about POWER. + +_G.M._ I really wish that you would recount all their public duties, and +would distinguish between them, and also that you would tell clearly how +they are all taught in common. + +_Capt._ They have dwellings in common and dormitories, and couches and +other necessaries. But at the end of every six months they are separated +by the masters. Some shall sleep in this ring, some in another; some in +the first apartment, and some in the second; and these apartments are +marked by means of the alphabet on the lintel. There are occupations, +mechanical and theoretical, common to both men and women, with this +difference, that the occupations which require more hard work, and +walking a long distance, are practised by men, such as ploughing, +sowing, gathering the fruits, working at the threshing-floor, and +perchance at the vintage. But it is customary to choose women for +milking the cows, and for making cheese. In like manner, they go to the +gardens near to the outskirts of the city both for collecting the plants +and for cultivating them. In fact, all sedentary and stationary pursuits +are practised by the women, such as weaving, spinning, sewing, cutting +the hair, shaving, dispensing medicines, and making all kinds of +garments. They are, however, excluded from working in wood and the +manufacture of arms. If a woman is fit to paint, she is not prevented +from doing so; nevertheless, music is given over to the women alone, +because they please the more, and of a truth to boys also. But the women +have not the practice of the drum and the horn. + +And they prepare their feasts and arrange the tables in the following +manner. It is the peculiar work of the boys and girls under twenty to +wait at the tables. In every ring there are the suitable kitchens, +barns, and stores of utensils for eating and drinking, and over every +department an old man and an old woman preside. These two have at once +the command of those who serve, and the power of chastising, or causing +to be chastised, those who are negligent or disobedient; and they also +examine and mark each one, both male and female, who excels in his or +her duties. + +All the young people wait upon the older ones who have passed the age of +forty, and in the evening when they go to sleep the master and mistress +command that those should be sent to work in the morning, upon whom in +succession the duty falls, one or two to separate apartments. The young +people, however, wait upon one another, and that alas! with some +unwillingness. They have first and second tables, and on both sides +there are seats. On one side sit the women, on the other the men; and as +in the refectories of the monks, there is no noise. While they are +eating a young man reads a book from a platform, intoning distinctly and +sonorously, and often the magistrates question them upon the more +important parts of the reading. And truly it is pleasant to observe in +what manner these young people, so beautiful and clothed in garments so +suitable, attend to them, and to see at the same time so many friends, +brothers, sons, fathers and mothers all in their turn living together +with so much honesty, propriety and love. So each one is given a napkin, +a plate, fish, and a dish of food. It is the duty of the medical +officers to tell the cooks what repasts shall be prepared on each day, +and what food for the old, what for the young, and what for the sick. +The magistrates receive the full-grown and fatter portion, and they from +their share always distribute something to the boys at the table who +have shown themselves more studious in the morning at the lectures and +debates concerning wisdom and arms. And this is held to be one of the +most distinguished honours. For six days they ordain to sing with music +at table. Only a few, however, sing; or there is one voice accompanying +the lute and one for each other instrument. And when all alike in +service join their hands, nothing is found to be wanting. The old men +placed at the head of the cooking business and of the refectories of the +servants praise the cleanliness of the streets, the houses, the vessels, +the garments, the workshops and the warehouses. + +They wear white undergarments to which adheres a covering, which is at +once coat and legging, without wrinkles. The borders of the fastenings +are furnished with globular buttons, extended round and caught up here +and there by chains. The coverings of the legs descend to the shoes and +are continued even to the heels. Then they cover the feet with large +socks, or as it were half-buskins fastened by buckles, over which they +wear a half-boot, and besides, as I have already said, they are clothed +with a toga. And so aptly fitting are the garments, that when the toga +is destroyed, the different parts of the whole body are straight-way +discerned, no part being concealed. They change their clothes for +different ones four times in the year, that is when the sun enters +respectively the constellations Aries, Cancer, Libra and Capricorn, and +according to the circumstances and necessity as decided by the officer +of health. The keepers of clothes for the different rings are wont to +distribute them, and it is marvellous that they have at the same time as +many garments as there is need for, some heavy and some slight, +according to the weather. They all use white clothing, and this is +washed in each month with lye or soap, as are also the workshops of the +lower trades, the kitchens, the pantries, the barns, the store-houses, +the armories, the refectories and the baths. Moreover, the clothes are +washed at the pillars of the peristyles, and the water is brought down +by means of canals which are continued as sewers. In every street of the +different rings there are suitable fountains, which send forth their +water by means of canals, the water being drawn up from nearly the +bottom of the mountain by the sole movement of a cleverly contrived +handle. There is water in fountains and in cisterns, whither the +rain-water collected from the roofs of the houses is brought through +pipes full of sand. They wash their bodies often, according as the +doctor and master command. All the mechanical arts are practised under +the peristyles, but the speculative are carried on above in the walking +galleries and ramparts where are the more splendid paintings, but the +more sacred ones are taught in the temple. In the halls and wings of the +rings there are solar time-pieces and bells, and hands by which the +hours and seasons are marked off. + +_G.M._ Tell me about their children. + +_Capt._ When their women have brought forth children, they suckle and +rear them in temples set apart for all. They give milk for two years or +more as the physician orders. After that time the weaned child is given +into the charge of the mistresses, if it is a female, and to the +masters, if it is a male. And then with other young children they are +pleasantly instructed in the alphabet, and in the knowledge of the +pictures, and in running, walking and wrestling; also in the historical +drawings, and in languages; and they are adorned with a suitable garment +of different colours. After their sixth year they are taught natural +science, and then the mechanical sciences. The men who are weak in +intellect are sent to farms, and when they have become more proficient +some of them are received into the state. And those of the same age and +born under the same constellation are especially like one another in +strength and in appearance, and hence arises much lasting concord in the +state, these men honouring one another with mutual love and help. Names +are given to them by Metaphysicus, and that not by chance but +designedly, and according to each one's peculiarity, as was the custom +among the ancient Romans. Wherefore one is called Beautiful (_Pulcher_), +another the Big-nosed (_Naso_), another the Fat-legged (_Cranipes_) +another Crooked (_Torvus_) another Lean (_Macer_) and so on. But when +they have become very skilled in their professions and done any great +deed in war or in time of peace, a cognomen from art is given to them, +such as Beautiful, the great painter (_Pulcher_, _Pictor Magnus_), the +golden one (_Aureus_) the excellent one (_Excellens_) or the strong +(_Strenuus_); or from their deeds, such as Naso the Brave (_Nason +Fortis_) or the cunning, or the great, or very great conqueror; or from +the enemy any one has overcome, Africanus, Asiaticus, Etruscus; or if +any one has overcome Manfred or Tortelius, he is called Macer Manfred or +Tortelius, and so on. All these cognomens are added by the higher +magistrates, and very often with a crown suitable to the deed or art, +and with the flourish of music. For gold and silver is reckoned of +little value among them except as material for their vessels and +ornaments, which are common to all. + +_G.M._ Tell me, I pray you, is there no jealousy among them or +disappointment to that one who has not been elected to a magistracy, or +to any other dignity to which he aspires? + +_Capt._ Certainly not. For no one wants either necessaries or luxuries. +Moreover, the race is managed for the good of the commonwealth and not +of private individuals, and the magistrates must be obeyed. They deny +what we hold--viz., that it is natural to man to recognize his offspring +and to educate them, and to use his wife and house and children as his +own. For they say that children are bred for the preservation of the +species and not for individual pleasure, as St. Thomas also asserts. +Therefore the breeding of children has reference to the commonwealth and +not to individuals, except in so far as they are constituents of the +commonwealth. And since individuals for the most part bring forth +children wrongly and educate them wrongly, they consider that they +remove destruction from the state, and therefore, for this reason, with +most sacred fear, they commit the education of the children, who as it +were are the element of the republic, to the care of magistrates; for +the safety of the community is not that of a few. And thus they +distribute male and female breeders of the best natures according to +philosophical rules. Plato thinks that this distribution ought to be +made by lot, lest some men seeing that they are kept away from the +beautiful women, should rise up with anger and hatred against the +magistrates; and he thinks further that those who do not deserve +cohabitation with the more beautiful women, should be deceived whilst +the lots are being led out of the city by the magistrates, so that at +all times the women who are suitable should fall to their lot, not those +whom they desire. This shrewdness, however, is not necessary among the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun. For with them deformity is unknown. +When the women are exercised they get a clear complexion, and become +strong of limb, tall and agile, and with them beauty consists in +tallness and strength. Therefore, if any woman dyes her face, so that it +may become beautiful, or uses high-heeled boots so that she may appear +tall, or garments with trains to cover her wooden shoes, she is +condemned to capital punishment. But if the women should even desire +them, they have no facility for doing these things. For who indeed would +give them this facility? Further, they assert that among us abuses of +this kind arise from the leisure and sloth of women. By these means they +lose their colour and have pale complexions, and become feeble and +small. For this reason they are without proper complexions, use high +sandals, and become beautiful not from strength, but from slothful +tenderness. And thus they ruin their own tempers and natures, and +consequently those of their offspring. Furthermore, if at any time a man +is taken captive with ardent love for a certain woman, the two are +allowed to converse and joke together, and to give one another garlands +of flowers or leaves, and to make verses. But if the race is endangered, +by no means is further union between them permitted. Moreover, the love +born of eager desire is not known among them; only that born of +friendship. + +Domestic affairs and partnerships are of little