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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/19457-0.txt b/19457-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d8672eb --- /dev/null +++ b/19457-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8723 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - +Volume VII by Charles Morris + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII + +Author: Charles Morris + +Release Date: October 3, 2006 [Ebook #19457] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME VII*** + + + + + + [Illustration: CHARLES V. AT YUSTE.] + + CHARLES V. AT YUSTE. + + + + + +Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality + + +By Charles Morris + +_Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the +Dramatists," etc._ + +in fifteen volumes + +Volume VII + +London +George Bell and Sons + +1898 + + + + + +Copyright 1898, by J. B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright 1904, by J. B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright 1908, by J. B. Lippincott Company. + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +THE GOOD KING WAMBA. +THE GREEK KING’S DAUGHTER. +THE ENCHANTED PALACE. +THE BATTLE OF THE GUADALETE. +THE TABLE OF SOLOMON. +THE STORY OF QUEEN EXILONA. +PELISTES, THE DEFENDER OF CORDOVA. +THE STRATAGEM OF THEODOMIR. +THE CAVE OF COVADONGA. +THE ADVENTURES OF A FUGITIVE PRINCE. +BERNARDO DEL CARPIO. +RUY DIAZ, THE CID CAMPEADOR. +LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA. +THE KEY OF GRANADA. +KING ABUL HASSAN AND THE ALCAIDE OF GIBRALTAR. +THE RIVAL KINGS OF GRANADA. +THE KNIGHT OF THE EXPLOITS. +THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR. +THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS. +PETER THE CRUEL AND THE FREE COMPANIES. +THE GREAT CAPTAIN. +A KING IN CAPTIVITY. +THE INVASION OF AFRICA. +AN EMPEROR RETIRED FROM BUSINESS. +THE FATE OF A RECKLESS PRINCE. +SPAIN’S GREATEST VICTORY AT SEA. +THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. +THE CAUSES OF SPAIN’S DECADENCE. +THE LAST OF A ROYAL RACE. +HENRY MORGAN AND THE BUCCANEERS. +ELIZABETH FARNESE AND ALBERONI. +THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. +THE FALL OF A FAVORITE. +THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA. +THE HERO OF THE CARLISTS. +MANILA AND SANTIAGO. + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +CHARLES V. AT YUSTE. +TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR. +A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS. +BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE. +VALENCIA DEL CID. +ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE. +KING CHARLES’S WELL, ALHAMBRA. +MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE. +RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. +GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS. +FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR. +LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN. +CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE. +THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID. +THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA. +STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA. +THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA. +THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA. + + + + + + +THE GOOD KING WAMBA. + + +Long had the Goths been lords of Spain. Chief after chief had they chosen, +king after king had they served; and, though it was young in time, Gothic +Spain was growing old in years. It reached its golden age in the time of +"Good King Wamba," a king of fancy as much as of fact, under whom Spain +became a land of Arcady, everybody was happy, all things prospered, and +the tide of evil events for a space ceased to flow. + +In those days, when a king died and left no son, the Goths elected a new +one, seeking their best and worthiest, and holding the election in the +place where the old king had passed away. It was in the little village of +Gerticos, some eight miles from the city of Valladolid, that King +Recesuinto had sought health and found death. Hither came the +electors,—the great nobles, the bishops, and the generals,—and here they +debated who should be king, finally settling on a venerable Goth named +Wamba, the one man of note in all the kingdom who throughout his life had +declined to accept rank and station. + +The story goes that their choice was aided by miracle. In those days +miracles were "as plentiful as blackberries," but many of these seem to +have been what we may speak of as "miracles made to order," designed by +shrewd individuals to gain some personal or other advantage. St. Leo is +said to have told the electors to seek a husbandman named Wamba, whose +lands lay somewhere in the west, asserting that he did this under +direction of the heavenly powers. However that be, scouts were sent +through the land in search of Wamba, whom they found at length in his +fields, driving his plough through the soil and asking for no higher lot. +He was like Cincinnatus, the famous Roman, who was called from the plough +to the sceptre. + +"Leave your plough in the furrow," they said to him; "nobler work awaits +you. You have been elected king of Spain." + +"There is no nobler work," answered Wamba. "Seek elsewhere your monarch. I +prefer to rule over my fields." + +The astonished heralds knew not what to make of this. To them the man who +would not be king must be a saint—or an idiot. They reasoned, begged, +implored, until Wamba, anxious to get rid of them, said,— + +"I will accept the crown when the dry rod in my hand grows green +again,—and not till then." + +The good old husbandman fancied that he had fairly settled the question, +but miracle defeated his purpose. To his utter surprise and their deep +astonishment the dry stick which he thrust into the ground at once became +a green plant, fresh leaves breaking out on its upper end. What was the +old man fond of his plough to do in such a case? He had appealed to +Heaven, and here was Heaven’s reply. He went with the heralds to the +electoral congress, but there, in spite of the green branch, he again +refused to be king. He knew what it meant to try and govern men like those +around him, and preferred not to undertake the task. But one of the chiefs +sprang up, drew his sword, and advanced to the old man. + +"If you are still obstinate in refusing the position we offer you," he +sternly said, "you shall lose your head as well as your crown." + +His fierce eyes and brandished sword gave weight to his words, and Wamba, +concluding that he would rather be a king than a corpse, accepted the +trust. He was then escorted by the council and the army to Toledo, feeling +more like a captive than a monarch. There he was anointed and crowned, +and, from being lord of his fields, the wise old husbandman became king of +Spain. + +Such a king as Wamba proved to be the Goths had never known. Age had +brought him wisdom, but it had not robbed him of energy. He knew what he +had to expect and showed himself master of the situation. Revolts broke +out, conspiracies threatened the throne, but one after another he put them +down. Yet he was as merciful as he was prompt. His enemies were set free +and bidden to behave themselves better in the future. One ambitious noble +named Paul, who thought it would be an easy thing to take the throne from +an old man who had shown so plainly that he did not want it, rose in +rebellion. He soon learned his mistake. Wamba met him in battle, routed +his army, and took him prisoner. Paul expected nothing less than to have +his head stricken off, but Wamba simply ordered that it should be shaved. + +To shave the crown of the head in those days was no trifling matter. It +formed what is known as the tonsure, then the mark of the monastic orders. +A man condemned to the tonsure could not serve as king or chieftain, but +must spend the remainder of his days in seclusion as a monk. So Paul was +disposed of without losing his life. + +Wamba, however, did not spend all his time in fighting with conspirators. +He was so just a king that all the historians praise him to the +stars,—though none of them tell us what just deeds he did. He was one of +those famous monarchs around whom legend loves to grow, as the green +leaves grew around his dry rod, and who become kings of fancy in the +absence of facts. About all we know is that he was "Good King Wamba," a +just and merciful man under whom Spain reached its age of gold. + +He made a great and beautiful city of Toledo, his capital. It had a wall, +but he gave it another, stronger and loftier. And within the city he built +a noble palace and other splendid buildings, all of which time has swept +away. But over the great gate of Toledo the inscription still remains: +_Erexit fautore Deo Rex inclytus urbem Wamba_. "To God and King Wamba the +city owes its walls." + +Alas! the end was what might be expected of such goodness in so evil an +age. A traitor arose among those he most favored. There was a youth named +Ervigio, in whose veins ran the blood of former kings, and whom Wamba so +loved and honored as to raise him to great authority in the kingdom. +Ervigio was one of those who must be king or slave. Ambition made him +forget all favors, and he determined to cast his royal benefactor from the +throne. But he was not base enough to murder the good old man to whom he +owed his greatness. It was enough if he could make him incapable of +reigning,—as Wamba had done with Paul. + +To accomplish this he gave the king a sleeping potion, and while he was +under its influence had him tonsured,—that is, had the crown of his head +shaved. He then proclaimed that this had been done at the wish of the +king, who was weary of the throne. But whether or not, the law was strict. +No matter how or why it was done, no man who had received the tonsure +could ever again sit upon the Gothic throne. Fortunately for Ervigio, +Wamba cared no more for the crown now than he had done at first, and when +he came back to his senses he made little question of the base trick of +his favorite, but cheerfully enough became a monk. The remaining seven +years of his life he passed happily in withdrawal from a world into which +he had been forced against his will. + +But the people loved him, the good old man, and were not willing to accept +the scheming Ervigio as their king unless he could prove his right to the +throne. So, in the year 681, he called together a council of lords and +bishops at Toledo, before whom he appeared with a great show of humility, +bringing testimony to prove that Wamba had become monk at his own wish, +when in peril of death. To this he added a document signed by Wamba, in +which he abdicated the throne, and another in which he recommended Ervigio +as his successor. For eight days the council considered the question. The +documents might be false, but Wamba was a monk, and Ervigio was in power; +so they chose him as king. The holy oil of consecration was poured upon +his unholy head. + +Thus it was that Wamba the husbandman first became king and afterwards +monk. In all his stations—farmer, king, and monk—he acquitted himself well +and worthily, and his name has come down to us from the mists of time as +one of those rare men of whom we know little, but all that little good. + + + + + +THE GREEK KING’S DAUGHTER. + + +History wears a double face,—one face fancy, the other fact. The worst of +it is that we cannot always tell which face is turned towards us, and we +mistake one for the other far oftener than we know. In truth, fancy works +in among the facts of the most sober history, while in that primitive form +of history known as legend or tradition fancy has much the best of it, +though it may often be founded upon fact. In the present tale we have to +do with legend pure and simple, with hardly a thread of fact to give +substance to its web. + +There was a certain Grecian king of Cadiz whose daughter was of such +peerless beauty that her hand was sought in marriage by many of the other +kings of Andalusia. In those days "that country was ruled by several +kings, each having estates not extending over more than one or two +cities." What to do with the crowd of suitors the father was puzzled to +decide. Had a single one asked for his daughter’s hand he might have +settled it with a word, but among so many, equally brave, handsome, and +distinguished, answer was not so easy; and the worthy king of Cadiz was +sorely troubled and perplexed. + +Luckily for him, the fair damsel was as wise as she was beautiful, and +took the matter into her own hands, making an announcement that quickly +cut down the number of her admirers. She said that she would have no +husband but one who could prove himself "a wise king." In our days, when +every king and nearly every man thinks himself wise, such a decision would +not have deterred suitors, and she would have been compelled, in the end, +to choose among the few unwise. But wisdom, in those times of fable and +necromancy, had a wider meaning than we give it. A wise king was one who +had control of the powers of earth and air, who could call the genii to +his aid by incantations, and perform supernatural deeds. Hence it was that +the suitors fell off from the maiden like leaves from an autumn bough, +leaving but two who deemed themselves fitting aspirants to her hand. + +To test the wisdom of these two she gave them the following tasks: One was +bidden to construct on the mainland an aqueduct and a water-wheel to bring +water from the mountains into Cadiz. The other was to produce a talisman +which should save the island of Cadiz from invasion by Berbers or any +other of the fierce tribes of Africa, by whom it was frequently +threatened. + +"The one of you," said the princess, "who first and best performs his +task, shall win my hand by his work." + +The two suitors were warmly in love with the beautiful maiden, and both +ardently entered upon their duties. The first to get to work was the +aqueduct builder, whose task called for hard labor rather than magical +aid. Cadiz stands on a long, narrow peninsula, opposite which, on the +mainland, the king built a hydraulic machine, to which the water was +brought by pipes or canals from springs in a nearby mountain. This stream +of cool, refreshing water poured upon a wheel, by which it was driven into +an aqueduct crossing the bay into Cadiz. + +Here comes the fact behind the legend. Such an aqueduct stood long in +evidence, and as late as the eighteenth century traces of it could be +seen. We have an account of it by the Arab writer, Al Makkari. "It +consisted," he says, "of a long line of arches, and the way it was done +was this: whenever they came to high ground or to a mountain they cut a +passage through it; when the ground was lower, they built a bridge over +arches; if they met with a porous soil, they laid a bed of gravel for the +passage of the water; when the building reached the sea-shore, the water +was made to pass underground, and in this way it reached Cadiz." So it was +built, and "wise" was the king who built it, even if he did not call upon +the genii for assistance. + +The other king could not perform his labor so simply. He had a talisman to +construct, so powerful that it would keep out of Spain those fierce +African tribes whose boats swept the seas. What talisman could he produce +that would be proof against ships and swords? The king thought much and +deeply, and then went diligently to work. On the border of the strait that +lay between Spain and Africa he built a lofty marble column, a square, +white shaft based on a solid foundation. On its summit he erected a +colossal statue of iron and copper, melted and cast into the human form. +The figure was that of a Berber, like whom it wore a full and flowing +beard, while a tuft of hair hung over its forehead in Berber fashion. The +dress was that of the African tribes. The extended right arm of the figure +pointed across the strait towards the opposite shores. In its hand were a +padlock and keys. Though it spoke not, it seemed to say, "No one must pass +this way." It bore the aspect of a Berber captive, chained to the tower’s +top, and warning his brethren to keep away from Spain. + +Rapidly wrought the rival kings, each seeking to finish his work the +first. In this the aqueduct builder succeeded. The water began to flow, +the wheel to revolve, and the refreshing liquid to pour into the public +fountains of Cadiz. The multitude were overjoyed as the glad torrent +flowed into their streets, and hailed with loud acclamations the +successful builder. + +The sound of the people’s shouts of joy reached the ears of the statue +builder as he was putting the last touches to his great work of art and +magic. Despair filled his heart. Despite his labors, his rival had won the +prize. In bitterness of spirit he threw himself from the top of the column +and was dashed to pieces at its foot. "By which means," says the +chronicle, "the other prince, freed from his rival, became the master of +the lady, of the wheel, and of the charm." + +The talisman was really a watch-tower, from which the news of an African +invasion could be signalled through the land. In this cold age we can give +its builder credit for no higher magic than that of wisdom and vigilance. + + + + + +THE ENCHANTED PALACE. + + +Near the city of Toledo, the capital of Spain when that country was a +kingdom of the Goths, was a great palace of the olden time, or, as some +say, a vast cave, which had been deepened and widened and made into many +rooms. Still others say that it was a mighty tower, built by Hercules. +Whatever it was,—palace, tower, or cavern,—a spell lay upon it from far +past days, which none had dared to break. There was an ancient prophecy +that Spain would in time be invaded by barbarians from Africa, and to +prevent this a wise king, who knew the arts of magic, had placed a secret +talisman in one of the rooms. While this remained undisturbed the country +was safe from invasion. If once the secret of the talisman should be +divulged, swift ruin would descend upon the kingdom of the Goths. It must +be guarded strongly and well, for in it lay the destinies of Spain. + +A huge iron gate closed the entrance to the enchanted palace, and upon +this each king of the Goths, on coming to the throne, placed a strong +lock, so that in time huge padlocks covered much of its front and its +secrecy seemed amply assured. When Roderic, the last king of the Goths, +came to the throne, twenty-seven of such locks hung upon the gate. As for +the keys, some writers tell us that they remained in the locks, others say +that they had been hidden and lost; but it is certain that no one had +dared to open a single one of the locks; prudence and fear guarded the +secret better than gates and locks. + +At length the time came when the cherished secret was to be divulged. Don +Roderic, who had seized the throne by violence, and bore in his heart the +fatal bane of curiosity, determined to learn what had lain for centuries +behind those locks. The whole affair, he declared, was the jest of an +ancient king, which did very well when superstition ruled the world, but +which was far behind the age in which he lived. Two things moved the +epoch-breaking king,—curiosity, that vice which has led thousands to ruin, +and avarice, which has brought destruction upon thousands more. "It is a +treasure-house, not a talisman," he told himself. "Gold, silver, and +jewels lie hidden in its mouldy depths. My treasury is empty, and I should +be a fool to let a cluster of rusty locks keep me from filling it from +this ancient store." + +When it became known what Roderic proposed a shudder of horror ran through +the land. Nobles and bishops hastened to the audience chamber and sought +to hinder the fateful purpose of the rash monarch. Their hearts were +filled with dread of the perils that would follow any meddling with the +magic spell, and they earnestly implored him not to bring the foretold +disaster upon the land. + +"The kings who reigned before you have religiously obeyed the injunction," +they said. "Each of them has fixed his lock to the gate. It will be wise +and prudent in you to follow their example. If it is gold and jewels you +look for, tell us how much you think the cavern holds, even all your fancy +hopes to find, and so much we will give you. Even if it beggars us, we +will collect and bring you this sum without fail. We pray and implore you, +then, do not break a custom which our old kings have all held sacred. They +knew well what they did when they commanded that none after them should +seek to disclose the fatal secret of the hidden chamber." + +Earnest as was their appeal, it was wasted upon Roderic. Their offer of +gold did not reach his deepest motive; curiosity with him was stronger +than greed, and he laughed in his beard at the fears and tremblings of his +lords. + +"It shall not be said that Don Roderic, the king of the Goths, fears the +devil or his agents," he loudly declared, and orders were given that the +locks should be forced. + +One by one the rusty safeguards yielded to key or sledge, and the gates +shrieked disapproval when at length they reluctantly turned on their stiff +hinges, that had not moved for centuries. Into the cavern strode the king, +followed by his fearful but curious train. The rooms, as tradition had +said, were many, and from room to room he hurried with rapid feet. He +sought in vain. No gold appeared, no jewels glittered on his sight. The +rooms were drear and empty, their hollow floors mocking his footsteps with +long-silent echoes. One treasure only he found, the jewelled table of +Solomon, a famous ancient work of art which had long remained hidden from +human sight. Of this wonderful relic we shall say no more here, for it has +a history of its own, to be told in a future tale. + +On and on went the disappointed king, with nothing to satisfy his avarice +or his curiosity. At length he entered the chamber of the spell, the magic +room which had so long been locked from human vision, and looked with eyes +of wonder on the secret which had been so carefully preserved. + +What he saw was simple but threatening. On the wall of the room was a rude +painting, which represented a group of strangely dressed horsemen, some +wearing turbans, some bareheaded, with locks of coarse black hair hanging +over their foreheads. The skins of animals covered their limbs; they +carried scimitars and lances and bore fluttering pennons; their horses +were small, but of purest breed. + +Turning in doubt and dread from this enigmatical drawing, the daring +intruder saw in the centre of the apartment a pedestal bearing a marble +urn, in which lay a scroll of parchment. From this one of his scribes read +the following words: + +"Whenever this asylum is violated and the spell contained in this urn +broken, the people shown in the picture shall invade the land and overturn +the throne of its kings. The rule of the Goths shall end and the whole +country fall into the hands of heathen strangers." + +King Roderic looked again with eyes of alarm on the pictured forms. Well +he knew their meaning. The turban-wearers were Arabians, their horses the +famous steeds of the desert; the bare-headed barbarians were Berbers or +Moors. Already they threatened the land from Africa’s shores; he had +broken the spell which held them back; the time for the fulfilment of the +prophecy was at hand. + +Filled with sudden terror, the rash invader hurried from the chamber of +the talisman, his courtiers flying with wild haste to the open air. The +brazen gates were closed with a clang which rang dismally through the +empty rooms, and the lock of the king was fixed upon them. But it was too +late. The voice of destiny had spoken and the fate of the kingdom been +revealed, and all the people looked upon Don Roderic as a doomed man. + +We have given this legend in its mildest form. Some Arab writers surround +it with magical incidents until it becomes a tale worthy of the "Arabian +Nights’ Entertainments." They speak of two ancient men with snowy beards +who kept the keys of the gate and opened the locks only at Roderic’s stern +command. When the locks were removed no one could stir the gates until the +hand of the king touched them, when they sprang open of themselves. Inside +stood a huge bronze giant with a club of steel, with which he dealt +resounding blows on the floor to right and left. He desisted at the king’s +command, and the train entered unharmed. In the magic chamber they found a +golden casket containing a linen cloth between tablets of brass. On this +were painted figures of Arabs in armor. As they gazed these began to move, +sounds of war were heard, and the vision of a battle between Arab and +Christian warriors passed before the affrighted eyes of the intruders. The +Christian army was defeated, and Roderic saw the image of himself in +flight, and finally of his horse without a rider. As he rushed in terror +from the fatal room the bronze giant was no longer to be seen and the +ancient guardians of the gate lay dead upon their posts. In the end the +tower was burned by magic fire, and its very ashes were scattered by the +wings of an innumerable flight of birds. + + + + + +THE BATTLE OF THE GUADALETE. + + +The legends just given are full of the pith of facts. Dread of Africa lay +deep in the Spanish heart and gave point to these and other magical and +romantic tales. The story of how the great conqueror, Mohammed, had come +out from the deserts of Arabia and sent his generals, sword and Koran in +hand, to conquer the world, had spread far to the east and the west, and +brought terror wherever it came. From Arabia the Moslem hordes had swept +through Egypt and along the African coast to the extremity of Morocco. +They now faced Spain and coveted that rich and populous land. Well might +the degenerate sons of the Goths fear their coming and strive to keep them +out with talismans and spells. + +Years before, in the days of good King Wamba, a great Mohammedan fleet had +ravaged the Andalusian coast. Others came, not for conquest, but for +spoil. But at length all North Africa lay under the Moslem yoke, and Musa +Ibn Nasseyr, the conqueror of the African tribes, cast eyes of greed upon +Spain and laid plans for the subjugation to Arab rule of that +far-spreading Christian land. + +Africa, he was told, was rich, but Spain was richer. Its soil was as +fertile as that of Syria, its climate as mild and sweet as that of Araby +the Blest. The far-famed mines of distant Cathay did not equal it in +wealth of minerals and gems; nowhere else were such harbors, nowhere such +highlands and plains. The mountain-ranges, beautiful to see, enclosed +valleys of inexhaustible fertility. It was a land "plentiful in waters, +renowned for their sweetness and clearness,"—Andalusia’s noble streams. +Famous monuments graced its towns: the statue of Hercules at Cadiz, the +idol of Galicia, the stately ruins of Merida and Tarragona. It was a realm +the conquest of which would bring wealth and fame,—great glory to the sons +of Allah and great treasure to the successors of the Prophet. Musa +determined upon its invasion. + +A traitor came to his aid. Count Julian was governor of Ceuta, a Spanish +city on the African coast. His daughter Florinda was maid of honor to the +queen of Don Roderic. But word from the daughter came to the father that +she had suffered grievous injury at the hands of the king, and Count +Julian, thirsting for revenge upon Roderic, offered to deliver Ceuta into +the hands of the Arabian warrior and aid him in the conquest of Spain. To +test the good faith of Julian, Musa demanded that he should first invade +Andalusia himself. This he did, taking over a small force in two vessels, +overrunning the coast country, killing many of its people, and returning +with a large booty in slaves and plunder. + +In the summer of 710 a Berber named Tarif was sent over to spy out the +land, and in the spring of 711 the army of invasion was led over by Tarik +Ibn Zeyad, a valiant chief, who had gained great glory in the wars with +the Berber tribes. Who Tarik was cannot be told. He was of humble origin, +probably of Persian birth, but possessed of a daring spirit that was to +bring him the highest fame. He is described as a tall man, with red hair +and a white complexion, blind of one eye, and with a mole on his hand. The +Spanish historians call him Tarik el Tuerto, meaning either "one-eyed" or +"squint-eyed." Such was the man whom Musa sent to begin the conquest of +Spain. + +The army of invasion consisted of seven thousand men,—a handful to conquer +a kingdom. They were nearly all Moorish and Berber cavalry, there being +only three hundred Arabians of pure blood, most of whom were officers. +Landing in Spain, for a time they found no one to meet them. Roderic was +busy with his army in the north and knew naught of this invasion of his +kingdom, and for two months Tarik ravaged the land at his will. But at +length the Gothic king, warned of his danger, began a hasty march +southward, sending orders in advance to levy troops in all parts of the +kingdom, the rallying place being Cordova. + +It was a large army which he thus got together, but they were ill-trained, +ill-disciplined, and ill-disposed to their king. Ninety thousand there +were, as Arab historians tell us, while Tarik had but twelve thousand, +Musa having sent him five thousand more. But the large army was a mob, +half-armed, and lacking courage and discipline; the small army was a +compact and valorous body, used to victory, fearless, and impetuous. + +It was on Sunday, the 19th of July, 711, that the two armies came face to +face on the banks of the Guadalete, a river whose waters traverse the +plain of Sidonia, in which the battle was fought. It was one of the +decisive battles in the world’s history, for it gave the peninsula of +Spain for eight centuries to Arab dominion. The story of how this battle +was fought is, therefore, among the most important of the historical tales +of Spain. + +Roderic’s army consisted of two bodies of men,—a smaller force of +cavaliers, clad in mail armor and armed with swords and battle-axes, and +the main body, which was a motley crew, without armor, and carrying bows, +lances, axes, clubs, scythes, and slings. Of the Moslem army the greater +number wore mail, some carrying lances and scimitars of Damascus steel, +others being armed with light long-bows. Their horses were Arabian or +Barbary steeds, such as Roderic had seen on the walls of the secret +chamber. + +It was in the early morning of a bright spring day that the Spanish +clarions sounded defiance to the enemy, and the Moorish horns and +kettle-drums rang back the challenge to battle. Nearer and nearer together +came the hosts, the shouts of the Goths met by the shrill _lelies_ of the +Moslems. + +"By the faith of the Messiah," Roderic is reported to have said, "these +are the very men I saw painted on the walls of the chamber of the spell at +Toledo." From that moment, say the chroniclers, "fear entered his heart." +And yet the story goes that he fought long and well and showed no signs of +fear. + +On his journey to the south Roderic had travelled in a chariot of ivory, +lined with cloth of gold, and drawn by three white mules harnessed +abreast. On the silken awning of the chariot pearls, rubies, and other +rich jewels were profusely sprinkled. He sat with a crown of gold on his +head, and was dressed in a robe made of strings of pearls interwoven with +silk. This splendor of display, however, was not empty ostentation, but +the state and dignity which was customary with the Gothic kings. + +In his chariot of ivory Roderic passed through the ranks, exhorting the +men to valor, and telling them that the enemy was a low rabble of +heathens, abhorred of God and men. "Remember," he said, "the valor of your +ancestors and the holy Christian faith, for whose defence we are +fighting." Then he sprang from his chariot, put on his horned helmet, +mounted his war-horse Orelia, and took his station in the field, prepared +to fight like a soldier and a king. + +For two days the battle consisted of a series of skirmishes. At the end of +that time the Christians had the advantage. Their numbers had told, and +new courage came to their hearts. Tarik saw that defeat would be his lot +if this continued, and on the morning of the third day he made a fiery +appeal to his men, rousing their fanaticism and picturing the treasures +and delights which victory would bring them. He ended with his war-cry of +"Guala! Guala! Follow me, my warriors! I shall not stop until I reach the +tyrant in the midst of his steel-clad warriors, and either kill him or he +kill me!" + +At the head of his men the dusky one-eyed warrior rushed with fiery energy +upon the Gothic lines, cleaving his way through the ranks towards a +general whose rich armor seemed to him that of the king. His impetuous +charge carried him deep into their midst. The seeming king was before him. +One blow and he fell dead; while the Moslems, crying that the king of the +Goths was killed, followed their leader with resistless ardor into the +hostile ranks. The Christians heard and believed the story, and lost heart +as their enemy gained new energy. + +At this critical moment, as we are told, Bishop Oppas, brother-in-law of +the traitor Julian, drew off and joined the Moslem ranks. Whether this was +the case or not, the charge of Tarik led the way to victory. He had +pierced the Christian centre. The wings gave way before the onset of his +chiefs. Resistance was at an end. In utter panic the soldiers flung away +their arms and took to flight, heedless of the stores and treasures of +their camp, thinking of nothing but safety, flying in all directions +through the country, while the Moslems, following on their flying steeds, +cut them down without mercy. + +Roderic, the king, had disappeared. If slain in the battle, his body was +never found. Wounded and despairing, he may have been slain in flight or +been drowned in the stream. It was afterwards said that his war-horse, its +golden saddle rich with rubies, was found riderless beside the stream, and +that near by lay a royal crown and mantle, and a sandal embroidered with +pearls and emeralds. But all we can safely say is that Roderic had +vanished, his army was dispersed, and Spain was the prize of Tarik and the +Moors, for resistance was quickly at an end, and they went on from victory +to victory until the country was nearly all in their hands. + + + + + +THE TABLE OF SOLOMON. + + +We have told how King Roderic, when he invaded the enchanted palace of +Toledo, found in its empty chambers a single treasure,—the famous table of +Solomon. But this was a treasure worth a king’s ransom, a marvellous +talisman, so splendid, so beautiful, so brilliant that the chroniclers can +scarce find words fitly to describe its richness and value. Some say that +it was made of pure gold, richly inlaid with precious stones. Others say +that it was a mosaic of gold and silver, burnished yellow and gleaming +white, ornamented with three rows of priceless jewels, one being of large +pearls, one of costly rubies, and a third of gleaming emeralds. Other +writers say that its top was made of a single emerald, a talisman +revealing the fates in its lucid depths. Most writers say that it stood +upon three hundred and sixty-five feet, each made of a single emerald, +though still another writer declares that it had not a foot to stand upon. + +Evidently none of these worthy chroniclers had seen the jewelled table +except in the eye of fancy, which gave it what shape and form best fitted +its far-famed splendor. They varied equally in their history of the +talisman. A mildly drawn story says that it first came from Jerusalem to +Rome, that it fell into the hands of the Goths when they sacked the city +of the Cæsars, and that some of them brought it into Spain. But there was +a story more in accordance with the Arabian love of the marvellous which +stated that the table was the work of the Djinn, or Genii, the mighty +spirits of the air, whom the wise king Solomon had subdued and who obeyed +his commands. After Solomon’s time it was kept among the holy treasures of +the temple, and became one of the richest spoils of the Romans when they +captured and sacked Jerusalem. It afterwards became the prize of a king of +Spain, perhaps in the way stated above. + +Thus fancy has adorned the rich and beautiful work of art which Don +Roderic is said to have found in the enchanted palace, and which he placed +as the noblest of the treasures of Spain in the splendid church of Toledo, +the Gothic capital. This city fell into the hands of Tarik el Tuerto in +his conquering progress through the realm of Spain, and the emerald table, +whose fame had reached the shores of Africa, was sought by him far and +near. + +It had disappeared from the church, perhaps carried off by the bishop in +his flight. But fast as the fugitives fled, faster rode the Arab horsemen +on their track, one swift troop riding to Medina Celi, on the high road to +Saragossa. On this route they came to a city named by them +Medinatu-l-Mayidah (city of the table), in which they found the famous +talisman. They brought it to Tarik as one of the choicest spoils of Spain. + +Its later history is as curious and much more authentic than its earlier. +Tarik, as we have told in the previous tale, had been sent to Andalusia by +Musa, the caliph’s viceroy in Africa, simply that he might gain a footing +in the land, whose conquest Musa reserved for himself. But the impetuous +Tarik was not to be restrained. No sooner was Roderic slain and his army +dispersed than the Arab cavaliers spread far and wide through Spain, city +after city falling into their hands, until it seemed as if nothing would +be left for Musa to conquer. + +This state of affairs was far from agreeable to the jealous and ambitious +viceroy. He sent messengers to the caliph at Damascus, in which he claimed +the conquest of Spain as his own, and barely mentioned the name of the +real conqueror. He severely blamed Tarik for presuming to conquer a +kingdom without direct orders, and, gathering an army, he crossed to +Spain, that he might rightfully claim a share in the glory of the +conquest. + +Tarik was not ignorant of what Musa had done. He expected to be called +sharply to account by his jealous superior, and knew well that his +brilliant deeds had been overlooked in the viceroy’s despatches to +Damascus, then the capital of the Arab empire. The daring soldier was +therefore full of joy when the table of Solomon fell into his hands. He +hoped to win favor from Al-Walid, the caliph, by presenting him this +splendid prize. Yet how was he to accomplish this? Would not Musa, who was +well aware of the existence and value of the table, claim it as his own +and send it to Al-Walid with the false story that he had won it by the +power of his arms? + +To defeat this probable act Tarik devised a shrewd stratagem. The table, +as has been stated, was abundantly provided with feet, but of these four +were larger than the rest. One of the latter Tarik took off and concealed, +to be used in the future if what he feared should come to pass. + +As it proved, he had not misjudged his jealous lord. In due time Musa came +to Toledo and rode in state through the gate-way of that city, Tarik +following like a humble servitor in his train. As soon as he reached the +palace he haughtily demanded a strict account of the spoils. These were at +hand, and were at once delivered up. Their number and value should have +satisfied his avarice, but the wonderful table of Solomon, of which he had +heard such marvellous accounts, was not among them, and he demanded that +this, too, should be brought forward. As Tarik had foreseen, he designed +to send it to the caliph, as an acceptable present and an evidence of his +victorious career. + +The table was produced, and Musa gazed upon it with eyes of delight. His +quick glance, however, soon discovered that one of the emerald feet was +missing. + +"It is imperfect," he said. "Where is the missing foot?" + +"That I cannot tell you," replied Tarik; "you have the table as it was +brought to me." + +Musa, accepting this answer without suspicion, gave orders that the lost +foot should be replaced with one of gold. Then, after thanking the other +leading officers for their zeal and valor, he turned upon Tarik and +accused him in severe tones of disobedience. He ended by depriving him of +his command and putting him under arrest, while he sent the caliph a +report in which Tarik was sharply blamed and the merit of his exploits +made light of. He would have gone farther and put him to death, but this +he dared not do without the caliph’s orders. + +As it proved, Al-Walid, the Commander of the Faithful, knew something of +the truth. Far distant as Damascus was from Toledo, a report of Tarik’s +exploits had reached his august ears, and Musa received orders to replace +him in his command, since it would not do "to render useless one of the +best swords of Islam." Musa dared not disobey; and thus, for the time +being, Tarik triumphed. + +And now, for the end of the trouble between Musa and Tarik, we must go +forward in time. They were left in Spain until they had completed the +conquest of that kingdom, then both were ordered to appear before the +caliph’s judgment seat. This they did in different methods. Tarik, who had +no thirst for spoil, made haste, with empty hands, to Damascus, where, +though he had no rich presents for the commander of the faithful, he +delighted him with the story of his brilliant deeds. Musa came more slowly +and with more ostentation. Leaving his sons in command in Spain and +Africa, he journeyed slowly to Syria, with all the display of a triumphal +march. With him were one hundred of his principal officers, as many sons +of the highest Berber chiefs, and the kings of the Balearic Islands in all +their barbaric state. In his train rode four hundred captive nobles, each +wearing a crown and girdle of gold, and thirty thousand captives of lower +rank. At intervals in the train were camels and wagons, richly laden with +gold, jewels, and other spoils. He brought to the East the novelties of +the West, hawks, mules, and Barbary horses, and the curious fruits of +Africa and Spain, "treasures," we are told, "the like of which no hearer +ever heard of before, and no beholder ever saw before his eyes." + +Thus the proud conqueror came, by slow marches, with frequent halts. He +left Spain in August, 713. It was February, 715, when he reached the +vicinity of Damascus, having spent a year and a half on the way. + +Meanwhile, changes had taken place in Syria. Al-Walid, the caliph, was +sick unto death, suffering from a mortal disease, Soliman, his brother and +heir, wrote to Musa when at Tiberias, on the Sea of Galilee, asking him to +halt there, as his brother could live but a few days. He, as the new +caliph, would receive him. Al-Walid in turn ordered him to hasten his +march. Musa was in a quandary. If Al-Walid should live, delay might be +fatal. If he should die, haste might be fatal. He took what seemed to him +the safest course, hastened to Damascus, and met with a brilliant +reception. But a change soon came; in forty days Al-Walid died; Soliman, +whom he had disobeyed, was caliph of the empire. Musa’s sun was near its +setting. + +It was not long before the conqueror found himself treated as a criminal. +He was charged with rapacity, injustice to Tarik, and the purpose of +throwing all power into the hands of his sons. He was even accused of +"disobedience" for making a triumphal entry into Damascus before the death +of Al-Walid. These and other charges were brought, Soliman being bent on +the ruin of the man who had added Africa to the Arabian empire. + +When Musa was brought before the caliph for a final hearing Tarik and many +other soldiers from Spain were present, and there stood before the +monarch’s throne the splendid table of Solomon, one of the presents which +Musa had made to Al-Walid, declaring it to be the most magnificent of all +the prizes of his valor. + +"Tell me," said the caliph to Tarik, "if you know whence this table came." + +"It was found by me," answered Tarik. "If you would have evidence of the +truth of my words, O caliph, have it examined and see if it be perfect." + +Soliman gave orders, the table was closely examined, and it was soon +discovered that one of its emerald feet was gone and that a foot of gold +occupied its place. + +"Ask Musa," said Tarik, "if this was the condition of the table when he +found it." + +"Yes," answered Musa, "it was as you see it now." + +Tarik answered by taking from under his mantle the foot of emerald which +he had removed, and which just matched the others. + +"You may learn now," he said to the caliph, "which of us is the +truth-teller. Here is the lost leg of the table. I found the table and +kept this for evidence. It is the same with most of the treasures Musa has +shown you. It was I who won them and captured the cities in which they +were found. Ask any of these soldiers if I speak the truth or not." + +These words were ruinous to Musa. The table had revenged its finder. If +Musa had lied in this case, he had lied in all. So held the angry caliph, +who turned upon him with bitter abuse, calling him thief and liar, and +swearing by Allah that he would crucify him. In the end he ordered the old +man, fourscore years of age, corpulent and asthmatic, to be exposed to the +fierce sun of Syria for a whole summer’s day, and bade his brother Omar to +see that the cruel sentence was executed. + +Until high noon had passed the old warrior stood under the scorching solar +rays, his blood at length seeming to boil in his veins, while he sank +suffocated to the earth. Death would soon have ended his suffering had not +Omar, declaring "that he had never passed a worse day in his life," +prevailed upon the caliph to abridge his punishment. + +Bent upon his utter ruin, the vindictive Soliman laid upon him the +enormous fine of four million and thirty thousand dinars, equal to about +ten million dollars. His sons were left in power in Spain that they might +aid him in paying the fine. Great as the sum was, Musa, by giving up his +own fortune, by the aid of his sons in Africa and Spain, and by assistance +from his friends, succeeded in obtaining it. But even this did not satisfy +the caliph, who now banished him to his birthplace, that his early friends +might see and despise him in his ruin. He even determined to destroy his +sons, that the whole family might be rooted out and none be left in whose +veins the blood of Musa ran. + +The ablest of these sons, Abdul-Aziz, had been left in chief command over +Spain. Thither the caliph sent orders for his death. Much as the young +ruler was esteemed, wisely as he had ruled, no one thought of questioning +an order of the Commander of the Faithful, the mighty autocrat of the +great Arabian empire, and the innocent Abdul was assassinated by some who +had been among his chief friends. His head was then cut off, embalmed, and +sent to Soliman, before whom it was laid, enclosed in a casket of precious +wood. + +Sending for Musa, the vindictive caliph had the casket opened in his +presence, saying, as the death-like features appeared, "Do you know whose +head that is?" + +The answer of Musa was a pathetic one. Never was there a Moslem, he said, +who less deserved such a fate; never a man of milder heart, braver soul, +or more pious and obedient disposition. In the end the poor old man broke +down, and he could only murmur,— + +"Grant me his head, O Commander of the Faithful, that I may shut the lids +of his eyes." + +"Thou mayest take it," was Soliman’s reply. + +And so Musa left the caliph’s presence, heart-broken and disconsolate. It +is said that before he died he was forced to beg his bread. Of Tarik we +hear no more. He had fully repaid Musa for his injustice, but the caliph, +who perhaps feared to let any one become too great, failed to restore him +to his command, and he disappeared from history. The cruel Soliman lived +only a year after the death of the victim of his rage. He died in 717, of +remorse for his injustice to Musa, say some, but the record of history is +that he was defeated before Constantinople and died of grief. + +Thus ends our story of the table of Solomon. It brought good to none who +had to do with it, and utter disaster to him who had made it an agent of +falsehood and avarice. Injustice cannot hope to hide itself behind a +talisman. + + + + + +THE STORY OF QUEEN EXILONA. + + +When Roderic overthrew the ancient dynasty of Spain and made himself king, +he had the defences of the cities thrown down that they might not give +shelter to his enemies. Only the walls of the frontier cities were left, +and among these was the ancient city of Denia, on the Mediterranean +shores. Dread of the Moorish pirates was felt in this stronghold, and a +strong castle was built on a high rock that overlooked the sea. To the old +alcaide who served as governor of Denia word was brought, at the end of a +day of fierce tempest, that a Moorish ship was approaching the shore. +Instantly the bells were rung to rouse the people, and signal fires were +kindled on the tower that they might flash from peak to peak the news of +an invasion by the Moors. + +But as the ship came closer it was seen that alarm had been taken too +soon. The vessel was alone and had evidently been in the grip of the +tempest. It was seen to be a bark rich in carving and gilding, adorned +with silken banderoles, and driven through the water by banks of crimson +oars; a vessel of state and ceremony, not a ship of war. As it came nearer +it was perceived to have suffered severely in the ruthless grasp of the +storm. Broken were its masts and shattered its oars, while there fluttered +in the wind the torn remnants of its banners and sails. When at length it +grounded on the sands below the castle the proud bark was little better +than a shattered wreck. + +It was with deep curiosity that the Spaniards saw on the deck of the +stranded bark a group of high-born Moors, men and maidens dressed in robes +of silk rich with jewels, and their features bearing the stamp of lofty +rank. In their midst stood a young lady of striking beauty, sumptuously +attired, and evidently of the highest station, for all paid her reverence, +and a guard of armed Moors stood around her, scimitar in hand. + +On landing, a venerable Moor approached the alcaide, who had descended to +meet the strangers, and said, in such words of the Gothic language as he +could command,— + +"Worthy sir, we beg your protection and compassion. The princess under our +care is the only daughter of the king of Algiers, on her way to the court +of the king of Tunis, to whom she is betrothed. The tempest has driven us +to your shores. Be not, we implore you, more cruel than the storm, which +has spared us and our precious charge." + +The alcaide returned a courteous answer, offering the princess and her +train the shelter of the castle, but saying that he had not the power to +release them. They must hold themselves the captives of Roderic, the king +of the Goths, to whom his duty required him to send them. The fate of a +royal captive, he said, could be decided only by the royal voice. + +Some days afterwards Elyata, the Moorish princess, entered Toledo in a +procession more like that of a triumphant heroine than of a captive. A +band of Christian horsemen preceded the train. The Moorish guard, richly +attired, followed. In the midst rode the princess, surrounded by her +maidens and dressed in her bridal robes, which were resplendent with +pearls, diamonds, and other gems. Roderic advanced in state from his +palace to receive her, and was so struck with her beauty and dignity of +aspect that at first sight warm emotions filled his heart. + +Elyata was sadly downcast at her captivity, but Roderic, though not +releasing her, did all he could to make her lot a pleasant one. A royal +palace was set aside for her residence, in whose spacious apartments and +charming groves and gardens the grief of the princess gradually softened +and passed away. Roderic, moved by a growing passion, frequently visited +her, and in time soft sentiments woke in her heart for the handsome and +courteous king. When, in the end, he begged her to become his bride her +blushes and soft looks spoke consent. + +One thing was wanting. Roderic’s bride should be a Christian. Taught the +doctrines of the new faith by learned bishops, Elyata’s consent to the +change of faith was easily won, and the princess was baptized as a +Christian maiden under the new name of Exilona. The marriage was +celebrated with the greatest magnificence, and was followed by tourneys +and banquets and all the gayeties of the time. Some of the companions of +the princess accepted the new faith and remained with her. Those who clung +to their old belief were sent back to Africa with rich presents from the +king, an embassy going with them to inform the monarch of Algiers of his +daughter’s marriage, and to offer him the alliance and friendship of +Roderic the Gothic king. + + [Illustration: TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR.] + + TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR. + + +Queen Exilona passed a happy life as the bride of the Gothic monarch, but +many were the vicissitudes which lay before her, for the Arab conquest was +near at hand and its effects could not but bear heavily upon her destiny. +After the defeat and death of Roderic a considerable number of noble Goths +sought shelter in the city of Merida, among them the widowed queen. +Thither came Musa with a large army and besieged the city. It was strongly +and bravely defended, and the gallant garrison only yielded when famine +came to the aid of their foes. + +A deputation from the city sought the Arab camp and was conducted to the +splendid pavilion of Musa, whom the deputies found to be an old man with +long white beard and streaming white hair. He received them kindly, +praised them for their valor, and offered them favorable terms. They +returned the next day to complete the conditions. On this day the +Mohammedan fast of Ramadhan ended, and the Arabs, who had worn their +meanest garb, were now in their richest attire, and joy had everywhere +succeeded penitent gloom. As for Musa, he seemed transformed. The meanly +dressed and hoary ancient of the previous visit now appeared a man in the +prime of life, his beard dark-red in hue, and his robes rich with gold and +jewels. The Goths, to whom the art of dyeing the hair was unknown, looked +on the transformation as a miracle. + +"We have seen," they said on their return, "their king, who was an old +man, become a young one. We have to do with a nation of prophets who can +change their appearance at will and transform themselves into any shape +they like. Our advice is that we should grant Musa his demands, for men +like these we cannot resist." + +The stratagem of the Arab was successful, the gates were opened, and +Merida became a captive city. The people were left their private wealth +and were free to come and go as they would, with the exception of some of +their noblest, who were to be held as hostages. Among these was the +widowed Queen Exilona. + +She was still young and beautiful. By paying tribute she was allowed to +live unmolested, and in this way she passed to the second phase of her +romantic career. Arab fancy has surrounded her history with many +surprising incidents, and Lope de Vega, the Spanish dramatist, has made +her the heroine of a romantic play, but her actual history is so full of +interest that we need not draw contributions from fable or invention. + +When Musa went to Syria at the command of the caliph he left his son +Abdul-Aziz as emir or governor of Spain. The new emir was a young, +handsome, and gallant man. He had won fame in Africa, and gained new +repute for wisdom and courage in Spain. The Moorish princess who had +become a Gothic queen was now a hostage in his hands, and her charms moved +his susceptible heart. His persuasive tongue and attractive person were +not without their effect upon the fair captive, who a second time lost her +heart to her captor, and agreed once more to become a bride. Her first +husband had been the king of Gothic Spain. Her second was the ruler of +Moorish Spain. She declined to yield her Christian creed, but she became +his wife and the queen of his heart, called by him Ummi-Assam, a name of +endearment common in Arab households. + +Exilona was ambitious, and sought to induce her new husband to assume the +style of a king. She made him a crown of gold and precious stones which +her soft persuasion induced him to wear. She bowed in his presence as if +to a royal potentate, and to oblige the nobles to do the same she induced +him to have the door-way of his audience chamber made so low that no one +could enter it without making an involuntary bow. She even tried to +convert him to Christianity, and built a low door to her oratory, so that +any one entering would seem to bow to the cross. + +These arts of the queen proved fatal to the prince whom she desired to +exalt, for this and other stories were told to the caliph, who was seeking +some excuse to proceed against the sons of Musa, whose ruin he had sworn. +It was told him that Abdul-Aziz was seeking to make Spain independent and +was bowing before strange gods. Soliman asked no more, but sent the order +for his death. + +It was to friends of the emir that the fatal mandate was sent. They loved +the mild Abdul, but they were true sons of Islam, and did not dare to +question the order of the Commander of the Faithful. The emir was then at +a villa near Seville, whither he was accustomed to withdraw from the cares +of state to the society of his beloved wife. Near by he had built a +mosque, and here, on the morning of his death, he entered and began to +read the Koran. + +A noise at the door disturbed him, and in a moment a throng burst into the +building. At their head was Habib, his trusted friend, who rushed upon him +and struck him with a dagger. The emir was unhurt, and sought to escape, +but the others were quickly upon him, and in a moment his body was rent +with dagger strokes and he had fallen dead. His head was at once cut off, +embalmed, and sent to the caliph. The cruel use made of it we have told. + +A wild commotion followed when the people learned of this murder, but it +was soon quelled. The power of the caliph was yet too strong to be +questioned, even in far-off Spain. What became of Exilona we do not know. +Some say that she was slain with her husband; some that she survived him +and died in privacy. However it be, her life was one of singular romance. + +As for the kindly and unfortunate emir, his memory was long fondly +cherished in Spain, and his name still exists in the title of a valley in +the suburbs of Antequera, which was named Abdelaxis in his honor. + + + + + +PELISTES, THE DEFENDER OF CORDOVA. + + +No sooner had Tarik defeated the Christian army on the fatal field of +Sidonia than he sent out detachments of horsemen in all directions, hoping +to win the leading cities of Spain before the people should recover from +their terror. One of these detachments, composed of seven hundred horse, +was sent against Cordova, an ancient city which was to become the capital +of Moslem Spain. This force was led by a brave soldier named Magued, a +Roman or Greek by birth, who had been taken prisoner when a child and +reared in the Arab faith. He now ranked next to Tarik in the arts and +stratagems of war, and as a horseman and warrior was the model and +admiration of his followers. + +Among the Christian leaders who had fled from the field of the Guadalete +was an old and valiant Gothic noble, Pelistes by name, who had fought in +the battle front until his son sank in death and most of his followers had +fallen around him. Then, with the small band left him, he rode in all +haste to Cordova, which he hoped to hold as a stronghold of the Goths. But +he found himself almost alone in the town, most of whose inhabitants had +fled with their valuables, so that, including the invalids and old +soldiers found there, he had but four hundred men with whom to defend the +city. + +A river ran south of the city and formed one of its defences. To its banks +came Magued,—led, say some of the chronicles, by the traitor, Count +Julian,—and encamped in a forest of pines. He sent heralds to the town, +demanding its surrender, and threatening its defenders with death if they +resisted. But Pelistes defied him to do his worst. + +What Magued might have found difficult to do by force he accomplished by +stratagem. A shepherd whom he had captured told him of the weakness of the +garrison, and acquainted him with a method by which the city might be +entered. Forcing the rustic to act as guide, Magued crossed the river on a +stormy night, swimming the stream with his horses, each cavalier having a +footman mounted behind him. By the time they reached the opposite shore +the rain had changed to hail, whose loud pattering drowned the noise of +the horses’ hoofs as the assailants rode to a weak place in the wall of +which the shepherd had told them. Here the battlements were broken and +part of the wall had fallen, and near by grew a fig-tree whose branches +stretched towards the breach. Up this climbed a nimble soldier, and by +hard effort reached the broken wall. He had taken with him Magued’s +turban, whose long folds of linen were unfolded and let down as a rope, by +whose aid others soon climbed to the summit. The storm had caused the +sentries to leave their posts, and this part of the wall was left +unguarded. + +In a short time a considerable number of the assailants had gained the top +of the wall. Leaping from the parapet, they entered the city and ran to +the nearest gate, which they flung open to Magued and his force. The city +was theirs; the alarm was taken too late, and all who resisted were cut +down. By day-dawn Cordova was lost to Spain with the exception of the +church of St. George, a large and strong edifice, in which Pelistes had +taken refuge with the remnant of his men. Here he found an ample supply of +food and obtained water from some secret source, so that he was enabled to +hold out against the enemy. + +For three long months the brave garrison defied its foes, though Magued +made every effort to take the church. How they obtained water was what +most puzzled him, but he finally discovered the secret through the aid of +a negro whom the Christians had captured and who escaped from their hands. +The prisoner had learned during his captivity that the church communicated +by an underground channel with a spring somewhere without. This was sought +for with diligence and at length found, whereupon the water supply of the +garrison was cut off at its source, and a new summons to surrender was +made. + +There are two stories of what afterwards took place. One is that the +garrison refused to surrender, and that Magued, deeply exasperated, +ordered the church to be set on fire, most of its defenders perishing in +the flames. The other story is a far more romantic one, and perhaps as +likely to be true. This tells us that Pelistes, weary of long waiting for +assistance from without, determined to leave the church in search of aid, +promising, in case of failure, to return and die with his friends. + +Mounted on the good steed that he had kept alive in the church, and armed +with lance, sword, and shield, the valiant warrior set forth before the +dawn, and rode through the silent streets, unseen by sentinel or early +wayfarer. The vision of a Christian knight on horseback was not likely to +attract much attention, as there were many renegade Christians with the +Moors, brought thither in the train of Count Julian. Therefore, when the +armed warrior presented himself at a gate of the city just as a foraging +party was entering, he rode forth unnoticed in the confusion and galloped +briskly away towards the neighboring mountains. + +Having reached there he stopped to rest, but to his alarm he noticed a +horseman in hot pursuit upon his trail. Spurring his steed onward, +Pelistes now made his way into the rough intricacies of the mountain +paths; but, unluckily, as he was passing along the edge of a declivity, +his horse stumbled and rolled down into the ravine below, so bruising and +cutting him in the fall that, when he struggled to his feet, his face was +covered with blood. + +While he was in this condition the pursuer rode up. It proved to be Magued +himself, who had seen him leave the city and had followed in haste. To his +sharp summons for surrender the good knight responded by drawing his +sword, and, wounded and bleeding as he was, put himself in posture for +defence. + +The fight that followed was as fierce as some of those told of King +Arthur’s knights. Long and sturdily the two champions fought, foot to +foot, sword to scimitar, until their shields and armor were rent and +hacked and the ground was red with their blood. Never had those hills seen +so furious a fight by so well-matched champions, and during their +breathing spells the two knights gazed upon each other with wonder and +admiration. Magued had never met so able an antagonist before, nor +Pelistes encountered so skilfully wielded a blade. + +But the Gothic warrior had been hurt by his fall. This gave Magued the +advantage, and he sought to take his noble adversary alive. Finally, weak +from loss of blood, the gallant Goth gave a last blow and fell prostrate. +In a moment Magued’s point was at his throat, and he was bidden to ask for +his life or die. No answer came. Unlacing the helmet of the fallen knight, +Magued found him insensible. As he debated with himself how he would get +the captive of his sword to the city, a group of Moorish cavaliers rode up +and gazed with astonishment on the marks of the terrible fight. The +Christian knight was placed by them on a spare horse and carried to +Cordova’s streets. + +As the train passed the beleaguered church its garrison, seeing their late +leader a captive in Moorish hands, sallied fiercely out to his rescue, and +for some minutes the street rang sharply with the sounds of war. But +numbers gathered to the defence, the assailants were driven back, and the +church was entered by their foes, the clash of arms resounding within its +sacred precincts. In the end most of the garrison were killed and the rest +made prisoners. + +The wounded knight was tenderly cared for by his captor, soon regaining +his senses, and in time recovering his health. Magued, who had come to +esteem him highly, celebrated his return to health by a magnificent +banquet, at which every honor was done the noble knight. The Arabs knew +well how to reward valor, even in a foe. + +In the midst of the banquet Pelistes spoke of a noble Christian knight he +once had known, his brother in arms and the cherished friend of his heart, +one whom he had most admired and loved of all the Gothic host,—his old and +dear comrade, Count Julian. + +"He is here!" cried some of the Arabs, enthusiastically, pointing to a +knight who had recently entered. "Here is your old friend and comrade, +Count Julian." + +"That Julian!" cried Pelistes, in tones of scorn; "that traitor and +renegade my friend and comrade! No, no; this is not Julian, but a fiend +from hell who has entered his body to bring him dishonor and ruin." + +Turning scornfully away he strode proudly from the room, leaving the +traitor knight, overwhelmed with shame and confusion, the centre of a +circle of scornful looks, for the Arabs loved not the traitor, however +they might have profited by his treason. + +The fate of Pelistes, as given in the Arab chronicles, was a tragic one. +Magued, who had never before met his equal at sword play, proposed to send +him to Damascus, thinking that so brave a man would be a fitting present +to the caliph and a living testimony to his own knightly prowess. But +others valued the prize of valor as well as Magued, Tarik demanding that +the valiant prisoner should be delivered to him, and Musa afterwards +claiming possession. The controversy ended in a manner suitable to the +temper of the times, Magued slaying the captive with his own hand rather +than deliver to others the prize of his sword and shield. + + + + + +THE STRATAGEM OF THEODOMIR. + + +The defeat of the Guadalete seemed for the time to have robbed the Goths +of all their ancient courage. East and west, north and south, rode the +Arab horsemen, and stronghold after stronghold fell almost without +resistance into their hands, until nearly the whole of Spain had +surrendered to the scimitar. History has but a few stories to tell of +valiant defence by the Gothic warriors. One was that of Pelistes, at +Cordova, which we have just told. The other was that of the wise and +valorous Theodomir, which we have next to relate. + +Abdul-Aziz, Musa’s noble son, whose sad fate we have chronicled, had been +given the control of Southern Spain, with his head-quarters in Seville. +Here, after subduing the Comarca, he decided on an invasion of far-off +Murcia, the garden-land of the south, a realm of tropic heat, yet richly +fertile and productive. There ruled a valiant Goth named Theodomir, who +had resisted Tarik on his landing, had fought in the fatal battle in which +Roderic fell, and had afterwards, with a bare remnant of his followers, +sought his own territory, which after him was called the land of Tadmir. + +Hither marched Abdul-Aziz, eager to meet in battle a warrior of such +renown, and to add to his dominions a country so famed for beauty and +fertility. He was to find Theodomir an adversary worthy of his utmost +powers. So small was the force of the Gothic lord that he dared not meet +the formidable Arab horsemen in open contest, but he checked their advance +by all the arts known in war, occupying the mountain defiles and gorges +through which his country must be reached, cutting off detachments, and +making the approach of the Arabs difficult and dangerous. + + [Illustration: A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS.] + + A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS. + + +His defence was not confined to the hills. At times he would charge +fiercely on detached parties of Arabs in the valleys or plains, and be off +again to cover before the main force could come up. Long he defeated every +effort of the Arab leader to bring on an open battle, but at length found +himself cornered at Lorca, in a small valley at a mountain’s foot. Here, +though the Goths fought bravely, they found themselves too greatly +outnumbered, and in the end were put to panic-flight, numbers of them +being left dead on the hotly contested field. + +The handful of fugitives, sharply pursued by the Moorish cavalry, rode in +all haste to the fortified town of Orihuela, a place of such strength that +with sufficient force they might have defied there the powerful enemy. But +such had been their losses in battle and in flight that Theodomir found +himself far too weak to face the Moslem host, whose advance cavalry had +followed so keenly on his track as to reach the outer walls by the time he +had fairly closed the gates. + +Defence was impossible. He had not half enough men to guard the walls and +repel assaults. It would have been folly to stand a siege, yet Theodomir +did not care to surrender except on favorable terms, and therefore adopted +a shrewd stratagem to deceive the enemy in regard to his strength. + +To the surprise of the Arab leader the walls of the town, which he had +thought half garrisoned, seemed to swarm with armed and bearded warriors, +far too great a force to be overcome by a sudden dash. In the face of so +warlike an array, caution awoke in the hearts of the assailants. They had +looked for an easy victory, but against such numbers as these assault +might lead to severe bloodshed and eventual defeat. They felt that it +would be necessary to proceed by the slow and deliberate methods of a +regular siege. + +While Abdul-Aziz was disposing his forces and making heedful preparations +for the task he saw before him, he was surprised to see the principal gate +of the city thrown open and a single Gothic horseman ride forth, bearing a +flag of truce and making signals for a parley. A safe-conduct was given +him, and he was led to the tent of the Moslem chief. + +"Theodomir has sent me to negotiate with you," he said, "and I have full +power to conclude terms of surrender. We are abundantly able to hold out, +as you may see by the forces on our walls, but as we wish to avoid +bloodshed we are willing to submit on honorable terms. Otherwise we will +defend ourselves to the bitter end." + +The boldness and assurance with which he spoke deeply impressed the Arab +chief. This was not a fearful foe seeking for mercy, but a daring +antagonist as ready to fight as to yield. + +"What terms do you demand?" asked Abdul-Aziz. + +"My lord," answered the herald, "will only surrender on such conditions as +a generous enemy should grant and a valiant people receive. He demands +peace and security for the province and its people and such authority for +himself as the strength of his walls and the numbers of his garrison +justify him in demanding." + +The wise and clement Arab saw the strength of the argument, and, glad to +obtain so rich a province without further loss of life, he assented to the +terms proposed, bidding the envoy to return and present them to his chief. +The Gothic knight replied that there was no need of this, he having full +power to sign the treaty. The terms were therefore drawn up and signed by +the Arab general, after which the envoy took the pen and, to the +astonishment of the victor, signed the name of Theodomir at the foot of +the document. It was the Gothic chief himself. + +Pleased alike with his confidence and his cleverness, Abdul-Aziz treated +the Gothic knight with the highest honor and distinction. At the dawn of +the next day the gates of the city were thrown open for surrender, and +Abdul-Aziz entered at the head of a suitable force. But when the garrison +was drawn up in the centre of the city for surrender, the surprise of the +Moslem became deep amazement. What he saw before him was a mere handful of +stalwart soldiers, eked out with feeble old men and boys. But the main +body before him was composed of women, whom the astute Goth had bidden to +dress like men and to tie their long hair under their chins to represent +beards; when, with casques on their heads and spears in their hands, they +had been ranged along the walls, looking at a distance like a line of +sturdy warriors. + +Theodomir waited with some anxiety, not knowing how the victor would +regard this stratagem. Abdul might well have viewed with anger the +capitulation of an army of women and dotards, but he had a sense of humor +and a generous heart, and the smile of amusement on his face told the +Gothic chief that he was fully forgiven for his shrewd stratagem. +Admiration was stronger than mortification in the Moslem’s heart. He +praised Theodomir for his witty and successful expedient, and for the +three days that he remained at Orihuela banquets and fêtes marked his +stay, he occupying the position of a guest rather than an enemy. No injury +was done to people or town, and the Arabs soon left the province to +continue their career of conquest, satisfied with the arrangements for +tribute which they had made. + +By a strange chance the treaty of surrender of the land of Tadmir still +exists. It is drawn up in Latin and in Arabic, and is of much interest as +showing the mode in which such things were managed at that remote date. It +stipulates that war shall not be waged against Theodomir, son of the +Goths, and his people; that he shall not be deprived of his kingdom; that +the Christians shall not be separated from their wives and children, or +hindered in the services of their religion; and that their temples shall +not be burned. Theodomir was left lord of seven cities,—Orihuela, +Valencia, Alicante, Mula, Biscaret, Aspis, and Lorca,—in which he was to +harbor no enemies of the Arabs. + +The tribute demanded of him and his nobles was a dinar (a gold coin) +yearly from each, also four measures each of wheat, barley, must, vinegar, +honey, and oil. Vassals and taxable people were to pay half this amount. + +These conditions were liberal in the extreme. The tribute demanded was by +no means heavy for a country so fertile, in which light culture yields +abundant harvests; the delightful valley between Orihuela and Murcia, in +particular, being the garden spot of Spain. The inhabitants for a long +period escaped the evils of war felt in other parts of the conquered +territory, their province being occupied by only small garrisons of the +enemy, while its distance from the chief seat of war removed it from +danger. + +After the murder of Abdul-Aziz, Theodomir sent an embassy to the Caliph +Soliman, begging that the treaty should be respected. The caliph in reply +sent orders that its stipulations should be faithfully observed. In this +the land of Tadmir almost stood alone in that day, when treaties were +usually made only to be set at naught. + + + + + +THE CAVE OF COVADONGA. + + +Tarik landed in Spain in April, 711. So rapid were the Arabs in conquest +that in two years from that date nearly the whole peninsula was in their +hands. Not quite all, or history might have another story to relate. In a +remote province of the once proud kingdom—a rugged northwest corner—a few +of its fugitive sons remained in freedom, left alone by the Arabs partly +through scorn, partly on account of the rude and difficult character of +their place of refuge. The conquerors despised them, yet this slender +group was to form the basis of the Spain we know to-day, and to expand and +spread until the conquerors would be driven from Spanish soil. + +The Goths had fled in all directions from their conquerors, taking with +them such of their valuables as they could carry, some crossing the +Pyrenees to France, some hiding in the mountain valleys, some seeking a +place of refuge in the Asturias, a rough hill country cut up in all +directions by steep, scarped rocks, narrow defiles, deep ravines, and +tangled thickets. Here the formidable Moslem cavalry could not pursue +them; here no army could deploy; here ten men might defy a hundred. The +place was far from inviting to the conquerors, but in it was sown the seed +of modern Spain. + +A motley crew it was that gathered in this rugged region, a medley of +fugitives of all ranks and stations,—soldiers, farmers, and artisans; +nobles and vassals; bishops and monks; men, women, and children,—brought +together by a terror that banished all distinctions of rank and avocation. +For a number of years this small band of fugitive Christians, gathered +between the mountains and the sea in northwestern Spain, remained quiet, +desiring only to be overlooked or disregarded by the conquerors. But in +the year 717 a leader came to them, and Spain once more lifted her head in +defiance of her invaders. + +Pelayo, the leader named, is a hero shrouded in mist. Fable surrounds him; +a circle of romantic stories have budded from his name. He is to us like +his modern namesake, the one battle-ship of Spain, which, during the +recent war, wandered up and down the Mediterranean with no object in view +that any foreigner could discover. Of the original Pelayo, some who +profess to know say that he was of the highest rank,—young, handsome, and +heroic, one who had fought under Roderic at the Guadalete, had been held +by the Arabs as a hostage at Cordova, and had escaped to his native hills, +there to infuse new life and hope into the hearts of the fugitive group. + +Ibun Hayyan, an Arabian chronicler, gives the following fanciful account +of Pelayo and his feeble band. "The commencement of the rebellion happened +thus: there remained no city, town, or village in Galicia but what was in +the hands of the Moslems with the exception of a steep mountain, on which +this Pelayo took refuge with a handful of men. There his followers went on +dying through hunger until he saw their numbers reduced to about thirty +men and ten women, having no other food for support than the honey which +they gathered in the crevices of the rock, which they themselves inhabited +like so many bees. However, Pelayo and his men fortified themselves by +degrees in the passes of the mountain until the Moslems were made +acquainted with their preparations; but, perceiving how few they were, +they heeded not the advice given to them, but allowed them to gather +strength, saying, ’What are thirty barbarians perched upon a rock? They +must inevitably die.’" + +Die they did not, that feeble relic of Spain on the mountain-side, though +long their only care was for shelter and safety. Here Pelayo cheered them, +doing his utmost to implant new courage in their fearful hearts. At length +the day came when Spain could again assume a defiant attitude, and in the +mountain valley of Caggas de Onis Pelayo raised the old Gothic standard +and ordered the beating of the drums. Beyond the sound of the long roll +went his messengers seeking warriors in valley and glen, and soon his +little band had grown to a thousand stalwart men, filled with his spirit +and breathing defiance to the Moslem conquerors. That was an eventful day +for Spain, in which her crushed people again lifted their heads. + +It was a varied throng that gathered around Pelayo’s banner. Sons of the +Goths and the Romans were mingled with descendants of the more ancient +Celts and Iberians. Representatives of all the races that had overrun +Spain were there gathered, speaking a dozen dialects, yet instinct with a +single spirit. From them the modern Spaniard was to come, no longer Gothic +or Roman, but a descendant of all the tribes and races that had peopled +Spain. Some of them carried the swords and shields they had wielded in the +battle of the Guadalete, others brought the rude weapons of the +mountaineers. But among them were strong hands and stout hearts, summoned +by the drums of Pelayo to the reconquest of Spain. + +Word soon came to Al Horr, the new emir of Spain, that a handful of +Christians were in arms in the mountains of the northwest, and he took +instant steps to crush this presumptuous gathering, sending his trusty +general Al Kamah with a force that seemed abundant to destroy Pelayo and +his rebel band. + +Warning of the approach of the Moslem foe was quickly brought to the +Spanish leader, who at once left his place of assembly for the cave of +Covadonga, a natural fortress in Eastern Asturia, some five miles from +Caggas de Onis, which he had selected as a place strikingly adapted to a +defensive stand. Here rise three mountain-peaks to a height of nearly four +thousand feet, enclosing a small circular valley, across which rushes the +swift Diva, a stream issuing from Mount Orandi. At the base of Mount +Auseva, the western peak, rises a detached rock, one hundred and seventy +feet high, projecting from the mountain in the form of an arch. At a short +distance above its foot is visible the celebrated cave or grotto of +Covadonga, an opening forty feet wide, twelve feet high, and extending +twenty-five feet into the rock. + +The river sweeps out through a narrow and rocky defile, at whose narrowest +part the banks rise in precipitous walls. Down this ravine the stream +rushes in rapids and cascades, at one point forming a picturesque +waterfall seventy-five feet in height. Only through this straitened path +can the cave be reached, and this narrow ravine and the valley within +Pelayo proposed to hold with his slender and ill-armed force. + +Proudly onward came the Moslem captain, full of confidence in his powerful +force and despising his handful of opponents. Pelayo drew him on into the +narrow river passage by a clever stratagem. He had posted a small force at +the mouth of the pass, bidding them to take to flight after a discharge of +arrows. His plan worked well, the seeming retreat giving assurance to the +Moslems, who rushed forward in pursuit along the narrow ledge that borders +the Diva, and soon emerged into the broader path that opens into the +valley of Covadonga. + +They had incautiously entered a _cul-de-sac_, in which their numbers were +of no avail, and where a handful of men could hold an army at bay. A small +body of the best armed of the Spaniards occupied the cave, the others +being placed in ambush among the chestnut-trees that covered the heights +above the Diva. All kept silent until the Moslem advance had emerged into +the valley. Then the battle began, one of the most famous conflicts in the +whole history of Spain, famous not for the numbers engaged, but for the +issue involved. The future of Spain dwelt in the hands of that group of +patriots. The fight in the valley was sharp, but one-sided. The Moslem +arrows rebounded harmlessly from the rocky sides of the cave, whose +entrance could be reached only by a ladder, while the Christians, hurling +their missiles from their point of vantage into the crowded mass below, +punished them so severely that the advance was forced back upon those that +crowded the defile in the rear. Al Kamah, finding his army recoiling in +dismay and confusion, and discovering too late his error, ordered a +retreat; but no sooner had a reverse movement been instituted than the +ambushed Christians on the heights began their deadly work, hurling huge +stones and fallen trees into the defile, killing the Moslems by hundreds, +and choking up the pass until flight became impossible. + +The panic was complete. From every side the Christians rushed upon the +foe. Pelayo, bearing a cross of oak and crying that the Lord was fighting +for his people, leaped downward from the cave, followed by his men, who +fell with irresistible fury on the foe, forcing them backward under the +brow of Mount Auseva, where Al Kamah strove to make a stand. + +The elements now came to the aid of the Christians, a furious storm +arising whose thunders reverberated among the rocks, while lightnings +flashed luridly in the eyes of the terrified troops. The rain poured in +blinding torrents, and soon the Diva, swollen with the sudden fall, rose +into a flood, and swept away many of those who were crowded on its +slippery banks. The heavens seemed leagued with the Christians against the +Moslem host, whose destruction was so thorough that, if we can credit the +chronicles, not a man of the proud army escaped. + +This is doubtless an exaggeration, but the victory of Pelayo was complete +and the first great step in the reconquest of Spain was taken. The year +was 717, six years after the landing of the Arabs and the defeat of the +Goths. + +Thus ended perhaps the most decisive battle in the history of Spain. With +it new Spain began. The cave of Covadonga is still a place of pilgrimage +for the Spanish patriot, a stairway of marble replacing the ladder used by +Pelayo and his men. We may tell what followed in a few words. Their +terrible defeat cleared the territory of the Austurias of Moslem soldiers. +From every side fugitive Christians left their mountain retreats to seek +the standard of Pelayo. Soon the patriotic and daring leader had an army +under his command, by whom he was chosen king of Christian Spain. + +The Moslems made no further attack. They were discouraged by their defeat +and were engaged in a project for the invasion of Gaul that required their +utmost force. Pelayo slowly and cautiously extended his dominions, +descending from the mountains into the plains and valleys, and organizing +his new kingdom in civil as well as in military affairs. All the men under +his control were taught to bear arms, fortifications were built, the +ground was planted, and industry revived. Territory which the Moslems had +abandoned was occupied, and from a group of soldiers in a mountain cavern +a new nation began to emerge. + +Pelayo died at Caggas de Onis in the year 737, twenty years after his +great victory. After his death the work he had begun was carried forward, +until by the year 800 the Spanish dominion had extended over much of Old +Castile,—so called from its numerous castles. In a hundred years more it +had extended to the borders of New Castile. The work of reconquest was +slowly but surely under way. + + + + + + [Illustration: BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE.] + + BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE. + + + + + +THE ADVENTURES OF A FUGITIVE PRINCE. + + +A new dynasty came to the throne of the caliphs of Damascus in 750. The +line of the Ommeyades, who had held the throne since the days of the +Prophet Mohammed, was overthrown, and the line of the Abbassides began. +Abdullah, the new caliph, bent on destroying every remnant of the old +dynasty, invited ninety of its principal adherents to a banquet, where +they were set upon and brutally murdered. There followed a scene worthy of +a savage. The tables were removed, carpets were spread over the bleeding +corpses, and on these the viands were placed, the guests eating their +dinner to the dismal music of the groans of the dying victims beneath. + +The whole country was now scoured for all who were connected with the +fallen dynasty, and wherever found they were brutally slain; yet despite +the vigilance of the murderers a scion of the family of the Ommeyades +escaped. Abdurrahman, the princely youth in question, was fortunately +absent from Damascus when the order for his assassination was given. +Warned of his proposed fate, he gathered what money and jewels he could +and fled for his life, following little-used paths until he reached the +banks of the Euphrates. But spies were on his track and descriptions of +him had been sent to all provinces. He was just twenty years old, and, +unlike the Arabians in general, had a fair complexion and blue eyes, so +that he could easily be recognized, and it seemed impossible that he could +escape. + +His retreat on the Euphrates was quickly discovered, and the agents of +murder were so hot upon his track that he was forced to spring into the +river and seek for safety by swimming. The pursuers reached the banks when +the fugitives were nearly half-way across, Abdurrahman supporting his son, +four years of age, and Bedr, a servant, aiding his thirteen-year-old +brother. The agents of the caliph called them back, saying that they would +not harm them, and the boy, whose strength was giving out, turned back in +spite of his brother’s warning. When Abdurrahman reached the opposite +bank, it was with a shudder of horror that he saw the murder of the boy, +whose head was at once cut off. That gruesome spectacle decided the +question of his trusting himself to the mercy of the caliph or his agents. + +The life of the fugitive prince now became one of unceasing adventure. He +made his way by covert paths towards Egypt, wandering through the desert +in company with bands of Bedouins, living on their scanty fare, and +constantly on the alert against surprise. Light sleep and hasty flittings +were the rule with him and his few attendants as they made their way +slowly westward over the barren sands, finally reaching Egypt. Here he was +too near the caliph for safety, and he kept on westward to Barca, where he +hoped for protection from the governor, who owed his fortunes to the favor +of the late caliph. + +He was mistaken. Ibn Habib, the governor of Barca, put self-interest above +gratitude, and made vigorous efforts to seize the fugitive, whom he hoped +to send as a welcome gift to the cruel Abdullah. The life of the fugitive +was now one of hair-breadth escapes. For five years he remained in Barca, +disguised and under a false name, yet in almost daily peril of his life. +On one occasion a band of pursuers surrounded the tent in which he was and +advanced to search it. His life was saved by Tekfah, the wife of the +chief, who hid him under her clothes. When, in later years, he came to +power, he rewarded the chief and his wife richly for their kindly aid. + +On another occasion a body of horse rode into the village of tents in +which he dwelt as a guest and demanded that he should be given up. The +handsome aspect and gentle manner of the fugitive had made the tribesmen +suspect that they were the hosts of a disguised prince; he had gained a +sure place in their hearts, and they set the pursuers on a false scent. +Such a person was with them, they said, but he had gone with a number of +young men on a lion hunt in a neighboring mountain valley and would not +return until the next evening. The pursuers at once set off for the place +mentioned, and the fugitive, who had been hidden in one of the tents, rode +away in the opposite direction with his slender train. + +Leaving Barca, he journeyed farther westward over the desert, which at +that point comes down to the Mediterranean. Finally Tahart was reached, a +town within the modern Algeria, the seat of the Beni Rustam, a tribe which +gave him the kindliest welcome. To them, as to the Barcans, he seemed a +prince in disguise. Near by was a tribe of Arabs named the Nefezah, to +which his mother had belonged, and from which he hoped for protection and +assistance. Reaching this, he told his rank and name, and was welcomed +almost as a king, the tribesmen, his mother’s kindred, paying him homage, +and offering their aid to the extent of their ability in the ambitious +scheme which he disclosed. + +This was an invasion of Spain, which at that time was a scene of confusion +and turmoil, distracted by rival leaders, the people exhausted by wars and +quarrels, many of their towns burned or ruined, and the country ravaged by +famine. What could be better than for the heir of the illustrious house of +Ommeyades, flying from persecution by the Abbassides, and miraculously +preserved, to seek the throne of Spain, bring peace to that distracted +land, and found an independent kingdom in that western section of the vast +Arabian empire? + +His servant, Bedr, who had kept with him through all his varied career and +was now his chief officer, was sent to Spain on a secret mission to the +friends of the late dynasty of caliphs, of whom there were many in that +land. Bedr was highly successful in his mission. Yusuf, the Abbasside +emir, was absent from Cordova and ignorant of his danger, and all promised +well. Not waiting for the assistance promised him in Africa, the prince +put to sea almost alone. As he was about to step on board his boat a +number of Berbers gathered round and showed an intention to prevent his +departure. They were quieted by a handful of dinars and he hastened on +board,—none too soon, for another band, greedy for gold, rushed to the +beach, some of them wading out and seizing the boat and the camel’s-hair +cable that held it to the anchor. These fellows got blows instead of +dinars, one, who would not let go, having his hand cut off by a sword +stroke. The edge of a scimitar cut the cable, the sail was set, and the +lonely exile set forth upon the sea to the conquest of a kingdom. It was +evening of a spring day of the year 756 that the fugitive prince landed +near Malaga, in the land of Andalusia, where some prominent chiefs were in +waiting to receive him with the homage due to a king. + +Hundreds soon flocked to the standard of the adventurer, whose manly and +handsome presence, his beaming blue eyes, sweet smile, and gracious manner +won him the friendship of all whom he met. With steadily growing forces he +marched to Seville. Here were many of his partisans, and the people flung +open the gates with wild shouts of welcome. It was in the month of May +that the fortunes of Abdurrahman were put to the test, Yusuf having +hastily gathered a powerful force and advanced to the plain of Musarah, +near Cordova, on which field the fate of the kingdom was to be decided. + +It was under a strange banner that Abdurrahman advanced to meet the army +of the emir,—a turban attached to a lance-head. This standard afterwards +became sacred, the turban, as it grew ragged, being covered by a new one. +At length the hallowed old rags were removed by an irreverent hand, "and +from that time the empire of the Beni Ummeyah began to decline." + +We may briefly conclude our tale. The battle was fierce, but Abdurrahman’s +boldness and courage prevailed, and the army of Yusuf in the end gave way, +Cordova becoming the victor’s prize. The generous conqueror gave liberty +and distinction to the defeated emir, and was repaid in two years by a +rebellion in which he had an army of twenty thousand men to meet. Yusuf +was again defeated, and now lost his life. + +Thus it was that the fugitive prince, who had saved his life by swimming +the Euphrates under the eyes of an assassin band, became the Caliph of the +West, for under him Spain was cut loose from the dominion of the +Abbassides and made an independent kingdom, its conqueror becoming its +first monarch under the title of Abdurrahman I. + +Almansur, then the Caliph of the East, sought to recover the lost domain, +sending a large army from Africa; but this was defeated with terrible +slaughter by the impetuous young prince, who revenged himself by sending +the heads of the general and many of his officers to the caliph in bags +borne by merchants, which were deposited at the door of Almansur’s tent +during the darkness of the night. The finder was cautioned to be careful, +as the bags contained treasure. So they were brought in to the caliph, who +opened them with his own hand. Great was his fury and chagrin when he saw +what a ghastly treasure they contained. "This man is the foul fiend in +human form," he exclaimed. "Praised be Allah that he has placed a sea +between him and me." + + + + + +BERNARDO DEL CARPIO. + + +Spain, like France, had its hero of legend. The great French hero was +Roland, whose mighty deeds in the pass of Roncesvalles have been widely +commemorated in song and story. In Spanish legend the gallant opponent of +the champion of France was Bernardo del Carpio, a hero who perhaps never +lived, except on paper, but about whose name a stirring cycle of story has +grown. The tale of his life is a tragedy, as that of heroes is apt to be. +It may be briefly told. + +When Charlemagne was on the throne of France Alfonso II. was king of +Christian Spain. A hundred years had passed since all that was left to +Spain was the cave of Covadonga, and in that time a small kingdom had +grown up with Oviedo for its capital city. This kingdom had spread from +the Asturias over Leon, which gave its name to the new realm, and the slow +work of driving back the Moslem conquerors had well begun. + +Alfonso never married and had no children. People called him Alfonso the +Chaste. He went so far as to forbid any of his family to marry, so that +the love affairs of his sister, the fair infanta Ximena, ran far from +smooth. The beautiful princess loved and was loved again by the noble +Sancho Diaz, Count of Saldaña, but the king would not listen to their +union. The natural result followed; as they dared not marry in public they +did so in private, and for a year or two lived happily together, none +knowing of their marriage, and least of all the king. + +But when a son was born to them the truth came out. It threw the +tyrannical king into a violent rage. His sister was seized by his orders +and shut up in a convent, and her husband was thrown into prison for life, +some accounts saying that his eyes were put out by order of the cruel +king. As for their infant son, he was sent into the mountains of the +Asturias, to be brought up among peasants and mountaineers. + +It was known that he had been sent there by Alfonso, and the people +believed him to be the king’s son and treated him as a prince. In the +healthy out-door life of the hills he grew strong and handsome, while his +native courage was shown in hunting adventures and the perils of mountain +life. When old enough he learned the use of arms, and soon left his humble +friends for the army, in which his boldness and bravery were shown in many +encounters with the French and the Arabs. Those about him still supposed +him to be the son of the king, though Alfonso, while furnishing him with +all knightly arms and needs, neither acknowledged nor treated him as his +son. But if not a king’s son, he was a very valiant knight, and became the +terror of all the foes of Spain. + +All this time his unfortunate father languished in prison, where from time +to time he was told by his keepers of the mighty deeds of the young prince +Bernardo del Carpio, by which name the youthful warrior was known. Count +Sancho knew well that this was his son, and complained bitterly of the +ingratitude of the youth who could leave his father perishing in a prison +cell while he rode freely and joyously in the open air, engaged in battle +and banquet, and was everywhere admired and praised. He knew not that the +young warrior had been kept in ignorance of his birth. + +During this period came that great event in the early history of Spain in +which Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees with a great army and marched upon +the city of Saragossa. It was in the return from this expedition that the +dreadful attack took place in which Roland and the rear guard of the army +were slain in the pass of Roncesvalles. In Spanish story it was Bernardo +del Carpio who led the victorious hosts, and to whose prowess was due the +signal success. + +This fierce fight in a mountain-pass, in which a valiant band of +mountaineers overwhelmed and destroyed the flower of the French army, has +been exalted by poetic legend into one of the most stupendous and romantic +of events. Ponderous epic poems have made Roland their theme, numbers of +ballads and romances tell of his exploits, and the far-off echoes of his +ivory horn still sound through the centuries. One account tells that he +blew his horn so loud and long that the veins of his neck burst in the +strain. Others tell that he split a mountain in twain by a mighty stroke +of his sword Durandal. The print of his horse’s hoofs are shown on a +mountain-peak where only a flying horse could ever have stood. In truth, +Roland, whose name is barely mentioned in history, rose to be the greatest +hero of romance, the choicest and best of the twelve paladins of +Charlemagne. + +Bernardo del Carpio was similarly celebrated in Spanish song, though he +attained no such worldwide fame. History does not name him at all, but the +ballads of Spain say much of his warlike deeds. It must suffice here to +say that this doughty champion marched upon Roland and his men while they +were winding through the narrow mountain-pass, and as they advanced the +mountaineers swelled their ranks. + + "As through the glen his spears did gleam, the soldiers from the hills, + They swelled his host, as mountain-stream receives the roaring rills; + They round his banner flocked in scorn of haughty Charlemagne, + And thus upon their swords are sworn the faithful sons of Spain." + +Roland and his force lay silent in death when the valiant prince led back +his army, flushed with victory, and hailed with the plaudits of all the +people of the land. At this moment of his highest triumph the tragedy of +his life began. His old nurse, who had feared before to tell the tale, now +made him acquainted with the true story of his birth, telling him that he +was the nephew, not the son, of the king; that his mother, whom he thought +long dead, still lived, shut up for life in a convent; and that his father +lay languishing in a dungeon cell, blind and in chains. + +As may well be imagined, this story filled the soul of the young hero with +righteous wrath. He strode into the presence of the king and asked, with +little reverence, if the story were true. Alfonso surlily admitted it. +Bernardo then demanded his father’s freedom. This the king refused. +Burning with anger, the valiant youth shut himself up in his castle, +refusing to take part in the rejoicings that followed the victory, and +still sternly demanding the release of his father. + +"Is it well that I should be abroad fighting thy battles," he asked the +king, "while my father lies fettered in thy dungeons? Set him free and I +shall ask no further reward." + +Alfonso, who was obstinate in his cruelty, refused, and the indignant +prince took arms against him, joining the Moors, whom he aided to harry +the king’s dominions. Fortifying his castle, and gathering a bold and +daring band from his late followers, he made incursions deep into the +country of the king, plundering hamlet and city and fighting in the ranks +of the Moslems. + +This method of argument was too forcible even for the obstinacy of +Alfonso. His counsellors, finding the kingdom itself in danger, urged him +to grant Bernardo’s request, and to yield him his father in return for his +castle. The king at length consented, and Bernardo, as generous and +trusting as he was brave, immediately accepted the proposed exchange, +sought the king, handed him the keys of his castle, and asked him to +fulfil his share of the contract. + +Alfonso agreed to do so, and in a short time the king and his nephew rode +forth, Bernardo’s heart full of joy at the thought of meeting the parent +whom he had never yet seen. As they rode forward a train came from the +opposite direction to meet them, in the midst a tall figure, clad in +splendid attire and mounted on horseback. But there was something in his +aspect that struck Bernardo’s heart deep with dread. + +"God help me!" he exclaimed, "is that sightless and corpse-like figure the +noble Count of Saldaña, my father?" + +"You wished to see him," coldly answered the king. "He is before you. Go +and greet him." + +Bernardo did so, and reverently took the cold hand of his father to kiss +it. As he did so the body fell forward on the neck of the horse. It was +only a corpse. Alfonso had killed the father before delivering him to his +son. + +Only his guards saved the ruthless tyrant at that moment from death. The +infuriated knight swore a fearful oath of vengeance upon the king, and +rode away, taking the revered corpse with him. Unfortunately, the story of +Bernardo ends here. None of the ballads tell what he did for revenge. We +may imagine that he joined his power to the Moors and harried the land of +Leon during his after life, at length reaching Alfonso’s heart with his +vengeful blade. But of this neither ballad nor legend tells, and with the +pathetic scene of the dead father’s release our story ends. + + + + + +RUY DIAZ, THE CID CAMPEADOR. + + +Bernardo del Carpio is not the chief Spanish hero of romance. To find the +mate of Roland the paladin we must seek the incomparable Cid, the +campeador or champion of Spain, the noblest figure in Spanish story or +romance. _El Mio Cid_, "My Cid," as he is called, with his matchless horse +Bavieca and his trenchant sword Tisona, towers in Spanish tale far above +Christian king and Moslem caliph, as the pink of chivalry, the pearl of +knighthood, the noblest and worthiest figure in all that stirring age. + +Cid is an Arabic word, meaning "lord" or "chief." The man to whom it was +applied was a real personage, not a figment of fancy, though it is to +poetry and romance that he owes his fame, his story having been expanded +and embellished in chronicles, epic poems, and ballads until it bears +little semblance to actual history. Yet the deeds of the man himself +probably lie at the basis of all the splendid fictions of romance. + +The great poem in which his exploits were first celebrated, the famous +"Poema del Cid," is thought to be the oldest, as it is one of the noblest +in the Spanish language. Written probably not later than the year 1200, it +is of about three thousand lines in length, and of such merit that its +unknown author has been designated the "Homer of Spain." As it was written +soon after the death of the Cid, it could not have deviated far from +historic truth. Chief among the prose works is the "Chronicle of the +Cid,"—_Chronica del famoso Cavallero Cid Ruy Diez_,—which, with additions +from the poem, was charmingly rendered in English by the poet Southey, +whose production is a prose poem in itself. Such are the chief sources of +our knowledge of the Cid, an active, stirring figure, full of the spirit +of mediævalism, whose story seems to bring back to us the living features +of the age in which he flourished. A brave and daring knight, rousing the +jealousy of nobles and kings by his valiant deeds, now banished and now +recalled, now fighting against the Moslems, now with them, now for his own +hand, and in the end winning himself a realm and dying a king without the +name,—such is the man whose story we propose to tell. + +This hero of romance was born about the year 1040 at Bivar, a little +village near Burgos, his father being Diego Lainez, a man of gentle birth, +his mother Teresa Rodriguez, daughter of the governor of the Asturias. He +is often called Rodrigo de Bivar, from his birthplace, but usually Rodrigo +Diaz, or Ruy Diez, as his name is given in the chronicle. + +While still a boy the future prowess of the Cid was indicated. He was keen +of intellect, active of frame, and showed such wonderful dexterity in +manly exercises as to become unrivalled in the use of arms. Those were +days of almost constant war. The kingdom of the Moors was beginning to +fall to pieces; that of the Christians was growing steadily stronger; not +only did war rage between the two races, but Moor fought with Moor, +Christian with Christian, and there was abundant work ready for the strong +hand and sharp sword. This state of affairs was to the taste of the +youthful Rodrigo, whose ambition was to become a hero of knighthood. + +While gentle in manner and magnanimous in disposition, the young soldier +had an exalted sense of honor and was sternly devoted to duty. While he +was still a boy his father was bitterly insulted by Count Gomez, who +struck him in the face. The old man brooded over his humiliation until he +lost sleep and appetite, and withdrew from society into disconsolate +seclusion. + +Rodrigo, deeply moved by his father’s grief, sought and killed the +insulter, and brought the old man the bleeding head of his foe. At this +the disconsolate Diego rose and embraced his son, and bade him sit above +him at table, saying that "he who brought home that head should be the +head of the house of Layn Calvo." + +From that day on the fame of the young knight rapidly grew, until at +length he defeated and captured five Moorish kings who had invaded +Castile. This exploit won him the love of Ximena, the fair daughter of +Count Gomez, whom he had slain. Foreseeing that he would become the +greatest man in Spain, the damsel waited not to be wooed, but offered him +her hand in marriage, an offer which he was glad to accept. And ever +after, says the chronicle, she was his loving wife. + +The young champion is said to have gained the good-will of St. Lazarus and +the Holy Virgin by sleeping with a leper who had been shunned by his +knights. No evil consequences came from this example of Christian +philanthropy, while it added to the knight’s high repute. + +Fernando I., who had gathered a large Christian kingdom under his crown, +died when Rodrigo was but fifteen years of age, and in his will foolishly +cut up his kingdom between his three sons and two daughters, greatly +weakening the Christian power, and quickly bringing his sons to sword’s +point. By the will Sancho was placed over Castile, Alfonso became king of +Leon, Garcia ruled in Galicia; Urraca, one of the daughters, received the +city of Toro, and Elvira was given that of Zamora. + +Sancho was not satisfied with this division. Being the oldest, he thought +he should have all, and prepared to seize the shares of his brothers and +sisters. Looking for aid in this design, he was attracted by the growing +fame of young Rodrigo, and gained his aid in the restoration of Zamora, +which the Moors had destroyed. While thus engaged there came to Rodrigo +messengers with tribute from the five Moorish kings whom he had captured +and released. They hailed the young warrior as Sid, or Cid, and the king, +struck by the title, said that Ruy Diaz should thenceforth bear it; also +that he should be known as campeador or champion. + +King Sancho now knighted the young warrior with his own hand, and soon +after made him _alferez_, or commander of his troops. As such he was +despatched against Alfonso, who was soon driven from his kingdom of Leon +and sought shelter in the Moorish city of Toledo. Leon being occupied, the +Cid marched against Galicia, and drove out Garcia as he had done Alfonso. +Then he deprived Urraca and Elvira of the cities left them by their +father, and the whole kingdom was once more placed under a single ruler. + +It did not long remain so. Sancho died in 1072, and at once Alfonso and +Garcia hurried back from exile to recover their lost realms. But Alfonso’s +ambition equalled that of Sancho. All or none was his motto. Invading the +kingdom of Galicia, he robbed Garcia of it and held him prisoner. Then he +prepared to invade Castile, and offered the command of the army for this +enterprise to the Cid. + +The latter was ready for fighting in any form, so that he could fight with +honor. But there was doubt in his mind if service under Alfonso was +consistent with the honor of a knight. King Sancho had been assassinated +while hunting, and it was whispered that Alfonso had some share in the +murder. The high-minded Cid would not draw sword for him unless he swore +that he had no lot or part in his brother’s death. Twice the Cid gave him +the oath, whereupon, says the chronicle, "My Cid repeated the oath to him +a third time, and the king and the knights said ’Amen.’ But the wrath of +the king was exceeding great; and he said to the Cid, ’Ruy Diaz, why dost +thou press me so, man?’ From that day forward there was no love towards My +Cid in the heart of the king." + +But the king had sworn, and the Cid entered his service and soon conquered +Castile, so that Alfonso became monarch of Castile, Leon, Galicia, and +Portugal, and took the title of Emperor of Spain. As adelantado, or lord +of the marches, Ruy Diaz now occupied himself with the Moors,—fighting +where hostility reigned, taking tribute for the king from Seville and +other cities, and settling with the sword the disputes of the chiefs, or +aiding them in their quarrels. Thus he took part with Seville in a war +with Cordova, and was rewarded with so rich a present by the grateful king +that Alfonso, inspired by his secret hatred for the Cid, grew jealous and +envious. + +During these events years passed on, and the Cid’s two fair daughters grew +to womanhood and were married, at the command of the king, to the two +counts of Carrion. The Cid liked not his sons-in-law, and good reason he +had, for they were a pair of base hounds despite their lordly title. The +brides were shamefully treated by them, being stripped and beaten nearly +to death on their wedding-journey. + +When word of this outrage came to the Cid his wrath overflowed. Stalking +with little reverence into the king’s hall, he sternly demanded redress +for the brutal act. He could not appeal to the law. The husband in those +days was supreme lord and master of his wife. But there was an unwritten +law, that of the sword, and the incensed father demanded that the brutal +youths should appear in the lists and prove their honor, if they could, +against his champion. + +They dared not refuse. In those days, when the sword was the measure of +honor and justice, to refuse would have been to be disgraced. They came +into the lists, where they were beaten like the hounds that they had shown +themselves, and the noble girls were set free from their bonds. Better +husbands soon sought the Cid’s daughters, and they were happily married in +the end. + +The exploits of the Cid were far too many for us to tell. Wherever he went +victory attended his sword. On one occasion the king marched to the aid of +one of his Moorish allies, leaving the Cid behind him too sick to ride. +Here was an opportunity for the Moors, a party of whom broke into Castile +and by a rapid march made themselves masters of the fortress of Gomez. Up +from his bed of sickness rose the Cid, mounted his steed (though he could +barely sit in the saddle), charged and scattered the invaders, pursued +them into the kingdom of Toledo, and returned with seven thousand +prisoners and all the Moorish spoil. + +This brilliant defence of the kingdom was the turning point in his career. +The king of Toledo complained to Alfonso that his neutral territory had +been invaded by the Cid and his troops, and King Alfonso, seeking revenge +for the three oaths he had been compelled to take, banished the Cid from +his dominions, on the charge of invading the territory of his allies. + +Thus the champion went forth as a knight-errant, with few followers, but a +great name. Tears came into his eyes as he looked back upon his home, its +doors open, its hall deserted, no hawks upon the perches, no horses in the +stalls. "My enemies have done this," he said. "God be praised for all +things." He went to Burgos, but there the people would not receive him, +having had strict orders from the king. Their houses were closed, the +inn-keepers barred their doors, only a bold little maiden dared venture +out to tell him of the decree. As there was no shelter for him there, he +was forced to seek lodging in the sands near the town. + +Needing money, he obtained it by a trick that was not very honorable, +though in full accord with the ethics of those times. He pawned to the +Jews two chests which he said were treasure chests, filled with gold. Six +hundred marks were received, and when the chests were afterwards opened +they proved to be filled with sand. This was merely a good joke to poet +and chronicler. The Jews lay outside the pale of justice and fair-dealing. + +Onward went the Cid, his followers growing in number as he marched. First +to Barcelona, then to Saragossa, he went, seeking knightly adventures +everywhere. In Saragossa he entered the service of the Moorish king, and +for several years fought well and sturdily for his old enemies. But time +brought a change. In 1081 Alfonso captured Toledo and made that city his +capital, from which he prepared to push his way still deeper into the +Moorish dominions. He now needed the Cid, whom he had banished five years +before. + +But it was easier to ask than to get. The Cid had grown too great to be at +any king’s beck and call. He would fight for Alfonso, but in his own way, +holding himself free to attack whom he pleased and when he pleased, and to +capture the cities of the Moslems and rule them as their lord. He had +become a free lance, fighting for his own hand, while armies sprang, as it +were, from the ground at his call to arms. + +In those days of turmoil valor rarely had long to wait for opportunity. +Ramon Berenguer, lord of Barcelona, had laid siege to Valencia, an +important city on the Mediterranean coast. Thither marched the Cid with +all speed, seven thousand men in his train, and forced Ramon to raise the +siege. The Cid became governor of Valencia, under tribute to King Alfonso, +and under honor to hold it against the Moors. + +The famous champion was not done with his troubles with Alfonso. In the +years that followed he was once more banished by the faithless king, and +his wife and children were seized and imprisoned. At a later date he came +to the king’s aid in his wars, but found him again false to his word, and +was obliged to flee for safety from the camp. + +Valencia had passed from his control and had more than once since changed +hands. At length the Moorish power grew so strong that the city refused to +pay tribute to Spain and declared its independence. Here was work for the +Cid—not for the benefit of Alfonso, but for his own honor and profit. He +was weary of being made the foot-ball of a jealous and faithless monarch, +and craved a kingdom of his own. Against Valencia he marched with an army +of free swords at his back. He was fighting now for the Cid, not for +Moorish emir or Spanish monarch. For twenty months he beseiged the fair +city, until starvation came to the aid of his sword. No relief reached the +Moors; the elements fought against them, floods of rain destroying the +roads and washing away the bridges; on June 15, 1094, the Cid Campeador +marched into the city thenceforth to be associated with his name. + +Ascending its highest tower, he gazed with joy upon the fair possession +which he had won with his own good sword without aid from Spanish king or +Moorish ally, and which he proposed to hold for his own while life +remained. His city it was, and today it bears his name, being known as +Valencia del Cid. But he had to hold it with the good sword by which he +won it, for the Moors, who had failed to aid the beleaguered city, sought +with all their strength to win it back. + +During the next year thirty thousand of them came and encamped about the +walls of the city. But fighting behind walls was not to the taste of the +Cid Campeador. Out from the gates he sallied and drove them like sheep +from their camp, killing fifteen thousand of them in the fight. + +"Be it known," the chronicle tells us, "that this was a profitable day’s +work. Every foot-soldier shared a hundred marks of silver that day, and +the Cid returned full honorably to Valencia. Great was the joy of the +Christians in the Cid Ruy Diaz, who was born in a happy hour. His beard +was grown, and continued to grow, a great length. My Cid said of his chin, +’For the love of King Don Alfonso, who hath banished me from his land, no +scissors shall come upon it, nor shall a hair be cut away, and Moors and +Christians shall talk of it.’" And until he died his great beard grew on +untouched. + + [Illustration: VALENCIA DEL CID.] + + VALENCIA DEL CID. + + +Not many were the men with whom he had done his work, but they were +soldiers of tried temper and daring hearts. "There were one thousand +knights of lineage and five hundred and fifty other horsemen. There were +four thousand foot-soldiers, besides boys and others. Thus many were the +people of My Cid, him of Bivar. And his heart rejoiced, and he smiled and +said, ’Thanks be to God and to Holy Mother Mary! We had a smaller company +when we left the house of Bivar.’" + +The next year King Yussef, leader of the Moors, came again to the siege of +Valencia, this time with fifty thousand men. Small as was the force of the +Cid as compared with this great army, he had no idea of fighting cooped up +like a rat in a cage. Out once more he sallied, with but four thousand men +at his back. His bishop, Hieronymo, absolved them, saying, "He who shall +die, fighting full forward, I will take as mine his sins, and God shall +have his soul." + +A learned and wise man was the good bishop, but a valorous one as well, +mighty in arms alike on horseback and on foot. "A boon, Cid don Rodrigo," +he cried. "I have sung mass to you this morning. Let me have the giving of +the first wounds in this battle." + +"In God’s name, do as you will," answered the Cid. + +That day the bishop had his will of the foe, fighting with both hands +until no man knew how many of the infidels he slew. Indeed, they were all +too busy to heed the bishop’s blows, for, so the chronicle says, only +fifteen thousand of the Moslems escaped. Yussef, sorely wounded, left to +the Cid his famous sword Tisona, and barely escaped from the field with +his life. + +Bucar, the brother of Yussef, came to revenge him, but he knew not with +whom he had to deal. Bishop Hieronymo led the right wing, and made havoc +in the ranks of the foe. "The bishop pricked forward," we are told. "Two +Moors he slew with the first two thrusts of his lance; the haft broke and +he laid hold on his sword. God! how well the bishop fought. He slew two +with the lance and five with the sword. The Moors fled." + +"Turn this way, Bucar," cried the Cid, who rode close on the heels of the +Moorish chief; "you who came from behind sea to see the Cid with the long +beard. We must greet each other and cut out a friendship." + +"God confound such friendships," cried Bucar, following his flying troops +with nimble speed. + +Hard behind him rode the Cid, but his horse Bavieca was weary with the +day’s hard work, and Bucar rode a fresh and swift steed. And thus they +went, fugitive and pursuer, until the ships of the Moors were at hand, +when the Cid, finding that he could not reach the Moorish king with his +sword, flung the weapon fiercely at him, striking him between the +shoulders. Bucar, with the mark of battle thus upon him, rode into the sea +and was taken into a boat, while the Cid picked up his sword from the +ground and sought his men again. + +The Moorish host did not escape so well. Set upon fiercely by the +Spaniards, they ran in a panic into the sea, where twice as many were +drowned as were slain in the battle; and of these, seventeen thousand and +more had fallen, while a vast host remained as prisoners. Of the +twenty-nine kings who came with Bucar, seventeen were left dead upon the +field. + +The chronicler uses numbers with freedom. The Cid is his hero, and it is +his task to exalt him. But the efforts of the Moors to regain Valencia and +their failure to do so may be accepted as history. In due time, however, +age began to tell upon the Cid, and death came to him as it does to all. +He died in 1099, from grief, as the story goes, that his colleague, Alvar +Fañez, had suffered a defeat. Whether from grief or age, at any rate he +died, and his wife, Ximena, was left to hold the city, which for two years +she gallantly did, against all the power of the Moors. Then Alfonso +entered it, and, finding that he could not hold it, burned the principal +buildings and left it to the Moors. A century and a quarter passed before +the Christians won it again. + +When Alfonso left the city of the Cid he brought with him the body of the +campeador, mounted upon his steed Bavieca, and solemnly and slowly the +train wound on until the corpse of the mighty dead was brought to the +cloister of the monastery of Cardeña. Here the dead hero was seated on a +throne, with his sword Tisona in his hand; and, the story goes, a caitiff +Jew, perhaps wishing to revenge his brethren who had been given sand for +gold, plucked the flowing beard of the Cid. At this insult the hand of the +corpse struck out and the insulter was hurled to the floor. + +The Cid Campeador is a true hero of romance, and well are the Spaniards +proud of him. Honor was the moving spring of his career. As a devoted son, +he revenged the insult to his father; as a loving husband, he made Ximena +the partner of his fame; as a tender father, he redressed his daughters’ +wrongs; as a loyal subject, he would not serve a king on whom doubt of +treachery rested. In spite of the injustice of the king, he was true to +his country, and came again and again to its aid. Though forced into the +field as a free lance, he was throughout a Christian cavalier. And, though +he cheated the Jews, the story goes that he repaid them their gold. +Courage, courtesy, and honor were the jewels of his fame, and romance +holds no nobler hero. + +It will not be amiss to close our tale of the Cid with a quotation from +the famous poem in which it is shown how even a lion quailed before his +majesty: + + "Peter Bermuez arose; somewhat he had to say; + The words were strangled in his throat, they could not find their way; + Till forth they came at once, without a stop or stay: + ’Cid, I’ll tell you what, this always is your way; + You have always served me thus, whenever you have come + To meet here in the Cortes, you call me Peter the Dumb. + I cannot help my nature; I never talk nor rail; + But when a thing is to be done, you know I never fail. + Fernando, you have lied, you have lied in every word; + You have been honored by the Cid and favored and preferred. + I know of all your tricks, and can tell them to your face: + Do you remember in Valencia the skirmish and the chase? + You asked leave of the Cid to make the first attack, + You went to meet a Moor, but you soon came running back. + I met the Moor and killed him, or he would have killed you; + I gave you up his arms, and all that was my due. + Up to this very hour, I never said a word; + You praised yourself before the Cid and I stood by and heard + How you had killed the Moor, and done a valiant act; + And they believed you all, but they never knew the fact. + You are tall enough and handsome, but cowardly and weak, + Thou tongue without a hand, how can you dare to speak? + There’s the story of the lions should never be forgot; + Now let us hear, Fernando, what answer you have got? + The Cid was sleeping in his chair, with all his knights around; + The cry went forth along the hall that the lion was unbound. + What did you do, Fernando? Like a coward as you were, + You shrunk behind the Cid, and crouched beneath his chair. + We pressed around the throne to shield our loved from harm. + Till the good Cid awoke. He rose without alarm. + He went to meet the lion with his mantle on his arm. + The lion was abashed the noble Cid to meet; + He bowed his mane to the earth, his muzzle at his feet. + The Cid by the neck and the mane drew him to his den, + He thrust him in at the hatch, and came to the hall again. + He found his knights, his vassals, and all his valiant men. + He asked for his sons-in-law, they were neither of them there + I defy you for a coward and a traitor as you are.’" + + + + + +LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA. + + +On the 16th of July, 1212, was fought the great battle which broke the +Moorish power in Spain. During the two centuries before fresh streams of +invasion had flowed in from Africa to yield new life to the Moslem power. +From time to time in the Mohammedan world reforms have sprung up, and been +carried far and wide by fanaticism and the sword. One such body of +reformers, the Almoravides, invaded Spain in the eleventh century and +carried all before it. It was with these that the Cid Campeador had to +deal. A century later a new reformer, calling himself El Mahdi, appeared +in Africa, and set going a movement which overflowed the African states +and made its way into Spain, where it subdued the Moslem kingdoms and +threatened the Christian states. These invaders were known as the +Almohades. They were pure Moors. The Arab movement had lost its strength, +and from that time forward the Moslem dominions in Spain were peopled +chiefly by Moors. + +Spain was threatened now as France had been threatened centuries before +when Charles Martel crushed the Arab hordes on the plains of Tours. All +Christendom felt the danger and Pope Innocent III. preached a crusade for +the defence of Spain against the infidel. In response, thousands of armed +crusaders flocked into Spain, coming in corps, in bands, and as +individuals, and gathered about Toledo, the capital of Alfonso VIII., King +of Castile. From all the surrounding nations they came, and camped in the +rich country about the capital, a host which Alfonso had much ado to feed. + +Mohammed An-Nassir, the emperor of the Almohades, responded to the effort +of the Pope by organizing a crusade in Moslem Africa. He proclaimed an +_Algihed_, or Holy War, ordered a massacre of all the Christians in his +dominions, and then led the fanatical murderers to Spain to join the +forces there in arms. Christian Europe was pitted against Moslem Africa in +a holy war, Spain the prize of victory, and the plains of Andalusia the +arena of the coming desperate strife. + +The decisive moment was at hand. Mohammed left Morocco and reached Seville +in June. His new levies were pouring into Spain in hosts. On the 21st of +June Alfonso began his advance, leading southward a splendid array. +Archbishops and bishops headed the army. In the van marched a mighty force +of fifty thousand men under Don Diego Lopez de Haro, ten thousand of them +being cavalry. After them came the troops of the kings of Aragon and +Castile, each a distinct army. Next came the knights of St. John of +Calatrava and the knights of Santiago, their grand-masters leading, and +after them many other bodies, including troops from Italy and Germany. +Such a gallant host Spain had rarely seen. It was needed, for the peril +was great. While one hundred thousand marched under the Christian banners, +the green standard of the prophet, if we may credit the historians, rose +before an army nearly four times as large. + + [Illustration: ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF + BATTLE.] + + ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE. + + +Without dwelling on the events of the march, we may hasten forward to the +12th of July, when the host of Alfonso reached the vicinity of the Moorish +army, and the Navas de Tolosa, the destined field of battle, lay near at +hand. The word _navas_ means "plains." Here, on a sloping spur of the +Sierra Morena, in the upper valley of the Guadalquiver, about seventy +miles east of Cordova, lies an extended table-land, a grand plateau whose +somewhat sloping surface gave ample space for the vast hosts which met +there on that far-off July day. + +To reach the plateau was the problem before Alfonso. The Moslems held the +ground, and occupied in force the pass of Losa, Nature’s highway to the +plain. What was to be done? The pass could be won, if at all, only at +great cost in life. No other pass was known. To retire would be to +inspirit the enemy and dispirit the Christian host. No easy way out of the +quandary at first appeared, but a way was found,—by miracle, the writers +of that time say; but it hardly seems a miracle that a shepherd of the +region knew of another mountain-pass. This man, Martin Halaja, had grazed +his flocks in that vicinity for years. He told the king of a pass unknown +to the enemy, by which the army might reach the table-land, and to prove +his words led Lopez de Haro and another through this little-known mountain +by-way. It was difficult but passable, the army was put in motion and +traversed it all night long, and on the morning of the 14th of July the +astonished eyes of the Mohammedans gazed on the Christian host, holding in +force the borders of the plateau, and momentarily increasing in numbers +and strength. Ten miles before the eyes of Alfonso and his men stretched +the plain, level in the centre, in the distance rising in gentle slopes to +its border of hills, like a vast natural amphitheatre. The soldiers, +filled with hope and enthusiasm, spread through their ranks the story that +the shepherd who had led them was an angel, sent by the Almighty to lead +his people to victory over the infidel. + +Mohammed and his men had been told on the previous day by their scouts +that the camp of the Christians was breaking up, and rejoiced in what +seemed a victory without a blow. But when they saw these same Christians +defiling in thousands before them on the plain, ranged in battle array +under their various standards, their joy was changed to rage and +consternation. Against the embattled front their wild riders rode, +threatening the steady troops with brandished lances and taunting them +with cowardice. But Alfonso held his mail-clad battalions firm, and the +light-armed Moorish horsemen hesitated to attack. Word was brought to +Mohammed that the Christians would not fight, and in hasty gratulation he +sent off letters to cities in the rear to that effect. He little dreamed +that he was soon to follow his messengers in swifter speed. + +It was a splendid array upon which the Christians gazed,—one well +calculated to make them tremble for the result,—for the hosts of Mohammed +covered the hill-sides and plain like "countless swarms of locusts." On an +eminence which gave an outlook over the whole broad space stood the +emperor’s tent, of three-ply crimson velvet flecked with gold, strings of +pearls depending from its purple fringes. To guard it from assault rows of +iron chains were stretched, before which stood three thousand camels in +line. In front of these ten thousand negroes formed a living wall, their +front bristling with the steel of their lances, whose butts were planted +firmly in the sand. In the centre of this powerful guard stood the +emperor, wearing the green dress and turban of his ancestral line. +Grasping in one hand his scimitar, in the other he held a Koran, from +which he read those passages of inspiration to the Moslems which promised +the delights of Paradise to those who should fall in a holy war and the +torments of hell to the coward who should desert his ranks. + +The next day was Sunday. The Moslems, eager for battle, stood all day in +line, but the Christians declined to fight, occupying themselves in +arranging their different corps. Night descended without a skirmish. But +this could not continue with the two armies so closely face to face. One +side or the other must surely attack on the following day. At midnight +heralds called the Christians to mass and prayer. Everywhere priests were +busy confessing and shriving the soldiers. The sound of the furbishing of +arms mingled with the strains of religious service. At the dawn of the +next day both hosts were drawn up in battle array. The great struggle was +about to begin. + +The army of the Moors, said to contain three hundred thousand regular +troops and seventy-five thousand irregulars, was drawn up in crescent +shape in front of the imperial tent,—in the centre the vast host of the +Almohades, the tribes of the desert on the wings, in advance the +light-armed troops. The Christian host was formed in four legions, King +Alfonso occupying the centre, his banner bearing an effigy of the Virgin. +With him were Rodrigo Ximenes, the archbishop of Toledo, and many other +prelates. The force was less than one hundred thousand strong, some of the +crusaders having left it in the march. + +The sun was not high when the loud sound of the Christian trumpets and the +Moorish _atabals_ gave signal for the fray, and the two hosts surged +forward to meet in fierce assault. Sternly and fiercely the battle went +on, the struggling multitudes swaying in the ardor of the fight,—now the +Christians, now the Moslems surging forward or driven back. With +difficulty the thin ranks of the Christians bore the onsets of their +densely grouped foes, and at length King Alfonso, in fear for the result, +turned to the prelate Rodrigo and exclaimed,— + +"Archbishop, you and I must die here." + +"Not so," cried the bold churchman. "Here we must triumph over our +enemies." + +"Then let us to the van, where we are sorely needed, for, indeed, our +lines are being bitterly pressed." + +Nothing backward, the archbishop followed the king. Fernan Garcia, one of +the king’s cavaliers, urged him to wait for aid, but Alfonso, commending +himself to God and the Virgin, spurred forward and plunged into the thick +of the fight. And ever as he rode, by his side rode the archbishop, +wearing his chasuble and bearing aloft the cross. The Moorish troops, who +had been jeering at the king and the cross-bearing prelate, drew back +before this impetuous assault, which was given force by the troops who +crowded in to the rescue of the king. The Moors soon yielded to the +desperate onset, and were driven back in wild disarray. + +This was the beginning of the end. Treason in the Moorish ranks came to +the Christian aid. Some of Mohammed’s force, who hated him for having +cruelly slain their chief, turned and fled. The breaking of their centre +opened a way for the Spaniards to the living fortress which guarded the +imperial tent, and on this dense line of sable lancers the Christian +cavalry madly charged. + +In vain they sought to break that serried line of steel. Some even turned +their horses and tried to back them in, but without avail. Many fell in +the attempt. The Moslem ranks seemed impervious. In the end one man did +what a host had failed to perform. A single cavalier, Alvar Nuñez de Lara, +stole in between the negroes and the camels, in some way passed the +chains, and with a cheer of triumph raised his banner in the interior of +the line. A second and a third followed in his track. The gap between the +camels and the guard widened. Dozens, hundreds rushed to join their daring +leader. The camels were loosened and dispersed; the negroes, attacked +front and rear, perished or fled; the living wall that guarded the emperor +was gone, and his sacred person was in peril. + +Mohammed was dazed. His lips still repeated from the Koran, "God alone is +true, and Satan is a betrayer," but terror was beginning to stir the roots +of his hair. An Arab rode up on a swift mare, and, springing to the +ground, cried,— + +"Mount and flee, O king. Not thy steed but my mare. She comes of the +noblest breed, and knows not how to fail her rider in his need. All is +lost! Mount and flee!" + +All was lost, indeed. Mohammed scrambled up and set off at the best speed +of the Arabian steed, followed by his troops in a panic of terror. The +rout was complete. While day continued the Christian horsemen followed and +struck, until the bodies of slain Moors lay so thick upon the plain that +there was scarce room for man or horse to pass. Then Archbishop Rodrigo, +who had done so much towards the victory, stood before Mohammed’s tent and +in a loud voice intoned the _Te Deum laudamus_, the soldiers uniting in +the sacred chant of victory. + +The archbishop, who became the historian of this decisive battle, speaks +of two hundred thousand Moslem slain. We cannot believe it so many, +despite the historian’s statement. Twenty-five Christians alone fell. This +is as much too small as the other estimate is too large. But, whatever the +losses, it was a great and glorious victory, and the spoils of war that +fell to the victors were immense. Gold and silver were there in abundance; +horses, camels, and wagons in profusion; arms of all kinds, commissary +stores in quantities. So vast was the number of lances strewn on the +ground that the conquering army used only these for firewood in their +camp, and did not burn the half of them. + +King Alfonso, with a wise and prudent liberality, divided the spoil among +his troops and allies, keeping only the glory of the victory for himself. +Mohammed’s splendid tent was taken to Rome to adorn St. Peter’s, and the +captured banners were sent to the cities of Spain as evidences of the +great victory. For himself, the king reserved a fine emerald, which he +placed in the centre of his shield. Ever since that brilliant day in +Spanish annals, the sixteenth of July has been kept as a holy festival, in +which the captured banners are carried in grand procession, to celebrate +the "Triumph of the Cross." + +The supposed miracle of the shepherd was not the only one which the +monastic writers saw in the victorious event. It was said that a red +cross, like that of Calatrava, appeared in the sky, inspiriting the +Christians and dismaying their foes; and that the sight of the Virgin +banner borne by the king’s standard-bearer struck the Moslems with terror. +It was a credulous age, one in which reputed miracles could be woven out +of the most homely and every-day material. + +Death soon came to the leaders in the war. Mohammed, sullen with defeat, +hurried to Morocco, where he shut himself up in gloomy seclusion, and +died—or was poisoned—before the year’s end. Alfonso died two years later. +The Christians did not follow up their victory with much energy, and the +Moslems still held a large section of Spain, but their power had +culminated and with this signal defeat began its decline. Step by step +they yielded before the Christian advance, though nearly three centuries +more passed before they lost their final hold on Spain. + + + + + +THE KEY OF GRANADA. + + +Nearly eight hundred years had passed away after the landing of Tarik, the +Arab, in Spain and the defeat and death of Don Roderic, the last king of +the Goths. During those centuries the handful of warriors which in the +mountains of the north had made a final stand against the invading hordes +had grown and spread, pushing back the Arabs and Moors, until now the +Christians held again nearly all the land, the sole remnant of Moslem +dominion being the kingdom of Granada in the south. The map of Spain shows +the present province of Granada as a narrow district bordering on the +Mediterranean Sea, but the Moorish kingdom covered a wider space, +spreading over the present provinces of Malaga and Almeria, and occupying +one of the richest sections of Spain. It was a rock-bound region. In every +direction ran sierras, or rugged mountain-chains, so rocky and steep as to +make the kingdom almost impregnable. Yet within their sterile confines lay +numbers of deep and rich valleys, prodigal in their fertility. + +In the centre of the kingdom arose its famous capital, the populous and +beautiful city of Granada, standing in the midst of a great vega or plain, +one hundred miles and more in circumference and encompassed by the snowy +mountains of the Sierra Nevada. The seventy thousand houses of the city +spread over two lofty hills and occupied the valley between them, through +which ran the waters of the Douro. On one of these hills stood the +Alcazaba, a strong fortress; on the other rose the famous Alhambra, a +royal palace and castle, with space within its confines for forty thousand +men, and so rare and charming in its halls and courts, its gardens and +fountains, that it remains to-day a place of pilgrimage to the world for +lovers of the beautiful in architecture. And from these hills the city +between showed no less attractive, with its groves of citron, orange, and +pomegranate trees, its leaping fountains, its airy minarets, its mingled +aspect of crowded dwellings and verdant gardens. + +High walls, three leagues in circuit, with twelve gates and a thousand and +thirty towers, girded it round, beyond which extended the vega, a vast +garden of delight, to be compared only with the famous plain of Damascus. +Through it the Xenil wound in silvery curves, its waters spread over the +plain in thousands of irrigating streams and rills. Blooming gardens and +fields of waving grain lent beauty to the plain; orchards and vineyards +clothed the slopes of the hills; in the orange and citron groves the voice +of the nightingale made the nights musical. In short, all was so beautiful +below and so soft and serene above that the Moors seemed not without +warrant for their fond belief that Paradise lay in the skies overhanging +this happy plain. + +But, alas for Granada! war hung round its borders, and the blare of the +trumpet and clash of the sword were ever familiar sounds within its +confines. Christian kingdoms surrounded it, whose people envied the +Moslems this final abiding-place on the soil of Spain. Hostilities were +ceaseless on the borders; plundering forays were the delight of the +Castilian cavaliers and the Moorish horsemen. Every town was a fortress, +and on every peak stood a watch-tower, ready to give warning with a signal +fire by night or a cloud of smoke by day of any movement of invasion. For +many years such a state of affairs continued between Granada and its +principal antagonist, the united kingdoms of Castile and Leon. Even when, +in 1457, a Moorish king, disheartened by a foray into the vega itself, +made a truce with Henry IV., king of Castile and Leon, and agreed to pay +him an annual tribute, the right of warlike raids was kept open. It was +only required that they must be conducted secretly, without sound of +trumpet or show of banners, and must not continue more than three days. +Such a state of affairs was desired alike by the Castilian and Moorish +chivalry, who loved these displays of daring and gallantry, and enjoyed +nothing more than a crossing of swords with their foes. In 1465 a Moorish +prince, Muley Abul Hassan, a man who enjoyed war and hated the Christians, +came to the throne, and at once the tribute ceased to be paid. For some +years still the truce continued, for Ferdinand and Isabella, the new +monarchs of Spain, had troubles at home to keep them engaged. But in 1481 +the war reopened with more than its old fury, and was continued until +Granada fell in 1492, the year in which the wise Isabella gave aid to +Columbus for the discovery of an unknown world beyond the seas. + +The war for the conquest of Granada was one full of stirring adventure and +hair-breadth escapes, of forays and sieges, of the clash of swords and the +brandishing of spears. It was no longer fought by Spain on the principle +of the raid,—to dash in, kill, plunder, and speed away with clatter of +hoofs and rattle of spurs. It was Ferdinand’s policy to take and hold, +capturing stronghold after stronghold until all Granada was his. In a +memorable pun on the name of Granada, which signifies a pomegranate, he +said, "I will pick out the seeds of this pomegranate one by one." + +Muley Abul Hassan, the new Moorish king, began the work, foolishly +breaking the truce which Ferdinand wished a pretext to bring to an end. On +a dark night in 1481 he fell suddenly on Zahara, a mountain town on the +Christian frontier, so strong in itself that it was carelessly guarded. It +was taken by surprise, its inhabitants were carried off as slaves, and a +strong Moorish garrison was left to hold it. + +The Moors paid dearly for their daring assault. The Christians retaliated +by an attack on the strong and rich city of Alhama, a stronghold within +the centre of the kingdom, only a few leagues distant from the capital +itself. Strongly situated on a rocky height, with a river nearly +surrounding it and a fortress seated on a steep crag above it, and far +within the border, no dream of danger to Alhama came to the mind of the +Moors, who contented themselves with a small garrison and a negligent +guard. + +But the loss of Zahara had exasperated Ferdinand. His wars at home were +over and he had time to attend to the Moors, and scouts had brought word +of the careless security of the guard of Alhama. It could be reached by a +difficult and little-travelled route through the defiles of the mountains, +and there were possibilities that a secret and rapid march might lead to +its surprise. + +At the head of the enterprise was Don Rodrigo Ponce de Leon, Marquis of +Cadiz, the most distinguished champion in the war that followed. With a +select force of three thousand light cavalry and four thousand infantry, +adherents of several nobles who attended the expedition, the mountains +were traversed with the greatest secrecy and celerity, the marches being +made mainly by night and the troops remaining quiet and concealed during +the day. No fires were made and no noise was permitted, and midnight of +the third day found the invaders in a small, deep valley not far from the +fated town. Only now were the troops told what was in view. They had +supposed that they were on an ordinary foray. The inspiring tidings filled +them with ardor, and they demanded to be led at once to the assault. + +Two hours before daybreak the army was placed in ambush close to Alhama, +and a body of three hundred picked men set out on the difficult task of +scaling the walls of the castle and surprising its garrison. The ascent +was steep and very difficult, but they were guided by one who had +carefully studied the situation on a previous secret visit and knew what +paths to take. Following him they reached the foot of the castle walls +without discovery. + +Here, under the dark shadow of the towers, they halted and listened. There +was not a sound to be heard, not a light to be seen; sleep seemed to brood +over castle and town. The ladders were placed and the men noiselessly +ascended, Ortega, the guide, going first. The parapet reached, they moved +stealthily along its summit until they came upon a sleepy sentinel. +Seizing him by the throat, Ortega flourished a dagger before his eyes and +bade him point the way to the guard-room. The frightened Moor obeyed, and +a dagger thrust ended all danger of his giving an alarm. In a minute more +the small scaling party was in the guard-room, massacring the sleeping +garrison, while the remainder of the three hundred were rapidly ascending +to the battlements. + +Some of the awakened Moors fought desperately for their lives, the clash +of arms and cries of the combatants came loudly from the castle, and the +ambushed army, finding that the surprise had been effective, rushed from +their lurking-place with shouts and the sound of trumpets and drums, +hoping thereby to increase the dismay of the garrison. Ortega at length +fought his way to a postern, which he threw open, admitting the Marquis of +Cadiz and a strong following, who quickly overcame all opposition, the +citadel being soon in full possession of the Christians. + +While this went on the town took the alarm. The garrison had been +destroyed in the citadel, but all the Moors, citizens and soldiers alike, +were accustomed to weapons and warlike in spirit, and, looking for speedy +aid from Granada, eight leagues away, the tradesmen manned the battlements +and discharged showers of stones and arrows upon the Christians wherever +visible. The streets leading to the citadel were barricaded, and a steady +fire was maintained upon its gate, all who attempted to sally into the +city being shot down. + +It began to appear as if the Spaniards had taken too great a risk. Their +peril was great. Unless they gained the town they must soon be starved out +of the castle. Some of them declared that they could not hope to hold the +town even if they took it, and proposed to sack and burn the castle and +make good their retreat before the king of Granada could reach them with +his forces. + +This weak-hearted counsel was not to the taste of the valiant Ponce de +Leon. "God has given us the castle," he said, "and He will aid us in +holding it. We won it with bloodshed; it would be a stain upon our honor +to abandon it through fear. We knew our peril before we came; let us face +it boldly." + +His words prevailed, and the army was led to the assault, planting their +scaling-ladders against the walls and swarming up to attack the Moors upon +the ramparts. The Marquis of Cadiz, finding that the gate of the castle +was commanded by the artillery of the town, ordered a breach to be made in +the wall; and through this, sword in hand, he led a body of troops into +the town. At the same time an assault was made from every point, and the +battle raged with the greatest fury at the ramparts and in the streets. + +The Moors, who fought for life, liberty, and property, defended themselves +with desperation, fighting in the streets and from the windows and roofs +of their houses. From morning until night the contest continued; then, +overpowered, the townsmen sought shelter in a large mosque near the walls, +whence they kept up so hot a flight of arrows and lances that the +assailants dared not approach. Finally, protected by bucklers and wooden +shields, some of the soldiers succeeded in setting fire to the door of the +mosque. As the flames rolled upward the Moors, deeming that all was lost, +rushed desperately out. Many of them were killed in this final fight; the +rest surrendered as prisoners. + +The struggle was at an end; the town lay at the mercy of the Spaniards; it +was given up to plunder, and immense was the booty taken. Gold and silver, +rare jewels, rich silks, and costly goods were found in abundance; horses +and cattle, grain, oil, and honey, all the productions of the kingdom, in +fact, were there in quantities; for Alhama was the richest town in the +Moorish territory, and from its strength and situation was called the Key +of Granada. The soldiers were not content with plunder. Thinking that they +could not hold the place, they destroyed all they could not carry away. +Huge jars of oil were shattered, costly furniture was demolished, much +material of the greatest value was destroyed. In the dungeons were found +many of the Christian captives who had been taken at Zahara, and who +gladly gained their freedom again. + +The loss of Alhama was a terrible blow to the kingdom of Granada. Terror +filled the citizens of the capital when the news reached that city. Sighs +and lamentations came from all sides, the mournful ejaculation, "Woe is +me, Alhama!" was in every mouth, and this afterwards became the burden of +a plaintive ballad, "_Ay de mi, Alhama_," which remains among the gems of +Spanish poetry. + +Abul Hassan, full of wrath at the daring presumption of his foes, hastened +at the head of more than fifty thousand men against the city, driving back +a force that was marching to the aid of the Christians, attacking the +walls with the fiercest fury, and cutting off the stream upon which the +city depended for water, thus threatening the defenders with death by +thirst. Yet, though in torments, they fought with unyielding desperation, +and held their own until the duke of Medina Sidonia, a bitter enemy of the +Marquis of Cadiz in peace, but his comrade in war, came with a large army +to his aid. King Ferdinand was hastening thither with all speed, and the +Moorish monarch, after a last fierce assault upon the city, broke up his +camp and retreated in despair. From that time to the end of the contest +the Christians held the "Key of Granada," a threatening stronghold in the +heart of the land, from which they raided the vega at will, and exhausted +the resources of the kingdom. "_Ay de mi, Alhama!_" + + + + + +KING ABUL HASSAN AND THE ALCAIDE OF GIBRALTAR. + + +Muley Abul Hassan, the warlike king of Granada, weary of having his lands +raided and his towns taken, resolved to repay the Christians in kind. The +Duke of Medina Sidonia had driven him from captured Alhama. He owed this +mighty noble a grudge, and the opportunity to repay it seemed at hand. The +duke had led his forces to the aid of King Ferdinand, who was making a +foray into Moorish territory. He had left almost unguarded his +far-spreading lands, wide pasture plains covered thickly with flocks and +herds and offering a rare opportunity for a hasty foray. + +"I will give this cavalier a lesson that will cure him of his love for +campaigning," said the fierce old king. + +Leaving his port of Malaga at the head of fifteen hundred horse and six +thousand foot, the Moorish monarch followed the sea-shore route to the +border of his dominions, entering Christian territory between Gibraltar +and Castellar. There was only one man in this quarter of whom he had any +fear. This was Pedro de Vargas, governor of Gibraltar, a shrewd and +vigilant old soldier, whose daring Abul Hassan well knew, but knew also +that his garrison was too small to serve for a successful sally. + +The alert Moor, however, advanced with great caution, sending out parties +to explore every pass where an ambush might await him, since, despite his +secrecy, the news of his coming might have gone before. At length the +broken country of Castellar was traversed and the plains were reached. +Encamping on the banks of the Celemin, he sent four hundred lancers to the +vicinity of Algeciras to keep a close watch upon Gibraltar across the bay, +to attack Pedro if he sallied out, and to send word to the camp if any +movement took place. This force was four times that said to be in +Gibraltar. Remaining on the Celemin with his main body of troops, King +Hassan sent two hundred horsemen to scour the plain of Tarifa, and as many +more to the lands of Medina Sidonia, the whole district being a rich +pasture land upon which thousands of animals grazed. + +All went well. The parties of foragers came in, driving vast flocks and +herds, enough to replace those which had been swept from the vega of +Granada by the foragers of Spain. The troops on watch at Algeciras sent +word that all was quiet at Gibraltar. Satisfied that for once Pedro de +Vargas had been foiled, the old king called in his detachments and started +back in triumph with his spoils. + +He was mistaken. The vigilant governor had been advised of his movements, +but was too weak in men to leave his post. Fortunately for him, a squadron +of the armed galleys in the strait put into port, and, their commander +agreeing to take charge of Gibraltar in his absence, Pedro sallied out at +midnight with seventy of his men, bent upon giving the Moors what trouble +he could. + +Sending men to the mountain-tops, he had alarm fires kindled as a signal +to the peasants that the Moors were out and their herds in peril. Couriers +were also despatched at speed to rouse the country and bid all capable of +bearing arms to rendezvous at Castellar, a stronghold which Abul Hassan +would have to pass on his return. The Moorish king saw the fire signals +and knew well what they meant. Striking his tents, he began as hasty a +retreat as his slow-moving multitude of animals would permit. In advance +rode two hundred and fifty of his bravest men. Then came the great drove +of cattle. In the rear marched the main army, with Abul Hassan at its +head. And thus they moved across the broken country towards Castellar. + +Near that place De Vargas was on the watch, a thick and lofty cloud of +dust revealing to him the position of the Moors. A half-league of hills +and declivities separated the van and the rear of the raiding column, a +long, dense forest rising between. De Vargas saw that they were in no +position to aid each other quickly, and that something might come of a +sudden and sharp attack. Selecting the best fifty of his small force, he +made a circuit towards a place which he knew to be suitable for ambush. +Here a narrow glen opened into a defile with high, steep sides. It was the +only route open to the Moors, and he proposed to let the vanguard and the +herds pass and fall upon the rear. + +The Moors, however, were on the alert. While the Spaniards lay hidden, six +mounted scouts entered the defile and rode into the mouth of the glen, +keenly looking to right and left for a concealed enemy. They came so near +that a minute or two more must reveal to them the ambush. + +"Let us kill these men and retreat to Gibraltar," said one of the +Spaniards; "the infidels are far too many for us." + +"I have come for larger game than this," answered De Vargas, "and, by the +aid of God and Santiago, I will not go back without making my mark. I know +these Moors, and will show you how they stand a sudden charge." + +The scouts were riding deeper into the glen. The ambush could no longer be +concealed. At a quick order from De Vargas ten horsemen rushed so suddenly +upon them that four of their number were in an instant hurled to the +ground. The other two wheeled and rode back at full speed, hotly pursued +by the ten men. Their dashing pace soon brought them in sight of the +vanguard of the Moors, from which about eighty horsemen rode out to the +aid of their friends. The Spaniards turned and clattered back, with this +force in sharp pursuit. In a minute or two both parties came at a furious +rush into the glen. + +This was what De Vargas had foreseen. Bidding his trumpeter to sound, he +dashed from his concealment at the head of his men, drawn up in close +array. They were upon the Moors almost before they were seen, their +weapons making havoc in the disordered ranks. The skirmish was short and +sharp. The Moors, taken by surprise, and thrown into confusion, fell +rapidly, their ranks being soon so thinned that scarce half of them turned +in the retreat. + +"After them!" cried De Vargas. "We will have a brush with the vanguard +before the rear can come up." + +Onward after the flying Moors rode the gallant fifty, coming with such +force and fury on the advance-guard that many were overturned in the first +shock. Those behind held their own with some firmness, but their leaders, +the alcaides of Marabella and Casares, being slain, the line gave way and +fled towards the rear-guard, passing through the droves of cattle, which +they threw into utter confusion. + +Nothing further could be done. The trampling cattle had filled the air +with a blinding cloud of dust. De Vargas was badly wounded. A few minutes +might bring up the Moorish king with an overwhelming force. Despoiling the +slain, and taking with them some thirty horses, the victorious Spaniards +rode in triumph back to Castellar. + +The Moorish king, hearing the exaggerated report of the fugitives, feared +that all Xeres was up and in arms. + +"Our road is blocked," cried some of his officers. "We had better abandon +the animals and seek another route for our return." + +"Not so," cried the old king; "no true soldier gives up his booty without +a blow. Follow me; we will have a brush with these dogs of Christians." + +In hot haste he galloped onward, right through the centre of the herd, +driving the cattle to right and left. On reaching the field of battle he +found no Spaniard in sight, but dozens of his own men lay dead and +despoiled, among them the two alcaides. The sight filled the warlike old +king with rage. Confident that his foes had taken refuge in Castellar, he +rode on to that place, set fire to two houses near its walls, and sent a +shower of arrows into its streets. Pedro de Vargas was past taking to +horse, but he ordered his men to make a sally, and a sharp skirmish took +place under the walls. In the end the king drew off to the scene of the +fight, buried the dead except the alcaides, whose bodies were laid on +mules to be interred at Malaga, and, gathering the scattered herds, drove +them past the walls of Castellar by way of taunting the Christian foe. + +Yet the stern old Moorish warrior could thoroughly appreciate valor and +daring even in an enemy. + +"What are the revenues of the alcaide of Gibraltar?" he asked of two +Christian captives he had taken. + +"We know not," they replied, "except that he is entitled to one animal out +of every drove of cattle that passes his bounds." + +"Then Allah forbid that so brave a cavalier should be defrauded of his +dues." + +He gave orders to select twelve of the finest cattle from the twelve +droves that formed the herd of spoil, and directed that they should be +delivered to Pedro de Vargas. + +"Tell him," said the king, "that I beg his pardon for not sending these +cattle sooner, but have just learned they are his dues, and hasten to +satisfy them in courtesy to so worthy a cavalier. Tell him, at the same +time, that I did not know the alcaide of Gibraltar was so vigilant in +collecting his tolls." + +The soldierly pleasantry of the old king was much to the taste of the +brave De Vargas, and called for a worthy return. He bade his men deliver a +rich silken vest and a scarlet mantle to the messenger, to be presented to +the Moorish king. + +"Tell his majesty," he said, "that I kiss his hands for the honor he has +done me, and regret that my scanty force was not fitted to give him a more +signal reception. Had three hundred horsemen, whom I have been promised +from Xeres, arrived in time, I might have served him up an entertainment +more befitting his station. They may arrive during the night, in which +case his majesty, the king, may look for a royal service in the morning." + +"Allah preserve us," cried the king, on receiving this message, "from a +brush with these hard riders of Xeres! A handful of troops familiar with +these wild mountain-passes may destroy an army encumbered like ours with +booty." + +It was a relief to the king to find that De Vargas was too sorely wounded +to take the field in person. A man like him at the head of an adequate +force might have given no end of trouble. During the day the retreat was +pushed with all speed, the herds being driven with such haste that they +were frequently broken and scattered among the mountain defiles, the +result being that more than five thousand cattle were lost, being gathered +up again by the Christians. + +The king returned triumphantly to Malaga with the remainder, rejoicing in +his triumph over the Duke of Medina Sidonia, and having taught King +Ferdinand that the game of ravaging an enemy’s country was one at which +two could play. + + + + + +THE RIVAL KINGS OF GRANADA. + + +"In the hand of God is the destiny of princes. He alone giveth empire," +piously says an old Arabian chronicler, and goes on with the following +story: A Moorish horseman, mounted on a fleet Arabian steed, was one day +traversing the mountains which extend between Granada and the frontier of +Murcia. He galloped swiftly through the valleys, but paused and gazed +cautiously from the summit of every height. A squadron of cavaliers +followed warily at a distance. There were fifty lances. The richness of +their armor and attire showed them to be warriors of noble rank, and their +leader had a lofty and prince-like demeanor. + +For two nights and a day the cavalcade made its way through that rugged +country, avoiding settled places and choosing the most solitary passes of +the mountains. Their hardships were severe, but campaigning was their +trade and their horses were of generous spirit. It was midnight when they +left the hills and rode through darkness and silence to the city of +Granada, under the shadows of whose high walls they passed to the gate of +the Albaycin. Here the leader ordered his followers to halt and remain +concealed. Taking four or five with him, he advanced to the gate and +struck upon it with the handle of his scimitar. + +"Who is it knocks at this unseasonable hour of the night?" demanded the +warder within. + +"Your king," was the answer. "Open and admit him." + +Opening a wicket, the warder held forth a light and looked at the man +without. Recognizing him at a glance, he opened the gate, and the +cavalier, who had feared a less favorable reception, rode in with his +followers and galloped in haste to the hill of the Albaycin, where the +new-comers knocked loudly at the doors of the principal dwellings, bidding +their tenants to rise and take arms for their lawful sovereign. The +summons was obeyed. Trumpets soon resounded in the streets; the gleam of +torches lit the dark avenues and flashed upon naked steel. From right and +left the Moors came hurrying to the rendezvous. By daybreak the whole +force of the Albaycin was under arms, ready to meet in battle the hostile +array on the opposite height of the Alhambra. + +To tell what this midnight movement meant we must go back a space in +history. The conquest of Granada was not due to Ferdinand and the +Spaniards alone. It was greatly aided by the dissensions of the Moors, who +were divided into two parties and fought bitterly with each other during +their intervals of truce with the Christians. Ferdinand won in the game +largely by a shrewd playing off of one of these factions against the other +and by taking advantage of the weakness and vacillation of the young king, +whose clandestine entrance to the city we have just seen. + +Boabdil el Chico, or Boabdil the Young, as he was called, was the son of +Muley Abul Hassan, against whom he had rebelled, and with such effect +that, after a bloody battle in the streets of the city, the old king was +driven without its walls. His tyranny had caused the people to gather +round his son. + +From that time forward there was dissension and civil war in Granada, and +the quarrels of its kings paved the way for the downfall of the state. The +country was divided into the two factions of the young and the old kings. +In the city the hill of the Albaycin, with its fortress of the Alcazaba, +was the stronghold of Boabdil, while the partisans of Abul Hassan dwelt on +the height of the Alhambra, the lower town between being the battle-ground +of the rival factions. + +The succeeding events were many, but must be told in few words. King +Boabdil, to show his prowess to the people, marched over the border to +attack the city of Lucena. As a result he was himself assailed, his army +put to the rout, and himself taken prisoner by the forces of Ferdinand of +Aragon. To regain his liberty he acknowledged himself a vassal of the +Spanish monarch, to whom he agreed to pay tribute. On his release he made +his way to the city of Granada, but his adherents were so violently +assailed by those of his father that the streets of the city ran blood, +and Boabdil the Unlucky, as he was now called, found it advisable to leave +the capital and fix his residence in Almeria, a large and splendid city +whose people were devoted to him. + +As the years went on Muley Abul Hassan became sadly stricken with age. He +grew nearly blind and was bed-ridden with paralysis. His brother Abdallah, +known as El Zagal, or "The Valiant," commander-in-chief of the Moorish +armies, assumed his duties as a sovereign, and zealously took up the +quarrel with his son. He attempted to surprise the young king at Almeria, +drove him out as a fugitive, and took possession of that city. At a later +date he endeavored to remove him by poison. It was this attempt that +spurred Boabdil to the enterprise we have just described. El Zagal was now +full king in Granada, holding the Alhambra as his palace, and his nephew, +who had been a wanderer since his flight from Almeria, was instigated to +make a bold stroke for the throne. + +On the day after the secret return of Boabdil battle raged in the streets +of Granada, a fierce encounter taking place between the two kings in the +square before the principal mosque. Hand to hand they fought with the +greatest fury till separated by the charges of their followers. + +For days the conflict went on, death and turmoil ruling in Granada, such +hatred existing between the two factions that neither side gave quarter. +Boabdil was the weaker in men. Fearing defeat in consequence, he sent a +messenger to Don Fadrique de Toledo, the Christian commander on the +border, asking for assistance. Don Fadrique had been instructed by +Ferdinand to give what aid he could to the young king, the vassal of +Spain, and responded to Boabdil’s request by marching with a body of +troops to the vicinity of Granada. No sooner had Boabdil seen their +advancing banners than he sallied forth with a squadron to meet them. El +Zagal, who was equally on the alert, sallied forth at the same time, and +drew up his troops in battle array. + +The wary Don Fadrique, in doubt as to the meaning of this double movement, +and fearing treachery, halted at a safe distance, and drew off for the +night to a secure situation. Early the next morning a Moorish cavalier +approached the sentinels and asked for an audience with Don Fadrique, as +an envoy from El Zagal. The Christian troops, he said on behalf of the old +king, had come to aid his nephew, but he was ready to offer them an +alliance on better terms than those of Boabdil. Don Fadrique listened +courteously to the envoy, but for better assurance, determined to send a +representative to El Zagal himself, under protection of a flag. For this +purpose he selected Don Juan de Vera, one of the most intrepid and +discreet of his cavaliers, who had in years before been sent by King +Ferdinand on a mission to the Alhambra. + +Don Juan, on reaching the palace, was well received by the old king, +holding an interview with him which extended so far into the night that it +was too late to return to camp, and he was lodged in a sumptuous apartment +of the Alhambra. In the morning he was approached by one of the Moorish +courtiers, a man given to jest and satire, who invited him to take part in +a ceremony in the palace mosque. This invitation, given in jest, was +received by the punctilious Catholic knight in earnest, and he replied, +with stern displeasure,— + + [Illustration: KING CHARLES’S WELL, ALHAMBRA.] + + KING CHARLES’S WELL, ALHAMBRA. + + +"The servants of Queen Isabella of Castile, who bear on their armor the +cross of St. Iago, never enter the temples of Mohammed, except to level +them to the earth and trample on them." + +This discourteous reply was repeated by the courtier to a renegade, who, +having newly adopted the Moorish faith, was eager to show his devotion to +the Moslem creed, and proposed to engage the hot-tempered Catholic knight +in argument. Seeking Don Juan, they found him playing chess with the +alcaide of the palace, and the renegade at once began to comment on the +Christian religion in uncomplimentary terms. Don Juan was quick to anger, +but he restrained himself, and replied, with grave severity,— + +"You would do well to cease talking about what you do not understand." + +The renegade and his jesting companion replied in a series of remarks +intended as wit, though full of insolence, Don Juan fuming inwardly as he +continued to play. In the end they went too far, the courtier making an +obscene comparison between the Virgin Mary and Amina, the mother of +Mohammed. In an instant the old knight sprang up, white with rage, and +dashing aside chess-board and chessmen. Drawing his sword, he dealt such a +"_hermosa cuchillada_" ("handsome slash") across the head of the offending +Moor as to stretch him bleeding on the floor. The renegade fled in terror, +rousing the echoes of the palace with his outcries and stirring up guards +and attendants, who rushed into the room where the irate Christian stood +sword in hand defying Mohammed and his hosts. The alarm quickly reached +the ears of the king, who hurried to the scene, his appearance at once +restoring order. On hearing from the alcaide the cause of the affray, he +acted with becoming dignity, ordering the guards from the room and +directing that the renegade should be severely punished for daring to +infringe the hospitality of the palace and insult an embassador. + +Don Juan, his quick fury evaporated, sheathed his sword, thanked the king +for his courtesy, and proposed a return to the camp. But this was not easy +of accomplishment. A garbled report of the tumult in the palace had spread +to the streets, where it was rumored that Christian spies had been +introduced into the palace with treasonable intent. In a brief time +hundreds of the populace were in arms and thronging about the gate of +Justice of the Alhambra, where they loudly demanded the death of all +Christians in the palace and of all who had introduced them. + +It was impossible for Don Juan to leave the palace by the route he had +followed on his arrival. The infuriated mob would have torn him to pieces. +But it was important that he should depart at once. All that El Zagal +could do was to furnish him with a disguise, a swift horse, and an escort, +and to let him out of the Alhambra by a private gate. This secret mode of +departure was not relished by the proud Spaniard, but life was just then +of more value than dignity, as he appreciated when, in Moorish dress, he +passed through crowds who were thirsting for his blood. A gate of the city +was at length reached, and Don Juan and his escort rode quietly out. But +he was no sooner on the open plain than he spurred his horse to its speed, +and did not draw rein until the banners of Don Fadrique waved above his +head. + +Don Fadrique heard with much approval of the boldness of his envoy. His +opinion of Don Juan’s discretion he kept to himself. He rewarded him with +a valuable horse, and wrote a letter of thanks to El Zagal for his +protection to his emissary. Queen Isabella, on learning how stoutly the +knight had stood up for the chastity of the Blessed Virgin, was highly +delighted, and conferred several distinctions of honor upon the cavalier +besides presenting him with three hundred thousand maravedis. + +The outcome of the advances of the two kings was that Don Fadrique chose +Boabdil as his ally, and sent him a reinforcement of foot-soldiers and +arquebusiers. This introduction of Christians into the city rekindled the +flames of war, and it continued to rage in the streets for the space of +fifty days. + +The result of the struggle between the two kings may be briefly told. +While they contended for supremacy Ferdinand of Aragon invaded their +kingdom with a large army and marched upon the great seaport of Malaga. El +Zagal sought an accommodation with Boabdil, that they might unite their +forces against the common foe, but the short-sighted young man spurned his +overtures with disdain. El Zagal then, the better patriot of the two, +marched himself against the Christian host, hoping to surprise them in the +passes of the mountains and perhaps capture King Ferdinand himself. +Unluckily for him, his well-laid plan was discovered by the Christians, +who attacked and defeated him, his troops flying in uncontrollable +disorder. + +The news of this disaster reached Granada before him and infuriated the +people, who closed their gates and threatened the defeated king from the +walls. Nothing remained to El Zagal but to march to Almeria and establish +his court in that city in which Boabdil had formerly reigned. Thus the +positions of the rival kings became reversed. From that time forward the +kingdom of Granada was divided into two, and the work of conquest by the +Christians was correspondingly reduced. + + + + + +THE KNIGHT OF THE EXPLOITS. + + +The dull monotony of sieges, of which there were many during the war with +Granada, was little to the taste of the valorous Spanish cavaliers. They +burned for adventure, and were ever ready for daring exploits, the more +welcome the more dangerous they promised to be. One day during the siege +of Baza, a strong city in El Zagal’s dominions, two of these spirited +young cavaliers, Francisco de Bazan and Antonio de Cueva, were seated on +the ramparts of the siege works, bewailing the dull life to which they +were confined. They were overheard by a veteran scout, who was familiar +with the surrounding country. + +"Señors," he said, "if you pine for peril and profit and are eager to +pluck the beard of the fiery old Moorish king, I can lead you where you +will have a fine opportunity to prove your valor. There are certain +hamlets not far from the walls of El Zagal’s city of Guadix where rich +booty awaits the daring raider. I can lead you there by a way that will +enable you to take them by surprise; and if you are as cool in the head as +you are hot in the spur you may bear off spoils from under the very eyes +of the king of the Moors." + +He had struck the right vein. The youths were at once hot for the +enterprise. To win booty from the very gates of Guadix was a stirring +scheme, and they quickly found others of their age as eager as themselves +for the daring adventure. In a short time they had enrolled a body of +nearly three hundred horse and two hundred foot, well armed and equipped, +and every man of them ready for the road. + +The force obtained, the raiders left the camp early one evening, keeping +their destination secret, and made their way by starlight through the +mountain passes, led by the _adalid_, or guide. Pressing rapidly onward by +day and night, they reached the hamlets one morning just before daybreak, +and fell on them suddenly, making prisoners of the inhabitants, sacking +the houses, and sweeping the fields of their grazing herds. Then, without +taking a moment to rest, they set out with all speed for the mountains, +which they hoped to reach before the country could be roused. + +Several of the herdsmen had escaped and fled to Guadix, where they told El +Zagal of the daring ravage. Wild with rage at the insult, the old king at +once sent out six hundred of his choicest horse and foot, with orders for +swift pursuit, bidding them to recover the booty and bring him as +prisoners the insolent marauders. The Christians, weary with their two +days and nights of hard marching, were driving the captured cattle and +sheep up a mountainside, when, looking back, they saw a great cloud of +dust upon their trail. Soon they discerned the turbaned host, evidently +superior to them in number, and man and horse in fresh condition. + +"They are too much for us," cried some of the horsemen. "It would be +madness in our worn-out state to face a fresh force of that number. We +shall have to let the cattle go and seek safety in flight." + +"What!" cried Antonio and Francisco, their leaders; "abandon our prey +without a blow? Desert our foot-soldiers and leave them to the enemy? Did +any of you think El Zagal would let us off without a brush? You do not +give good Spanish counsel, for every soldier knows that there is less +danger in presenting our faces than our backs to the foe, and fewer men +are killed in a brave advance than in a cowardly retreat." + +Some of the cavaliers were affected by these words, but the mass of the +party were chance volunteers, who received no pay and had nothing to gain +by risking their lives. Consequently, as the enemy came near, the +diversity of opinions grew into a tumult, and confusion reigned. The +captains ordered the standard-bearer to advance against the Moors, +confident that any true soldiers would follow his banner. He hesitated to +obey; the turmoil increased; in a moment more the horsemen might be in +full flight. + +At this critical juncture a horseman of the royal guards rode forward,—the +good knight Hernan Perez del Pulgar, governor of the fortress of Salar. +Taking off the handkerchief which, in the Andalusian fashion, he wore +round his head, he tied it to a lance and raised it in the air. + +"Comrades," he cried, "why do you load yourself with arms if you trust for +safety to your feet? We shall see who among you are the brave men and who +are the cowards. If it is a standard you want, here is mine. Let the man +who has the heart to fight follow this handkerchief." + +Waving his improvised banner, he spurred against the Moors. Many followed +him. Those who at first held back soon joined the advance. With one accord +the whole body rushed with shouts upon the enemy. The Moors, who were now +close at hand, were seized with surprise and alarm at this sudden charge. +The foremost files turned and fled in panic, followed by the others, and +pursued by the Christians, who cut them down without a blow in return. +Soon the whole body was in full flight. Several hundred of the Moors were +killed and their bodies despoiled, many were taken prisoners, and the +Christians returned in triumph to the army, driving their long array of +cattle and sheep and of mules laden with booty, and bearing in their front +the standard under which they had fought. + +King Ferdinand was so delighted with this exploit, and in particular with +the gallant action of Perez del Pulgar, that he conferred knighthood upon +the latter with much ceremony, and authorized him to bear upon his +escutcheon a golden lion in an azure field, showing a lance with a +handkerchief at its point. Round its border were to be depicted the eleven +alcaides defeated in the battle. This heroic deed was followed by so many +others during the wars with the Moors that Perez del Pulgar became in time +known by the flattering appellation of "He of the exploits." + +The most famous exploit of this daring knight took place during the siege +of Granada,—the final operation of the long war. Here single combats and +minor skirmishes between Christian and Moorish cavaliers were of almost +daily occurrence, until Ferdinand strictly forbade all such tilts, as he +saw that they gave zeal and courage to the Moors, and were attended with +considerable loss of life among his bravest followers. + +This edict of the king was very distasteful to the fiery Moorish knights, +who declared that the crafty Christian wished to destroy chivalry and put +an end to heroic valor. They did their best to provoke the Spanish knights +to combat, galloping on their fleet steeds close to the borders of the +camp and hurling their lances over the barriers, each lance bearing the +name of its owner with some defiant message. But despite the irritation +caused by these insults to the Spanish knights, none of them ventured to +disobey the mandate of the king. + +Chief among these Moorish cavaliers was one named Tarfe, a man of fierce +and daring spirit and a giant in size, who sought to surpass his fellows +in acts of audacity. In one of his sallies towards the Christian camp this +bold cavalier leaped his steed over the barrier, galloped inward close to +the royal quarters, and launched his spear with such strength that it +quivered in the earth close to the tents of the sovereigns. The royal +guards rushed out, but Tarfe was already far away, scouring the plain on +his swift Barbary steed. On examining the lance it was found to bear a +label indicating that it was intended for the queen, who was present in +the camp. + +This bravado and the insult offered Queen Isabella excited the highest +indignation among the Christian warriors. "Shall we let this insolent +fellow outdo us?" said Perez del Pulgar, who was present. "I propose to +teach these insolent Moors a lesson. Who will stand by me in an enterprise +of desperate peril?" The warriors knew Pulgar well enough to be sure that +his promise of peril was likely to be kept, yet all who heard him were +ready to volunteer. Out of them he chose fifteen,—men whom he knew he +could trust for strength of arm and valor of heart. + +His proposed enterprise was indeed a perilous one. A Moorish renegade had +agreed to guide him into the city by a secret pass. Once within, they were +to set fire to the Alcaiceria and others of the principal buildings, and +then escape as best they could. + +At dead of night they set out, provided with the necessary combustibles. +Their guide led them up a channel of the river Darro, until they halted +under a bridge near the royal gate. Here Pulgar stationed six of his +followers on guard, bidding them to keep silent and motionless. With the +others he made his way up a drain of the stream which passed under a part +of the city and opened into the streets. All was dark and silent. Not a +soul moved. The renegade, at the command of Pulgar, led the adventurers to +the principal mosque. Here the pious cavalier drew from under his cloak a +parchment inscribed in large letters with AVE MARIA, and nailed this to +the door of the mosque, thus dedicating the heathen temple to the Virgin +Mary. + +They now hurried to the Alcaiceria, where the combustibles were placed +ready to fire. Not until this moment was it discovered that the +torch-bearer had carelessly left his torch at the door of the mosque. It +was too late to return. Pulgar sought to strike fire with flint and steel, +but while doing so the Moorish guard came upon them in its rounds. Drawing +his sword and followed by his comrades, the bold Spaniard made a fierce +assault upon the astonished Moors, quickly putting them to flight. But the +enterprise was at an end. The alarm was given and soldiers were soon +hurrying in every direction through the streets. Guided by the renegade, +Pulgar and his companions hastened to the drain by which they had entered, +plunged into it, and reached their companions under the bridge. Here +mounting their horses, they rode back to the camp. + +The Moors were at a loss to imagine the purpose of this apparently +fruitless enterprise, but wild was their exasperation the next morning +when they found the "Ave Maria" on the door of a mosque in the centre of +their city. The mosque thus sanctified by Perez del Pulgar was actually +converted into a Christian cathedral after the capture of the city. + +We have yet to describe the sequel of this exploit. On the succeeding day +a powerful train left the Christian camp and advanced towards the city +walls. In its centre were the king and queen, the prince and princesses, +and the ladies of the court, surrounded by the royal body-guard,—a richly +dressed troop, composed of the sons of the most illustrious families of +Spain. The Moors gazed with wonder upon this rare pageant, which moved in +glittering array across the vega to the sound of martial music; a host +brilliant with banners and plumes, shining arms and shimmering silks, for +the court and the army moved there hand in hand. Queen Isabella had +expressed a wish to see, nearer at hand, a city whose beauty was of +world-wide renown, and the Marquis of Cadiz had drawn out this powerful +escort that she might be gratified in her desire. The queen had her wish, +but hundreds of men died that she might be pleased. + +While the royal dame and her ladies were gazing with delight on the red +towers of the Alhambra, rising in rich contrast through the green verdure +of their groves, a large force of Moorish cavalry poured from the city +gates, ready to accept the gage of battle which the Christians seemed to +offer. The first to come were a host of richly armed and gayly attired +light cavalry, mounted on fleet and fiery Barbary steeds. Heavily armed +cavalry followed, and then a strong force of foot-soldiers, until an army +was drawn up on the plain. Queen Isabella saw this display with disquiet, +and forbade an attack upon the enemy, or even a skirmish, as it would pain +her if a single warrior should lose his life through the indulgence of her +curiosity. + +As a result, though the daring Moorish horsemen rode fleetly along the +Christian front, brandishing their lances, and defying the cavaliers to +mortal combat, not a Spaniard stirred. The cavaliers were under the eyes +of Ferdinand, by whom such duels had been strictly forbidden. At length, +however, they were incensed beyond their powers of resistance. Forth from +the city rode a stalwart Moorish horseman, clad in steel armor, and +bearing a huge buckler and a ponderous lance. His device showed him to be +the giant warrior Tarfe, the daring infidel who had flung his lance at the +queen’s tent. As he rode out he was followed by the shouts and laughter of +a mob, and when he came within full view of the Spanish army the cavaliers +saw, with indignant horror, tied to his horse’s tail and dragging in the +dust, the parchment with its inscription of "Ave Maria" which Hernan Perez +del Pulgar had nailed to the door of the mosque. + +This insult was more than Castilian flesh and blood could bear. Hernan was +not present to maintain his deed, but Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the +young companions of his exploit, galloped to the king and earnestly begged +permission to avenge the degrading insult to their holy faith. The king, +who was as indignant as the knight, gave the desired permission, and +Garcilasso, closing his visor and grasping his spear, rode out before the +ranks and defied the Moor to combat to the death. + +Tarfe asked nothing better, and an exciting passage at arms took place on +the plain with the two armies as witnesses. Tarfe was the stronger of the +two, and the more completely armed. He was skilled in the use of his +weapons and dexterous in managing his horse, and the Christians trembled +for their champion. + +The warriors met in mid career with a furious shock. Their lances were +shivered, and Garcilasso was borne back in his saddle. But his horse +wheeled away and he was quickly firm in his seat again, sword in hand. +Sword against scimitar, the combatants returned to the encounter. The Moor +rode a trained horse, that obeyed his every signal. Round the Christian he +circled, seeking some opening for a blow. But the smaller size of +Garcilasso was made equal by greater agility. Now he parried a blow with +his sword, now he received a furious stroke on his shield. Each of the +combatants before many minutes felt the edge of the steel, and their blood +began to flow. + +At length the Moor, thinking his antagonist exhausted, rushed in and +grappled with him, using all his force to fling him from his horse. +Garcilasso grasped him in return with all his strength, and they fell +together to the earth, the Moor uppermost. Placing his knee on the breast +of the Spaniard, Tarfe drew his dagger and brandished it above his throat. +Terror filled the Christian ranks; a shout of triumph rose from those of +the Moors. But suddenly Tarfe was seen to loosen his grasp and roll over +in the dust. Garcilasso had shortened his sword and, as Tarfe raised his +arm, had struck him to the heart. + +The rules of chivalry were rigidly observed. No one interfered on either +side. Garcilasso despoiled his victim, raised the inscription "Ave Maria" +on the point of his sword, and bore it triumphantly back, amid shouts of +triumph from the Christian army. + +By this time the passions of the Moors were so excited that they could not +be restrained. They made a furious charge upon the Spanish host, driving +in its advanced ranks. The word to attack was given the Spaniards in +return, the war-cry "Santiago!" rang along the line, and in a short time +both armies were locked in furious combat. The affair ended in a repulse +of the Moors, the foot-soldiers taking to flight, and the cavalry vainly +endeavoring to rally them. They were pursued to the gates of the city, +more than two thousand of them being killed, wounded, or taken prisoners +in "the queen’s skirmish," as the affair came to be called. + + + + + +THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR. + + +In 1492, nearly eight centuries after the conquest of Spain by the Arabs, +their dominion ended in the surrender of the city of Granada by King +Boabdil to the army of Ferdinand and Isabella. The empire of the Arab +Moors had shrunk, year by year and