account, because, +excepting the sign of honour, each one receives what he is in need of. +To the heroes and heroines of the republic, it is customary to give the +pleasing gifts of honour, beautiful wreaths, sweet food or splendid +clothes, while they are feasting. In the daytime all use white garments +within the city, but at night or outside the city they use red garments +either of wool or silk. They hate black as they do dung, and therefore +they dislike the Japanese, who are fond of black. Pride they consider +the most execrable vice, and one who acts proudly is chastised with the +most ruthless correction. Wherefore no one thinks it lowering to wait at +table or to work in the kitchen or fields. All work they call +discipline, and thus they say that it is honourable to go on foot, to do +any act of nature, to see with the eye, and to speak with the tongue; +and when there is need, they distinguish philosophically between tears +and spittle. + +Every man who, when he is told off to work, does his duty, is considered +very honourable. It is not the custom to keep slaves. For they are +enough, and more than enough, for themselves. But with us, alas! it is +not so. In Naples there exists seventy thousand souls, and out of these +scarcely ten or fifteen thousand do any work, and they are always lean +from overwork and are getting weaker every day. The rest become a prey +to idleness, avarice, ill-health, lasciviousness, usury and other vices, +and contaminate and corrupt very many families by holding them in +servitude for their own use, by keeping them in poverty and slavishness, +and by imparting to them their own vices. Therefore public slavery ruins +them; useful works, in the field, in military service and in arts, +except those which are debasing, are not cultivated, the few who do +practise them doing so with much aversion. But in the City of the Sun, +while duty and work is distributed among all, it only falls to each one +to work for about four hours every day. The remaining hours are spent in +learning joyously, in debating, in reading, in reciting, in writing, in +walking, in exercising the mind and body, and with play. They allow no +game which is played while sitting, neither the single die nor dice, nor +chess, nor others like these. But they play with the ball, with the +sack, with the hoop, with wrestling, with hurling at the stake. They +say, moreover, that grinding poverty renders men worthless, cunning, +sulky, thievish, insidious, vagabonds, liars, false witnesses, &c.; and +that wealth makes them insolent, proud, ignorant, traitors, assumers of +what they know not, deceivers, boasters, wanting in affection, +slanderers, &c. But with them all the rich and poor together make up the +community. They are rich because they want nothing, poor because they +possess nothing; and consequently they are not slaves to circumstances, +but circumstances serve them. And on this point they strongly recommend +the religion of the Christians, and especially the life of the Apostles. + +_G.M._ This seems excellent and sacred, but the community of women is a +thing too difficult to attain. The holy Roman Clement says that wives +ought to be common in accordance with the apostolic institution, and +praises Plato and Socrates, who thus teach, but the Glossary interprets +this community with regard to obedience. And Tertullian agrees with the +Glossary, that the first Christians had everything in common except +wives. + +_Capt._ These things I know little of. But this I saw among the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun that they did not make this +exception. And they defend themselves by the opinion of Socrates, of +Cato, of Plato, and of St. Clement but, as you say, they misunderstand +the opinions of these thinkers. And the inhabitants of the solar city +ascribe this to their want of education, since they are by no means +learned in philosophy. Nevertheless, they send abroad to discover the +customs of nations, and the best of these they always adopt. Practice +makes the women suitable for war and other duties. Thus they agree with +Plato, in whom I have read these same things. The reasoning of our +Cajetan does not convince me, and least of all that of Aristotle. This +thing, however, existing among them is excellent and worthy of +imitation--viz., that no physical defect renders a man incapable of +being serviceable except the decrepitude of old age, since even the +deformed are useful for consultation. The lame serve as guards, watching +with the eyes which they possess. The blind card wool with their hands, +separating the down from the hairs, with which latter they stuff the +couches and sofas; those who are without the use of eyes and hands give +the use of their ears or their voice for the convenience of the state, +and if one has only one sense, he uses it in the farms. And these +cripples are well treated, and some become spies, telling the officers +of the state what they have heard. + +_G.M._ Tell me now, I pray you, of their military affairs. Then you may +explain their arts, ways of life and sciences, and lastly their +religion. + +_Capt._ The triumvir, Power, has under him all the magistrates of arms, +of artillery, of cavalry, of foot-soldiers, of architects, and of +strategists, and the masters and many of the most excellent workmen obey +the magistrates, the men of each art paying allegiance to their +respective chiefs. Moreover, Power is at the head of all the professors +of gymnastics, who teach military exercise, and who are prudent +generals, advanced in age. By these the boys are trained after their +twelfth year. Before this age, however, they have been accustomed to +wrestling, running, throwing the weight and other minor exercises, under +inferior masters. But at twelve they are taught how to strike at the +enemy, at horses and elephants, to handle the spear, the sword, the +arrow and the sling; to manage the horse; to advance and to retreat; to +remain in order of battle; to help a comrade in arms; to anticipate the +enemy by cunning; and to conquer. + +The women also are taught these arts under their own magistrates and +mistresses, so that they may be able if need be to render assistance to +the males in battles near the city. They are taught to watch the +fortifications lest at some time a hasty attack should suddenly be made. +In this respect they praise the Spartans and Amazons. The women know +well also how to let fly fiery balls, and how to make them from lead; +how to throw stones from pinnacles and to go in the way of an attack. +They are accustomed also to give up wine unmixed altogether, and that +one is punished most severely who shows any fear. + +The inhabitants of the City of the Sun do not fear death, because they +all believe that the soul is immortal, and that when it has left the +body it is associated with other spirits, wicked or good, according to +the merits of this present life. Although they are partly followers of +Bramah and Pythagoras, they do not believe in the transmigration of +souls, except in some cases, by a distinct decree of God. They do not +abstain from injuring an enemy of the republic and of religion, who is +unworthy of pity. During the second month the army is reviewed, and +every day there is practice of arms, either in the cavalry plain or +within the walls. Nor are they ever without lectures on the science of +war. They take care that the accounts of Moses, of Joshua, of David, of +Judas Maccabeus, of Caesar, of Alexander, of Scipio, of Hannibal, and +other great soldiers should be read. And then each one gives his own +opinion as to whether these generals acted well or ill, usefully or +honourably, and then the teacher answers and says who are right. + +_G.M._ With whom do they wage war, and for what reasons, since they are +so prosperous? + +_Capt._ Wars might never occur, nevertheless they are exercised in +military tactics and in hunting, lest perchance they should become +effeminate and unprepared for any emergency. Besides there are four +kingdoms in the island, which are very envious of their prosperity, for +this reason that the people desire to live after the manner of the +inhabitants of the City of the Sun, and to be under their rule rather +than that of their own kings. Wherefore the state often makes war upon +these because, being neighbours, they are usurpers and live impiously, +since they have not an object of worship and do not observe the religion +of other nations or of the Brahmins. And other nations of India, to +which formerly they were subject, rise up as it were in rebellion, as +also do the Taprobanese, whom they wanted to join them at first. The +warriors of the City of the Sun, however, are always the victors. As +soon as they suffered from insult or disgrace or plunder, or when their +allies have been harassed, or a people have been oppressed by a tyrant +of the state (for they are always the advocates of liberty), they go +immediately to the council for deliberation. After they have knelt in +the presence of God that He might inspire their consultation, they +proceed to examine the merits of the business, and thus war is decided +on. Immediately after a priest, whom they call Forensic, is sent away. +He demands from the enemy the restitution of the plunder, asks that the +allies should be freed from oppression, or that the tyrant should be +deposed. If they deny these things war is declared by invoking the +vengeance of God--the God of Sabaoth--for destruction of those who +maintain an unjust cause. But if the enemy refuse to reply, the priest +gives him the space of one hour for his answer, if he is a king, but +three if it is a republic, so that they cannot escape giving a response. +And in this manner is war undertaken against the insolent enemies of +natural rights and of religion. When war has been declared, the deputy +of Power performs everything, but Power, like the Roman dictator, plans +and wills everything, so that hurtful tardiness may be avoided. And when +anything of great moment arises he consults Hoh and Wisdom and Love. + +Before this, however, the occasion of war and the justice of making an +expedition is declared by a herald in the great council. All from twenty +years and upwards are admitted to this council, and thus the necessaries +are agreed upon. All kinds of weapons stand in the armories, and these +they use often in sham fights. The exterior walls of each ring are full +of guns prepared by their labours, and they have other engines for +hurling which are called cannons, and which they take into battle upon +mules and asses and carriages. When they have arrived in an open plain +they enclose in the middle the provisions, engines of war, chariots, +ladders and machines and all fight courageously. Then each one returns +to the standards, and the enemy thinking that they are giving and +preparing to flee, are deceived and relax their order: then the warriors +of the City of the Sun, wheeling into wings and columns on each side, +regain their breath and strength, and ordering the artillery to +discharge their bullets they resume the fight against a disorganized +host. And they observe many ruses of this kind. They overcome all +mortals with their stratagems and engines. Their camp is fortified after +the manner of the Romans. They pitch their tents and fortify with wall +and ditch with wonderful quickness. The masters of works, of engines and +hurling machines, stand ready, and the soldiers understand the use of +the spade and the axe. + +Five, eight, or ten leaders learned in the order of battle and in +strategy consult together concerning the business of war, and command +their bands after consultation. It is their wont to take out with them +a body of boys, armed and on horses, so that they may learn to fight, +just as the whelps of lions and wolves are accustomed to blood. And +these in time of danger betake themselves to a place of safety, along +with many armed women. After the battle the women and boys soothe and +relieve the pain of the warriors, and wait upon them and encourage them +with embraces and pleasant words. How wonderful a help is this! For the +soldiers, in order that they may acquit themselves as sturdy men in the +eyes