century by century, before the steady +advance of the Christians, until only the small kingdom of Granada +remained. This, distracted by anarchy within and assailed by King +Ferdinand with all the arts of statecraft and all the strength of arms, +gradually decreased in dimensions, city after city, district after +district, being lost, until only the single city of Granada remained. + +This populous and powerful city would have proved very difficult to take +by the ordinary methods of war, and could only have been subdued with +great loss of life and expenditure of treasure. Ferdinand assailed it by a +less costly and more exasperating method. Granada subsisted on the broad +and fertile vega or plain surrounding it, a region marvellously productive +in grain and fruits and rich in cattle and sheep. It was a cold-blooded +and cruel system adopted by the Spanish monarch. He assailed the city +through the vega. Disregarding the city, he marched his army into the +plain at the time of harvest and so thoroughly destroyed its growing crops +that the smiling and verdant expanse was left a scene of frightful +desolation. This was not accomplished without sharp reprisals by the +Moors, but the Spaniard persisted until he had converted the fruitful +paradise into a hopeless desert, and then marched away, leaving the +citizens to a winter of despair. + +The next year he came again, encamped his army near the city, destroyed +what little verdure remained near its walls, and waited calmly until +famine and anarchy should force the citizens to yield. He attempted no +siege. It was not necessary. He could safely trust to his terrible allies. +The crowded city held out desperately while the summer passed and autumn +moved on to winter’s verge, and then, with famine stalking through their +streets and invading their homes, but one resource remained to the +citizens,—surrender. + +Ferdinand did not wish to distress too deeply the unhappy people. To +obtain possession of the city on any terms was the one thought then in his +mind. Harshness could come later, if necessary. Therefore, on the 25th of +November, 1492, articles of capitulation were signed, under which the +Moors of Granada were to retain all their possessions, be protected in +their religious exercises, and governed by their own laws, which were to +be administered by their own officials; the one unwelcome proviso being +that they should become subjects of Spain. To Boabdil were secured all his +rich estates and the patrimony of the crown, while he was to receive in +addition thirty thousand castellanos in gold. Excellent terms, one would +say, in view of the fact that Granada was at the mercy of Ferdinand, and +might soon have been obliged to surrender unconditionally. + +On the night preceding the surrender doleful lamentations filled the halls +of the Alhambra, for the household of Boabdil were bidding a last farewell +to that delightful abode. The most precious effects were hastily packed +upon mules, and with tears and wailings the rich hangings and ornaments of +the beautiful apartments were removed. Day had not yet dawned when a +sorrowful cavalcade moved through an obscure postern gate of the palace +and wound through a retired quarter of the city. It was the family of the +deposed monarch, which he had sent off thus early to save them from +possible scoffs and insults. + +The sun had barely risen when three signal-guns boomed from the heights of +the Alhambra, and the Christian army began its march across the vega. To +spare the feelings of the citizens it was decided that the city should not +be entered by its usual gates, and a special road had been opened leading +to the Alhambra. + +At the head of the procession moved the king and queen, with the prince +and princesses and the dignitaries and ladies of the court, attended by +the royal guards in their rich array. This cortege halted at the village +of Armilla, a league and a half from the city. Meanwhile, Don Pedro +Gonzalez de Mendoza, Grand Cardinal of Spain, with an escort of three +thousand foot and a troop of cavalry, proceeded towards the Alhambra to +take possession of that noblest work of the Moors. At their approach +Boabdil left the palace by a postern gate attended by fifty cavaliers, and +advanced to meet the grand cardinal, whom, in words of mournful +renunciation, he bade to take possession of the royal fortress of the +Moors. Then he passed sadly onward to meet the sovereigns of Spain, who +had halted awaiting his approach, while the army stood drawn up on the +broad plain. + +As the Spaniards waited in anxious hope, all eyes fixed on the Alhambra +heights, they saw the silver cross, the great standard of this crusade, +rise upon the great watch-tower, where it sparkled in the sunbeams, while +beside it floated the pennon of St. James, at sight of which a great shout +of "Santiago! Santiago!" rose from the awaiting host. Next rose the royal +standard, amid resounding cries of "Castile! Castile! For King Ferdinand +and Queen Isabella." The sovereigns sank upon their knees, giving thanks +to God for their great victory, the whole army followed their example, and +the choristers of the royal chapel broke forth into the solemn anthem of +"_Te Deum laudamus_." + +Ferdinand now advanced to a point near the banks of the Xenil, where he +was met by the unfortunate Boabdil. As the Moorish king approached he made +a movement to dismount, which Ferdinand prevented. He then offered to kiss +the king’s hand. This homage also, as previously arranged, was declined, +whereupon Boabdil leaned forward and kissed the king’s right arm. He then +with a resigned mien delivered the keys of the city. + +"These keys," he said, "are the last relics of the Arabian empire in +Spain. Thine, O king, are our trophies, our kingdom, and our person. Such +is the will of God! Receive them with the clemency thou hast promised, and +which we look for at thy hands." + + [Illustration: MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE.] + + MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE. + + +"Doubt not our promises," said Ferdinand, kindly, "nor that thou shalt +regain from our friendship the prosperity of which the fortune of war has +deprived thee." + +Then drawing from his finger a gold ring set with a precious stone, +Boabdil presented it to the Count of Tendilla, who, he was informed, was +to be governor of the city, saying,— + +"With this ring Granada has been governed. Take it and govern with it, and +God make you more fortunate than I." + +He then proceeded to the village of Armilla, where Queen Isabella +remained. She received him with the utmost courtesy and graciousness, and +delivered to him his son, who had been held as a hostage for the +fulfilment of the capitulation. Boabdil pressed the child tenderly to his +bosom, and moved on until he had joined his family, from whom and their +attendants the shouts and strains of music of the victorious army drew +tears and moans. + +At length the weeping train reached the summit of an eminence about two +leagues distant which commanded the last view of Granada. Here they paused +for a look of farewell at the beautiful and beloved city, whose towers and +minarets gleamed brightly before them in the sunshine. While they still +gazed a peal of artillery, faint with distance, told them that the city +was taken possession of and was lost to the Moorish kings forever. Boabdil +could no longer contain himself. + +"Allah achbar! God is great!" he murmured, tears accompanying his words of +resignation. + +His mother, a woman of intrepid soul, was indignant at this display of +weakness. + +"You do well," she cried, "to weep like a woman for what you failed to +defend like a man." + +Others strove to console the king, but his tears were not to be +restrained. + +"Allah achbar!" he exclaimed again; "when did misfortunes ever equal +mine?" + +The hill where this took place afterwards became known as Feg Allah +Achbar; but the point of view where Boabdil obtained the last prospect of +Granada is called by the Spaniards "_El ultimo suspiro del Moro_" or "The +last sigh of the Moor." + +As Boabdil thus took his last look at beautiful Granada, it behooves us to +take a final backward glance at Arabian Spain, from whose history we have +drawn so much of interest and romance. In this hospitable realm +civilization dwelt when few traces of it existed elsewhere. Here luxury +reigned while barbarism prevailed widely in Europe. We are told that in +Cordova a man might walk ten miles by the light of the public lamps, while +centuries afterwards there was not a single public lamp in London streets. +Its avenues were solidly paved, while centuries afterwards the people of +Paris, on rainy days, stepped from their door-sills into mud ankle-deep. +The dwellings were marked by beauty and luxury, while the people of +Europe, as a rule in that semi-barbaric period, dwelt in miserable huts, +dressed in leather, and lived on the rudest and least nutritive food. + +The rulers of France, England, and Germany lived in rude buildings without +chimneys or windows, with a hole in the roof for the smoke to escape, at a +time when the royal halls of Arabian Spain were visions of grace and +beauty. The residences of the Arabs had marble balconies overhanging +orange-gardens; their floors and walls were frequently of rich and +graceful mosaic; fountains gushed in their courts, quicksilver often +taking the place of water, and falling in a glistening spray. In summer +cool air was drawn into the apartments through ventilating towers; in +winter warm and perfumed air was discharged through hidden passages. From +the ceilings, corniced with fretted gold, great chandeliers hung. Here +were clusters of frail marble columns, which, in the boudoirs of the +sultanas, gave way to verd-antique incrusted with lapis lazuli. The +furniture was of sandal- or citron-wood, richly inlaid with gold, silver, +or precious minerals. Tapestry hid the walls, Persian carpets covered the +floors, pillows and couches of elegant forms were spread about the rooms. +Great care was given to bathing and personal cleanliness at a time when +such a thought had not dawned upon Christian Europe. Their +pleasure-gardens were of unequalled beauty, and were rich with flowers and +fruits. In short, in this brief space it is impossible to give more than a +bare outline of the marvellous luxury which surrounded this people, +recently come from the deserts of Arabia, at a time when most of the +remainder of Europe was plunged into the rudest barbarism. + +Much might be said of their libraries, their universities, their scholars +and scientists, and the magnificence of their architecture, of which +abundant examples still remain in the cities of Spain, the Alhambra of +Granada, the palace which Boabdil so reluctantly left, being almost +without an equal for lightness, grace, and architectural beauty in the +cities of the world. Well might the dethroned monarch look back with +bitter regret upon this rarest monument of the Arabian civilization and +give vent, in farewell to its far-seen towers, to "The last sigh of the +Moor." + + + + + +THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS. + + +In the spring succeeding the fall of Granada there came to Spain a glory +and renown that made her the envy of all the nations of Europe. During the +year before an Italian mariner, Christopher Columbus by name, after long +haunting the camp and court of Ferdinand and Isabella, had been sent out +with a meagre expedition in the forlorn hope of discovering new lands +beyond the seas. In March, 1493, extraordinary tidings spread through the +kingdom and reached the ears of the monarchs at their court in Barcelona. +The tidings were that the poor and despised mariner had returned to Palos +with wonderful tales of the discovery of a vast, rich realm beyond the +seas,—a mighty new empire for Spain. + +The marvellous news set the whole kingdom wild with joy. The ringing of +bells and solemn thanksgivings welcomed Columbus at the port from which he +had set sail. On his journey to the king’s court his progress was impeded +by the multitudes who thronged to see the suddenly famous man,—the humble +mariner who had discovered for Spain what every one already spoke of as a +"New World." With him he brought several of the bronze-hued natives of +that far land, dressed in their simple island costume, and decorated, as +they passed through the principal cities, with collars, bracelets, and +other ornaments of gold. He exhibited, also, gold in dust and in shapeless +masses, many new plants, some of them of high medicinal value, several +animals never before seen in Europe, and birds whose brilliant plumage +attracted glances of delight from all eyes. + +It was mid-April when Columbus reached Barcelona. The nobility and knights +of the court met him in splendid array and escorted him to the royal +presence through the admiring throngs that filled the streets. Ferdinand +and Isabella, with their son, Prince John, awaited his arrival seated +under a superb canopy of state. On the approach of the discoverer they +rose and extended their hands to him to kiss, not suffering him to kneel +in homage. Instead, they bade him seat himself before them,—a mark of +condescension to a person of his rank unknown before in the haughty court +of Castile. He was, at that moment, "the man whom the king delighted to +honor," and it was the proudest period in his life when, having proved +triumphantly all for which he had so long contended, he was honored as the +equal of the proud monarchs of Spain. + +At the request of the sovereigns Columbus gave them a brief account of his +adventures, in a dignified tone, that warmed with enthusiasm as he +proceeded. He described the various tropical islands he had landed upon, +spoke with favor of their delightful climate and the fertility of their +soil, and exhibited the specimens he had brought as examples of their +fruitfulness. He dwelt still more fully upon their wealth in the precious +metals, of which he had been assured by the natives, and offered the gold +he brought with him as evidence. Lastly, he expatiated on the opportunity +offered for the extension of the Christian religion through lands populous +with pagans,—a suggestion which appealed strongly to the Spanish heart. +When he ceased the king and queen, with all present, threw themselves on +their knees and gave thanks to God, while the solemn strains of the _Te +Deum_ were poured forth by the choir of the royal chapel. + + [Illustration: RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.] + + RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. + + +Throughout his residence in Barcelona Columbus continued to receive the +most honorable distinction from the Spanish sovereigns. When Ferdinand +rode abroad the admiral rode by his side. Isabella, the true promoter of +his expedition, treated him with the most gracious consideration. The +courtiers, emulating their sovereigns, gave frequent entertainments in his +honor, treating him with the punctilious deference usually shown only to a +noble of the highest rank. It cannot be said, however, that envy at the +high distinction shown this lately obscure and penniless adventurer was +quite concealed, and at one of these entertainments is said to have taken +place the famous episode of the egg. + +A courtier of shallow wit, with the purpose of throwing discredit on the +achievement of Columbus, intimated that it was not so great an exploit +after all; all that was necessary was to sail west a certain number of +days; the lands lay there waiting to be discovered. Were there not other +men in Spain, he asked, capable of this? + +The response of Columbus was to take an egg and ask those present to make +it stand upright on its end. After they had tried and failed he struck the +egg on the table, cracking the shell and giving it a base on which to +stand. + +"But anybody could do that!" cried the critic. + +"Yes; and anybody can become a discoverer when once he has been shown the +way," retorted Columbus. "It is easy to follow in a known track." + +By this time all Europe had heard of the brilliant discovery of the +Genoese mariner, and everywhere admiration at his achievement and interest +in its results were manifested. Europe had never been so excited by any +single event. The world was found to be larger than had been dreamed of, +and it was evident that hundreds of new things remained to be known. Word +came to Barcelona that King John of Portugal was equipping a large +armament to obtain a share of the new realms in the west, and all haste +was made to anticipate this dangerous rival by sending Columbus again to +the New World. + +On the 25th of September, 1493, he set sail with a gallant armament, which +quite threw into the shade his three humble caravels of the year before. +It consisted of seventeen vessels, some of them of large size for that +day, and fifteen hundred souls, including several persons of rank, and +members of the royal household. Many of those that had taken part in the +Moorish war, stimulated by the love of adventure, were to win fame in the +coming years in the conquest of the alluring realms of the West, and the +earliest of these sailed now under the banner of the Great Admiral. + +The story of Columbus is too familiar to readers for more to be said of it +here. It was one in which the boasted honor of the Spanish court was +replaced by injustice and lack of good faith. Envy and malice surrounded +the discoverer, and in 1500 he was sent home in chains by an infamous +governor. The king, roused by a strong display of public indignation, +disavowed the base act of his agent, and received Columbus again with a +show of favor, but failed to reinstate him in the office of which he had +been unjustly deprived. The discoverer of America died at Valladolid in +1506, giving directions that the fetters which he had once worn, and which +he had kept as evidence of Spanish ingratitude, should be buried with him. + + + + + +PETER THE CRUEL AND THE FREE COMPANIES. + + +About the middle of the year 1365 a formidable expedition set out from +France for the invasion of Castile. It consisted of the celebrated Free +Companies, marauding bands of French and English knights and archers whose +allegiance was to the sword, and who, having laid waste France, now sought +fresh prey in Spain. Valiant and daring were these reckless freebooters, +bred to war, living on rapine, battle their delight, revel their +relaxation. For years the French and English Free Companies had been +enemies. Now a truce existed between their princes, and they had joined +hands under the leadership of the renowned knight Bertrand du Guesclin, at +that time the most famous soldier of France. Sir Hugh de Calverley headed +the English bands, known as the White Company, and made up largely of +men-at-arms, that is, of heavy armed horsemen; but with a strong +contingent of the formidable English archers. The total force comprised +more than twelve thousand men. + +"You lead the life of robbers," said Du Guesclin to them. "Every day you +risk your lives in forays, which yield you more blows than booty. I come +to propose an enterprise worthy of gallant knights and to open to you a +new field of action. In Spain both glory and profit await you. You will +there find a rich and avaricious king who possesses great treasures, and +is the ally of the Saracens; in fact, is half a pagan himself. We propose +to conquer his kingdom and to bestow it on the Count of Trastamara, an old +comrade of yours, a good lance, as you all know, and a gentle and generous +knight, who will share with you his land when you win it for him from the +Jews and Moslems of that wicked king, Don Pedro. Come, comrades, let us +honor God and shame the devil." + +The Free Companies were ready at a word to follow his banner. Among them +were many knights of noble birth who valued glory above booty, and looked +upon it as a worthy enterprise to dethrone a cruel and wicked king, the +murderer of his queen. As for the soldiers, they cared not against whom +they fought, if booty was to be had. + +"Messire Bertrand," they said, "gives all that he wins to his men-at-arms. +He is the father of the soldier. Let us march with him." + +And so the bargain was made and the Free Companies marched away, light of +heart and strong of hand, with a promising goal before them, and a chance +of abundance of fighting before they would see their homes again. + +Peter the Cruel, King of Castile and Leon, amply deserved to be dethroned. +His reign had been one of massacre. All whom he suspected died by the +dagger of the assassin. He bitterly hated his two half-brothers, Fadrique +and Henry. Fadrique he enticed to his court by a show of friendship, and +then had him brutally murdered at the gate of his palace, the Alcazar of +Seville. But his treatment of his queen was what made him specially odious +to his people. He married a French princess, Blanche of Bourbon, but +deserted her after two days to return to his mistress, Maria de Pedilla. +Blanche was taken to Toledo, where she was so closely confined that the +people rose and rescued her from the king’s guards. Peter marched in anger +against the city, but its people defied him and kept the queen. Then the +crafty villain pretended sorrow and asked for a reconciliation. The queen +consented, went back to him, and was quickly imprisoned in a strong +fortress, where she was murdered by his orders in 1361. + +It was this shameful act and the murder of his brother Fadrique that +roused the people to insurrection. Henry of Trastamara, the remaining +brother, headed a revolt against the tyrant and invited the Free Companies +to his aid. These were the circumstances that gave rise to the march of Du +Guesclin and Calverley and their battle-loving bands. + +The adventurers wore crosses on their vests and banners, as though they +were a company of crusaders raised in the service of the church. But in +truth they were under the ban of excommunication, for they had no more +spared the church than the castle or the cottage. Du Guesclin, determined +to relieve them from this ban and force the Pope to grant them absolution, +directed his march upon Avignon, the papal residence in France. It was not +only absolution he wanted. The papal coffers were full; his military chest +was empty; his soldiers would not remain tractable unless well paid; the +church should have the privilege of aiding the army. + +It was with dismay that the people of Avignon beheld the White Company +encamp before their ramparts, late in the year 1365. An envoy from the +Pope was sent in haste to their camp, with a promise from the Holy Father +that he would remove the ban of excommunication if they would evacuate the +territory of the Church. The envoy’s mission was a dangerous one, for the +fierce Free Companions had no reverence for priest or pope. He had hardly +crossed the Rhone before he was confronted by a turbulent band of English +archers, who demanded if he had brought money. + +"Money?" he asked, in faltering tones. + +"Ay, money!" they insolently cried, impeding his passage. + +On reaching Du Guesclin’s tent he was treated with more politeness, but +was met with the same demand. + +"We cannot control our troops," said some of the chiefs; "and, as they are +ready to hazard their lives for the greater glory of the faith, they well +deserve the aid of the Church." + +"The Holy Father will incur much danger if he refuses the demand of our +men," said Du Guesclin, in smooth but menacing tones. "They have become +good Catholics in spite of themselves, and would very readily return to +their old trade." + +Imminent as the danger was, the Pope resisted, and tried to scare off that +flock of reckless war-hawks by the thunders of papal condemnation. But he +soon learned that appeals and threats alike were wasted on the Free +Companies. From the windows of his palace he could see groups of his +unruly visitors at work plundering farms and country houses. Fires were +here and there kindled. The rich lands of Avignon were in danger of a +general ravage. + +"What can I do?" said Du Guesclin to the complaints of the people. "My +soldiers are excommunicated. The devil is in them, and we are no longer +their masters." + +Evidently there was but one way to get rid of this irreligious crew. The +chiefs agreed to be satisfied with five thousand golden florins. This sum +was paid, and the knights companions, laden with plunder and absolved from +their sins, set out in the highest spirits, singing the praises of their +captain and the joys of war. Such was their farewell to France. + +Onward they marched, across the Pyrenees and into Aragon, whose king had +joined with Henry of Trastamara in requesting their presence. They were +far from welcome to the people of this region of Spain. Pedro IV. of +Aragon had agreed to pay them one hundred thousand golden florins on +condition that they should pass through his dominions without disorder; +but the adventurers, imagining that they were already in the enemy’s +country, began their usual service of fire and sword. In Barbastro they +pillaged the houses, killed the burghers or tortured them to extort +ransom, and set fire to a church in which some had taken refuge, burning +alive more than two hundred persons. + +If such was the course of these freebooting bands in the country of their +friends, what would it be in that of their foes? Every effort was made to +get them out of the country as soon as possible. Immediate action was +needed, for the warlike mountaineers were beginning to revenge the +robberies of the adventurers by waylaying their convoys and killing their +stragglers. In early March, 1366, the frontier was passed, Sir Hugh de +Calverley leading his men against Borja, a town of Aragon which was +occupied by soldiers of Castile. + +The garrison fled on their approach, and soon the army entered Castile and +marched upon Calahorra, a town friendly to Prince Henry, and which opened +its gates at sight of their banners. Here an interesting ceremony took +place. Du Guesclin and the other leaders of the Free Companies, with as +much assurance as if they had already conquered Castile, offered Henry the +throne. + +"Take the crown," said the burly leader. "You owe this honor to the many +noble knights who have elected you their leader in this campaign. Don +Pedro, your enemy, has refused to meet you in the battle-field, and thus +acknowledges that the throne of Castile is vacant." + +Henry held back. He felt that these foreigners had not the crown of +Castile in their gift. But when the Castilians present joined in the +demand he yielded, and permitted them to place the crown upon his head. +His chief captain at once unfurled the royal standard, and passed through +the camp, crying, "Castile for King Henry! Long live King Henry!" Then, +amid loud acclamations, he planted the banner on the crest of a hill on +the road to Burgos. + +We need not delay on the events of this campaign. Everywhere the people of +Castile fell away from their cruel king, and Henry’s advance was almost +unopposed. Soon he was in Burgos, and Don Pedro had become a fugitive +without an army and almost without a friend. Henry was now again crowned +king, many of the Castilian nobles taking part in the imposing ceremony. + +The first acts of the new king were to recompense the men who had raised +him to that high office. The money which he found in the treasury served +as a rich reward to the followers of Du Guesclin. He gave titles of +nobility and grants of land with a free hand to the chiefs of the Free +Companies and his other companions in arms. On Du Guesclin he conferred +his own countship of Trastamara, and added to it the lordship of Molino, +with the domains appertaining to both. Calverley was made Count of +Carrion, and received the domains which had formerly been held by the +sons-in-law of the Cid. Lesser rewards were given to lesser chiefs, and +none had reason to accuse Henry of Castile of want of generosity. + +But the Free Companions soon became a sword in the side of the new king. +As there was no more fighting to be done, they resumed their old +occupation of pillaging, and from every side complaints rained in upon the +throne. Henry felt it necessary to get rid of his unruly friends with all +despatch. Retaining Du Guesclin and Calverley in his service, with fifteen +hundred lances, mainly French and Breton, he dismissed the remainder, +placating them with rich presents and warm thanks. Nothing loath, and +gratified that they had avenged the murdered Queen Blanche, they took +their way back, finding abundant chance for fighting on their return. The +Castilians, the Navarrese, and the Aragonese all rose against them, and +everywhere they had to force a passage with their swords. But nothing +could stop them. Spain, accustomed to fight with Arabs and Moors, had no +warriors fit to face these intrepid and heavily armed veterans. Through +the Pyrenees they made their way, and here cut a road with their swords +through the main body of a French army which had gathered to oppose their +march. Once more they were upon the soil of France. + +It was the English and Gascon bands that were principally opposed. It was +known that the Black Prince was preparing to invade Spain, and an effort +was made to cut off the free lances who might enlist under his banners. +This famous knight, son of Edward III. of England, and victor at the +battle of Poitiers, where he had taken prisoner the king of France, was a +cousin of the fugitive king of Castile, who sought him at Cape Breton, and +begged his aid to recover his dominions. The chivalrous prince of Wales +knew little of the dastardly deeds of the suppliant. Don Pedro had brought +with him his three young maiden daughters, whose helpless state appealed +warmly to the generous knight. National policy accorded with the +inclination of the prince, for the Castilian revolution had been promoted +by France, and the usurper had been in the pay of the French king. These +inducements were enough to win for Don Pedro the support of Edward III., +and the aid of the Black Prince, who entered upon the enterprise with the +passionate enthusiasm which was a part of his nature. + +Soon again two armies were in the field, that of King Henry, raised to +defend his new dominions, and that of the Prince of Wales, gathered to +replace the fugitive Don Pedro upon the throne. With the latter was the +White Company, which had aided to drive Pedro from his seat and was now +equally ready to replace him there. These bold lancers and archers fought +for their own hands, with little care whose cause they backed. + +It was through the valley of Roncesvalles, that celebrated pass which was +associated with the name of the famous Roland, the chief knight of French +romance, that the army of the Black Prince made its way into Spain. +Calverley, who was not willing to fight against his liege lord, joined him +with his lances, King Henry generously consenting. Du Guesclin, a veteran +in the art of war, advised the Castilian king to employ a Fabian policy, +harassing the invaders by skirmishes, drawing them deep into the country, +and wearing them out with fatigue and hunger. He frankly told him that his +men could not face in a pitched battle the English veterans, led by such a +soldier as the Black Prince. But the policy suggested would have been +hazardous in Castile, divided as it was between two parties. Henry +remembered that his rival had lost the kingdom through not daring to risk +a battle, and he determined to fight for his throne, trusting his cause to +Providence and the strength of his arms. + +It was in the month of April, 1367, that the two armies came face to face +on a broad plain. They were fairly matched in numbers, and as day broke +both marched resolutely to the encounter, amid opposing shouts of "King +Henry for Castile" and "St. George and Guyenne." It was a hard, fierce, +bitter struggle that followed, in which the onset of Du Guesclin was so +impetuous as for a moment to break the English line. But the end was at +hand when the Castilian cavalry broke in panic before the charge of an +English squadron, which turned Du Guesclin’s battalion and took it in +flank. The Captal de Buch at the same time fell on the flank of the +Castilian vanguard. Thus beset and surrounded, the French and Spanish +men-at-arms desperately sought to hold their own against much superior +numbers. King Henry fought valiantly, and called on all to rally round his +standard. But at length the banner fell, the disorder grew general, the +ranks broke, and knights and foot-soldiers joined in a tumultuous retreat. + +Their only hope now was the bridge of Najera, over the Najerilla, which +stream lay behind their line. Some rushed for the bridge, others leaped +into the river, which became instantly red with blood, for the arrows of +the archers were poured into the crowded stream. Only the approach of +night, the fatigue of the victors, and the temptation to plunder the town +and the camp saved the wreck of the Castilian army, which had lost seven +thousand foot-soldiers and some six hundred men-at-arms. Du Guesclin’s +battalion, which alone had made a gallant stand, was half slain. A large +number of prisoners were taken, among them the valorous Du Guesclin +himself. + +Edward the Black Prince now first learned the character of the man whom he +had come to aid. Don Pedro galloped excitedly over the plain seeking his +rival, and, chancing to meet Lopez de Orozco, one of his former friends, +now the prisoner of a Gascon knight, he stabbed him to the heart, despite +the efforts of the Gascon in his defence. The report of this murder filled +the Black Prince with indignation, which was heightened when Don Pedro +offered to ransom all the Castilian prisoners, plainly indicating that he +intended to murder them. Prince Edward sternly refused, only consenting to +deliver up certain nobles who had been declared traitors before the +revolution. These Don Pedro immediately had beheaded before his tent. + +The breach between the allies rapidly widened, Don Pedro, as soon as he +fairly got possession of the throne, breaking all his engagements with the +Black Prince, while he was unable, from the empty state of his treasury, +to pay the allied troops. Four months Prince Edward waited, with growing +indignation, for redress, while disease was rapidly carrying off his men, +and then marched in anger from Spain with scarcely a fifth of the proud +array with which he had won the battle of Najera. + +The restored king soon justified his title of Peter the Cruel by a series +of sanguinary executions, murdering all of the adherents of his rival on +whom he could lay his hands. In this thirst for revenge not even women +escaped, and at length he committed an act which aroused the indignation +of the whole kingdom. Don Alfonso de Guzman had refused to follow the king +into exile. He now kept out of his reach, but his mother, Doña Urraca de +Osorio, fell into the hands of the monster, and was punished for being the +mother of a rebel by being burned alive on the ramparts of Seville. + +These excesses of cruelty roused a rebellious sentiment throughout +Castile, of which Henry, who had escaped to Aragon from the field of +Najera, took advantage. Supplied with money by the king of France, he +purchased arms and recruited soldiers, many of the French and Castilians +who had been taken prisoners at Najera and been released on parole joining +him in hopes of winning the means of paying their ransoms. Crossing the +Ebro, he marched upon Calahorra, in which the year before he had been +proclaimed king. Here numerous volunteers joined him, and at the head of a +considerable force he marched upon Burgos, which surrendered after a faint +show of resistance. + +During the winter the campaign continued, Leon, Madrid, and other towns +being captured, and in the spring of 1368 all northern Castile was in +Henry’s hands. Don Pedro, whose army was small, had entered into alliance +with the Moorish king of Granada, who sent him an army of thirty-five +thousand men, with which force a vigorous attack was made on the city of +Cordova,—a holy city in the eyes of the Moors. Among its defenders was Don +Alfonso de Guzman, whose mother had been burned to death. The defence was +obstinate, but the Moors at length made breaches in the walls. They were +about to pour into the city when the women, mad with fear, rushed into the +streets with cries and moans, now reproaching the men-at-arms with +cowardice, now begging them with sobs and tears to make a last effort to +save the city from the brutal infidels. + +This appeal gave new courage to the Christians. They rushed on the Moors +with the fury of despair, drove them from the posts they had taken, hurled +them from the ramparts, tore down the black flags which already waved on +the towers, and finally expelled them from the breaches and the walls in a +panic. The breaches were repaired and the city was saved. In a few days +the Moors, thoroughly disheartened by their repulse, dispersed, and Don +Pedro lost his allies. + +Meanwhile, Henry was engaged in the siege of Toledo, the strongest place +in the kingdom, and before which he persistently lay for months, despite +all allurements to use his forces in other directions. Here Bertrand du +Guesclin, who had been ransomed by the Black Prince, joined him with a +force of some six hundred men-at-arms, all picked men; and hither, in +March, 1369, Don Pedro marched to the city’s relief at the head of a +strong army. + +Henry, on learning of this movement, at once gathered all the forces he +could spare from the siege, three thousand men-at-arms in all, and +hastened to intercept his rival on the march. Not dreaming of such a +movement, Don Pedro had halted at Montiel, where his men lay dispersed, in +search of food and forage, over a space of several leagues. They were +attacked at daybreak, their surprise being so complete that the main body +was at once put to flight, while each division was routed as soon as it +appeared. Henry’s forces suffered almost no loss, and within an hour’s +time his rival’s kingdom was reduced to the castle of Montiel, in which he +had taken refuge with a few of his followers. + +Leaving the defeated army to take care of itself, Henry devoted himself to +the siege of the castle, within whose poorly fortified walls lay the prize +for which he fought. Escape was impossible, and the small supply of +provisions would soon be exhausted. Don Pedro’s only hope was to bribe +some of his foes. He sent an agent to Du Guesclin, offering him a rich +reward in gold and lands if he would aid in his escape. Du Guesclin asked +for time to consider, and immediately informed Henry of the whole +transaction. He was at once offered a richer reward than Pedro had +promised if he would entice the king out of the castle, and after some +hesitation and much persuasion he consented. + +On the night of March 23, ten days after the battle, Don Pedro, +accompanied by several of his knights, secretly left the fortress, the +feet of their horses being bound with cloth to deaden the sound of hoofs. +The sentinels, who had been instructed in advance, allowed them to pass, +and they approached the camp of the French adventurers, where Du Guesclin +was waiting to receive them. + +"To horse, Messire Bertrand," said the king, in a low voice; "it is time +to set out." + +No answer was returned. This silence frightened Don Pedro. He attempted to +spring into his saddle, but he was surrounded, and a man-at-arms held the +bridle of his horse. An officer asked him to wait in a neighboring tent. +Resistance was impossible, and he silently obeyed. + +Here he found himself encompassed by a voiceless group, through whose +lines, after a few minutes of dread suspense, a man in full armor +advanced. It was Henry of Trastamara, who now faced his brother for the +first time in fifteen years. He gazed with searching eyes upon Don Pedro +and his followers. + +"Where is this bastard," he harshly asked, "this Jew who calls himself +King of Castile?" + +"There stands your enemy," said a French esquire, pointing to Don Pedro. + +Henry gazed at him fixedly. So many years had elapsed that he failed to +recognize him easily. + +"Yes, it is I," exclaimed Don Pedro, "I, the King of Castile. All the +world knows that I am the legitimate son of good King Alfonso. It is thou +that art the bastard." + +At this insult Henry drew his dagger and struck the speaker a light blow +in the face. They were in too close a circle to draw their swords, and in +mortal fury they seized each other by the waist and struggled furiously, +the men around drawing back and no one attempting to interfere. + +After a brief period the wrestling brothers fell on a camp bed in a corner +of the tent, Don Pedro, who was the stronger, being uppermost. While he +felt desperately for a weapon with which to pierce his antagonist, one of +those present seized him by the foot and threw him on one side, so that +Henry found himself uppermost. Popular tradition says that it was Du +Guesclin’s hand that did this act, and that he cried, "I neither make nor +unmake kings, but I serve my lord;" but some writers say it was the +Viscount de Rocaberti, of Aragon. + +However that be, Henry at once took advantage of the opportunity, picked +up his dagger, lifted the king’s coat of mail, and plunged the weapon +again and again into his side. Only two of Don Pedro’s companions sought +to defend him, and they were killed on the spot. Henry had his brother’s +head at once cut off, and despatched the gruesome relic to Seville. + +Thus perished, by an uncalled-for act of treachery on the part of Du +Guesclin, for the castle must soon have surrendered, one of the most +bloodthirsty kings who ever sat upon a throne. Don Fadrique, his brother, +and Blanche of Bourbon, his wife, both of whom he had basely murdered, +were at length avenged. Henry ascended the throne as Henry II., and for +years reigned over Castile with a mild and just rule that threw still +deeper horror upon the bloody career of him who is known in history as +Peter the Cruel. + + + + + +THE GREAT CAPTAIN. + + +The long and bitter war for the conquest of Granada filled Spain with +trained soldiers and skilful leaders, men who had seen service on a +hundred fields, grim, daring veterans, without their equals in Europe. The +Spanish foot-soldiers of that day were inflexibly resolute, the cavalry +were skilled in the brilliant tactics of the Moors, and the leaders were +men experienced in all the arts of war. These were the soldiers who in the +New World overthrew empires with a handful of adventurers, and within a +fraction of a century conquered a continent for Spain. In Europe they were +kept actively employed. Charles VIII. of France, moved by ambition and +thirst for glory, led an army of invasion into Italy. He was followed in +this career of foreign conquest by his successor, Louis XII. The armies of +France were opposed by those of Spain, led by the greatest soldier of the +age, Gonsalvo de Cordova, a man who had learned the art of war in Granada, +but in Italy showed such brilliant and remarkable powers that he gained +the distinguishing title of the Great Captain. + +These wars were stretched out over years, and the most we can do is to +give some of their interesting incidents. In 1502 the Great Captain lay in +the far south of Italy, faced by a more powerful French army under the +Duke of Nemours, a young nobleman not wanting in courage, but quite unfit +to cope with the experienced veteran before him. Gonsalvo, however, was in +no condition to try conclusions with his well-appointed enemy. His little +corps was destitute of proper supplies, the men had been so long unpaid +that they were mutinous, he had pleaded for reinforcements in vain, and +the most he could do was to concentrate his small force in the seaport of +Barleta and the neighboring strongholds, and make the best show he could +in the face of his powerful foe. + +The war now declined into foraging inroads on the part of the French, in +which they swept the flocks and herds from the fertile pastures, and into +guerilla operations on the part of the Spanish, who ambushed and sought to +cut off the detached troops of the enemy. But more romantic encounters +occasionally took place. The knights on both sides, full of the spirit of +chivalry, and eager to prove their prowess, defied one another to jousts +and tourneys, and for the time being brought back a state of warfare then +fast passing away. + +The most striking of these meetings arose from the contempt with which the +French knights spoke of the cavalry of their enemy, which they declared to +be far inferior to their own. This insult, when told to the proud knights +of Gonsalvo’s army, brought from them a challenge to the knights of +France, and a warlike meeting between eleven Spanish and as many French +warriors was arranged. A fair field was offered the combatants in the +neutral territory under the walls of the Venetian city of Trani, and on +the appointed day a gallant array of well-armed knights of both parties +appeared to guard the lists and maintain the honor of the tournament. + +Spectators crowded the roofs and battlements of Trani, while the lists +were thronged with French and Spanish cavaliers, who for the time laid +aside their enmity in favor of national honor and a fair fight. At the +fixed hour the champions rode into the lists, armed at all points, and +their horses richly caparisoned and covered with steel panoply. Among +those on the Castilian side were Diego de Paredes and Diego de Vera, men +who had won renown in the Moorish wars. Most conspicuous on the other side +was the good knight Pierre de Bayard, the chevalier "_sans peur et sans +reproche_," who was then entering upon his famous career. + +At the sound of the signal trumpets the hostile parties rushed to the +encounter, meeting in the centre of the lists with a shock that hurled +three of the Spaniards from their saddle, while four of their antagonists’ +horses were slain. The fight, which began at ten in the morning, and was +to end at sunset, if not concluded before, was prosecuted with great fury +and varied success. Long before the hour of closing all the French were +dismounted except the Chevalier Bayard and one of his companions, their +horses, at which the Spaniards had specially aimed, being disabled or +slain. Seven of the Spaniards were still on horseback, and pressed so hard +upon their antagonists that the victory seemed safely theirs. + +But Bayard and his comrade bravely held their own, while the others, +intrenched behind their dead horses, defended themselves vigorously with +sword and shield, the Spaniards vainly attempting to spur their terrified +horses over the barrier. The fight went on in this way until the sun sank +below the horizon, when, both parties still holding the field, neither was +given the palm of victory, all the combatants being declared to have +proved themselves good and valiant knights. + +Both parties now met in the centre of the lists, where the combatants +embraced as true companions in chivalry, "making good cheer together" +before they separated. But the Great Captain did not receive the report of +the result with favor. + +"We have," said one of his knights, "disproved the taunts of the +Frenchmen, and shown ourselves as good horsemen as they." + +"I sent you for better," Gonsalvo coldly replied. + +A second combat in which the Chevalier Bayard was concerned met with a +more tragic termination. A Spanish cavalier, Alonzo de Sotomayor, +complained that Bayard had treated him uncourteously while holding him +prisoner. Bayard denied the charge, and defied the Spaniard to prove it by +force of arms, on horse or on foot, as he preferred. Sotomayor, well +knowing Bayard’s skill as a horseman, challenged him to a battle on foot +_à l’outrance_, or "to the death." + +At the appointed time the two combatants entered the lists, armed with +sword and dagger and in complete armor, though wearing their visors up. +For a few minutes both knelt in silent prayer. They then rose, crossed +themselves, and advanced to the combat, "the good knight Bayard," we are +told, "moving as light of step as if he were going to lead some fair lady +down the dance." + +Bayard was the smaller man of the two, and still felt weakness from a +fever which had recently prostrated him. The Spaniard, taking advantage of +this, sought to crush him by the weight of his blows, or to close with him +and bring him to the ground by dint of his superior strength. But the +lightness and agility of the French knight enabled him to avoid the +Spaniard’s grasp, while, by skill with the sword, he parried his enemy’s +strokes, and dealt him an occasional one in return. + +At length, the Spaniard having exposed himself to attack by an +ill-directed blow, Bayard got in so sharp a thrust on the gorget that it +gave way, and the point of the blade entered his throat. Maddened by the +pain of the wound, Sotomayor leaped furiously on his antagonist and +grasped him in his arms, both rolling on the ground together. While thus +clasped in fierce struggle Bayard, who had kept his poniard in his left +hand throughout the fight, while his enemy had left his in his belt, drove +the steel home under his eye with such force that it pierced through his +brain. + +As the victor sprang to his feet, the judges awarded him the honors of the +day, and the minstrels began to pour forth triumphant strains in his +honor. The good knight, however, bade them desist, as it was no time for +gratulation when a good knight lay dead, and, first kneeling and returning +grateful thanks for his victory, he walked slowly from the lists, saying +that he was sorry for the result of the combat, and wished, since his +honor was saved, that his antagonist had lived. + +In these passages at arms we discern the fading gleam of the spirit of +mediæval chivalry, soon to vanish before the new art of war. Rough and +violent as were these displays as compared with the pastimes of later +days, the magnificence with which they were conducted, and the +manifestations of knightly honor and courtesy which attended them, threw +something of grace and softness over an age in which ferocity was the +ruling spirit. + +Meanwhile, the position of the little garrison of Barleta grew daily +worse. No help came, the French gradually occupied the strongholds of the +neighboring country, and a French fleet in the Adriatic stood seriously in +the way of the arrival of stores and reinforcements. But the Great Captain +maintained his cheerfulness through all discouragement, and sought to +infuse his spirit into the hearts of his followers. His condition would +have been desperate with an able opponent, but he perfectly understood the +character of the French commander and patiently bided his time. + +The opportunity came. The French, weary of the slow game of blockade, +marched from their quarters and appeared before the walls of Barleta, bent +on drawing the garrison from the "old den" and deciding the affair in a +pitched battle. The Duke of Nemours sent a trumpet into the town to defy +the Great Captain to the encounter, but the latter coolly sent back word,— + +"It is my custom to choose my own time and place for fighting, and I would +thank the Duc de Nemours to wait till my men have time to shoe their +horses and burnish up their arms." + +The duke waited a few days, then, finding that he could not decoy his wily +foe from the walls, broke camp and marched back, proud of having flaunted +a challenge in the face of the enemy. He knew not Gonsalvo. The French had +not gone far before the latter opened the gates and sent out his whole +force of cavalry, under Diego de Mendoza, with two corps of infantry, in +rapid pursuit. Mendoza was so eager that he left the infantry in the rear, +and fell on the French before they had got many miles away. + +A lively skirmish followed, though of short duration, Mendoza quickly +retiring, pursued by the French rear-guard, whose straggling march had +detached it from the main body of the army. Mendoza’s feigned retreat soon +brought him back to the infantry columns, which closed in on the enemy’s +flanks, while the flying cavalry wheeled in the rapid Moorish style and +charged their pursuers boldly in front. All was now confusion in the +French ranks. Some resisted, but the greater part, finding themselves +entrapped, sought to escape. In the end, nearly all who did not fall on +the field were carried prisoners to Barleta, under whose walls Gonsalvo +had drawn up his whole army, in readiness to support Mendoza if necessary. +The whole affair had passed so quickly that Nemours knew nothing of it +until the bulk of his rear-guard were safely lodged within the walls of +the Spanish stronghold. + +This brilliant success proved the turning-point in the tide of the war. A +convoy of transports soon after reached Barleta, bringing in an abundance +of provisions, and the Spaniards, restored in health and spirits, looked +eagerly for some new enterprise. Nemours having incautiously set out on a +distant expedition, Gonsalvo at once fell on the town of Ruvo and took it +by storm, in spite of a most obstinate defence. On April 28, 1503, +Gonsalvo, strengthened by reinforcements, finally left the stronghold of +Barleta, where he and his followers had suffered so severely and shown +such indomitable constancy. Reaching Cerignola, about sixteen miles from +Barleta, he awaited the advancing army of the French, rapidly intrenching +the ground, which was well suited for defence. Before these works were +completed, Nemours and his army appeared, and, though it was near +nightfall, made an immediate attack. The commander was incited to this by +taunts on his courage from some hot-headed subordinates, to whom he weakly +gave way, saying, "We will fight to-night, then; and perhaps those who +vaunt the loudest will be found to trust more to their spurs than to their +swords,"—a prediction which was to prove true. + +Of the battle, it must suffice to say that the trenches dug by the +Spaniards fatally checked the French advance, and in the effort to find a +passage Nemours fell mortally wounded. Soon the French lines were in +confusion, the Spanish arquebusiers pouring a galling fire into their +dense masses. Perceiving the situation, Gonsalvo ordered a general +advance, and, leaping their intrenchments, the Spaniards rushed in fury on +their foes, most of whose leaders had fallen. Panic succeeded, and the +flying French were cut down almost without resistance. + +The next morning the Great Captain passed over the field of battle, where +lay more than three thousand of the French, half their entire force. The +loss of the Spaniards was very small, and all the artillery, the baggage, +and most of the colors of the enemy were in their hands. Rarely had so +complete a victory been gained in so brief a time, the battle being hardly +more than one hour in duration. The body of the unfortunate Duke of +Nemours was found under a heap of the slain, much disfigured and bearing +the marks of three wounds. Gonsalvo was affected to tears at the sight of +the mutilated body of his young and gallant adversary, who, though +unfitted to head an army, had always proved himself a valiant knight. +During the following month Gonsalvo entered Naples, the main prize of the +war, where he was received with acclamations of joy and given the triumph +which his brilliant exploits so richly deserved. + +The work of the Great Captain was not yet at an end. Finding that his +forces were being defeated in every encounter and the cities held by them +captured, Louis XII. sent a large army to their relief, and late in the +year 1503 the hostile forces came face to face again, Gonsalvo being +forced by the exigencies of the campaign to encamp in a deplorable +situation, a region of swamp, which had been converted by the incessant +rains into a mere quagmire. The French occupied higher ground and were +much more comfortably situated. But Gonsalvo refused to move. He was +playing his old waiting game, knowing that the French dared not attack his +intrenched camp, and that time would work steadily in his favor. + + [Illustration: GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF + NEMOURS.] + + GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS. + + +"It is indispensable to the public service to maintain our present +position," he said to the officers who appealed to him to move; "and be +assured, I would sooner march forward two steps, though it would bring me +to my grave, than fall back one, to gain a hundred years of life." + +After that there were no more appeals. Gonsalvo’s usual cheerfulness was +maintained, infusing spirit into his men in all the inconveniences of +their situation. He had a well-planned object in view. The hardy +Spaniards, long used to rough campaigning, bore their trying position with +unyielding resolution. The French, on the contrary, largely new recruits, +grew weary and mutinous, while sickness broke out in their ranks and +increased with alarming rapidity. + +At length Gonsalvo’s day came. His opponent, not dreaming of an attack, +had extended his men over a wide space. On the night of December 28, in +darkness and storm, the Spanish army broke camp, marched to the river that +divided the forces, silently threw a bridge across the stream, and were +soon on its opposite side. Here they fell like a thunderbolt on the +unsuspecting and unprepared French, who were soon in disordered retreat, +hotly pursued by their foes, their knights vainly attempting to check the +enemy. Bayard had three horses killed under him, and was barely rescued +from death by a friend. So utterly were the French beaten that their +discouraged garrisons gave up town after town without a blow, and that +brilliant night’s work not only ended the control of France over the +kingdom of Naples, but filled Louis XII. with apprehension of losing all +his possessions in Italy. + +Such were the most brilliant exploits of the man who well earned the proud +title of the Great Captain. He was as generous in victory as vigorous in +battle, and as courteous and genial with all he met as if he had been a +courtier instead of a soldier. In the end, his striking and unbroken +success in war aroused the envy and jealousy of King Ferdinand, and after +the return of Gonsalvo to Spain the unjust monarch kept him in retirement +till his death, putting smaller men at the head of his armies rather than +permit the greatest soldier of the century to throw his own exploits more +deeply into the shade. + + + + + +A KING IN CAPTIVITY. + + +Two great rivals were on the thrones of France and Spain,—Francis I., who +came to power in France in 1515, and Charles I., who became king of Spain +in 1516. In 1519 they were rivals for the imperial power in Germany. +Charles gained the German throne, being afterwards known as the emperor +Charles V., and during the remainder of their reigns these rival monarchs +were frequently at war. A league was formed against the French king by +Charles V., Henry VIII. of England, and Pope Leo X., as a result of which +the French were driven from the territory of Milan, in Italy. In 1524 they +were defeated at the battle of Sesia, the famous Chevalier Bayard here +falling with a mortal wound; and in 1525 they met with a more disastrous +defeat at the battle of Pavia, whose result is said to have caused Francis +to write to his mother, "_Madame, tout est perdu fors l’honneur_" ("All is +lost but honor"). + +The reason for these words may be briefly given. Francis was besieging +Pavia, with hopes of a speedy surrender, when the forces of Charles +marched to its relief. The most experienced French generals advised the +king to retire, but he refused. He had said he would take Pavia or perish +in the attempt, and a romantic notion of honor held him fast. The result +was ruinous, as may be expected where sentiment outweighs prudence. +Strongly as the French were intrenched, they were broken and put to rout, +and soon there was no resistance except where the king obstinately +continued to fight. + +Wounded in several places, and thrown from his horse, which was killed +under him, Francis defended himself on foot with heroic valor, while the +group of brave officers who sought to save his life, one after another, +lost their own. At length, exhausted with his efforts, and barely able to +wield his sword, the king was left almost alone, exposed to the fierce +assault of some Spanish soldiers, who were enraged by his obstinacy and +ignorant of his rank. + +At this moment a French gentleman named Pomperant, who had entered the +service of Spain, recognized the struggling king and hurried to his aid, +helping to keep off the assailants, and begging him to surrender to the +Duke of Bourbon, who was close at hand. Great as was the peril, Francis +indignantly refused to surrender to a rebel and traitor, as he held +Bourbon to be, and calling to Lannoy, a general in the imperial army who +was also near by, he gave up his sword to him. Lannoy, recognizing his +prisoner, received the sword with a show of the deepest respect, and +handed the king his own in return, saying,— + +"It does not become so great a monarch to remain disarmed in the presence +of one of the emperor’s subjects." + +The lack of prudence in Francis had proved serious not only to himself, +but to his troops, ten thousand of whom fell, among them many +distinguished nobles who preferred death to dishonor. Numbers of high rank +were taken prisoners, among them the king of Navarre. In two weeks not a +Frenchman remained in Italy. The gains from years of war had vanished in a +single battle. + +The tidings of the captivity of the French king filled France with +consternation and Spain with delight, while to all Europe it was an event +of the deepest concern, for all the nations felt the danger that might +arise from the ambition of the powerful emperor of Spain and Germany. +Henry VIII. requested that Francis should be delivered to him, as an ally +of Spain, though knowing well that such a demand would not gain a moment’s +consideration. As for Italy, it was in terror lest it should be overrun by +the imperial armies. + +Francis, whom Lannoy held with great respect, but with the utmost care to +prevent an escape, hoped much from the generosity of Charles, whose +disposition he judged from his own. But Charles proposed to weaken his +enemy and refused to set him free unless he would renounce all claims upon +Italy, yield the provinces of Provence and Dauphiné to form a kingdom for +the Constable Bourbon, and give up Burgundy to Germany. On hearing these +severe conditions, Francis, in a transport of rage, drew his dagger, +exclaiming,— + +"It were better that a king should die thus!" + +A by-stander arrested the thrust; but, though Francis soon regained his +composure, he declared that he would remain a prisoner for life rather +than purchase liberty at such a price to his country. + +Thinking that these conditions came from the Spanish council, and not from +Charles himself, Francis now became anxious to visit the emperor in Spain, +hoping to soften him in a personal interview. He even furnished the +galleys for that purpose, Charles at that time being too poor to fit out a +squadron, and soon the spectacle was seen of a captive monarch sailing in +his own ships past his own dominions, of which he had a distant and +sorrowful view, to a land in which he was to suffer the indignities of +prison life. + +Landing at Barcelona, Francis was taken to Madrid and lodged in the +alcazar, under the most vigilant guard. He soon found that he had been far +too hasty in trusting to the generosity of his captor. Charles, on +learning of his captivity, had made a politic show of sympathy and +feeling, but on getting his rival fully into his hands manifested a plain +intention of forcing upon him the hardest bargain possible. Instead of +treating his prisoner with the courtesy due from one monarch to another, +he seemed to seek by rigorous usage to force from him a great ransom. + +The captive king was confined in an old castle, under a keeper of such +formal austerity of manners as added to the disgust of the high-spirited +French monarch. The only exercise allowed him was to ride on a mule, +surrounded by armed guards on horseback. Though Francis pressingly +solicited an interview, Charles suffered several weeks to pass before +going near him. These indignities made so deep an impression on the +prisoner that his natural lightness of temper deserted him, and after a +period of deep depression he fell into a dangerous fever, in which he +bitterly complained of the harshness with which he had been treated, and +said that the emperor would now have the satisfaction of having his +captive die on his hands. + +The physicians at length despaired of his life, and informed Charles that +they saw no hope of his recovery unless he was granted the interview he so +deeply desired. This news put the emperor into a quandary. If Francis +should die, all the advantage gained from the battle of Pavia would be +lost. And there were clouds in the sky elsewhere. Henry VIII. had +concluded a treaty of alliance with Queen Louise, regent of France, and +engaged to use all his efforts for the release of the king. In Italy a +dangerous conspiracy had been detected. There was danger of a general +European confederacy against him unless he should come to some speedy +agreement with the captive king. + +Charles, moved by these various considerations, at length visited Francis, +and, with a show of respect and affection, gave him such promises of +speedy release and princely treatment as greatly cheered the sad heart of +the captive. The interview was short; Francis was too ill to bear a long +one; but its effect was excellent, and the sick man at once began to +recover, soon regaining his former health. Hope had proved a medicine far +superior to all the drugs of the doctors. + +But the obdurate captor had said more than he meant. Francis was kept as +closely confined as ever. And insult was added to indignity by the +emperor’s reception of the Constable Bourbon, a traitorous subject of +France, whom Charles received with the highest honors which a monarch +could show his noblest visitor, and whom he made his general-in-chief in +Italy. This act had a most serious result, which may here be briefly +described. In 1527 Bourbon made an assault on Rome, with an army largely +composed of Lutherans from Germany, and took it by assault, he being +killed on the walls. There followed a sack of the great city which had not +been surpassed in brutality by the Vandals themselves, and for months Rome +lay in the hands of a barbarous soldiery, who plundered and destroyed +without stint or mercy. + +What Charles mainly insisted upon and Francis most indignantly refused was +the cession of Burgundy to the German empire. He was willing to yield on +all other points, but bitterly refused to dismember his kingdom. He would +yield all claim to territory in Italy and the Netherlands, would pay a +large sum in ransom, and would make other concessions, but Burgundy was +part of France, and Burgundy he would not give up. + +In the end Francis, in deep despair, took steps towards resigning his +crown to his son, the dauphin. A plot for his escape was also formed, +which filled Charles with the fear that a second effort might succeed. In +dread that, through seeking too much, he might lose all, he finally agreed +upon a compromise in regard to Burgundy, Francis consenting to yield it, +but not until after he was set at liberty. The treaty included many other +articles, most of them severe and rigorous, while Francis agreed to leave +his sons, the dauphin and the Duke of Orleans, in the emperor’s hands as +hostages for the fulfilment of the treaty. This treaty was signed at +Madrid, January 14, 1526. By it Charles believed that he had effectually +humbled his rival, and weakened him so that he could never regain any +great power. In this the statesmen of the day did not agree with him, as +they were not ready to believe that the king of France would live up to +conditions of such severity, forced from him under constraint. + + [Illustration: FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR.] + + FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR. + + +The treaty signed, the two monarchs seemed to become at once the best of +friends. They often appeared together in public; they had long conferences +in private; they travelled in the same litter and joined in the same +amusements; the highest confidence and affection seemed to exist between +them. Yet this love was all a false show,—Francis still distrusted the +emperor, and Charles still had him watched like a prisoner. + +In about a month the ratification of the treaty was brought from France, +and Francis set out from Madrid with the first true emotions of joy which +he had felt for a year. He was escorted by a body of horse under Alarcon, +who, when the frontiers of France were reached, guarded him as +scrupulously as ever. On arriving at the banks of the Andaye River, which +there separated the two kingdoms, Lautrec appeared on the opposite bank, +with a guard of horse equal to that of Alarcon. An empty bark was moored +in mid-stream. The cavalry drew up in order on each bank. Lannoy, with +eight gentlemen and the king, put off in a boat from the Spanish side of +the stream. Lautrec did the same from the French side, bringing with him +the dauphin and the Duke of Orleans. The two parties met in the empty +vessel, where in a moment the exchange was made, Francis embracing his +sons and then handing them over as hostages. Leaping into Lautrec’s boat, +he was quickly on the soil of France. + +Mounting a Barbary horse which awaited him, the freed captive waved his +hand triumphantly over his head, shouted joyfully several times, "I am yet +a king!" and galloped away at full speed for Bayonne. He had been held in +captivity for a year and twenty-two days. + +Our tale of the captivity of the king ends here, but the consequences of +that captivity must be told. A league was immediately afterwards formed +against Charles, named the Holy League, from the Pope being at its head. +The nobles of Burgundy refused to be handed over to the imperial realm, +and an assembly called by Francis absolved him from his oath to keep the +treaty of Madrid. Francis, bewailing his lack of power to do what he had +promised in regard to Burgundy, offered to pay the emperor two millions of +crowns instead. In short, Charles had overreached himself through his +stringency to a captive rival, and lost all through his eagerness to +obtain too much. + +Ten years afterwards the relations between the two monarchs were in a +measure reversed. A rebellion had broken out in Flanders which needed the +immediate presence of Charles, and, for reasons satisfactory to himself, +he wished to go through France. His counsellors at Madrid looked upon such +a movement as fatally rash; but Charles persisted, feeling that he knew +the character of Francis better than they. The French king was ready +enough to grant the permission asked, and looked upon the occasion as an +opportunity to show his rival how kings should deal with their royal +neighbors. + +Charles was received with an ostentatious welcome, each town entertaining +him with all the magnificence it could display. He was presented with the +keys of the gates, the prisoners were set at liberty, and he was shown all +the honor due to the sovereign of the country itself. The emperor, though +impatient to continue his journey, remained six days in Paris, where all +things possible were done to render his visit a pleasant one. Had Francis +listened to the advice of some of his ministers, he would have seized and +held prisoner the incautious monarch who had so long kept him in +captivity. But the confidence of the emperor was not misplaced; no +consideration could induce the high-minded French king to violate his +plighted word, or make him believe that Charles would fail to carry out +certain promises he had made. He forgot for the time how he had dealt with +his own compacts, but Charles remembered, and was no sooner out of France +than all his promises faded from his mind, and Francis learned that he was +not the only king who could enter into engagements which he had no +intention to fulfil. + + + + + +THE INVASION OF AFRICA. + + +As Italy was invaded by Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great Captain, so Africa +was invaded by Cardinal Ximenes, the Great Churchman, one of the ablest +men who ever appeared in Spain, despite the fact that he made a dreadful +bonfire of thousands of Arabian manuscripts in the great square of +Granada. The greater part of these were copies of the Koran, but many of +them were of high scientific and literary value, and impossible to +replace. Yet, while thus engaged in a work fitted for an unlettered +barbarian, Ximenes was using his large revenues to found the University of +Alcala, the greatest educational institution in Spain, and was preparing +his famous polyglot Bible, for which the rarest manuscripts were +purchased, without regard to cost, that the Scriptures might be shown at +one view in their various ancient languages. To indicate the cost of this +work, it is said that he paid four thousand golden crowns for seven +manuscripts, which came too late to be of use in the work. It is strange, +under these circumstances, that he failed to preserve the valuable part of +the Arabian manuscripts. + +The vast labors undertaken by Ximenes at home did not keep him from +enterprises abroad. He was filled with a burning zeal for the propagation +of the Catholic faith, formed plans for a crusade to the Holy Land, and +organized a remarkably successful expedition against the Moslems of +Africa. It is of the latter that we desire to speak. + +Soon after the death of Isabella, Mazalquivir, a nest of pirates on the +Barbary coast, had been captured by an expedition organized by the +energetic Ximenes. He quickly set in train a more difficult enterprise, +one directed against Oran, a Moorish city of twenty thousand inhabitants, +strongly fortified, with a large commerce, and the haunt of a swarm of +piratical cruisers. The Spanish king had no money and little heart for +this enterprise, but that did not check the enthusiastic cardinal, who +offered to loan all the sums needed, and to take full charge of the +expedition, leading it himself, if the king pleased. Ferdinand made no +objection to this, being quite willing to make conquests at some one +else’s expense, and the cardinal set to work. + +It is not often that an individual can equip an army, but Ximenes had a +great income of his own and had the resources of the Church at his back. +By the close of the spring of 1509 he had made ready a fleet of ten +galleys and eighty smaller vessels, and assembled an army of four thousand +horse and ten thousand foot, fully supplied with provisions and military +stores for a four months’ campaign. Such was the energy and activity of a +man whose life, until a few years before, had been spent in the solitude +of the cloister and in the quiet practices of religion, and who was now an +infirm invalid of more than seventy years of age. + +The nobles thwarted his plans, and mocked at the idea of "a monk fighting +the battles of Spain." The soldiers had little taste for fighting under a +father of the Church, "while the Great Captain was left to stay at home +and count his beads like a hermit." The king threw cold water on the +enterprise. But the spirit and enthusiasm of the old monk triumphed over +them all, and on the 16th of May the fleet weighed anchor, reaching the +port of Mazalquivir on the following day. Oran, the goal of the +expedition, lay about a league away. + +As soon as the army was landed and drawn up in line, Ximenes mounted his +mule and rode along its front, dressed in his priestly robes, but with a +sword by his side. A group of friars followed, also with monastic garbs +and weapons of war. The cardinal, ascending a rising ground, made an +animated address to the soldiers, rousing their indignation by speaking of +the devastation of the coast of Spain by the Moslems, and awakening their +cupidity by dwelling on the golden spoil to be found in the rich city of +Oran. He concluded by saying that he had come to peril his own life in the +service of the cross and lead them in person to battle. + +The officers now crowded around the warlike old monk and earnestly begged +him not to expose his sacred person to the hazards of the fight, saying +that his presence would do more harm than good, as the men might be +distracted from the work before them by attending to his personal safety. +This last argument moved the warlike cardinal, who, with much reluctance, +consented to keep in the rear and leave the command of the army to its +military leader, Count Pedro Navarro. + +The day was now far advanced. Beacon-fires on the hill-tops showed that +the country was in alarm. Dark groups of Moorish soldiers could be seen on +the summit of the ridge that lay between Oran and Mazalquivir, and which +it would be necessary to take before the city could be reached. The men +were weary with the labors of landing, and needed rest and refreshment, +and Navarro deemed it unsafe to attempt anything more that day; but the +energetic prelate bade him "to go forward in God’s name," and orders to +advance were at once given. + +Silently the Spanish troops began to ascend the steep sides of the +acclivity. Fortunately for them, a dense mist had arisen, which rolled +down the skirts of the hills and filled the valley through which they +moved. As soon as they left its cover and were revealed to the Moors a +shower of balls and arrows greeted them, followed by a desperate charge +down the hill. But the Spanish infantry, with their deep ranks and long +pikes, moved on unbroken by the assault, while Navarro opened with a +battery of heavy guns on the flank of the enemy. + +Thrown into disorder by the deadly volleys, the Moors began to give +ground, and, pressed upon heavily by the Spanish spearsmen, soon broke +into flight. The Spaniards hotly pursued, breaking rank in their eagerness +in a way that might have proved fatal but for the panic of the Moors, who +had lost all sense of discipline. The hill-top was reached, and down its +opposite slope poured the Spaniards, driving the fleeing Moors. Not far +before them rose the walls of Oran. The fleet had anchored before the city +and was vigorously cannonading it, being answered with equal spirit by +sixty pieces of artillery on the fortifications. Such were the excitement +and enthusiasm of the soldiers that they forgot weariness and disregarded +obstacles. In swift pursuit they followed the scattering Moors, and in a +brief time were close to the walls, defended by a deeply discouraged +garrison. + +The Spaniards had brought few ladders, but in the intense excitement and +energy of the moment no obstacle deterred them. Planting their long pikes +against the walls, or thrusting them into the crevices between the stones, +they clambered up with remarkable dexterity,—a feat which they were +utterly unable to repeat the next day, when they tried it in cold blood. + +A weak defence was made, and the ramparts soon swarmed with Spanish +soldiers. Sousa, the captain of the cardinal’s guard, was the first to +gain the summit, where he unfurled the banner of Ximenes,—the cross on one +side and the cardinal’s arms on the other. Six other banners soon floated +from the walls, and the soldiers, leaping down into the streets, gained +and threw open the gates. In streamed the army, sweeping all opposition +before it. Resistance and flight were alike unavailing. Houses and mosques +were tumultuously entered, no mercy being shown, no regard for age or sex, +the soldiers abandoning themselves to the brutal license and ferocity +common to the wars of that epoch. + +In vain Navarro sought to check his brutal troops; they were beyond +control; the butchery never ceased until, gorged with the food and wine +found in the houses, the worn-out soldiers flung themselves down in the +streets and squares to sleep. Four thousand Moors had been slain in the +brief assault, and perhaps twice that number were taken prisoners. The +city of Oran, that morning an opulent and prosperous community, was at +night a ruined and captive city, with its ferocious conquerors sleeping +amidst their slaughtered victims. + + [Illustration: LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN.] + + LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN. + + +It was an almost incredible victory, considering the rapidity with which +it had been achieved. On the morning of the 16th the fleet of transports +had set sail from Spain. On the night of the 17th the object of the +expedition was fully accomplished, the army being in complete possession +of Oran, a strongly manned and fortified city, taken almost without loss. +Ximenes, to whose warlike enthusiasm this remarkable victory was wholly +due, embarked in his galley the next morning and sailed along the city’s +margin, his soul swelling with satisfaction at his wonderful success. On +landing, the army hailed him as the true victor of Oran, a wave of +acclamations following him as he advanced to the alcazar, where the keys +of the fortress were put into his hands. A few hours after the surrender +of the city a powerful reinforcement arrived for its relief, but on +learning of its loss the disconcerted Moors retired. Had the attack been +deferred to the next day, as Navarro proposed, it would probably have +failed. The people of Spain ascribed the victory to inspiration from +heaven; but the only inspiration lay in the impetuous energy and +enthusiasm of the cardinal. Yet at that period it was by no means uncommon +to invent stories of miracles, and it is soberly asserted that the sun +stood still for several hours while the action went on, Heaven repeating +the miracle of Joshua, and halting the solar orb in its career, that more +of the heathen might be slaughtered. The greatest miracle of all would +have been had the sun stood still nowhere else than over the fated city of +Oran. + +It may not be amiss to add to this narrative an account of a second +expedition against Africa, made by Charles V. some thirty years later, in +which Heaven failed to come to the aid of Spain, and whose termination was +as disastrous as that of the expedition of Ximenes had been fortunate. + +It was the city of Algiers that Charles set out to reduce, and, though the +season was late and it was the time of the violent autumnal winds, he +persisted in his purpose in spite of the advice of experienced mariners. +The expedition consisted of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse, +with a large body of noble volunteers. The storms came as promised and +gave the army no small trouble in its voyage, but at length, with much +difficulty and danger, the troops were landed on the coast near Algiers +and advanced at once upon the town. + +Hascan, the Moorish leader, had only about six thousand men to oppose to +the large Spanish army, and had little hope of a successful resistance by +force of arms. But in this case Heaven—if we admit its interference at +all—came to the aid of the Moors. On the second day after landing, and +before operations had fairly begun, the clouds gathered and the skies grew +threatening. Towards evening rain began to fall and a fierce wind arose. +During the night a violent tempest swept the camp, and the soldiers, who +were without tents or shelter of any kind, were soon in a deplorable +state. Their camp, which was in a low situation, was quickly overflowed by +the pouring rains, and the ground became ankle deep in mud. No one could +lie down, while the wind blew so furiously that they could only stand by +thrusting their spears into the ground and clinging to them. About +day-dawn they were attacked by the vigilant Hascan, and a considerable +number of them killed before the enemy was forced to retire. + +Bad as the night had been, the day proved more disastrous still. The +tempest continued, its force increasing, and the sea, roused to its utmost +fury by the winds, made sad havoc of the ships. They were torn from their +anchorage, flung violently together, beat to pieces on the rocks, and +driven ashore, while many sank bodily in the waves. In less than an hour +fifteen war-vessels and a hundred and forty transports were wrecked and +eight thousand men had perished, those of the crews who reached shore +being murdered by the Moors as soon as they touched land. + +It was with anguish and astoundment that the emperor witnessed this wreck +of all his hopes, the great stores which he had collected for subsistence +and military purposes being in one fatal hour buried in the depths of the +sea. At length the wind began to fall, and some hopes arose that vessels +enough might have escaped to carry the distressed army back to Europe. But +darkness was again at hand, and a second night of suspense and misery was +passed. In the morning a boat reached land with a messenger from Andrew +Doria, the admiral of the fleet, who sent word that in fifty years of +maritime life he had never seen so frightful a storm, and that he had been +forced to bear away with his shattered ships to Cape Metafuz, whither he +advised the emperor to march with all speed, as the skies were still +threatening and the tempest might be renewed. + +The emperor was now in a fearful quandary. Metafuz was at least three +days’ march away. All the food that had been brought ashore was consumed. +The soldiers, worn out with fatigue, were in no condition for such a +journey. Yet it was impossible to stay where they were. There was no need +of deliberation; no choice was left; their only hope of safety lay in +instant movement. + +The sick, wounded, and feeble were placed in the centre, the stronger in +front and rear, and the disastrous march began. Some of the men could +hardly bear the weight of their arms; others, worn out with toiling +through the nearly impassable roads, lay down and died; many perished from +hunger and exhaustion, there being no food but roots and berries gathered +by the way and the flesh of horses killed by the emperor’s order; many +were drowned in the streams, swollen by the severe rains; many were killed +by the enemy, who followed and harassed them throughout the march. The +late gallant army was a bedraggled and miserable fragment when the +survivors at length reached Metafuz. Fortunately the storm was at an end, +and they were able to obtain from the ships the provisions of which they +stood so sorely in need. + +The calamities which attended this unlucky expedition were not yet at an +end. No sooner had the soldiers embarked than a new storm arose, less +violent than the former, but sufficient to scatter the ships to right and +left, some making port in Spain, some in Italy, all seeking such harbors +of refuge as they could find. The emperor, after passing through great +perils, was driven to the port of Bugia in Africa, where contrary winds +held him prisoner for several weeks. He at length reached Spain, to find +the whole land in dismay at the fate of the gallant expedition, which had +set out with such high hopes of success. To the end of his reign Charles +V. had no further aspirations for conquest in Africa. + + + + + +AN EMPEROR RETIRED FROM BUSINESS. + + +In October of the year 1555 a strange procession passed through a rugged +and hilly region of Spain. At its head rode an alcalde with a posse of +alguazils. Next came a gouty old man in a horse-litter, like a prisoner in +the hands of a convoy of officers of justice. A body of horsemen followed, +and in the rear toiled onward a long file of baggage-mules. + +As the train advanced into the more settled regions of the country it +became evident that the personage thus convoyed was not a prisoner, but a +person of the highest consequence. On each side of the road the people +assembled to see him pass, with a show of deep respect. At the towns along +the route the great lords of the neighborhood gathered in his honor, and +in the cities the traveller was greeted by respectful deputations of +officials. When Burgos was approached the great constable of Castile, with +a strong retinue of attendants, came to meet him, and when he passed +through the illuminated streets of that city the bells rang out in merry +peals, while enthusiastic people filled the streets. + +It was not a prisoner to the law, but a captive to gout, who thus passed +in slow procession through the lands and cities of Spain. It was the royal +Charles, King of Spain and the Netherlands, Emperor of Germany, and +magnate of America, at that time the greatest monarch in Europe, lord of a +realm greater than that of Charlemagne, who made his way with this small +following and in this simple manner through the heart of his Spanish +dominions. He had done what few kings have done before or since, +voluntarily thrown off his crown in the height of his power,—weary of +reigning, surfeited with greatness,—and retired to spend the remainder of +his life in privacy, to dwell far from the pomp of courts in a simple +community of monks. + +The next principal halting-place of the retired monarch was the city of +Valladolid, once the capital of the kingdom and still a rich and splendid +place, adorned with stately public buildings and the palaces of great +nobles. Here he remained for some time resting from his journey, his house +thronged with visitors of distinction. Among these, one day, came the +court fool. Charles touched his cap to him. + +"Welcome, brother," said the jester; "do you raise your hat to me because +you are no longer emperor?" + +"No," answered Charles, "but because this sorry courtesy is all I have +left to give you." + +On quitting Valladolid Charles seemed to turn his back finally on the +world, with all its pomps and vanities. Before leaving he took his last +dinner in public, and bade an affectionate farewell to his sisters, his +daughter, and his grandson, who had accompanied him thus far in his +journey. A large train of nobles and cavaliers rode with him to the gates +of the city, where he courteously dismissed them, and moved onward +attended only by his simple train. + +"Heaven be praised!" said the world-weary monarch, as he came nearer his +place of retreat; "after this no more visits of ceremony, no more +receptions!" + +But he was not yet rid of show and ostentation. Spending the night at +Medina del Campo, at the house of a rich banker named Rodrigo de Dueñas, +the latter, by way of display, warmed the emperor’s room with a brazier of +pure gold, in which, in place of common fuel, sticks of cinnamon were +burned. Neither the perfume nor the ostentation was agreeable to Charles, +and on leaving the next morning he punished his over-officious host by +refusing to permit him to kiss his hand, and by causing him to be paid for +the night’s lodging like a common inn-keeper. + +This was not the first time that cinnamon had been burned in the emperor’s +chamber. The same was done by the Fuggers, the famous bankers of Germany, +who had loaned Charles large sums for his expedition against Tunis, and +entertained him at their house on his return. In this case the emperor was +not offended by the odor of cinnamon, since it was modified by a different +and more agreeable perfume. The bankers, grateful to Charles for breaking +up a pestilent nest of Barbary pirates, threw the receipts for the money +they had loaned him into the fire, turning their gold into ashes in his +behalf. This was a grateful sacrifice to the emperor, whose war-like +enterprises consumed more money than he could readily command. + +The vicinity of Yuste was reached late in November. Here resided a +community of Jeronymite monks, in whose monastery he proposed to pass the +remainder of his days. There were two roads by which it could be +reached,—one an easy, winding highway, the other a rugged mountain-pass. +But by the latter four days would be saved, and Charles, tired of the long +journey, determined to take it, difficult as it might prove. + +He had been warned against the mountain pathway, and found it fully as +formidable as he had been told. A body of hardy rustics were sent ahead, +with pikes, shovels, and other implements, to clear the way. But it was +choked here and there with fallen stones and trunks of trees which they +were unable to move. In some localities the path wound round dizzy +precipices, where a false step would have been fatal. To any traveller it +would have been very difficult; to the helpless emperor it was frightfully +dangerous. The peasants carried the litter; in bad parts of the way the +emperor was transferred to his chair; in very perilous places the vigorous +peasants carried him in their arms. + +Several hours of this hard toil passed before they reached the summit. As +they emerged from the dark defiles of the _Puerto Nuevo_—now known as "The +Emperor’s Pass"—Charles exclaimed, "It is the last pass I shall go through +in this world, save that of death." + +The descent was much more easy, and soon the gray walls of Yuste, half +hidden in chestnut-groves, came in sight. Yet it was three months before +the traveller reached there, for the apartments preparing for him were far +from ready, and he had to wait throughout the winter in the vicinity, in a +castle of the Count of Oropesa, and in the midst of an almost continual +downpour of rain, which turned the roads to mire, the country almost to a +swamp, and the mountains to vapor-heaps. The threshold of his new home was +far from an agreeable one. + +Charles V. had long contemplated the step he had thus taken. He was only +fifty-five years of age, but he had become an old man at fifty, and was +such a victim to the gout as to render his life a constant torment and the +duties of royalty too heavy to be borne. So, taking a resolution which few +monarchs have taken before or since, he gave up his power and resolved to +spend the remainder of his life in such quiet and peace as a retired +monastery would give. Spain and its subject lands he transferred to his +son Philip, who was to gain both fame and infamy as Philip II. He did his +best, also, to transfer the imperial crown of Germany to his fanatical and +heartless heir, but his brother Ferdinand, who was in power there, would +not consent, and he was obliged to make Ferdinand emperor of Germany, and +break in two the vast dominion which he had controlled. + +Charles had only himself to thank for his gout. Like many a man in humbler +life, he had abused the laws of nature until they had avenged themselves +upon him. The pleasures of the table with him far surpassed those of +intellectual or business pursuits. He had an extraordinary appetite, equal +to that of any royal _gourmand_ of whom history speaks, and, while leaving +his power behind him, he brought this enemy with him into his retirement. + + [Illustration: CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE.] + + CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE. + + +We are told by a Venetian envoy at his court, in the latter part of his +reign, that, while still in bed in the morning, he was served with potted +capon, prepared with sugar, milk, and spices, and then went to sleep +again. At noon a meal of various dishes was served him, and another after +vespers. In the evening he supped heartily on anchovies, of which he was +particularly fond, or some other gross and savory food. His cooks were +often at their wits’ end to devise some new dish, rich and highly seasoned +enough to satisfy his appetite, and his perplexed purveyor one day, +knowing Charles’s passion for timepieces, told him "that he really did not +know what new dish he could prepare him, unless it were a _fricassée_ of +watches." + +Charles drank as heartily as he ate. His huge repasts were washed down +with potations proportionately large. Iced beer was a favorite beverage, +with which he began on rising and kept up during the day. By way of a +stronger potation, Rhenish wine was much to his taste. Roger Ascham, who +saw him on St. Andrew’s day dining at the feast of the Golden Fleece, +tells us: "He drank the best that I ever saw. He had his head in the glass +five times as long as any of us, and never drank less than a good quart at +once of Rhenish." + +It was this over-indulgence in the pleasures of the table that brought the +emperor to Yuste. His physician warned him in vain. His confessor wasted +admonitions on his besetting sin. Sickness and suffering vainly gave him +warning to desist. Indigestion troubled him; bilious disorders brought +misery to his overworked stomach. At length came gout, the most terrible +of his foes. This enemy gave him little rest day or night. The man who had +hunted in the mountains for days without fatigue, who had kept the saddle +day and night in his campaigns, who had held his own in the lists with the +best knights of Europe, was now a miserable cripple, carried, wherever he +went, in the litter of an invalid. + +One would have thought that, in his monastic retreat, Charles would cease +to indulge in gastronomic excesses, but the retired emperor, with little +else to think of, gave as much attention to his appetite as ever. Yuste +was kept in constant communication with the rest of the world on matters +connected with the emperor’s table. He was especially fond of fish and all +the progeny of the water,—eels, frogs, oysters, and the like. The trout of +the neighborhood were too small for his liking, so he had larger ones sent +from a distance. Potted fish—anchovies in particular—were favorite viands. +Eel pasty appealed strongly to his taste. Soles, lampreys, flounders +reached his kitchen from Seville and Portugal. The country around supplied +pork, mutton, and game. Sausages were sent him from a distance; olives +were brought from afar, as those near at hand were not to his liking. +Presents of sweetmeats and confectionery were sent him by ladies who +remembered his ancient tastes. In truth, Charles, tortured with gout, did +everything he well could to favor its attacks. + +The retired emperor, though he made a monastery his abode, had no idea of +living like a monk. His apartments were richly furnished and hung with +handsome tapestry, and every attention was paid to his personal comfort. +Rich carpets, canopies of velvet, sofas and chairs of carved walnut, seats +amply garnished with cushions for