of their wives and offspring, endure hardships, and so love makes +them conquerors. He who in the fight first scales the enemy's walls +receives after the battle a crown of grass, as a token of honour, and at +the presentation the women and boys applaud loudly; that one who affords +aid to an ally gets a civic crown of oak-leaves; he who kills a tyrant +dedicates his arms in the temple and receives from Hoh the cognomen of +his deed, and other warriors obtain other kinds of crowns. Every +horse-soldier carries a spear and two strongly tempered pistols, narrow +at the mouth, hanging from his saddle. And to get the barrels of their +pistols narrow they pierce the metal which they intend to convert into +arms. Further, every cavalry soldier has a sword and a dagger. But the +rest, who form the light-armed troops, carry a metal cudgel. For if the +foe cannot pierce their metal for pistols and cannot make swords, they +attack him with clubs, shatter and overthrow him. Two chains of six +spans length hang from the club, and at the end of these are iron balls, +and when these aimed at the enemy they surround his neck and drag him to +the ground; and in order that they may be able to use the club more +easily, they do not hold the reins with their hands, but use them by +means of the feet. If perchance the reins are interchanged above the +trappings of the saddle, the ends are fastened to the stirrups with +buckles and not to the feet. And the stirrups have an arrangement for +swift movement of the bridle, so that they draw in or let out the rein +with marvellous celerity. With the right foot they turn the horse to the +left and with the left to the right. This secret, moreover, is not known +to the Tartars. For, although they govern the reins with their feet, +they are ignorant nevertheless of turning them and drawing them in and +letting them out by means of the block of the stirrups. The light-armed +cavalry with them are the first to engage in battle, then the men +forming the phalanx with their spears, then the archers for whose +services a great price is paid, and who are accustomed to fight in lines +crossing one another as the threads of cloth, some rushing forward in +their turn and others receding. They have a band of lancers +strengthening the line of battle, but they make trial of the swords only +at the end. + +After the battle they celebrate the military triumphs after the manner +of the Romans, and even in a more magnificent way. Prayers by the way of +thank-offerings are made to God, and then the general presents himself +in the temple, and the deeds, good and bad, are related by the poet or +historian, who according to custom was with the expedition. And the +greatest chief, Hoh, crowns the general with laurel and distributes +little gifts and honours to all the valorous soldiers, who are for some +days free from public duties. But this exemption from work is by no +means pleasing to them, since they know not what it is to be at leisure, +and so they help their companions. On the other hand, they who have been +conquered through their own fault, or have lost the victory, are blamed; +and they who were the first to take to flight are in no way worthy to +escape death, unless when the whole army asks their lives, and each one +takes upon himself a part of their punishment. But this indulgence is +rarely granted, except when there are good reasons favouring it. But he +who did not bear help to an ally or friend is beaten with rods. That one +who did not obey orders is given to the beasts, in an enclosure, to be +devoured, and a staff is put in his hand, and if he should conquer the +lions and the bears that are there, which is almost impossible, he is +received into favour again. The conquered states or those willingly +delivered up to them, forthwith have all things in common, and receive a +garrison and magistrates from the City of the Sun, and by degrees they +are accustomed to the ways of the city, the mistress of all, to which +they even send their sons to be taught without contributing anything for +expense. + +It would be too great trouble to tell you about the spies and their +master, and about the guards and laws and ceremonies, both within and +without the state, which you can of yourself imagine. Since from +childhood they are chosen according to their inclination and the star +under which they were born, therefore each one working according to his +natural propensity does his duty well and pleasantly, because naturally. +The same things I may say concerning strategy and the other functions. + +There are guards in the city by day and by night, and they are placed at +the four gates, and outside the walls of the seventh ring, above the +breastworks and towers and inside mounds. These places are guarded in +the day by women, in the night by men. And lest the guard should become +weary of watching, and in case of a surprise, they change them every +three hours, as is the custom with our soldiers. At sunset, when the +drum and symphonia sound, the armed guards are distributed. Cavalry and +infantry make use of hunting as the symbol of war, and practise games +and hold festivities in the plains. Then the music strikes up, and +freely they pardon the offences and faults of the enemy, and after the +victories they are kind to them, if it has been decreed that they should +destroy the walls of the enemy's city and take their lives. All these +things are done on the same day as the victory, and afterwards they +never cease to load the conquered with favours, for they say that there +ought to be no fighting, except when the conquerors give up the +conquered, not when they kill them. If there is a dispute among them +concerning injury or any other matter (for they themselves scarcely ever +contend except in matters of honour), the chief and his magistrates +chastise the accused one secretly, if he has done harm in deeds after he +has been first angry. If they wait until the time of the battle for the +verbal decision, they must give vent to their anger against the enemy, +and he who in battle shows the most daring deeds is considered to have +defended the better and truer cause in the struggle, and the other +yields, and they are punished justly. Nevertheless, they are not allowed +to come to single combat, since right is maintained by the tribunal, and +because the unjust cause is often apparent when the more just succumbs, +and he who professes to be the better man shows this in public fight. + +_G.M._ This is worth while, so that factions should not be cherished for +the harm of the fatherland, and so that civil wars might not occur, for +by means of these a tyrant often arises, as the examples of Rome and +Athens show. Now, I pray you, tell me of their works and matter +connected therewith. + +_Capt._ I believe that you have already heard about their military +affairs and about their agricultural and pastoral life, and in what way +these are common to them, and how they honour with the first grade of +nobility whoever is considered, to have a knowledge of these. They who +are skilful in more arts than these they consider still nobler, and they +set that one apart for teaching the art in which he is most skilful. The +occupations which require the most labour, such as working in metals and +building, are the most praiseworthy amongst them. No one declines to go +to these occupations, for the reason that from the beginning their +propensities are well known, and among them, on account of the +distribution of labour, no one does work harmful to him, but only that +which is necessary for him. The occupations entailing less labour belong +to the women. All of them are expected to know how to swim, and for this +reason ponds are dug outside the walls of the city and within them near +to the fountains. + +Commerce is of little use to them, but they know the value of money, and +they count for the use of their ambassadors and explorers, so that with +it they may have the means of living. They receive merchants into their +states from the different countries of the world, and these buy the +superfluous goods of the city. The people of the City of the Sun refuse +to take money, but in importing they accept in exchange those things of +which they are in need, and sometimes they buy with money; and the young +people in the City of the Sun are much amused when they see that for a +small price they receive so many things in exchange. The old men, +however, do not laugh. They are unwilling that the state should be +corrupted by the vicious customs of slaves and foreigners. Therefore +they do business at the gates, and sell those whom they have taken in +war or keep them for digging ditches and other hard work without the +city, and for this reason they always send four bands of soldiers to +take care of the fields, and with them there are the labourers. They go +out of the four gates from which roads with walls on both sides of them +lead to the sea, so that goods might easily be carried over them and +foreigners might not meet with difficulty on their way. + +To strangers they are kind and polite; they keep them for three days at +the public expense; after they have first washed their feet, they show +them their city and its customs, and they honour them with a seat at the +council and public table, and there are men whose duty it is to take +care of and guard the guests. But if strangers should wish to become +citizens of their state, they try them first for a month on a farm, and +for another month in the city, then they decide concerning them, and +admit them with certain ceremonies and oaths. + +Agriculture is much followed among them; there is not a span of earth +without cultivation, and they observe the winds and propitious stars. +With the exception of a few left in the city all go out armed, and with +flags and drums and trumpets sounding, to the fields, for the purposes +of ploughing, sowing, digging, hoeing, reaping, gathering fruit and +grapes; and they set in order everything, and do their work in a very +few hours and with much care. They use waggons fitted with sails which +are borne along by the wind even when it is contrary, by the marvellous +contrivance of wheels within wheels. + +And when there is no wind a beast draws along a huge cart, which is a +grand sight. + +The guardians of the land move about in the meantime, armed and always +in their proper turn. They do not use dung and filth for manuring the +fields, thinking that the fruit contracts something of their rottenness, +and when eaten gives a short and poor subsistence, as women who are +beautiful with rouge and from want of exercise bring forth feeble +offspring. Wherefore they do not as it were paint the earth, but dig it +up well and use secret remedies, so that fruit is borne quickly and +multiplies, and is not destroyed. They have a book for this work, which +they call the Georgics. As much of the land as is necessary is +cultivated, and the rest is used for the pasturage of cattle. + +The excellent occupation of breeding and rearing horses, oxen, sheep, +dogs and all kinds of domestic and tame animals, is in the highest +esteem among them as it was in the time of Abraham. And the animals are +led so to pair that they may be able to breed well. + +Fine pictures of oxen, horses, sheep, and other animals are placed +before them. They do not turn out horses with mares to feed, but at the +proper time they bring them together in an enclosure of the stables in +their fields. And this is done when they observe that the constellation +Archer is in favourable conjunction with Mars and Jupiter. For the oxen +they observe the Bull, for the sheep the Ram, and so on in accordance +with art. Under the Pleiades they keep a drove of hens and ducks and +geese, which are driven out by the women to feed near the city. The +women only do this when it is a pleasure to them. There are also places +enclosed, where they make cheese, butter, and milk-food. They also keep +capons, fruit and other things, and for all these matters there is a +book which they call the Bucolics. They have an abundance of all things, +since every one likes to be industrious, their labours being slight and +profitable. They are docile, and that one among them who is head of the +rest in duties of this kind they call king. For they say that this is +the proper name of the leaders, and it does not belong to ignorant +persons. It is wonderful to see how men and women march together +collectively, and always in obedience to the voice of the king. Nor do +they regard him with loathing as we do, for they know that although he +is greater than themselves, he is for all that their father and brother. +They keep groves and woods for wild animals, and they often hunt. + +The science of navigation is considered very dignified by them, and they +possess rafts and triremes, which go over the waters without rowers or +the force of the wind, but by a marvellous contrivance. And other +vessels they have which are moved by the winds. They have a correct +knowledge of the stars, and of the ebb and flow of the tide. They +navigate for the sake of becoming acquainted with nations and different +countries and things. They injure nobody, and they do not put up with +injury, and they never go to battle unless when provoked. They assert +that the whole earth will in time come to live in accordance with their +customs, and consequently they always find out whether there be a +nation whose manner of living is better and more approved than the rest. +They admire the Christian institutions and look for a realisation of the +apostolic life in vogue among themselves and in us. There are treaties +between them and the Chinese, and many other nations, both insular and +continental, such as Siam and Calicut, which they are only just able to +explore. Furthermore, they have artificial fires, battles on sea and +land, and many strategic secrets. Therefore they are nearly always +victorious. + +_G.M._ Now it would be very pleasant to learn with what foods and drinks +they are nourished, and in what way and for how long they live. + +_Capt._ Their food consists of flesh, butter, honey, cheese, garden +herbs, and vegetables of various kinds. They were unwilling at first to +slay animals, because it seemed cruel; but thinking afterwards that it +was also cruel to destroy herbs which have a share of sensitive feeling, +they saw that they would perish from hunger unless they did an +unjustifiable action for the sake of justifiable ones, and so now they +all eat meat. Nevertheless, they do not kill willingly useful animals, +such as oxen and horses. They observe the difference between useful and +harmful foods, and for this they employ the science of medicine. They +always change their food. First they eat flesh, then fish, then +afterwards they go back to flesh, and nature is never incommoded or +weakened. The old people use the more digestible kind of food, and take +three meals a day, eating only a little. But the general community eat +twice, and the boys four times, that they might satisfy nature. The +length of their lives is generally one hundred years, but often they +reach two hundred. + +As regards drinking, they are extremely moderate. Wine is never given to +young people until they are ten years old, unless the state of their +health demands it. After their tenth year they take it diluted with +water, and so do the women, but the old men of fifty and upwards use +little or no water. They eat the most healthy things, according to the +time of the year. + +They think nothing harmful which is brought forth by God, except when +there has been abuse by taking too much. And therefore in the summer +they feed on fruits, because they are moist and juicy and cool, and +counteract the heat and dryness. In the winter they feed on dry +articles, and in the autumn they eat grapes, since they are given by God +to remove melancholy and sadness; and they also make use of scents to a +great degree. In the morning, when they have all risen they comb their +hair and wash their faces and hands with cold water. Then they chew +thyme or rock parsley or fennel, or rub their hands with these plants. +The old men make incense, and with their faces to the east repeat the +short prayer which Jesus Christ taught us. After this they go to wait +upon the old men, some go to the dance, and others to the duties of the +state. Later on they meet at the early lectures, then in the temple, +then for bodily exercise. Then for a little while they sit down to rest, +and at length they go to dinner. + +Among them there is never gout in the hands or feet, no catarrh, nor +sciatica, nor grievous colics, nor flatulency, nor hard breathing. For +these diseases are caused by indigestion and flatulency, and by +frugality and exercise they remove every humour and spasm. Wherefore it +is unseemly in the extreme to be seen vomiting or spitting, since they +say that this is a sign either of little exercise or of ignoble sloth, +or of drunkenness or gluttony. They suffer rather from swellings or from +the dry spasm, which they relieve with plenty of good and juicy food. +They heal fevers with pleasant baths and with milk-food, and with a +pleasant habitation in the country and by gradual exercise. Unclean +diseases cannot be prevalent with them because they often clean their +bodies by bathing in wine, and soothe them with aromatic oil, and by +the sweat of exercise they diffuse the poisonous vapour which corrupts +the blood and the marrow. They do suffer a little from consumption, +because they cannot perspire at the breast, but they never have asthma, +for the humid nature of which a heavy man is required. They cure hot +fevers with cold potations of water, but slight ones with sweet smells, +with cheese-bread or sleep, with music or dancing. Tertiary fevers are +cured by bleeding, by rhubarb or by a similar drawing remedy, or by +water soaked in the roots of plants, with purgative and sharp-tasting +qualities. But it is rarely that they take purgative medicines. Fevers +occurring every fourth day are cured easily by suddenly startling the +unprepared patients, and by means of herbs producing effects opposite to +the humours of this fever. All these secrets they told me in opposition +to their own wishes. They take more diligent pains to cure the lasting +fevers, which they fear more, and they strive to counteract these by the +observation of stars and of plants, and by prayers to God. Fevers +recurring every fifth, sixth, eighth or more days, you never find +whenever heavy humours are wanting. + +They use baths, and moreover they have warm ones according to the Roman +custom, and they make use also of olive oil. They have found out, too, a +great many secret cures for the preservation of cleanliness and health. +And in other ways they labour to cure the epilepsy, with which they are +often troubled. + +_G.M._ A sign this disease is of wonderful cleverness, for from it +Hercules, Scotus, Socrates, Callimachus, and Mahomet have suffered. + +_Capt._ They cure by means of prayers to heaven, by strengthening the +head, by acids, by planned gymnastics, and with fat cheese-bread +sprinkled with the flour of wheaten corn. They are very skilled in +making dishes, and in them they put spice, honey, butter and many highly +strengthening spices, and they temper their richness with acids, so that +they never vomit. They do not drink ice-cold drinks nor artificial hot +drinks, as the Chinese do; for they are not without aid against the +humours of the body, on account of the help they get from the natural +heat of the water; but they strengthen it with crushed garlic, with +vinegar, with wild thyme, with mint, and with basil, in the summer or in +time of special heaviness. They know also a secret for renovating life +after about the seventieth year, and for ridding it of affliction, and +this they do by a pleasing and indeed wonderful art. + +_G.M._ Thus far you have said nothing concerning their sciences and +magistrates. + +_Capt._ Undoubtedly I have. But since you are so curious I will add +more. Both when it is new moon and full moon they call a council after a +sacrifice. To this all from twenty years upwards are admitted, and each +one is asked separately to say what is wanting in the state, and which +of the magistrates have discharged their duties rightly and which +wrongly. Then after eight days all the magistrates assemble, to wit, Hoh +first, and with him Power, Wisdom and Love. Each one of the three last +has three magistrates under him, making in all thirteen, and they +consider the affairs of the arts pertaining to each one of them; Power, +of war; Wisdom, of the sciences; Love, of food, clothing, education and +breeding. The masters of all the bands, who are captains of tens, of +fifties, of hundreds, also assemble, the women first and then the men. +They argue about those things which are for the welfare of the state, +and they choose the magistrates from among those who have already been +named in the great council. In this manner they assemble daily, Hoh and +his three princes, and they correct, confirm and execute the matters +passing to them, as decisions in the elections; other necessary +questions they provide of themselves. They do not use lots unless when +they are altogether doubtful how to decide. The eight magistrates under +Hoh, Power, Wisdom and Love are changed according to the wish of the +people, but the first four are never changed, unless they, taking +counsel with themselves, give up the dignity of one to another, whom +among them they know to be wiser, more renowned, and more nearly +perfect. And then they are obedient and honourable, since they yield +willingly to the wiser man and are taught by him. This, however, rarely +happens. The principals of the sciences, except Metaphysics, who is Hoh +himself, and is as it were the architect of all science, having rule +over all, are attached to Wisdom. Hoh is ashamed to be ignorant of any +possible thing. Under Wisdom therefore is Grammar, Logic, Physics, +Medicine, Astrology, Astronomy, Geometry, Cosmography, Music, +Perspective, Arithmetic, Poetry, Rhetoric, Painting, Sculpture. Under +the triumvir Love are Breeding, Agriculture, Education, Medicine, +Clothing, Pasturage, Coining. + +_G.M._ What about their judges? + +_Capt._ This is the point I was just thinking of explaining. Everyone is +judged by the first master of his trade, and thus all the head +artificers are judges. They punish with exile, with flogging, with +blame, with deprivation of the common table, with exclusion from the +church and from the company of women. When there is a case in which +great injury has been done, it is punished with death, and they repay an +eye with an eye, a nose for a nose, a tooth for a tooth, and so on, +according to the law of retaliation. If the offence is wilful the +council decides. When there is strife and it takes place undesignedly, +the sentence is mitigated; nevertheless, not by the judge but by the +triumvirate, from whom even it may be referred to Hoh, not on account of +justice but of mercy, for Hoh is able to pardon. They have no prisons, +except one tower for shutting up rebellious enemies, and there is no +written statement of a case, which we commonly call a lawsuit. But the +accusation and witnesses are produced in the presence of the judge and +Power; the accused person makes his defence, and he is immediately +acquitted or condemned by the judge; and if he appeals to the +triumvirate, on the following day he is acquitted of condemned. On the +third day he is dismissed through the mercy and clemency of Hoh, or +receives the inviolable rigour of his sentence. An accused person is +reconciled to his accuser and to his witnesses, as it were, with the +medicine of his complaint, that is, with embracing and kissing. No one +is killed or stoned unless by the hands of the people, the accuser and +the witnesses beginning first. For they have no executioners and +lictors, lest the state should sink into ruin. The choice of death is +given to the rest of the people, who enclose the lifeless remains in +little bags and burn them by the application of fire, while exhorters +are present for the purpose of advising concerning a good death. +Nevertheless, the whole nation laments and beseeches God that His anger +may be appeased, being in grief that it should as it were have to cut +off a rotten member of the state. Certain officers talk to and convince +the accused man by means of arguments until he himself acquiesces in the +sentence of death passed upon him, or else he does not die. But if a +crime has been committed against the liberty of the republic, or against +God, or against the supreme magistrates, there is immediate censure +without pity. These only are punished with death. He who is about to die +is compelled to state in the presence of the people and with religious +scrupulousness the reasons for which he does not deserve death, and also +the sins of the others who ought to die instead of him, and further the +mistakes of the magistrates. If, moreover, it should seem right to the +person thus asserting, he must say why the accused ones are deserving of +less punishment than he. And if by his arguments he gains the victory he +is sent into exile, and appeases the state by means of prayers and +sacrifices and good life ensuing. They do not torture those named by the +accused person, but they warn them. Sins of frailty and ignorance are +punished only with blaming, and with compulsory continuation as +learners under the law and discipline of those sciences or arts against +which they have sinned. And all these things they have mutually among +themselves, since they seem to be in very truth members of the same +body, and one of another. + +This further I would have you know, that if a transgressor, without +waiting to be accused, goes of his own accord before a magistrate, +accusing himself and seeking to make amends, that one is liberated from +the punishment of a secret crime, and since he has not been accused of +such a crime, his punishment is changed into another. They take special +care that no one should invent slander, and if this should happen they +meet the offence with the punishment of retaliation. Since they always +walk about and work in crowds, five witnesses are required for the +conviction of a transgressor. If the case is otherwise, after having +threatened him, he is released after he has sworn an oath as the warrant +of good conduct. Or if he is accused a second or third time, his +increased punishment rests on the testimony of three or two witnesses. +They have but few laws, and these short and plain, and written upon a +flat table, and hanging to the doors of the temple, that is between the +columns. And on single columns can be seen the essences of things +described in the very terse style of Metaphysics--viz., the essences of +God, of the angels, of the world, of the stars, of man, of fate, of +virtue, all done with great wisdom. The definitions of all the virtues +are also delineated here, and here is the tribunal, where the judges of +all the virtues have their seat. The definition of a certain virtue is +written under that column where the judges for the aforesaid virtue sit, +and when a judge gives judgment he sits and speaks thus: O son, thou +hast sinned against this sacred definition of beneficence, or of +magnanimity, or of another virtue, as the case may be. And after +discussion the judge legally condemns him to the punishment for the +crime of which he is accused--viz., for injury for despondency, for +pride, for ingratitude, for sloth, &c. But the sentences are certain and +true correctives, savouring more of clemency than of actual punishment. + +_G.M._ Now you ought to tell me about their priests, their sacrifices, +their religion, and their belief. + +_Capt._ The chief priest is Hoh, and it is the duty of all the superior +magistrates to pardon sins. Therefore the whole state by secret +confession, which we also use, tell their sins to the magistrates, who +at once purge their souls and teach those that are inimical to the +people. Then the sacred magistrates themselves confess their own +sinfulness to the three supreme chiefs, and together they confess the +faults of one another, though no special one is named, and they confess +especially the heavier faults and those harmful to the state. At length +the triumvirs confess their sinfulness to Hoh himself, who forthwith +recognizes the kinds of sins that are harmful to the state, and succours +with timely remedies. Then he offers sacrifices and prayers to God. And +before this he confesses the sins of the whole people, in the presence +of God, and publicly in the temple, above the altar, as often as it had +been necessary that the fault should be corrected. Nevertheless, no +transgressor is spoken of by his name. In this manner he absolves the +people by advising them that they should beware of sins of the aforesaid +kind. Afterwards he offers sacrifice to God, that He should pardon the +state and absolve it of its sins, and to teach and defend it. Once in +every year the chief priests of each separate subordinate state confess +their sins in the presence of Hoh. Thus he is not ignorant of the +wrong-doings of the provinces, and forthwith he removes them with all +human and heavenly remedies. + +Sacrifice is conducted after the following manner: Hoh asks the people +which one among them wishes to give himself as a sacrifice to God for +the sake of his fellows. He is then placed upon the fourth table, with +ceremonies and the offering up of prayers: the table is hung up in a +wonderful manner by means of four ropes passing through four cords +attached to firm pulley-blocks in the small dome of the temple. This +done they cry to the God of mercy, that He may accept the offering, not +of a beast as among the heathen, but of a human being. Then Hoh orders +the ropes to be drawn and the sacrifice is pulled up above to the centre +of the small dome, and there it dedicates itself with the most fervent +supplications. Food is given to it through a window by the priests, who +live around the dome, but it is allowed a very little to eat, until it +has atoned for the sins of the state. There with prayer and fasting he +cries to the God of heaven that He might accept its willing offering. +And after twenty or thirty days, the anger of God being appeased, the +sacrifice becomes a priest, or sometimes, though rarely, returns below +by means of the outer way for the priests. Ever after this man is +treated with great benevolence and much honour, for the reason that he +offered himself unto death for the sake of his country. But God does not +require death. The priests above twenty-four years of age offer praises +from their places in the top of the temple. This they do in the middle +of the night, at noon, in the morning and in the evening, to wit, four +times a day they sing their chants in the presence of God. It is also +their work to observe the stars and to note with the astrolabe their +motions and influences upon human things, and to find out their powers. +Thus they know in what part of the earth any change has been or will be, +and at what time it has taken place, and they send to find whether the +matter be as they have it. They make a note of predictions, true and +false, so that they may be able from experience to predict most +correctly. The priests, moreover, determine the hours for breeding and +the days for sowing, reaping, and gathering the vintage, and are as it +were the ambassadors and intercessors and connection between God and +man. And it is from among them mostly that Hoh is elected. They write +very learned treatises and search into the sciences. Below they never +descend, unless for their dinner and supper, so that the essence of +their heads do not descend to the stomachs and liver. Only very seldom, +and that as a cure for the ills of solitude, do they have converse with +women. On certain days Hoh goes up to them and deliberates with them +concerning the matters which he has lately investigated for the benefit +of the state and all the nations of the world. + +In the temple beneath one priest always stands near the altar praying +for the people, and at the end of every hour another succeeds him, just +as we are accustomed in solemn prayer to change every fourth hour. And +this method of supplication they call perpetual prayer. After a meal +they return thanks to God. Then they sing the deeds of the Christian, +Jewish, and Gentile heroes, and of those of all other nations, and this +is very delightful to them. Forsooth, no one is envious of another. They +sing a hymn to Love, one to Wisdom, and one each to all the other +virtues, and this they do under the direction of the ruler of each +virtue. Each one takes the woman he loves most, and they dance for +exercise with propriety and stateliness under the peristyles. The women +wear their long hair all twisted together and collected into one knot on +the crown of the head, but in rolling it they leave one curl. The men, +however, have one curl only and the rest of their hair around the head +is shaven off. Further, they wear a slight covering, and above this a +round hat a little larger than the size of their head. In the fields +they use caps, but at home each one wears a biretto white, red, or +another colour according to his trade or occupation. Moreover, the +magistrates use grander and more imposing-looking coverings for the +head. + +They hold great festivities when the sun enters the four cardinal points +of the heavens, that is, when he enters Cancer, Libra, Capricorn, and +Aries. On these occasions they have very learned, splendid, and as it +were comic performances. They celebrate also every full and every new +moon with a festival, as also they do the anniversaries of the founding +of the city, and of the days when they have won victories or done any +other great achievement. The celebrations take place with the music of +female voices, with the noise of trumpets and drums, and the firing of +salutations. The poets sing the praises of the most renowned leaders and +the victories. Nevertheless, if any of them should deceive even by +disparaging a foreign hero, he is punished. No one can exercise the +function of a poet who invents that which is not true, and a license +like this they think to be a pest of our world, for the reason that it +puts a premium upon virtue and often assigns it to unworthy persons, +either from fear or flattery, or ambition or avarice. For the praise of +no one is a statue erected until after his death; but whilst he is +alive, who has found out new arts and very useful secrets, or who has +rendered great service to the state either at home or on the +battle-field, his name is written in the book of heroes. They do not +bury dead bodies, but burn them, so that a plague may not arise from +them, and so that they may be converted into fire, a very noble and +powerful thing, which has its coming from the sun and returns to it. And +for the above reasons no chance is given for idolatry. The statues and +pictures of the heroes, however, are there, and the splendid women set +apart to become mothers often look at them. Prayers are made from the +state to the four horizontal corners of the world. In the morning to the +rising sun, then to the setting sun, then to the south, and lastly to +the north; and in the contrary order in the evening, first to the +setting sun, to the rising sun, to the north, and at length to the +south. They repeat but one prayer, which asks for health of body and of +mind, and happiness for themselves and all people, and they conclude it +with the petition "As it seems best to God." The public prayer for all +is long, and it is poured forth to heaven. For this reason the altar is +round and is divided crosswise by ways at right angles to one another. +By these ways Hoh enters after he has repeated the four prayers, and he +prays looking up to heaven. And then a great mystery is seen by them. +The priestly vestments are of a beauty and meaning like to those of +Aaron. They resemble Nature and they surpass Art. + +They divide the seasons according to the revolution of the sun, and not +of the stars, and they observe yearly by how much time the one precedes +the other. They hold that the sun approaches nearer and nearer, and +therefore by ever-lessening circles reaches the tropics and the equator +every year a little sooner. They measure months by the course of the +moon, years by that of the sun. They praise Ptolemy, admire Copernicus, +but place Aristarchus and Philolaus before him. They take great pains in +endeavouring to understand the construction of the world, and whether or +not it will perish, and at what time. They believe that the true oracle +of Jesus Christ is by the signs in the sun, in the moon, and in the +stars, which signs do not thus appear to many of us foolish ones. +Therefore they wait for the renewing of the age, and perchance for its +end. They say that it is very doubtful whether the world was made from +nothing, or from the ruins of other worlds, or from chaos, but they +certainly think that it was made, and did not exist from eternity. +Therefore they disbelieve in Aristotle, whom they consider a logician +and not a philosopher. From analogies, they can draw many arguments +against the eternity of the world. The sun and the stars they, so to +speak, regard as the living representatives and signs of God, as the +temples and holy living altars, and they honour but do not worship them. +Beyond all other things they venerate the sun, but they consider no +created thing worthy the adoration of worship. This they give to God +alone, and thus they serve Him, that they may not come into the power of +a tyrant and fall into misery by undergoing punishment by creatures of +revenge. They contemplate and know God under the image of the Sun, and +they call it the sign of God, His face and living image, by means of +which light, heat, life, and the making of all things good and bad +proceeds. Therefore they have built an altar like to the Sun in shape, +and the priests praise God in the sun and in the stars, as it were His +altars, and in the heavens, His temple as it were; and they pray to good +angels, who are, so to speak, the intercessors living in the stars, +their strong abodes. For God long since set signs of their beauty in +heaven, and of His glory in the Sun. They say there is but one heaven, +and that the planets move and rise of themselves when they approach the +sun or are in conjunction with it. + +They assert two principles of the physics of things below, namely, that +the Sun is the father, and the Earth the mother; the air is an impure +part of the heavens; all fire is derived from the sun. The sea is the +sweat of earth, or the fluid of earth combusted, and fused within its +bowels; but is the bond of union between air and earth, as the blood is +of the spirit and flesh of animals. The world is a great animal, and we +live within it as worms live within us. Therefore we do not belong to +the system of stars, sun, and earth, but to God only; for in respect to +them which seek only to amplify themselves, we are born and live by +chance; but in respect to God, whose instruments we are, we are formed +by prescience and design, and for a high end. Therefore we are bound to +no Father but God, and receive all things from Him. They hold as beyond +question the immortality of souls, and that these associate with good +angels after death, or with bad angels, according as they have likened +themselves in this life to either. For all things seek their like. They +differ little from us as to places of reward and punishment. They are in +doubt whether there are other worlds beyond ours, and account it +madness to say there is nothing. Nonentity is incompatible with the +infinite entity of God. They lay down two principles of metaphysics, +entity which is the highest God, and nothingness which is the defect of +entity. Evil and sin come of the propensity to nothingness; the sin +having its cause not efficient, but in deficiency. Deficiency is, they +say, of power, wisdom or will. Sin they place in the last of these +three, because he who knows and has the power to do good is bound also +to have the will, for will arises out of them. They worship God in +Trinity, saying God is the supreme Power, whence proceeds the highest +Wisdom, which is the same with God, and from these comes Love, which is +both Power and Wisdom; but they do not distinguish persons by name, as +in our Christian law, which has not been revealed to them. This +religion, when its abuses have been removed, will be the future mistress +of the world, as great theologians teach and hope. Therefore Spain found +the New World (though its first discoverer, Columbus, greatest of +heroes, was a Genoese), that all nations should be gathered under one +law. We know not what we do, but God knows, whose instruments we are. +They sought new regions for lust of gold and riches, but God works to a +higher end. The sun strives to burn up the earth, not to produce plants +and men, but God guides the battle to great issues. His the praise, to +Him the glory! + +_G.M._ Oh, if you knew what our astrologers say of the coming age, and +of our age, that has in it more history within a hundred years than all +the world had in four thousand years before! Of the wonderful invention +of printing and guns, and the use of the magnet, and how it all comes of +Mercury, Mars, the Moon, and the Scorpion! + +_Capt._ Ah, well! God gives all in His good time. They astrologize too +much. + + + + +A FRAGMENT OF + +JOSEPH HALL'S + +MUNDUS ALTER ET IDEM + +(_THE OTHER-AND SAME WORLD_) + +TRANSLATED BY + +DR. WILLIAM KING. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY SKETCH. + + +Joseph Hall was born at Bristow Park, by Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in the year +1574, and educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In 1597 he published +three books, and in 1598 three more books, of Satires, "_Virgidemiarum_, +Six Bookes." These satires, with others published about the same time by +Marlowe and Marston, were burnt by order of Whitgift, Archbishop of +Canterbury, who had no relish for that kind of writing. Nine years +later, in the year 1607, at the age of thirty-two, Hall published the +satire now to be described. He was a witty and an earnest man, who rose +to honour in the Church, became successively Bishop of Exeter and of +Norwich; as Bishop of Norwich was in controversy with John Milton on +Church Discipline; suffered patiently imprisonment and persecution from +the Puritans; and closed an honourable life of more than fourscore years +in 1656. He has been called by some the Christian Seneca. + +His early work, the "Mundus Alter et Idem," represents an ideal world +divided into regions answering to man's chief weaknesses or vices. He +gave with it a map of its Crapulia, Latronia, &c., fully peopled, with a +neighbouring land in which there are no signs of settlement, _Terra +Sancta, ignota etiam adhuc_, the Holy Land, even yet unknown. + +Joseph Hall's new world is also figured as an Austral Continent. They +are good travellers, he says, who tell what they have seen in known +lands, but he is a better who not only travels but is himself the maker +of the lands he travels through. He chose his day, and went aboard the +good ship Phantasy, quitted harbour, sailed away, reached in two years +the Fortunate Isles, and, leaving the shores of Africa behind him, came +in sight of the black headland of Crapulia. + +Here Introduction ends and Travel begins with the part partly translated +by Dr. King: Crapulia, named from Crapula, is the Land of Inebriate +Excess, and its two provinces, Pamphagonia and Yvronia, mean by their +names the provinces of Omnivorous Gluttony and Drunkenness. Dr. King has +translated six chapters, and begun the seventh, which is upon the wars +of the Pamphagonians, to which they march forth armed with spits and +two-pronged forks and heavy ribs of beef. In their free city, Ucalegon, +built near the borders of Moronia, the citizens live happy as monks. +They are so well shut in by high rocks that they can laugh at enemies, +and through a hollow in the rocks with softest pace creeps the river +Oysivius (the Idle). There is only one way up, their rocks for the +inhabitants, and that is not by zigzag steps, but by a rope and basket. +Birds wholly peculiar to the place supply food by being themselves +eatable, and by the great multitude of their eggs, and by the loads of +fish they bring into their nests to feed their young. The citizens make +to themselves also beds of the soft feathers of these birds. This valley +yields to the people of Ucalegon everything except what they don't care +for. They are free, therefore, to sup, sleep, rise, dine, and lie down. + +Husbandry, as among the old Egyptians, consists chiefly in feeding pigs, +for the husbandmen wait on the rich. One, with a gentle touch, opens the +richer man's eyes when he wakes; another fans him with a flapper while +he eats; another puts bits into his mouth when it opens. There are two +cities under Ucalegon, Livona and Roncara (Snort and Snore), which have +like privileges, except that here the inhabitants are almost always +asleep, and fatten wonderfully. + +These are among the laws of Crapulia:--It is a crime to drink alone. +Whoever has defrauded Nature by fasting four hours after sleep shall be +compelled to sup. When the mouth is full it is enough to answer +questions by holding out a finger. What cook soever shall treat food so +that it cannot be eaten, shall be tied to a stake beside which is hung +meat half raw or half burnt, and shall remain so tied until somebody +comes who will eat that meat. + +No coin of metal is current in Crapulia, but they make payment in kind. +Thus two sparrows are one starling, two starlings are one fieldfare, two +fieldfares one hen, two hens one goose, two geese one lamb, two lambs +one kid, two kids one goat, two goats one cow, and so forth. + +The next chapter is on the Religion of the Crapulians. They hate Jove +because his thunder turns the wine sour and he spoils ripe fruit by +raining on it. Their God is Time, who eats everything. + +But I hasten, says the traveller, to the palace of the Grand Duke, +whither I was happily led by my genius. The first Duke must have been as +large as the man two of whose teeth were dug up at Cambridge, each as +big as a man's head. On his tomb is an inscription. "I Omasius, Duke of +Fagonia, Lord, Victor, Prince and God lie here. No man shall say I +starved, shall pass by fasting, or salute me sober. Let him be my heir +who can, my subject who will, my enemy who dares. Farewell and Fatten." + +After a description of the Island of Hunger, the traveller passes from +Pamphagonia to Yvronia, the other province of Crapulia. + +These are among the laws of Yvronia:--A cup must be either full or +empty. Whoever takes or returns a cup half empty shall be guilty of +_lese societe_. The sober man who hurts a drunkard, shall be cut off +from wine for ever: if he kill a drunkard, he shall die by thirst. To +walk from supper in a right line shall be criminal. He who adds water to +wine shall be degraded to the table of the dogs. + +Yvronia having been described in seven chapters, the traveller in this +Other-and-Same World passes on to Viraginia, the land of the Viragoes. +This is Gynia Nova, miswritten New Guinea. The chief of its many +provinces is Linguadocia, in which Garrula is one of the famous cities. +In Viraginia the traveller was at once made prisoner, but permitted to +see the land after he had subscribed to certain articles, as, That in +word or deed he would work no ill to the nobler sex; That he would never +interpose a word when a woman was speaking; That wherever he might be he +would concede domestic rule to the woman; That he would never deny to a +wife any ornament of dress she looked at. + +As to its form of government, the state seemed to be a democracy, in +which all governed and none obeyed. They settled affairs at public +meetings, in which all spoke and none listened; and they had a perpetual +Parliament. + +The men in Viraginia are subject to the women. When a wife leaves her +house for any reason, she places the care of her husband under any other +woman of the household until she returns. A husband who survives his +wife, is married at once to his wife's maid, or goes into bondage to the +nearest mother of a family, because it is not permitted that any man +shall become master in his own house. + +The women sit while the men serve, sleep when the men are roused to get +up, scold them when they complain, and beat them. That day is worthy to +be marked with a white stone to which men can say good-bye with a whole +skin. + +Contrary to the custom with us, the women in Viraginia cut their hair +and let their nails grow. Some of them also practise with profit the +gymnastic art, so that they can make beautiful use of teeth, nails, and +heels. A nobler and more cleanly polished place is not to be seen than +Viraginia, where everything is washed, cooked and cared for by the men, +and there is nothing unbecoming but the garments of the men themselves. + +The next land to be visited was Moronia, Foolsland, the vastest, the +most uncultivated and the most populous of all these countries. To the +east is Variana or Moronia Mobilis, to the north is Moronia Aspera, to +the south Moronia Felix, and to the west Moronia Pia. The people are, +nearly all of them, tall and fat, with palish hair, prominent lips, and +very thick ears. In midwinter they go with their chests open, and the +rest of the body lightly clothed, that the warmth may enter the more +readily, and the cold go out of them; but in summer they put on thick +overcoats and cloaks, and all the clothes they have, to shut out the +heat. They shave their heads, either because they remember that they +were born bald, or to allay the heat of the brain, or because the hair +comes between the brain and heaven, and checks the freedom of the mind +in going heavenward. + +Provinces, towns and people of Moronia having been visited and fully +described, the traveller through this Other-and-Same World then proceeds +to describe Lavernia, the Land of Thieves and Cheats, who obtain great +part of their plunder from Moronia. In this land the Larcinians require +much attention. And at the end of all, adds Joseph Hall, "These men, +these manners, these cities I have seen, have marvelled at, have laughed +at, and at last, broken by the toils of so great a journey, have +returned to my own land. PEREGRINUS, QUONDAM ACADEMICUS." + +Dr. William King was born in the year 1663, son of Ezekiel King, a +gentleman of London. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ +Church, Oxford. He early inherited a fair estate, took his Master of +Arts degree in 1688, and began his career as writer with a refutation of +attacks upon Wiclif in the "History of Heresy," by M. Varillas. He then +chose law for a profession, in 1692 graduated as LL.D., and was admitted +an Advocate at Doctor's Commons. He kept a light heart and a lighter +purse than beseemed one of his fraternity, publishing playful satires, +at times showing an earnest mind under his mirth. In or soon after the +year 1702 Dr. King went to Ireland as judge of the High Court of +Admiralty, sole Commissioner of the Prizes, Vicar-General to the Lord +Primate, and Keeper of the Records in Birmingham's Tower, in which +office he was succeeded in 1708 by Joseph Addison. Dr. King, who had not +increased his credit for a love of work, returned to London about that +time, and following his own way of mirth began publishing "Useful +Transactions in Philosophy and other sorts of learning." In 1709 he +published the best of his playful poems, "The Art of Cookery, in +imitation of Horace's Art of Poetry; with some letters to Dr. Lister and +others, occasioned principally by the Title of a Book published by the +Doctor, being the works of Apicius Coelius concerning the Soups and +Sauces of the Ancients." When he came across Joseph Hall's satire, he +found it so much to his mind that he began to translate as follows:-- + +H.M. + + + + +CRAPULIA. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +_The Situation of the Country._ + + +Crapulia is a very fair and large territory, which on the north is +bounded with the AEthiopic Ocean, on the east with Laconia and Viraginia, +on the south by Moronia Felix, and westward with the Tryphonian Fens. It +lies in that part of the universe where is bred the monstrous bird +called Ruc, that for its prey will bear off an elephant in its talons; +and is described by the modern geographers. + +The soil is too fruitful, and the heavens too serene; so that I have +looked upon them with a silent envy, not without pity, when I considered +they were blessings so little deserved by the inhabitants. It lies in +seventy-four degrees of longitude, and sixty degrees of latitude, and +eleven degrees distant from the Cape of Good Hope; and lies, as it were, +opposite to the whole coast of Africa. It is commonly divided into two +provinces, Pamphagonia and Ivronia, the former of which is of the same +length and breadth as Great Britain (which I hope will not be taken as +any reflection), the other is equal to the High and Low Dutch Lands. +Both obey the same prince, are governed by the same laws, and differ +very little in their habit or their manners. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +_Pamphagonia; or, Glutton's Paradise._ + + +Pamphagonia is of a triangular figure, like that of ancient Egypt, or +the Greek letter delta, [Greek: delta]. It is mountainous, inclosed +with very high hills; its soil is of the richest, so that birds which +come thither to feed, if they tarry but three months, grow so very fat +and weighty, that they cannot fly back again over the mountains, but +suffer themselves to be taken up in the hand, and are as delicious as +the ortolan or the beccaficos of the Italians. And it is no wonder to +them who know that geese in Scotland are generated from leaves fallen +into the water, and believe the testimony of one of our ambassadors, +that in the north-east parts of the world lambs grow upon stalks like +cabbages and eat up the grass all around about them, to find the same +sort of provisions in this country. Besides, the fish upon that coast +are in such plenty, and so voracious (whether they conform themselves +to the genius of the place and people, or presage to themselves the +honour of so magnificent a sepulchre as was given to Nero's turbot), +that, as soon as the hook is cast in, they press to it as the ghosts +in Lucian did to Charon's boat, and cling to the iron as miners do to +a rope that is let down when the light of their candle forbodes some +malignant exhalation. + +The sea-ports, with which this country abounds more than any other, are +of no other use than to receive and take in such things as are edible, +which they have for their superfluous wool and hides: nor may the +inhabitants export anything that has the least relation to the palate. +You see nothing there but fruit-trees. They hate plains, limes, and +willows, as being idle and barren, and yielding nothing useful but their +shade. There are hops, pears, plums, and apples, in the hedge-rows, as +there is in all Ivronia; from whence the Lombards, and some counties in +the west of England, have learned their improvements. In ancient times, +Frugonia, or the Land of Frugality, took in this country as one of its +provinces; and histories tell us, that, in Saturn's time, the Frugonian +princes gave laws to all this part of the world, and had their palace +there; and that their country was called Fagonia, from the simplicity of +their diet, which consisted only in beech-mast. But that yoke has been +long ago shaken off; their manners are wholly changed, and, from the +universality of their food, they have obtained, in their own country +language, the title of Pamphagones. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +_The First Province of Pamphagonia._ + + +Friviandy, or Tight-bittia (that we may take the provinces in their +order), were it not for a temperament peculiar to the place, is rather +of the hottest to produce those who are properly called good +trencher-men. Its utmost point, which other geographers call the +Promontory of the Terra Australis, is of the same latitude as the most +southerly parts of Castile, and is about forty-two degrees distant from +the equator. The inhabitants have curled hair and dusky complexions, and +regard more the delicacy than the largeness and number of their dishes. +In this very promontory, which we shall call the black one from its +colour (for it is a very smoky region, partly from the frequent vapours +of the place, partly from its vicinity to the Terra del Fogo, which, by +the common consent of geographers, lies on the right hand of it, but +rather nearer than they have placed it), is the city Lucina, whose +buildings are lofty, but apt to be smoky and offensive to the smell; +from whence a colony went, perhaps, as far as the Indies, where it +remains to this day by the name of Cochin-China. + +Here is the famous temple of the great deity Omasius Gorgut, or +Gorbelly. It is a vast pile, and contains a thousand hearths, and as +many altars, which are constantly employed in the Rucal Festivals. In +the midst is a high pyramid, as lofty as the hand of man can erect it, +little inferior to those of Memphis. It is called the Cheminean Tower. +This, rising high, gives the signal of war to the adjoining countries: +for, as we by beacons lighted upon a high hill discover the danger of an +approaching enemy, so these, on the contrary, do the same by letting +their smoke cease and their fires go out: for, when the perpetual vapour +ceases to roll forth in thick and dark clouds of smoke, it is a token +that the Hambrians are drawing nearer, than whom there can be no enemy +more terrible to this nation. There are several smaller towns, that lie +under the dominion of this supreme city. Charbona is the largest +village, and, what is seldom seen elsewhere, lies all under ground. Upon +its barren soil arises another, though of less note, called Favillia. +After these lies Tenaille, a narrow town, and Batillu, a broad one, both +considerable. On the left are some subservient petty hamlets, as +Assadora, Marmitta, Culliera, as useful for the reception of strangers, +amongst which, that of Marmitta is watered by the river Livenza; which, +as is said of a fountain in the Peak of Derby, boils over twice in +four-and-twenty hours. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +_The Second Province of Pamphagonia._ + + +Next to this is the Golosinian district, the most pleasant part of +Pamphagonia, covered with dates, almonds, figs, olives, pomegranates, +oranges, citrons, and pistaches; through which run the smoothest of +streams, called the Oglium. Here is the beautiful city of Marzapane, +with noble turrets glittering with gold, but lying too open to the +enemy. Over it hang the Zucker hills, out of whose bowels they draw +something that is hard, white, and sparkling, but sweet as that moisture +which the ancients gathered out of the reeds which grew in Arabia and +the Indies. You shall find few people here, who are grown up, but what +have lost their teeth, and have stinking breaths. Near to this is the +little city Seplasium, which admits of no tradesmen but perfumers. It is +a town of great commerce with the people of Viraginia, especially the +Locanians, who use to change their looking-glass with them for oils and +pastils. The agreeableness of the place, and the bounty of the heavens, +is favourable to their art; for the whole track of land, at certain +seasons, is covered with aromatic comfits, that fall like hail-stones: +which Anathumiasis I take to be essentially the same as that aerial +honey which we often find upon our oaks, especially in the spring, and +that it differs only in thickness; for whereas that honey is sprinkled +in drops, the little globules are hardened by the intense cold of the +middle region, and rebound in falling. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +_Of the Third Province of Pamphagonia._ + + +In the fifty-fifth degree, we come into the plains of Lecania, and so +into the very heart of Pamphagonia, where the chief city we meet with is +Cibinium, which is washed with the acid streams of the river Assagion. +In the forum, or market-place, is the tomb (as I conjecture by the +footsteps of some letters now remaining) of Apicius, that famous Roman, +not very beautiful, but antique. It is engraved upon the shell of a +sea-crab; and it might happen, notwithstanding what Seneca says, that +this famous epicure, after having sought for larger shell-fish than the +coast of Gallia could supply him with, and then going in vain to Africa +to make a farther inquiry, might hear some rumour concerning this coast, +steer his course thither, and there die of a surfeit. But this I leave +to the critics. Here I shall only mention the most fertile fields of +Lardana and Ossulia. The delicious situation of Mortadella, the +pleasantest of places, had wonderfully delighted me, had it not been for +the salt-works which often approach too near it. There is an offensive +stinking town called Formagium, alias Butterboxia, and Mantica, a boggy +place near the confines of Ivronia. + +I hasten to the metropolis of the whole region, which, whether you +respect the uniformity of the building, the manners of the people, or +their way of living, their rules for behaviour, their law and justice, +will show as much as if I were to descend to particulars. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +_Of the Metropolis of Pamphagonia, and the Customs of the Inhabitants._ + + +There are but very few villages in this country, as well as in some +others; from whence a traveller may conjecture, that the country towns +are devoured by the cities, which are not so many in number as they are +large and populous; of which the mother and governess is called +Artocreopolis. The report goes, that in ancient times there were two +famous cities, Artopolis and Creatium, which had many and long contests +about the superiority: for so it happens to places, as well as men, that +increase in power; insomuch as the two most flourishing Universities in +the world (to both of which I bear the relation of a son, though I am +more peculiarly obliged to one of them for my education), +notwithstanding they are sisters, could not abstain from so ungrateful a +contention. + +Artopolis boasted of its antiquity, and that it had flourished in the +Saturnian age, when it had as yet no rival. Creatium set forth its own +splendour, pleasantness, and power. At last, a council being called, +Creatium got the preference by the universal votes of the assembly; for +such is the iniquity of the times, that though the head be covered with +grey hairs, yet nothing is allowed to the reverence of antiquity, when +encountered by a proud and upstart novelty. The other city is now so far +neglected, that the ruins or footsteps of its magnificence are scarce +remaining, any more than of Verulam, as is most elegantly set forth by +our noble poet Spenser in his verses on that subject; the latter +usurping the name of the other, as well as the other has now the double +title of Artocreopolis. The city is more extensive than beautiful: it is +fortified with a large and deep ditch of running water, which washes +almost all the streets, wherein are a thousand several ponds for fish; +upon which swim ducks, geese, swans, and all sorts of water-fowl, which +has been wisely imitated by the people of Augsburg. This ditch is called +Gruessa. There are two walls, whose materials were furnished by the +flesh-market; for they are made of bones, the larger serving for the +foundations, the lesser for the superstructure, whilst the smallest fill +up what is wanting in the middle; being all cemented with the whites of +eggs, by a wonderful artifice. The houses are not very beautiful, nor +built high after the manner of other cities; so that there is no need of +an Augustus to restrain the buildings to the height of seventy feet, as +was done at Rome; nor is there room for a Seneca or Juvenal to complain +of the multitude of their stairs and number of their stories. + +They have no regard for staircases; for indeed none of the citizens care +for them, partly from the trouble of getting up them (especially when, +as they often do, they have drunk heartily) as much as for the danger of +getting down again. Their houses are all covered with large blade-bones, +very neatly joined together. There are no free citizens admitted, but +such whose employment has more immediately some relation to the table. +Husbandmen, smiths, millers, and butchers, live in their colonies, who, +when they have a belly of an unwieldy bulk, are promoted to be +burgesses; to which degree none were anciently admitted but cooks, +bakers, victuallers, and the gravest senators, who are chosen here, as +in other places, not for their prudence, riches, or length of beard; but +for their measure, which they must come up to yearly if they will +pretend to bear any office in the public. As any one grows in +dimensions, he rises in honour; so that I have seen some who, from the +meanest and most contemptible village, have, for their merits, been +promoted to a more famous town, and at last obtained the senatorial +dignity in this most celebrated city: and yet, when by some disease (as +it often happens), or by age, they have grown leaner than they are +allowed to be by the statutes, have lost their honour, together with the +bulk of their carcass. Their streets were paved with polished marble; +which seemed strange amongst a people so incurious, both because the +workmanship was troublesome, and there might be danger in its being +slippery. But the true reason of it was, that they might not be forced +to lift their feet higher than ordinary by the inequality of the +pavement, and likewise that the chairs of the senators might the more +easily be pushed forward; for they never go on foot, or on horseback, +nor even in a coach, to the exchange, or their public feasts, because of +their weight; but they are moved about in great easy elbow-chairs, with +four wheels to them, and continue sitting so fixed, in the same posture, +snoring and flabbering till they are wheeled home again. + +At the four gates of the city, whose form is circular, there sit in +their turns as many senators, who are called Buscadores. These carefully +examine all who come in and go out, those that go out, lest they should +presume by chance to do it fasting, which they can easily judge of by +the extent of their bellies, and the matter being proved, they are fined +in a double supper: those that come in, to see what they bring with them +upon their return; for they must neither depart with empty stomachs, nor +come back with empty hands. Every month, according to the laws, which +they unwillingly transgress, there are stated feasts, at which all the +senators are obliged to be present, that after dinner (for no person can +give his vote before he has dined) they may deliberate concerning the +public affairs. The name of their common-hall is Pythanoscome. Every one +knows his own seat, and his conveniences and a couch to repose upon when +the heat of their wine and seasoned dainties incline them to it. Their +greatest delicacies are served up at the first course; for they think it +foolish not to eat the best things with the greatest appetite: nor do +they cut their boars, sheep, goats, and lambs into joints or quarters, +as commonly we do, but convey them whole to table, by the help of +machines, as I remember to have read in Petronius Arbiter. They are +fineable who rise before they have set six hours; for then the edge of +their stomach is blunted. They eat and drink so leisurely, for the same +reason as the famous Epicure of old wished that his neck were as long as +a crane's. They measure the seasonable time for their departure after +this method: they have a door to their town-house, which is wide enough +for the largest man to enter when he is fasting: through this the guests +pass; and when any one would depart, if he stops in this passage, he is +trusted to go out at another door; but if it be as easy as if he were +fasting, the master of the ceremonies makes him tarry till he comes to +be of a statutable magnitute: after which example, Willfrid's needle in +Belvior Castle was a pleasant trial of Roman Catholic sanctity. They +have gardens of many acres extent, but not like those of Adonis or +Alcinoues; for nothing delightful is to be expected in them, neither +order, nor regularity of walk, nor grass-plots, nor variety of flowers +in the borders: but you will find all planted with cabbages, turnips, +garlick, and musk-melons, which were carried hence to Italy, and are in +quantity sufficient to feast an hundred Pythagoreans. + +There is a public college, or hospital, whither they are sent who have +got the dropsy, gout, or asthma, by their eating and drinking; and there +they are nourished at the public expense. As for such as have lost their +teeth by their luxury, or broken them by eating too greedily or +incautiously, they are provided for in the island of Sorbonia. All the +richer sort have several servants, in the nature of vassals, to +cultivate their gardens, and be employed in inferior offices, who have +their liberty when they can arrive at such a bulkiness. If any of the +grandees of the country die of a surfeit, he is given, as being all made +up of the most exquisite dainties, to be eaten up by his servants; and +this they do that nothing should be lost that is so delicate. The men +are thick and fat to a miracle; nor will any one salute another whose +chin does not come to the midst of his breast, and his paunch falls to +his knees. The women are not unlike them, and in shape resemble the +Italians, and have breasts like the Hottentots. They go almost naked, +having no regard to their garments. The magistrates and persons of +better figure have gowns made of the skins of such beasts as they have +eaten at one meal. All wear a knife, with a large spoon, hanging upon +their right arm. Before their breasts they wear a smooth skin, instead +of a napkin, to receive what falls out of their mouths, and to wipe them +upon occasion; which whether it be more black or greasy, is hard to +determine. + +They are of a very slow apprehension, and no way fit for any science; +but yet understand such arts as they have occasion for. Their schools +are public-houses, where they are educated in the sciences of eating, +drinking, and carving; over which, one Archisilenius, an exquisite +Epicure, was then provost, who, instead of grammar, read some fragments +of Apicius. Instead of a library, there is a public repository of +drinking-vessels, in which cups of all orders and sizes are disposed +into certain classes. Cups and dishes are instead of books. The younger +scholars have less, the elder have greater; one has a quart, the other a +pottle, the other a gallon: this has a hen, that a goose, a third a lamb +or a porker: nor have they any liberty, or recess, till the whole is +finished; and if by a seven years' stuffing they are no proficients in +fatness, are presently banished into the Fancetic Islands; nor are they +suffered long to stay there idle and without improvement. Hither +likewise are sent all physicians who prescribe a course of diet to any +person. When any one is sick, without recourse to AEsculapius, they make +him eat radish, and drink warm water; which, according to Celsus, will +purge and vomit him. Venison is that which they most delight in; but +they never take it in hunting, but by nets and gins. They look upon the +swine as the most profitable and best of all animals; whether it is for +the likeness of its manners, as being good for nothing but the table, or +else from its growing fat on the sudden with the worst of nutriment. It +may not seem credible, yet parsimony appears in the midst of their +profuseness: but then it is very ill placed, for it is in crumbs, bones, +and crusts. They do not so much as keep any dogs, cats, hawks, or +anything that eats flesh. If any person suffer meat to stink, he is +impaled; but venison and rabbits are to have the _haut-gout_: and then +their cheese is kept till it is overrun with little animals, which they +devour with mustard and sugar. This is an odd sort of custom, derived +from the Dutch. + +The country abounds with rivers, which ebb and flow according to their +digestion, and generally overflow at the beginning of January, and +towards the end of February, and do mischief to the neighbouring +country. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +_Of the Wars of the Pamphagonians._ + + +The Pamphagones have perpetual wars with the Hambrians, or the Fancetic +Islands, and the Frugonians. + + * * * * * + +_Caetera desunt._ + + +THE END. + + +PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. 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