the ease of his tender joints, gave a +luxurious aspect to his retirement. His wardrobe contained no less than +sixteen robes of silk and velvet, lined with ermine, eider-down, or the +soft hair of the Barbary goat. He could not endure cold weather, and had +fireplaces and chimneys constructed in every room, usually keeping his +apartments almost at furnace heat, much to the discomfort of his +household. With all this, and his wrappings of fur and eider-down, he +would often be in a shiver and complain that he was chilled to the bone. + +His table was richly provided with plate, its service being of silver, as +were also the articles of the toilet, the basins, pitchers, and other +utensils of his bed-chamber. With these were articles of pure gold, +valuable for their curious workmanship. He had brought with him many +jewels of value, and a small but choice collection of paintings, some of +them among the noblest masterpieces of art. Among them were eight gems +from the hand of Titian. These were hung in rich frames around his rooms. +He was no reader, and had brought few books, his whole library comprising +but thirty-one volumes, and these mostly religious works, such as +psalters, missals, breviaries, and the like. There was some little science +and some little history, but the work which chiefly pleased him was a +French poem, "_Le Chevalier Délibéré_," then popular, which celebrated the +exploits of the house of Burgundy, and especially of Charles the Bold. + +And now it comes in place to say something of how Charles employed himself +at Yuste, aside from eating and drinking and shivering in his chimney +corner. The mode in which a monarch retired from business passes his time +cannot be devoid of interest. He by no means gave up his attention to the +affairs of the realm, but kept himself well informed in all that was going +on, sometimes much to his annoyance, since blunders were made that gave +him a passing desire to be again at the head of affairs. In truth, two +years after his retirement, the public concerns got into such a snarl that +Philip earnestly sought to induce the emperor to leave his retreat and aid +him with his ripened experience. This Charles utterly refused to do. He +had had his fill of politics. It was much less trouble to run a household +than a nation. But he undertook to do what he could to improve the +revenues of the crown. Despatches about public affairs were brought to him +constantly, and his mental thermometer went up or down as things prospered +or the reverse. But he was not to be tempted to plunge again into the +turbulent tide of public affairs. + +Charles had other and more humble duties to occupy his time. His paroxysms +of gout came only at intervals, and in the periods between he kept himself +engaged. He had a taste for mechanics, and among his attendants was an +Italian named Torriano, a man of much ingenuity, who afterwards +constructed the celebrated hydraulic works at Toledo. He was a skilful +clock-maker, and, as Charles took a special interest in timepieces, his +assistant furnished his apartments with a series of elaborate clocks. One +of these was so complicated that its construction occupied more than three +years, every detail of the work being curiously watched by Charles. +Watches were then of recent invention, yet there were a number of them at +Yuste, made by Torriano. + +The attempt to make his clocks keep time together is said to have been one +of the daily occupations of the retired emperor, and the adjustment of his +clocks and watches gave him so much trouble that he is said to have one +day remarked that it was absurd to try and make men think alike, when, do +what he would, he could not make two of his timepieces agree. + +He often amused himself with Torriano in making little puppets,—soldiers +that would go through their exercises, dancing tambourine-girls, etc. It +is even asserted that they constructed birds that would fly in and out of +the window, a story rather difficult to accept. The monks began to look +upon Torriano as a professor of magic when he invented a handmill small +enough to be hidden in a friar’s sleeve, yet capable of grinding enough +meal in a day to last a man for a week. + +The emperor was very fond of music, particularly devotional music, and was +a devotee in religious exercises, spending much of his time in listening +to the addresses of the chaplains, and observing the fasts and festivals +of the Church. His fondness for fish made the Lenten season anything but a +period of penance for him. + +He went on, indeed, eating and drinking as he would; and his disease went +on growing and deepening, until at length the shadow of death lay heavy on +the man whose religion did not include temperance in its precepts. During +1558 he grew steadily weaker, and on the 21st of September the final day +came; his eyes quietly closed and life fled from his frame. + +Yuste, famous as the abiding-place of Charles in his retirement, remained +unmolested in the subsequent history of the country until 1810, when a +party of French dragoons, foraging near by, found the murdered body of one +of their comrades not far from the monastery gates. Sure in their minds +that the monks had killed him, they broke in, dispersed the inmates, and +set the buildings on fire. The extensive pile of edifices continued to +burn for eight days, no one seeking to quench the flames. On the ninth the +ancient monastery was left a heap of ashes, only the church remaining, +and, protected by it, the palace of Charles. + +In 1820 a body of neighboring insurgents entered and defaced the remaining +buildings, carrying off everything they could find of value and turning +the church into a stable. Some of the monks returned, but in 1837 came an +act suppressing the convents, and the poor Jeronymites were finally turned +adrift. To-day the palace of Charles V. presents only desolate and dreary +chambers, used as magazines for grain and olives. So passes away the glory +of the world. + + + + + +THE FATE OF A RECKLESS PRINCE. + + +In 1568 died Don Carlos, Prince of Asturias, the son of Philip II. of +Spain; and in the same year died Isabella of Valois, the young and +beautiful queen of the Spanish monarch. Legend has connected the names of +Carlos and Isabella, and a mystery hangs over them which research has +failed to dispel. Their supposed love, their untimely fate, and the +suspicion that their death was due to the jealousy of the king, have +proved a prolific theme for fiction, and the story of the supposed unhappy +fate of the two has passed from the domain of history into that of romance +and the drama, there being more than one fine play based on the loves and +misfortunes of Carlos and Isabella. But sober history tells nothing of the +kind, and it is with history that we are here concerned. + +Carlos, the heir of the throne of Spain, was born in 1545. He was a bold, +headstrong boy, reckless in disposition, fond of manly exercises, generous +to a fault, fearless of heart, and passionately desirous of a military +life. In figure he was deformed, one shoulder being higher and one leg +longer than the other, while his chest was flat and his back slightly +humped. His features were not unhandsome, though very pale, and he spoke +with some difficulty. He was feeble and sickly as a boy, subject to +intermittent fever, and wasted away so greatly that it seemed as if he +would not live to manhood. + +Such were the mental and physical characteristics of the princely youth +who while still young was betrothed by treaty to the beautiful French +princess Isabella of Valois. The marriage was not destined to take place. +Before the treaty was ratified, Queen Mary of England, Philip’s wife, +died, and his name was substituted for that of his son in the marriage +treaty. The wedding ceremony took place at Toledo, in February, 1560, and +was celebrated with great splendor. Carlos was present, and may have felt +some resentment at being robbed by his father of this beautiful bride. +Romantic historians tell us that Isabella felt a tender sentiment for him, +a very unlikely statement in view of the fact that he was at that time a +sickly, ill-favored boy of only fourteen years of age. Shortly after the +marriage Carlos was formally recognized as heir to the crown. + +Two years afterwards a serious accident occurred. In descending a flight +of stairs the boy slipped and fell headlong, injuring his head so severely +that his life was despaired of. His head swelled to an enormous size; he +became delirious and totally blind; examination showed that his skull was +fractured; a part of the bone was removed, but no relief was obtained. All +the arts of the doctors of that day were tried in vain, but the boy got no +better. Processions were made to the churches, prayers were offered, and +pilgrimages were vowed, all without avail. Then more radical means were +tried. The mouldering bones of a holy Franciscan, who had died a hundred +years before, and had always been the object of the prince’s especial +veneration, were taken from their coffin and laid on the boy’s bed, and +the cloth that had enclosed the dead man’s skull was placed on his +forehead. + +That night, we are gravely told, the dead friar came to Carlos in his +sleep, bidding him to "be of good cheer, for he would certainly recover." +Soon after, the fever subsided, his head shrank back to its natural size, +his sight returned. In two months from the date of the accident he was +physically well, his recovery being partly or wholly due to the skill of +an Italian surgeon, who trepanned him and by this act restored him to +consciousness. + +Likely enough the boy was never cured. The blow may have done some +permanent injury to his brain. At any rate, he became strikingly eccentric +and reckless, giving way to every mad whim that came into his mind. The +stories of his wild doings formed the scandal of Madrid. In 1564 one of +his habits was to patrol the streets with a number of young nobles as +lawless as himself, attacking the passengers with their swords, kissing +the women, and using foul language to ladies of the highest rank. + +At that time it was the custom for the young gallants of the court to wear +very large boots. Carlos increased the size of his, that he might carry in +them a pair of small pistols. Fearing mischief, the king ordered the +shoemaker to reduce the size of his son’s boots; but when the unlucky son +of St. Crispin brought them to the palace, the prince flew into a rage, +beat him severely, and then ordered the leather to be cut into pieces and +stewed, and forced the shoemaker to swallow it on the spot—or as much of +it as he could get down. + +These are only a sample of his pranks. He beat his governor, attempted to +throw his chamberlain out of the window, and threatened to stab Cardinal +Espinosa for banishing a favorite actor from the palace. + +One anecdote told of him displays a reckless and whimsical humor. Having +need of money, Carlos asked of a merchant, named Grimaldo, a loan of +fifteen hundred ducats. The money-lender readily consented, thanked the +prince for the compliment, and, in the usual grandiloquent vein of +Castilian courtesy, told Carlos that all he had was at his disposal. + +"I am glad to learn that," answered the prince. "You may make the loan, +then, one hundred thousand ducats." + +Poor Grimaldo was thunderstruck. He tremblingly protested that it was +impossible,—he had not the money. "It would ruin my credit," he declared. +"What I said were only words of compliment." + +"You have no right to bandy compliments with princes," Don Carlos replied. +"I take you at your word. If you do not, in twenty-four hours, pay over +the money to the last _real_, you shall have bitter cause to rue it." + +The unhappy Grimaldo knew not what to do. Carlos was persistent. It took +much negotiation to induce the prince to reduce the sum to sixty thousand +ducats, which the merchant raised and paid,—with a malediction on all +words of compliment. The money flew like smoke from the prince’s hands, he +being quite capable of squandering the revenues of a kingdom. He lived in +the utmost splendor, and was lavish with all who came near him, saying, in +support of his gifts and charities, "Who will give if princes do not?" + +The mad excesses of the prince, his wild defiance of decency and decorum, +were little to the liking of his father, who surrounded the young man with +agents whom he justly looked upon as spies, and became wilder in his +conduct in consequence. Offers of marriage were made from abroad. +Catharine de Médicis proposed the hand of a younger sister of Isabella. +The emperor of Germany pressed for a union with his daughter Anne, the +cousin of Carlos. Philip agreed to the latter, but deferred the marriage. +He married Anne himself after the death of Carlos, making her his fourth +wife. Thus both the princesses intended for the son became the brides of +the father. + +The trouble between Carlos and his father steadily grew. The prince was +now twenty-one years of age, and, in his eagerness for a military life, +wished to take charge of affairs in the Netherlands, then in rebellion +against Spain. On learning that the Duke of Alva was to be sent thither, +Carlos said to him, "You are not to go there; I will go myself." + +The efforts of the duke to soothe him only irritated him, and in the end +he drew his dagger and exclaimed, "You shall not go; if you do I will kill +you." + +A struggle followed, the prince making violent efforts to stab the duke. +It only ended when a chamberlain came in and rescued Alva. This outrage on +his minister doubled the feeling of animosity between father and son, and +they grew so hostile that they ceased to speak, though living in the same +palace. + +The next escapade of Carlos brought matters to a crisis. He determined to +fly from Spain and seek a more agreeable home in Germany or the +Netherlands. As usual, he had no money, and he tried to obtain funds by +demanding loans from different cities,—a reckless process which at once +proclaimed that he had some mad design in mind. He went further than this, +saying to his confidants that "he wished to kill a man with whom he had a +quarrel." This purpose he confessed to a priest, and demanded absolution. +The priest refused this startling request, and as the prince persisted in +his sanguinary purpose, a conclave of sixteen theologians was called +together to decide what action it was advisable to take in so +extraordinary a case. + +After a debate on the subject, one of them asked Carlos the name of his +enemy. The prince calmly replied,— + +"My father is the person. I wish to take his life." + +This extraordinary declaration, in which the mad prince persisted, threw +the conclave into a state of the utmost consternation. On breaking up, +they sent a messenger to the king, then at the Escorial Palace, and made +him acquainted with the whole affair. This story, if it is true, seems to +indicate that the prince was insane. + +His application to the cities for funds was in a measure successful. By +the middle of January, 1568, his agents brought him in a hundred and fifty +thousand ducats,—a fourth of the sum he had demanded. On the 17th he sent +an order to Don Ramon de Tassis, director-general of the posts, demanding +that eight horses should be provided for him that evening. Tassis, +suspecting something wrong, sent word that the horses were all out. Carlos +repeated his order in a peremptory manner, and the postmaster now sent all +the horses out, and proceeded with the news to the king at the Escorial. +Philip immediately returned to Madrid, where, the next morning, Carlos +attacked his uncle, Don John of Austria, with a drawn sword, because the +latter refused to repeat a conversation he had had with the king. + +For some time Carlos had slept with the utmost precautions, as if he +feared an attack upon his life. His sword and dagger lay ready by his +bedside, and he kept a loaded musket within reach. He had also a bolt +constructed in such a manner that, by aid of pulleys, he could fasten or +unfasten the door of his chamber while in bed. All this was known to +Philip, and he ordered the mechanic who had made it to derange the +mechanism so that it would not work. To force a way into the chamber of a +man like Carlos might not have been safe. + + [Illustration: THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID.] + + THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID. + + +At the hour of eleven that night the king came down-stairs, wearing armor +on his body and a helmet on his head. With him were the Duke of Feria, +captain of the guard, several other lords, and twelve guardsmen. They +quietly entered the chamber of the prince, and the duke, stealing to the +bedside, secured the sword, dagger, and musket which lay there. + +The noise now wakened Carlos, who sprang up, demanding who was there. + +"It is the council of state," answered the duke. + +On hearing this the prince leaped from the bed, uttering threats and +imprecations, and endeavored to seize his arms. Philip, who had prudently +kept in the background until the weapons were secured, now advanced and +bade his son to return to bed and keep quiet. + +"What does your majesty want of me?" demanded the prince. + +"You will soon learn," Philip harshly replied. + +He then gave orders that the windows and doors of the room should be +strongly secured and the keys brought to him. Every article of furniture, +even the andirons, with which violence might have been done, was removed +from the room. The king then appointed Feria keeper of the prince, and +bade the other nobles to serve him, with due respect, saying that he would +hold them as traitors if they permitted him to escape. + +"Your majesty had better kill me than keep me a prisoner," exclaimed +Carlos. "It will be a great scandal to the kingdom. If you do not kill me +I will kill myself." + +"You will do no such thing," answered Philip. "That would be the act of a +madman." + +"Your majesty," replied the prince, "treats me so ill that you drive me to +this extremity. I am not mad, but you drive me to despair." + +Other words passed, and on the withdrawal of the king the voice of Carlos +was so broken by sobs that his words could scarcely be heard. That night +the Duke of Feria and two other lords remained in the prince’s room,—now +his prison. Each succeeding night two of the six appointed lords performed +this duty. They were not allowed to wear their swords in the presence of +the prince, but his meat was cut up before serving, as no knife was +permitted to be used at his meals. A guard was stationed in the passage +without, and, as the prince could not look from his barricaded windows, he +was from that day dead to the world. + +The king immediately summoned his council of state and began a process +against the prisoner. Though making a show of deep affliction, he was +present at all the meetings and listened to all the testimony, which, when +written out, formed a heap of paper half a foot thick. + +The news of the arrest of Don Carlos made a great sensation in Spain. The +wildest rumors were set afloat. Some said that he had tried to kill his +father, others that he was plotting rebellion. Many laid all the blame on +the king. "Others, more prudent than their neighbors, laid their fingers +on their lips and were silent." The affair created almost as much +sensation throughout Europe as in Spain. Philip, in his despatches to +other courts, spoke in such vague and mysterious language that it was +impossible to tell what he meant, and the most varied surmises were +advanced. + +Meanwhile, Carlos was kept rigorously confined, so much so that he was not +left alone day or night. Of the two nobles in his chamber at night, one +was required to keep awake while the other slept. They were permitted to +talk with him, but not on political matters nor on the subject of his +imprisonment. They were ordered to bring him no messages from without nor +receive any from him. No books except devotional ones were allowed him. + +If it was the purpose of Philip to end the life of his son by other means +than execution he could not have taken better measures. For a young man of +his high spirit and fiery temper such strict confinement was maddening. At +first he was thrown into a frenzy, and tried more than once to make way +with himself. The sullenness of despair succeeded. He grew daily more +emaciated, and the malarial fever which had so long affected him now +returned in a severe degree. To allay the heat of the fever he would +deluge the floor of his chamber with water, and walk for hours with bare +feet on the cold floor. He had a warming-pan filled with ice and snow +brought him, and kept it for hours at night in his bed. He would drink +snow-water in immoderate draughts. In his eating he seemed anxious to +break down his strength,—now refusing all food for days together, now +devouring a pasty of four partridges at a sitting, washing it down with +three gallons or more of iced water. + +That he was permitted to indulge in such caprices seems to indicate that +Philip wished him to kill himself. No constitution, certainly not so weak +a one as that of Carlos, could long withstand these excesses. His stomach +refused to perform its duty; severe vomiting attacked him; dysentery set +in; his strength rapidly failed. The expected end came on the 24th of +July, six months after the date of his imprisonment, death releasing the +prince from the misery of his unhappy lot. One writer tells us that it was +hastened by a strong purgative dose, administered by his father’s orders, +and that he was really assassinated. However that be, Philip had little +reason to be sorry at the death of his lunatic son. To one of his austere +temperament it was probably an easy solution of a difficult problem. + +Less than three months passed after the death of Carlos when Isabella +followed him to the grave. She was then but twenty-three years old,—about +the same age as himself. The story was soon set afloat that Philip had +murdered both his son and his wife, moved thereto by jealousy; and from +this has arisen the romantic story of secret love between the two, with +the novels and dramas based thereon. In all probability the story is +without foundation. Philip is said to have been warmly loved by his wife, +and the poison which carried her away seems to have been the heavy doses +of medicine with which the doctors of that day sought to cure a passing +illness. + + + + + +SPAIN’S GREATEST VICTORY AT SEA. + + +On the 16th of September, 1571, there sailed from the harbor of Messina +one of the greatest fleets the Mediterranean had ever borne upon its +waves. It consisted of more than three hundred vessels, most of them +small, but some of great bulk for that day, carrying forty pieces of +artillery. On board these ships were eighty thousand men. Of these, less +than thirty thousand were soldiers, for in those days, when war-galleys +were moved by oars rather than sails, great numbers of oarsmen were +needed. At the head of this powerful armament was Don John of Austria, +brother of Philip II., and the ablest naval commander that Spain +possessed. + +At sunrise on the 7th of October the Christian fleet came in sight, at the +entrance to the Bay of Lepanto, on the west of Greece, of the great +Turkish armament, consisting of nearly two hundred and fifty royal +galleys, with a number of smaller vessels in the rear. On these ships are +said to have been not less than one hundred and twenty thousand men. A +great battle for the supremacy of Christian or Mohammedan was about to be +fought between two of the largest fleets ever seen in the Mediterranean. + +For more than a century the Turks had been masters of Constantinople and +the Eastern Empire, and had extended their dominion far to the west. The +Mediterranean had become a Turkish lake, which the fleets of the Ottoman +emperors swept at will. Cyprus had fallen, Malta had sustained a terrible +siege, and the coasts of Italy and Spain were exposed to frightful +ravages, in which the corsairs of the Barbary states joined hands with the +Turks. France only was exempt, its princes having made an alliance with +Turkey, in which they gained safety at the cost of honor. + +Spain was the leading opponent of this devastating power. For centuries +the Spanish people had been engaged in a bitter crusade against the Moslem +forces. The conquest of Granada was followed by descents upon the African +coast, the most important of which was the conquest of Tunis by Charles +the Fifth in 1535, on which occasion ten thousand Christian captives were +set free from a dreadful bondage. An expedition against Tripoli in 1559, +however, ended in disaster, the Turks and the Moors continued triumphant +at sea, and it was not until 1571 that the proud Moslem powers received an +effectual check. + +The great fleet of which Don John of Austria was admiral-in-chief had not +come solely from Spain. Genoa had furnished a large number of galleys, +under their famous admiral, Andrew Doria,—a name to make the Moslems +tremble. Venice had added its fleet, and the Papal States had sent a +strong contingent of ships. Italy had been suffering from the Turkish +fleet, fire and sword had turned the Venetian coasts into a smoking +desolation, and this was the answer of Christian Europe to the Turkish +menace. + +The sight of the Turkish fleet on that memorable 7th of October created +instant animation in the Christian armament. Don John hoisted his pennon, +ordered the great standard of the league, given by the Pope, to be +unfurled, and fired a gun in defiance of the Turks. Some of the commanders +doubted the wisdom of engaging the enemy in a position where he had the +advantage, but the daring young commander curtly cut short the discussion. + +"Gentlemen," he said, "this is the time for combat, not for counsel." + +Steadily the two fleets approached each other on that quiet sea. The +Christian ships extended over a width of three miles. On the right was +Andrew Doria, with sixty-four galleys. The centre, consisting of +sixty-three galleys, was commanded by Don John, with Colonna, the +captain-general of the Pope, on one flank, and Veniero, the Venetian +captain-general, on the other. The left wing, commanded by the noble +Venetian Barbarigo, extended as near to the coast of Ætolia as it was +deemed safe to venture. The reserve, of thirty-five galleys, was under the +Marquis of Santa Cruz. The plan of battle was simple. Don John’s orders to +his captains were for each to select an adversary, close with him at once, +and board as soon as possible. + +As the fleet advanced the armament of the Turks came into full view, +spread out in half-moon shape over a wider space than that of the allies. +The great galleys, with their gilded and brightly painted prows and their +myriad of banners and pennons, presented a magnificent spectacle. But the +wind, which had thus far favored the Turks, now suddenly shifted and blew +in their faces, and the sun, as the day advanced, shone directly in their +eyes. The centre of their line was occupied by the huge galley of Ali +Pasha, their leader. Their right was commanded by Mahomet Sirocco, viceroy +of Egypt; their left by Uluch Ali, dey of Algiers, the most redoubtable of +the corsair lords of the sea. + +The breeze continued light. It was nearly noon when the fleets came face +to face. The sun, now nearing the zenith, shone down from a cloudless sky. +As yet it seemed like some grand holiday spectacle rather than the coming +of a struggle for life or death. + +Suddenly the shrill war-cry of the Turks rang out on the air. Their cannon +began to play. The firing ran along the line until the whole fleet was +engaged. On the Christian side the trumpets rang defiance and the guns +answered the Turkish peals. The _galeazzas_, a number of mammoth +war-ships, had been towed a half-mile in advance of the Spanish fleet, and +as the Turks came up poured broadsides from their heavy guns with striking +effect, doing considerable damage. But Ali Pasha, not caring to engage +these monster craft, opened his lines and passed them by. They had done +their work, and took no further part, being too unwieldy to enter into +close action. + +The battle began on the left. Barbarigo, the Venetian admiral, had brought +his ships as near the coast as he dared. But Mahomet Sirocco knew the +waters better, passed between his ships and the shore, and doubled upon +him, bringing the Christian line between two fires. Barbarigo was wounded, +eight galleys were sent to the bottom, and several were captured. Yet the +Venetians, who hated the Turks with a mortal hatred, fought on with +unyielding fury. + +Uluch Ali, on the Christian right, tried the same manœuvre. But he had +Andrew Doria, the experienced Genoese, to deal with, and his purpose was +defeated by a wide extension of the Christian line. It was a trial of +skill between the two ablest commanders on the Mediterranean. Doria, by +stretching out his line, had weakened his centre, and the corsair captain, +with alert decision, fell upon some galleys separated from their +companions, sinking several, and carrying off the great Capitana of Malta +as a prize. + +Thus both on the right and on the left the Christians had the worst of it. +The severest struggle was in the centre. Here were the flag-ships of the +commanders,—the Real, Don John’s vessel, flying the holy banner of the +League; Ali Pasha displaying the great Ottoman standard, covered with +texts from the Koran in letters of gold, and having the name of Allah +written upon it many thousands of times. + +Both the commanders, young and ardent, burned with desire to meet in mid +battle. The rowers urged forward their vessels with an energy that sent +them ahead of the rest of their lines, driving them through the foaming +water with such force that the pasha’s galley, much the larger and loftier +of the two, was hurled upon its opponent until its prow reached the fourth +bench of rowers. Both vessels groaned and quivered to their very keels +with the shock. + +As soon as the vessels could be disengaged the combat began, the pasha +opening with a fierce fire of cannon and musketry, which was returned with +equal fury and more effect. The Spanish gunners and musketeers were +protected by high defences, and much of the Turkish fire went over their +heads, while their missiles, poured into the unprotected and crowded crews +of Ali’s flag-ship, caused terrible loss. But the Turks had much the +advantage in numbers, and both sides fought with a courage that made the +result a matter of doubt. + +The flag-ships were not long left alone. Other vessels quickly gathered +round them, and the combat spread fiercely to both sides. The new-comers +attacked one another and assailed at every opportunity the two central +ships. But the latter, beating off their assailants, clung together with +unyielding pertinacity, as if upon them depended the whole issue of the +fight. + +The complete width of the entrance to the bay of Lepanto was now a scene +of mortal combat, though the vessels were so lost under a pall of smoke +that none of the combatants could see far to the right or left. The lines, +indeed, were broken up into small detachments, each fighting the +antagonists in its front, without regard to what was going on elsewhere. +The battle was in no sense a grand whole, but a series of separate combats +in which the galleys grappled and the soldiers and sailors boarded and +fought hand to hand. The slaughter was frightful. In the case of some +vessels, it is said, every man on board was killed or wounded, while the +blood that flowed from the decks stained the waters of the gulf red for +miles. + +The left wing of the allies, as has been said, was worsted at the +beginning of the fight, its commander receiving a wound which proved +mortal. But the Venetians fought on with the courage of despair. In the +end they drove back their adversaries and themselves became the +assailants, taking vessel after vessel from the foe. The vessel of Mahomet +Sirocco was sunk, and he was slain after escaping death by drowning. His +death ended the resistance of his followers. They turned to fly, many of +the vessels being run ashore and abandoned and their crews largely +perishing in the water. + +While victory in this quarter perched on the Christian banners, the mortal +struggle in the centre went on. The flag-ships still clung together, an +incessant fire of artillery and musketry sweeping both decks. The +Spaniards proved much the better marksmen, but the greater numbers of the +Turks, and reinforcements received from an accompanying vessel, balanced +this advantage. Twice the Spaniards tried to board and were driven back. A +third effort was more successful, and the deck of the Turkish galley was +reached. The two commanders cheered on their men, exposing themselves to +danger as freely as the meanest soldier. Don John received a wound in the +foot,—fortunately a slight one. Ali Pasha led his janizaries boldly +against the boarders, but as he did so he was struck in the head by a +musket-ball and fell. The loss of his inspiring voice discouraged his men. +For a time they continued to struggle, but, borne back by their impetuous +assailants, they threw down their arms and asked for quarter. + +The deck was covered with the bodies of the dead and wounded. From beneath +them the body of Ali was drawn, severely, perhaps mortally, wounded. His +rescuers would have killed him on the spot, but he diverted them by +pointing out where his money and jewels could be found. The next soldier +to come up was one of the galley-slaves, whom Don John had unchained from +the oar and supplied with arms. Ali’s story of treasure was lost on him. +With one blow he severed his head from his shoulders, and carried the gory +prize to Don John, laying it at his feet. The generous Spaniard looked at +it with a mingling of pity and horror. + +"Of what use can such a present be to me?" he coldly asked the slave, who +looked for some rich reward; "throw it into the sea." + +This was not done. The head was stuck on a pike and raised aloft on the +captured galley. At the same time the great Ottoman banner was drawn down, +while that of the Cross was elevated with cheers of triumph in its place. + +The shouts of "victory!" the sight of the Christian standard at the +mast-head of Ali’s ship, the news of his death, which spread from ship to +ship, gave new courage to the allies and robbed the Turks of spirit. They +fought on, but more feebly. Many of their vessels were boarded and taken. +Others were sunk. After four hours of fighting the resistance of the +Turkish centre was at an end. + +On the right, as related, Andrew Doria had suffered a severe loss by +stretching his line too far. He would have suffered still more had not the +reserve under Santa Cruz, which had already given aid to Don John, come to +his relief. Strengthened by Cardona with the Sicilian squadron, he fell on +the Algerine galleys with such fierceness that they were forced to recoil. +In their retreat they were hotly assailed by Doria, and Uluch, beset on +all sides, was obliged to abandon his prizes and take to flight. Tidings +now came to him of the defeat of the centre and the death of Ali, and, +hoisting signals for retreat, he stood in all haste to the north, followed +by the galleys of his fleet. + +With all sail spread and all its oarsmen vigorously at work, the corsair +fleet sped rapidly away, followed by Doria and Santa Cruz. Don John joined +in the pursuit, hoping to intercept the fugitives in front of a rocky +headland which stretched far into the sea. But the skilled Algerine leader +weathered this peril, losing a few vessels on the rocks, the remainder, +nearly forty in number, bearing boldly onward. Soon they distanced their +pursuers, many of whose oarsmen had taken part and been wounded in the +fight. Before nightfall the Algerines were vanishing below the horizon. + +There being signs of a coming storm, Don John hastened to seek a harbor of +refuge, setting fire to such vessels as were damaged beyond usefulness, +and with the remainder of his prizes making all haste to the neighboring +port of Petala, the best harbor within reach. + +The loss of the Turks had been immense, probably not less than twenty-five +thousand being killed and five thousand taken prisoners. To Don John’s +prizes may be added twelve thousand Christian captives, chained to the +oars by the Turks, who now came forth, with tears of joy, to bless their +deliverers. The allies had lost no more than eight thousand men. This +discrepancy was largely due to their use of fire-arms, while many of the +Turks fought with bows and arrows. Only the forty Algerine ships escaped; +one hundred and thirty vessels were taken. The Christian loss was but +fifteen galleys. The spoils were large and valuable, consisting in great +measure of gold, jewels, and rich brocades. + +Of the noble cavaliers who took part in the fight, we shall speak only of +Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, a nephew of Don John, whom he was +destined to succeed in military renown. He began here his career with a +display of courage and daring unsurpassed on the fleet. Among the +combatants was a common soldier, Cervantes by name, whose future glory was +to throw into the shade that of all the leaders in the fight. Though +confined to bed with a fever on the morning of the battle, he insisted on +taking part, and his courage in the affray was shown by two wounds on his +breast and a third in his hand which disabled it for life. Fortunately it +was the left hand. The right remained to write the immortal story of Don +Quixote de la Mancha. + +Thus ended one of the greatest naval battles of modern times. No important +political effect came from it, but it yielded an immense moral result. It +had been the opinion of Europe that the Turks were invincible at sea. This +victory dispelled that theory, gave new heart to Christendom, and so +dispirited the Turks that in the next year they dared not meet the +Christians at sea, though they were commanded by the daring dey of +Algiers. The beginning of the decline of the Ottoman empire may be said to +date from the battle of Lepanto. + + + + + +THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. + + +During almost the whole reign of Philip II. the army of Spain was kept +busily engaged, now with the Turks and the Barbary states, now with the +revolted Moriscos, or descendants of the Moors of Granada, now in the +conquest of Portugal, now with the heretics of the Netherlands. All this +was not enough for the ambition of the Spanish king. Elizabeth of England +had aided the Netherland rebels and had insulted him in America by sending +fleets to plunder his colonies; England, besides, was a nest of enemies of +the church of which Philip was one of the most zealous supporters; he +determined to attempt the conquest of that heretical and hostile island +and the conversion of its people. + +For months all the shipwrights of Spain were kept busy in building vessels +of an extraordinary size. Throughout the kingdom stores were actively +collected for their equipment. Levies of soldiers were made in Italy, +Germany, and the Netherlands, to augment the armies of Spain. What was in +view was the secret of the king, but through most of 1587 all Europe +resounded with the noise of his preparations. + +Philip broached his project to his council of state, but did not gain much +support for his enterprise. "England," said one of them, "is surrounded +with a tempestuous ocean and has few harbors. Its navy is equal to that of +any other nation, and if a landing is made we shall find its coasts +defended by a powerful army. It would be better first to subdue the +Netherlands; that done we shall be better able to chastise the English +queen." The Duke of Parma, Philip’s general in chief, was of the same +opinion. Before any success could be hoped for, he said, Spain should get +possession of some large seaport in Zealand, for the accommodation of its +fleet. + +These prudent counsels were thrown away on the self-willed king. His +armies had lately conquered Portugal; England could not stand before their +valor; one battle at sea and another on shore would decide the contest; +the fleet he was building would overwhelm all the ships that England +possessed; the land forces of Elizabeth, undisciplined and unused to war, +could not resist his veteran troops, the heroes of a hundred battles, and +led by the greatest general of the age. All this he insisted on. Europe +should see what he could do. England should be punished for its heresy and +Elizabeth pay dearly for her discourtesy. + +Philip was confirmed in his purpose by the approbation of the Pope. +Elizabeth of England was the greatest enemy of the Catholic faith. She had +abolished it throughout her dominions and executed as a traitor the +Catholic Queen Mary of Scotland. For nearly thirty years she had been the +chief support of the Protestants in Germany, France, and the Netherlands. +Pope Pius V. had already issued a bull deposing Elizabeth, on the ground +of acts of perfidy. Sixtus VI., who succeeded, renewed this bull and +encouraged Philip who, ambitious to be considered the guardian of the +Church, hastened his preparations for the conquest of the island kingdom. + +Elizabeth was not deceived by the stories set afloat by Spain. She did not +believe that this great fleet was intended partly for the reduction of +Holland, partly for use in America, as Philip declared. Scenting danger +afar, she sent Sir Francis Drake with a fleet to the coast of Spain to +interrupt these stupendous preparations. + +Drake was the man for the work. Dispersing the Spanish fleet sent to +oppose him, he entered the harbor of Cadiz, where he destroyed two large +galleons and a handsome vessel filled with provisions and naval stores. +Then he sailed for the Azores, captured a rich carrack on the way home +from the East Indies, and returned to England laden with spoils. He had +effectually put an end to Philip’s enterprise for that year. + +Philip now took steps towards a treaty of peace with England, for the +purpose of quieting the suspicions of the queen. She appeared to fall into +the snare, pretended to believe that his fleet was intended for Holland +and America, and entered into a conference with Spain for the settlement +of all disturbing questions. But at the same time she raised an army of +eighty thousand men, fortified all exposed ports, and went vigorously to +work to equip her fleet. She had then less than thirty ships in her navy, +and these much smaller than those of Spain, but the English sailors were +the best and boldest in the world, new ships were rapidly built, and pains +was taken to increase the abhorrence which the people felt for the tyranny +of Spain. Accounts were spread abroad of the barbarities practised in +America and in the Netherlands, vivid pictures were drawn of the cruelties +of the Inquisition, and the Catholic as well as the Protestant people of +England became active in preparing for defence. The whole island was of +one mind; loyalty seemed universal; the citizens of London provided thirty +ships, and the nobility and gentry of England forty or fifty more. But +these were of small size as compared with those of their antagonist, and +throughout the island apprehension prevailed. + +In the beginning of May, 1588, Philip’s strenuous labors were concluded +and the great fleet was ready. It was immense as compared with that with +which William the Conqueror had invaded and conquered England five +centuries before. The Invincible Armada, as the Spaniards called it, +consisted of one hundred and fifty ships, many of them of enormous size. +They were armed with more than two thousand six hundred great guns, were +provisioned for half a year, and contained military stores in a profusion +which only the wealth of America and the Indies could have supplied. On +them were nearly twenty thousand of the famous troops of Spain, with two +thousand volunteers of the most distinguished families, and eight thousand +sailors. In addition there was assembled in the coast districts of the +Netherlands an army of thirty-four thousand men, for whose transportation +to England a great number of flat-bottomed vessels had been procured. +These were to venture upon the sea as soon as the Armada was in position +for their support. + +And now, indeed, "perfidious Albion" had reason to tremble. Never had that +nation of islanders been so seriously threatened, not even when the ships +of William of Normandy were setting sail for its shores. The great fleet, +which lay at Lisbon, then a city of Spain, was to set sail in the early +days of May, and no small degree of fear affected the hearts of all +Protestant Europe, for the conquest of England by Philip the fanatic would +have been a frightful blow to the cause of religious and political +liberty. + +All had so far gone well with Spain; now all began to go ill. At the very +time fixed for sailing the Marquis of Santa Cruz, the admiral of the +fleet, was taken violently ill and died, and with him died the Duke of +Paliano, the vice-admiral. Santa Cruz’s place was not easy to fill. Philip +chose to succeed him the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a nobleman totally +ignorant of sea affairs, giving him for vice-admiral Martinez de Recaldo, +a seaman of much experience. All this caused so much delay that the fleet +did not sail till May 29. + +Storm succeeded sickness to interfere with Philip’s plans. A tempest fell +on the fleet on its way to Corunna, where it was to take on some troops +and stores. All but four of the ships reached Corunna, but they had been +so battered and dishevelled by the winds that several weeks passed before +they could again be got ready for sea,—much to the discomfiture of the +king, who was eager to become the lord and master of England. He had dwelt +there in former years as the husband of Queen Mary; now he was ambitious +to set foot there as absolute king. + +England, meanwhile, was in an ebullition of joy. Word had reached there +that the Spanish fleet was rendered unseaworthy by the storm, and the +queen’s secretary, in undue haste, ordered Lord Howard, the admiral, to +lay up four of his largest ships and discharge their crews, as they would +not be needed. But Howard was not so ready to believe a vague report, and +begged the queen to let him keep the ships, even if at his own expense, +till the truth could be learned. To satisfy himself, he set sail for +Corunna, intending to try and destroy the Armada if as much injured as +reported. Learning the truth, and finding that a favorable wind for Spain +had begun to blow, he returned to Plymouth in all haste, in some dread +lest the Armada might precede him to the English coast. + +He had not long been back when stirring tidings came. The Armada had been +seen upon the seas. Lord Howard at once left harbor with his fleet. The +terrible moment of conflict, so long and nervously awaited, was at hand. +On the next day—July 30—he came in view of the great Spanish fleet, drawn +up in the form of a crescent, with a space of seven miles between its +wings. Before this giant fleet his own seemed but a dwarf. Paying no +attention to Lord Howard’s ships, the Armada moved on with dignity up the +Channel, its purpose being to disperse the Dutch and English ships off the +Netherland coast and escort to England the Duke of Parma’s army, then +ready to sail. + +Lord Howard deemed it wisest to pursue a guerilla mode of warfare, +harassing the Spaniards and taking any advantage that offered. He first +attacked the flag-ship of the vice-admiral Recaldo, and with such vigor +and dexterity as to excite great alarm in the Spanish fleet. From that +time it kept closer order, yet on the same day Howard attacked one of its +largest ships. Others hurried to the aid; but in their haste two of them +ran afoul, one, a large galleon, having her mast broken. She fell behind +and was captured by Sir Francis Drake, who discovered, to his delight, +that she had on board a chief part of the Spanish treasure. + +Other combats took place, in all of which the English were victorious. The +Spaniards proved ignorant of marine evolutions, and the English sailed +around them with a velocity which none of their ships could equal, and +proved so much better marksmen that nearly every shot told, while the +Spanish gunners fired high and wasted their balls in the air. The fight +with the Armada seemed a prototype of the much later sea-battles at Manila +and Santiago de Cuba. + +Finally, after a halt before Calais, the Armada came within sight of +Dunkirk, where Parma’s army, with its flat-bottomed transports, was +waiting to embark. Here a calm fell upon the fleets, and they remained +motionless for a whole day. But about midnight a breeze sprang up and Lord +Howard put into effect a scheme he had devised the previous day. He had +made a number of fire-ships by filling eight vessels with pitch, sulphur, +and other combustibles, and these were now set on fire and sent down the +wind against the Spanish fleet. + +It was with terror that the Spaniards beheld the coming of these flaming +ships. They remembered vividly the havoc occasioned by fire-ships at the +siege of Antwerp. The darkness of the night added to their fears, and +panic spread from end to end of the fleet. All discipline vanished; +self-preservation was the sole thought of each crew. Some took time to +weigh their anchors, but others, in wild haste, cut their cables, and soon +the ships were driving blindly before the wind, some running afoul of each +other and being completely disabled by the shock. + +When day dawned Lord Howard saw with the highest satisfaction the results +of his stratagem. The Spanish fleet was in the utmost disorder, its ships +widely dispersed. His own fleet had just been strengthened, and he at once +made an impetuous attack upon the scattered Armada. The battle began at +four in the morning and lasted till six in the evening, the Spaniards +fighting with great bravery but doing little execution. Many of their +ships were greatly damaged, and ten of the largest were sunk, run aground, +or captured. The principal galeas, or large galley, manned with three +hundred galley slaves and having on board four hundred soldiers, was +driven ashore near Calais, and nearly all the Spaniards were killed or +drowned in attempting to reach land. The rowers were set at liberty. + +The Spanish admiral was greatly dejected by this series of misfortunes. As +yet the English had lost but one small ship and about one hundred men, +while his losses had been so severe that he began to dread the destruction +of the entire fleet. He could not without great danger remain where he +was. His ships were too large to approach nearer to the coast of Flanders. +Philip had declined to secure a suitable harbor in Zealand, as advised. +The Armada was a great and clumsy giant, from which Lord Howard’s much +smaller fleet had not fled in terror, as had been expected, and which now +was in such a condition that there was nothing left for it but to try and +return to Spain. + +But the getting there was not easy. A return through the Channel was +hindered by the wind, which blew strongly from the south. Nor was it a +wise movement in the face of the English fleet. The admiral, therefore, +determined to sail northward and make the circuit of the British islands. + +Unfortunately for Lord Howard, he was in no condition to pursue. By the +neglect of the authorities he had been ill-supplied with gunpowder, and +was forced to return to England for a fresh supply. But for this +deficiency he possibly might, in the distressed condition of the Spanish +fleet, have forced a surrender of the entire Armada. As it was, his return +proved fortunate, for the fleets had not far separated when a frightful +tempest began, which did considerable harm to the English ships, but fell +with all its rage on the exposed Armada. + +The ships, drawn up in close ranks, were hurled fiercely together, many +being sunk. Driven helplessly before the wind, some were dashed to pieces +on the rocks of Norway, others on the Scottish coast or the shores of the +western islands. Some went down in the open sea. A subsequent storm, which +came from the west, drove more than thirty of them on the Irish coast. Of +these, some got off in a shattered state, others were utterly wrecked and +their crews murdered on reaching the shore. The admiral’s ship, which had +kept in the open sea, reached the Spanish coast about the close of +September. + +Even after reaching harbor in Spain troubles pursued them, two of the +galleons taking fire and burning to ashes. Of the delicately reared noble +volunteers, great numbers had died from the hardships of the voyage, and +many more died from diseases contracted at sea. The total loss is not +known; some say that thirty-two, some that more than eighty, ships were +lost, while the loss of life is estimated at from ten thousand to fifteen +thousand. Spain felt the calamity severely. There was hardly a family of +rank that had not some one of its members to mourn, and so universal was +the grief that Philip, to whose ambition the disaster was due, felt +obliged to issue an edict to abridge the time of public mourning. + +In England and Holland, on the contrary, the event was hailed with +universal joy. Days of solemn thanksgiving were appointed, and Elizabeth, +seated in a triumphal chariot and surrounded by her ministers and nobles, +went for this purpose to St. Paul’s Cathedral, the concourse bearing a +great number of flags that had been taken from the enemy. + +The joy at the destruction of the Armada was not confined to England and +Holland. All Northern Europe joined in it. Philip’s ambition, in the event +of victory over England, might have led him to attempt the subjection of +every Protestant state in Europe, while Catholic France, which he +afterwards attempted to conquer, had the greatest reason to dread his +success. + +Thus ended the most threatening enterprise in the religious wars of the +sixteenth century, and to Lord Howard and his gallant captains England and +Europe owe the deepest debt of gratitude, for the success of the Armada +and the conquest of England by Spain might have proved a calamity whose +effects would have been felt to the present day. + + + + + +THE CAUSES OF SPAIN’S DECADENCE. + + +The golden age of Spain began in 1492, in which year the conquest of +Granada extinguished the Arab dominion, and the discovery of America by +Columbus opened a new world to the enterprise of the Spanish cavaliers. It +continued during the reigns of Charles I. and Philip II., extending over a +period of about a century, during which Spain was the leading power in +Europe, and occupied the foremost position in the civilized world. In +Europe its possessions included the Netherlands and important regions in +Italy, while its king, Charles I., ruled as Charles V. over the German +empire, possessing a dominion in Europe only surpassed by that of +Charlemagne. Under Philip II. Portugal became a part of the Spanish realm, +and with it its colony of Brazil, so that Spain was the unquestioned owner +of the whole continent of South America, while much of North America lay +under its flag. + +Wealth flowed into the coffers of this broad kingdom in steady streams, +the riches of America over-flowing its treasury; its fleet was the +greatest, its army the best trained and most irresistible in Europe; it +stood as the bulwark against that mighty Ottoman power before which the +other nations trembled, and checked its career of victory at Lepanto; in +short, as above said, it was for a brief period the leading power in +Europe, and appeared to have in it the promise of a glorious career. + +Such was the status of Spain during the reigns of the monarchs named. This +was followed by a long period of decline, which reduced that kingdom from +its position of supremacy into that of one of the minor powers of Europe. +Various causes contributed to this change, the chief being the accession +of a series of weak monarchs and the false ideas of the principles of +political economy which then prevailed. The great treasure which flowed +into Spain from her American colonies rather hastened than retarded her +decline. The restrictions and monopolies of her colonial policy gave rise +to an active contraband trade, which reaped the harvest of her commerce. +The over-abundant supply of gold and silver had the effect of increasing +the price of other commodities and discouraging her rising industries, the +result being that she was obliged to purchase abroad the things she ceased +to produce at home and the wealth of America flowed from her coffers into +those of the adjoining nations. Her policy towards the Moriscos banished +the most active agriculturists from the land, and large districts became +desert, population declined, and the resources of the kingdom diminished +yearly. In a century after the death of Philip II. Spain, from being the +arbiter of the destinies of Europe, had grown so weak that the other +nations ceased to regard her otherwise than as a prey for their ambition, +her population had fallen from eight to six millions, her revenue from two +hundred and eighty to thirty millions, her navy had vanished, her army had +weakened, and her able soldiers and statesmen had disappeared. + +In addition to the causes of decline named, others of importance were her +treatment of the Jews and the Moriscos, though the banishment of the +former took place at an earlier date. Despite their activity in trade and +finance and the value to the nations of their genius for business, the +Jews of Europe were everywhere persecuted, often exposed to robbery and +massacre, and expelled from some kingdoms. In Spain their expulsion was +conducted with cruel severity. + +Many of the unfortunate Jews, seeking to escape persecution, embraced +Christianity. But their conversion was doubted, they were subjected to +constant espionage, and the least suspicion of indulging in their old +worship exposed them to the dangerous charge of heresy, a word of +frightful omen in Spain. It was to punish these delinquent Jews that in +1480 the Inquisition was introduced, and at once began its frightful work, +no less than two thousand "heretics" being burned alive in 1481, while +seventeen thousand were "reconciled," a word of mild meaning elsewhere, +but which in Spain signified torture, confiscation of property, loss of +citizenship, and frequently imprisonment for life in the dungeons of the +Inquisition. Severe as was the treatment of the Jews throughout +Christendom, nowhere were they treated more pitilessly than in Spain. + +The year 1492, in which Spain gained glory by the conquest of Granada and +the discovery of America, was one of the deepest misfortune to this +people, who were cruelly driven from the kingdom. The edict for this was +signed by Ferdinand and Isabella at Granada, March 30, 1492, and decreed +that all unbaptized Jews, without regard to sex, age, or condition, should +leave Spain before the end of the next July, and never return thither +under penalty of death and confiscation of property. Every Spaniard was +forbidden to give aid in any form to a Jew after the date named. The Jews +might sell their property and carry the proceeds with them in bills of +exchange or merchandise, but not in gold or silver. + +This edict came like a thunderbolt to the Israelites. At a tyrant’s word +they must go forth as exiles from the land in which they and their +forefathers had dwelt for ages, break all their old ties of habit and +association, and be cast out helpless and defenceless, marked with a brand +of infamy, among nations who held them in hatred and contempt. + +Under the unjust terms of the edict they were forced to abandon most of +the property which they had spent their lives in gaining. It was +impossible to sell their effects in the brief time given, in a market +glutted with similar commodities, for more than a tithe of their value. As +a result their hard-won wealth was frightfully sacrificed. One chronicler +relates that he saw a house exchanged for an ass and a vineyard for a suit +of clothes. In Aragon the property of the Jews was confiscated for the +benefit of their creditors, with little regard to its value. As for the +bills of exchange which they were to take instead of gold and silver, it +was impossible to obtain them to the amount required in that age of +limited commerce, and here again they were mercilessly robbed. + +The migration was one of the most pitiable known in history. As the time +fixed for their departure approached the roads of the country swarmed with +emigrants, young and old, strong and feeble, sick and well, some on horses +or mules, but the great multitude on foot. The largest division, some +eighty thousand in number, passed through Portugal, whose monarch taxed +them for a free passage through his dominions, but, wiser than Ferdinand, +permitted certain skilful artisans among them to settle in his kingdom. + +Those who reached Africa and marched towards Fez, where many of their race +resided, were attacked by the desert tribes, robbed, slain, and treated +with the most shameful barbarity. Many of them, half-dead with famine and +in utter despair, returned to the coast, where they consented to be +baptized with the hope that they might be permitted to return to their +native land. + +Those who sought Italy contracted an infectious disease in the crowded and +filthy vessels which they were obliged to take; a disorder so malignant +that it carried off twenty thousand of the people of Naples during the +year, and spread far over the remainder of Italy. As for the Jews, hosts +of them perished of hunger and disease, and of the whole number expelled, +estimated at one hundred and sixty thousand, only a miserable fragment +found homes at length in foreign lands, some seeking Turkey, others +gaining refuge and protection in France and England. As for the effect of +the migration on Spain it must suffice here to quote the remark of a +monarch of that day: "Do they call this Ferdinand a politic prince, who +can thus impoverish his own kingdom and enrich ours?" + +Spain was in this barbarous manner freed of her Jewish population. There +remained the Moors, who had capitulated, under favorable terms, to +Ferdinand in 1492. These terms were violated a few years later by Cardinal +Ximenes, his severity driving them into insurrection in 1500. This was +suppressed, and then punishment began. So rigid was the inquiry that it +seemed as if all the people of Granada would be condemned as guilty, and +in mortal dread many of them made peace by embracing Christianity, while +others sold their estates and migrated to Barbary. In the end, all who +remained escaped persecution only by consenting to be baptized, the total +number of converts being estimated at fifty thousand. The name of Moors, +which had superseded that of Arabs, was now changed to that of Moriscos, +by which these unfortunate people were afterwards known. + +The ill-faith shown to the Moors of the plain gave rise to an insurrection +in the mountains, in which the Spaniards suffered a severe defeat. The +insurgents, however, were soon subdued, and most of them, to prevent being +driven from their homes, professed the Christian faith. By the free use of +torture and the sword the kings of Spain had succeeded in adding largely +to their Christian subjects. + +The Moriscos became the most skilful and industrious agriculturists of +Spain, but they were an alien element of the population and from time to +time irritating edicts were issued for their control. In 1560 the Moriscos +were forbidden to employ African slaves, for fear that they might make +infidels of them. This was a severe annoyance, for the wealthy farmers +depended on the labor of these slaves. In 1563 they were forbidden to +possess arms except under license. In 1566 still more oppressive edicts +were passed. They were no longer to use the Arabic language or wear the +Moorish dress, and the women were required to go about with their faces +unveiled,—a scandalous thing among Mohammedans. Their weddings were to be +conducted in public, after the Christian forms, their national songs and +dances were interdicted, and they were even forbidden to indulge in warm +baths, bathing being a custom of which the Spaniard of that day appears to +have disapproved. + +The result of these oppressive edicts was a violent and dangerous +insurrection, which involved nearly all the Moriscos of Spain, and +continued for more than two years, requiring all the power of Spain for +its suppression. Don John of Austria, the victor at Lepanto, led the +Spanish troops, but he had a difficult task, the Moriscos, sheltered in +their mountain fastnesses, making a desperate and protracted resistance, +and showing a warlike energy equal to that which had been displayed in the +defence of Granada. + +The end of the war was followed by a decree from Philip II. that all the +Moors of Granada should be removed into the interior of the country, their +lands and houses being forfeited, and nothing left them but their personal +effects. This act of confiscation was followed by their reduction to a +state of serfdom in their new homes, no one being permitted to change his +abode without permission, under a very severe penalty. If found within ten +leagues of Granada they were condemned, if between the ages of ten and +seventeen, to the galleys for life; if older, to the punishment of death. + +The dispersal of the Moriscos of Granada, while cruel to them, proved of +the greatest benefit to Spain. Wherever they went the effects of their +superior skill and industry were soon manifested. They were skilled not +only in husbandry, but in the mechanic arts, and their industry gave a new +aspect of prosperity to the provinces to which they were banished, while +the valleys and hill-sides of Granada, which had flourished under their +cultivation, sank into barrenness under the unskilful hands of their +successors. + +Yet this benefit to agriculture did not appeal to the ruling powers in +Spain. The Moriscos were not Spaniards, and could not easily become so +while deprived of all civil rights. While nominally Christian, there was a +suspicion that at heart they were still Moslems. And their relations to +the Moors of Africa and possible league with the corsairs of the +Mediterranean aroused distrust. Under Philip III., a timid and incapable +king, the final act came. He was induced to sign an edict for the +expulsion of the Moriscos, and this quiet and industrious people, a +million in number, were in 1610, like the Jews before them, forced to +leave their homes in Spain. + +It is not necessary to repeat the story of the suffering which necessarily +followed so barbarous an act. What has been said of the circumstances +attending the expulsion of the Jews will suffice. That of the Moriscos was +not so inhuman in its consequences, but it was serious enough. +Fortunately, in view of the intense impolicy and deep intolerance +indicated in the act, its evil effects reacted upon its advocates. To the +Moriscos the suffering was personal; to Spain it was national. As France +half-ruined herself by expelling the Huguenots, the most industrious of +her population, Spain did the same in expelling the Moriscos, to whose +skill and industry she owed so much of her prosperity. So it ever must be +when bigotry is allowed to control the policy of states. France recovered +from the evil effects of her mad act. Spain never did. The expulsion of +the Moriscos was one of the most prominent causes of her decline, and no +indications of a recovery have yet been shown. + +The expulsion of the Jews and Moriscos was not sufficient to satisfy the +intolerant spirit of Spain. Heresy had made its way even into the minds of +Spaniards. Sons of the Church themselves had begun to think in other lines +than those laid down for them by the priestly guardians of their minds. +Protestant books were introduced into the ever-faithful land, and a +considerable number of converts to Protestantism were made. + +Upon these heretics the Inquisition descended with all its frightful +force. Philip, in a monstrous edict, condemned all to be burned alive who +bought, sold, or read books prohibited by the Church. The result was +terrible. The land was filled with spies. Arrests were made on all sides. +The instruments of torture were kept busy. In all the principal cities of +Spain the monstrous spectacle of the _auto-de-fé_ was to be seen, +multitudes being burned at the stake for having dared to read the books or +accept the arguments of Protestant writers. + +The total effect of this horrible system of persecution we can only +epitomize. Thousands were burned at the stake, thousands imprisoned for +life after terrible torture, thousands robbed of their property, and their +children condemned to poverty and opprobrium; and the kingdom of Christ, +as the Spanish monarchs of that day estimated it, was established in +Spain. + +The Spanish Inquisition proved an instrument of conviction which none +dared question. Heresy was blotted out from Spain,—and Spain was blotted +out from the ranks of enlightened nations. Freedom of thought was at an +end. The mind of the Spaniard was put in fetters. Spain, under the sombre +shadow of this barbarity, was shut out from the light which was breaking +over the remainder of Europe. Literature moved in narrow channels, +philosophy was checked, the domain of science was closed, progress was at +an end. Spain stood still while the rest of the world was sweeping onward; +and she stands still to-day, her mind in the fifteenth century. The +decadence of Spain is due to the various causes named,—the weakness of her +rulers, lack of just and advantageous ideas of political and commercial +economy, suppression of freedom of thought and opinion on topics which +were being freely handled elsewhere in Christendom, and a narrow and +intolerant policy which, wherever shown, is a fatal barrier to the +progress of mankind. + + + + + +THE LAST OF A ROYAL RACE. + + +The rebellion of the Moriscos, due to the oppressive edicts of Philip II., +as stated in the preceding tale, was marked by numerous interesting +events. Some of these are worth giving in illustration of the final +struggle of the Moors in Spain. The insurgents failed in their first +effort, that of seizing the city of Granada, still filled with their +fellow-countrymen, and restoring as far as possible their old kingdom; and +they afterwards confined themselves to the difficult passes and mountain +fastnesses of the Sierra Nevada, where they presented a bold front to the +power of Spain. + +Having proclaimed their independence, and cast off all allegiance to the +crown of Spain, their first step was to select a new monarch of their own +race. The man selected for this purpose was of royal blood, being +descended in a direct line from the ancient family of the Omeyades, +caliphs of Damascus, and for nearly four centuries rulers in Spain. This +man, who bore the Castilian name of Don Fernando de Valor, but was known +by the Moors as Aben-Humeya, was at that time twenty-two years of age, +comely in person and engaging in manners, and of a deportment worthy of +the princely line from which he had descended. A man of courage and +energy, he escaped from Granada and took refuge in the mountains, where he +began a war to the knife against Spain. + +The early events of the war were unfavorable to the Moors. Their +strongholds were invaded by a powerful Spanish force under the Marquis of +Mondejar, and their forces soon put to flight. Aben-Humeya was so hotly +pursued that he was forced to spring from his horse, cut the hamstrings of +the animal to render it useless to his pursuers, and seek refuge in the +depths of the sierras, where dozens of hiding-places unknown to his +pursuers could be found. + +The insurrection was now in a desperate stage. Mondejar was driving the +rebels in arms in terror before him; tower and town fell in succession +into his hands; everywhere his arms were victorious, and only one thing +was wanting to bring all opposition to an end,—the capture of Aben-Humeya, +the "little king" of the Alpujarras. This crownless monarch was known to +be wandering with a few followers in the wilds of the mountains; but while +he lived the insurrection might at any moment blaze out again, and +detachments of soldiers were sent to pursue him through the sierras. + +The captain of one of these parties learned from a traitor that the +fugitive prince remained hidden in the mountains only during the day, +finding shelter at night in the house of a kinsman, Aben-Aboo, on the +skirts of the sierras. Learning the situation of this mansion, the Spanish +captain led his men with the greatest secrecy towards it. Travelling by +night, they reached the vicinity of the dwelling under cover of the +darkness. In a minute more the house would have been surrounded and its +inmates secured; but at this critical moment the arquebuse of one of the +Spaniards was accidentally discharged, the report echoing loudly among the +hills and warning the lightly sleeping inmates of their danger. + +One of them, El Zaguer, the uncle of Aben-Humeya, at once sprang up and +leaped from the window of his room, making his way with all haste to the +mountains. His nephew was not so fortunate. Running to his window, in the +front of the house, he saw the ground occupied by troops. He hastily +sought another window, but his foes were there before him. Bewildered and +distressed, he knew not where to turn. The house was surrounded; the +Spaniards were thundering on the door for admittance; he was like a wolf +caught in its lair, and with as little mercy to hope from his captors. + +By good fortune the door was well secured. One possible chance for safety +occurred to the hunted prince. Hastening down-stairs, he stood behind the +portal and noiselessly drew its bolts. The Spaniards, finding the door +give way, and supposing that it had yielded to their blows, rushed hastily +in and hurried through the house in search of the fugitive who was hidden +behind the door. The instant they had all passed he slipped out, and, +concealed by the darkness outside, hastened away, soon finding a secure +refuge in the mountains. + +Aben-Aboo remained in the hands of the assaillants, who vainly questioned +him as to the haunts of his kinsmen. On his refusal to answer they +employed torture, but with no better effect. "I may die," he courageously +said, "but my friends will live." So severe and cruel was their treatment, +that in the end they left him for dead, returning to camp with the other +prisoners they had taken. As it proved, however, the heroic Aben-Aboo did +not die, but lived to play a leading part in the war. + +With kindly treatment of the Moriscos he would probably have given no more +trouble, but the Spanish proved utterly merciless, their soldiers raging +through the mountains, and committing the foulest acts of outrage and +rapine. In Granada a frightful deed was committed. A large number of the +leading Moriscos, about one hundred and fifty in all, had been seized and +imprisoned, being held as hostages for the good behavior of their friends. +Here, on a night in March, the prison was entered by a body of Spaniards, +who assailed the unfortunate captives, arms in hand, and began an +indiscriminate massacre. The prisoners seizing what means of defence they +could find, fought desperately for their lives, and for two hours the +unequal combat continued, not ending while a Morisco remained alive. + +This savage act led to terrible reprisals on the part of the insurgents, +who in the subsequent war treated with atrocious cruelty many of their +captives. The Moriscos were soon in arms again, Aben-Humeya at their head, +and the war blazed throughout the length and breadth of the mountains. +Even from Barbary came a considerable body of Moors, who entered the +service of the Morisco chief. Fierce and intrepid, trained to the military +career, and accustomed to a life of wild adventure, these were a most +valuable reinforcement to Aben-Humeya’s forces, and enabled him to carry +on a guerilla warfare which proved highly vexatious to the troops of +Spain. He made forays from the mountains into the plain, penetrating into +the vega and boldly venturing even to the walls of Granada. The +insurrection spread far and wide through the Sierra Nevada, and the +Spanish army, now led by Don John of Austria, the king’s brother, found +itself confronted by a most serious task. + +The weak point in the organization of the Moriscos lay in the character of +their king. Aben-Humeya, at first popular, soon displayed traits of +character which lost him the support of his followers. Surrounded by a +strong body-guard, he led a voluptuous life, and struck down without mercy +those whom he feared, no less than three hundred and fifty persons falling +victims to his jealousy or revenge. His cruelty and injustice at length +led to a plot for his death, and his brief reign ended in assassination, +his kinsman, Aben-Aboo, being chosen as his successor. + +The new king was a very different man from his slain predecessor. He was +much the older of the two, a man of high integrity and great decorum of +character. While lacking the dash and love of adventure of Aben-Humeya, he +had superior judgment in military affairs, and full courage in carrying +out his plans. His election was confirmed from Algiers, a large quantity +of arms and ammunition was imported from Barbary, reinforcements crossed +the Mediterranean, and the new king began his reign under excellent +auspices, his first movement being against Orgiba, a fortified place on +the road to Granada, which he invested in October with an army of ten +thousand men. + + [Illustration: THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA.] + + THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA. + + +The capture of this place, which soon followed, roused the enthusiasm of +the Moriscos to the highest pitch. From all sides the warlike peasantry +flocked to the standard of their able chief, and a war began resembling +that of a century before, when the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella were +invading the Kingdom of Granada. From peak to peak of the sierras +beacon-fires flashed their signals, calling the bold mountaineers to +forays on the lands of the enemy. Pouring suddenly down on the lower +levels, the daring marauders swept away in triumph to the mountains the +flocks and herds of their Christian foes. The vega of Granada became, as +in ancient times, the battle-ground of Moorish and Christian cavaliers, +the latter having generally the advantage, though occasionally the +insurgent bands would break into the suburbs, or even the city of Granada, +filling its people with consternation, and causing the great bell of the +Alhambra to peal out its tocsin of alarm and call the Spanish chivalry in +haste to the fray. + +We cannot describe, even in epitome, the varied course of this sanguinary +war. As might well have been expected, the greater force of the Spaniards +gradually prevailed, and the autumn of 1570 found the insurgents almost +everywhere subdued. Only Aben-Aboo, the "little king," remained in arms, a +force of four hundred men being all that were left to him of his recent +army. But these were men warmly devoted to him, and until the spring of +1571 every effort for his capture proved in vain. Hiding in mountain caves +and in inaccessible districts, he defied pursuit, and in a measure kept +alive the flame of rebellion. + +Treason at length brought his career to an end. One of the few insurgent +prisoners who escaped death at the hands of the Spanish executioners +revealed the hiding-place of the fugitive king, and named the two persons +on whom Aben-Aboo most relied, his secretary, Abou Amer, and a Moorish +captain named El Senix. + +An effort was made to win over the secretary by one who had formerly known +him, a letter being sent him which roused him to intense indignation. El +Senix, however, becoming aware of its contents, and having a private +grudge against his master, sent word by the messenger that he would +undertake, for a suitable recompense, to betray him to the Christians. + +An interview soon after took place between the Moor and Barredo, the +Spanish agent, some intimation of which came to the ears of Aben-Aboo. The +king at once sought a cavern in the neighborhood where El Senix was +secreted, and, leaving his followers outside, imprudently entered alone. +He found El Senix surrounded by several of his friends, and sternly +demanded of him the purpose of his interview with Barredo. Senix, confused +by the accusation, faltered out that he had simply been seeking to obtain +an amnesty for him. Aben-Aboo listened with a face of scorn, and, turning +on his heel with the word "treachery," walked back to the mouth of the +cave. + +Unluckily, his men, with the exception of two guards stationed at the +entrance, had left the spot to visit some near-by friends. Senix, +perceiving that his own life was in danger, and that this was his only +opportunity for safety, fell with his followers on the guards, one of whom +was killed and the other put to flight. Then an attack was made on +Aben-Aboo. The latter defended himself desperately, but the odds were too +great, and the dastardly El Senix ended the struggle by felling him with +the butt-end of his musket, when he was quickly despatched. + +Thus died the last of the Omeyades, the famous dynasty of Arabian caliphs +founded in 660, and established in Spain in 756. Aben-Aboo, the last of +this royal race, was given in death a triumphal entrance to Granada, as if +he were one whom the Spaniards delighted to honor. The corpse was set +astride on a mule, being supported by a wooden frame, which lay hidden +beneath flowing robes. On one side rode Barredo; on the other the murderer +El Senix bore the scimitar and arquebuse of the dead prince. The kinsmen +and friends of the Morisco chief rode in his train, and after them came a +regiment of infantry and a troop of horse. + +As the procession moved along the street of Zacatin salvos of musketry +saluted it, peals of artillery roared from the towers of the Alhambra, and +the multitude thronged to gaze with silent curiosity on the ghastly face. +Thus the cavalcade proceeded until the great square of Vivarambla was +reached. Here were assembled the principal cavaliers and magistrates of +the city, and here El Senix dismounted and delivered to Deza, the +president of the tribunal before which were tried the insurgent captives, +the arms of the murdered prince. + +And now this semblance of respect to a brave enemy was followed by a scene +of barbarity worthy of the Spain of that day. The ceremony of a public +execution was gone through with, the head of the corpse being struck off, +after which the body was given to the boys of Granada, who dragged it +through the streets and exposed it to every indignity, finally committing +it to the flames. The head, enclosed in a cage, was set over the gate that +faced towards the Alpujarras. There it remained for a year, seeming to +gaze towards the hills which the Morisco chief had loved so well, and +which had witnessed his brief and disastrous reign. + +Such was the fate of Aben-Aboo, the last of a line of great monarchs, and +one of the best of them all; a man of lofty spirit, temperate appetites, +and courageous endurance, who, had he lived in more prosperous days, might +have ruled in the royal halls of Cordova with a renown equal to that of +the most famous caliph of his race. + + + + + +HENRY MORGAN AND THE BUCCANEERS. + + +As the seventeenth century passed on, Spain, under the influence of +religious intolerance and bad government, grew weak, both at home and +abroad. Its prominent place in Europe was lost. Its vast colonial +provinces in America were scenes of persecution and anarchy. There the +fortresses were allowed to decay, the soldiers, half-clothed and unpaid, +to become beggars or bandits, the treasures to be pilfered, and commerce +to become a system of fraud; while the colonists were driven to detest +their mother land. This weakness was followed by dire consequences. Bands +of outcasts from various nations, who had settled on Spanish territory in +the West Indies, at first to forage on the cattle of Hispaniola, organized +into pirate crews, and, under the name of buccaneers, became frightful +scourges of the commerce of Spain. + +These wretches, mainly French, English, and Dutch, deserters and outlaws, +the scum of their nations, made the rich merchant and treasure ships of +Spain their prey, slaughtering their crews, torturing them for hidden +wealth, rioting with profuse prodigality at their lurking-places on land, +and turning those fair tropical islands into a pandemonium of outrage, +crime, and slaughter. As they troubled little the ships of other nations, +these nations rather favored than sought to suppress them, and Spain +seemed powerless to bring their ravages to an end. In consequence, as the +years went on, they grew bolder and more adventurous. Beginning with a few +small, deckless sloops, they in time gained large and well-armed vessels, +and created so deep a terror among the Spaniards by their savage attacks +that the latter rarely made a strong resistance. + +Lurking in forest-hidden creeks and inlets of the West India islands, they +kept a keen lookout for the ships that bore to Spain the gold, silver, +precious stones, and rich products of the New World, pursued them in their +swift barks, boarded them, and killed all who ventured to resist. If the +cargo was a rich one, and there had been little effort at defence, the +prisoners might be spared their lives; if otherwise, they were flung +mercilessly into the sea. Sailing then to their place of rendezvous, the +captors indulged in the wildest and most luxurious orgies, their tables +groaning with strong liquors and rich provisions; gaming, music, and +dancing succeeding; extravagance, debauchery, and profusion of every kind +soon dissipating their blood-bought wealth. + +Among the pirate leaders several gained prominence for superior boldness +or cruelty, among whom we may particularly name L’Olonnois, a Frenchman, +of such savage ferocity that all mariners of Spanish birth shuddered with +fear at his very name. This wretch suffered the fate he deserved. In an +expedition to the Isthmus of Darien he was taken prisoner by a band of +savage Indians, who tore him to pieces alive, flung his quivering limbs +into the fire, and then scattered the ashes to the air. + +Most renowned of all the buccaneers was Henry Morgan, a native of Wales, +who ran away from home as a boy, was sold as a slave in Barbadoes, and +afterwards joined a pirate crew, in time becoming a leader among the +lawless hordes. By this time the raids of the ferocious buccaneers had +almost put an end to Spanish commerce with the New World, and the daring +freebooters, finding their gains at sea falling off, collected fleets and +made attacks on land, plundering rich towns and laying waste thriving +settlements. So greatly had Spanish courage degenerated that the pirates +with ease put to flight ten times their number of that Spanish soldiery +which, a century before, had been the finest in the world. + +The first pirate to make such a raid was Lewis Scott, who sacked the town +of Campeachy, robbing it of all its wealth, and forcing its inhabitants to +pay an enormous ransom. Another named Davies marched inland to Nicaragua, +took and plundered that town, and carried off a rich booty in silver and +precious stones. He afterwards pillaged the city of St. Augustine, +Florida. Others performed similar exploits, but we must confine our +attention to the deeds of Morgan, the boldest and most successful of them +all. + +Morgan’s first enterprise was directed against Port au Prince, Cuba, +where, however, the Spaniards had received warning and concealed their +treasures, so that the buccaneer gained little for his pains. His next +expedition was against Porto Bello, on the Isthmus, one of the richest and +best fortified of American cities. Two castles, believed to be +impregnable, commanded the entrances to the harbor. When the freebooters +learned that their leader proposed to attack so strong a place as this the +hearts of the boldest among them shrank. But Morgan, with a few inspiring +words, restored their courage. + +"What boots it," he exclaimed, "how small our number, if our hearts be +great! The fewer we are the closer will be our union and the larger our +shares of plunder." + +Boldness and secrecy carried the day. One of the castles was taken by +surprise, the first knowledge of the attack coming to the people of the +town from the concussion when Morgan blew it up. Before the garrison or +the citizens could prepare to oppose them the freebooters were in the +town. The governor and garrison fled in panic haste to the other castle, +while the terrified people threw their treasures into wells and cisterns. +The castle made a gallant resistance, but was soon obliged to yield to the +impetuous attacks of the pirate crews. + +It was no light exploit which Morgan had performed,—to take with five +hundred men a fortified city with a large garrison and strengthened by +natural obstacles to assault. The ablest general in ordinary war might +well have claimed renown for so signal a victory. But the ability of the +leader was tarnished by the cruelty of the buccaneer. The people were +treated with shocking barbarity, many of them being shut up in convents +and churches and burned alive, while the pirates gave themselves up to +every excess of debauchery. + +The great booty gained by this raid caused numerous pirate captains to +enlist under Morgan’s flag, and other towns were taken, in which similar +orgies of cruelty and debauchery followed. But the impunity of the +buccaneers was nearing its end. Their atrocious acts had at length aroused +the indignation of the civilized world, and a treaty was concluded between +Great Britain and Spain whose chief purpose was to put an end to these +sanguinary and ferocious deeds. + +The first effect of this treaty was to spur the buccaneers to the +performance of some exploit surpassing any they had yet achieved. So high +was Morgan’s reputation among the pirates that they flocked from all +quarters to enlist under his flag, and he soon had a fleet of no fewer +than thirty-seven vessels manned by two thousand men. With so large a +force an expedition on a greater scale could well be undertaken, and a +counsel of the chiefs debated whether they should make an assault upon +Vera Cruz, Carthagena, or Panama. Their choice fell upon Panama, as the +richest of the three. + +The city of Panama at that time (1670) was considered one of the greatest +and most opulent in America. It contained two thousand large buildings and +five thousand smaller, all of which were three stories high. Many of these +were built of stone, others of cedar wood, being elegantly constructed and +richly furnished. The city was the emporium for the silver- and gold-mines +of New Spain, and its merchants lived in great opulence, their houses rich +in articles of gold and silver, adorned with beautiful paintings and other +works of art, and full of the luxuries of the age. The churches were +magnificent in their decorations, and richly embellished with ornaments in +gold and silver. The city presented such a prize to cupidity as +freebooters and bandits had rarely conceived of in their wildest dreams. + + [Illustration: STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA.] + + STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA. + + +The daring enterprise began with the capture by four hundred men of the +Fort of St. Laurence, at the mouth of the Chagres River. Up this +serpentine stream sailed the freebooters, as far as it would bear them, +and thence they marched overland, suffering the greatest hardships and +overcoming difficulties which would have deterred men of less intrepid +spirit. Eight days of this terrible march brought the adventurers within +sight of the far-spreading Pacific, and of the spires of the coveted city +on its shores. + +The people of Panama had been apprised of what was in store for them, and +had laid ambuscades for the buccaneers, but Morgan, by taking an indirect +route to the town, avoided these. Panama was but partly fortified. In +several quarters it lay open to attack. It must be fought for and won or +lost on the open plain. Here the Spaniards had assembled to the number of +two thousand infantry and four hundred cavalry, well equipped and +possessing everything needed but spirit to meet the dreaded foe. They had +adopted an expedient sure to prove a dangerous one. A herd of wild bulls, +to the number of more than two thousand, was provided, with Indians and +negroes to drive them on the pirate horde. The result resembled that in +which the Greeks drove elephants upon the Roman legions. Many of the +buccaneers were accustomed to the chase of wild cattle, and, by shouts and +the waving of colored flags, turned the bulls back upon the Spanish lines, +which they threw into disorder. + +The buccaneers followed with an impetuous charge which broke the ranks of +the defenders of the town, who, after a two hours’ combat, were completely +routed, the most of them being killed or taken prisoners. The assault was +now directed upon the town, which was strongly defended, the pirates being +twice repulsed and suffering much from the numerous Spanish guns. But +after a three hours’ fight they overcame all opposition and the city fell +into their hands. + +A scene of frightful bloodshed and inhumanity followed. The buccaneers +gave no quarter, killing all they met. Lest they should be exposed to a +counter assault while intoxicated, Morgan called them together and forbade +them to taste the wine of the town, saying that it had been poisoned. +Conflagration followed massacre. Fires broke out in several quarters of +the city, and great numbers of dwellings, with churches, convents, and +numerous warehouses filled with valuable goods were reduced to ashes. +These fires continued to burn during most of the month in which the +freebooters held the city, and in which they indulged to the full in their +accustomed cruelty, rapacity, and licentiousness. + +Treasure was found in great quantities in the wells and caves, where it +had been thrown by the terrified people. The vessels taken in the harbor +yielded valuable commodities. Detachments were sent into the country to +capture and bring back those who had fled for safety, and by torturing +these several rich deposits of treasure were discovered in the surrounding +forests. A few of the inhabitants escaped with their wealth by sea, +seeking shelter in the islands of the bay, and a galleon laden with the +king’s plate and jewels and other precious articles belonging to the +church and the people narrowly escaped after a hot chase by the +buccaneers. With these exceptions the rich city was completely looted. + +After a month spent among the ruins of Panama Morgan and his villainous +followers departed, one hundred and seventy-five mules carrying their more +bulky spoil, while with them were six hundred prisoners, some carrying +burdens, others held to ransom. Thus laden, they reached again the mouth +of the Chagres, where their ships awaited them and where a division of the +spoil was to be made. + +Treachery followed this stupendous act of piracy, Morgan’s later history +being an extraordinary one for a man of his infamous record. He was +possessed with the demon of cupidity, and a quarrel arose between him and +his men concerning the division of the spoil. Morgan ended it by running +off with the disputed plunder. On the night preceding the final division, +during the hours of deepest slumber, the treacherous chief, with a few of +his confidants, set sail for Jamaica, in a vessel deeply laden with +spoils. On waking and learning this act of base treachery, the infuriated +pirates pursued him, but in vain; he safely reached Jamaica with his +ill-gotten wealth. + +In this English island the pirate chief gained not only safety, but +honors. In some way he won the favor of Charles II., who knighted him as +Sir Henry Morgan and placed him on the admiralty court in Jamaica. He +subsequently, for a time, acted as deputy governor, and in this office +displayed the greatest severity towards his old associates, several of +whom were tried before him and executed. One whole crew of buccaneers were +sent by him to the Spaniards at Carthagena, in whose hands they were +likely to find little favor. He was subsequently arrested, sent to +England, and imprisoned for three years under charges from Spain; but this +was the sole punishment dealt out to the most notorious of the buccaneers. + +The success of Morgan’s enterprise stimulated the piratical crews to +similar deeds of daring, and the depredations continued, not only in the +West Indies and eastern South America, but afterwards along the Pacific, +the cities of Leon, in Mexico, New Granada, on the lake of Nicaragua, and +Guayaquil, the port of Quito, being taken, sacked, and burned. Finally, +France and England joined Spain in efforts for their suppression, the +coasts were more strictly guarded, and many of the freebooters settled as +planters or became mariners in honest trade. Some of them, however, +continued in their old courses, dispersing over all seas as enemies of the +shipping of the world; but by the year 1700 their career had fairly come +to an end, and the race of buccaneers ceased to exist. + + + + + +ELIZABETH FARNESE AND ALBERONI. + + +In 1714 certain events took place in Spain of sufficient interest to be +worth the telling. Philip V., a feeble monarch, like all those for the +century preceding him, was on the throne. In his youth he had been the +Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. of France, and upon the death of +that great monarch would be close in the succession to the throne of that +kingdom. But, chosen as king of Spain by the will of Charles II., he +preferred a sure seat to a doubtful one, and renounced his claim to the +French crown, thus bringing to an end the fierce "War of the Succession," +which had involved most of the powers of Europe for many years. + +Philip, by nature weak and yielding, became in time a confirmed +hypochondriac, and on the death of his wife, Maria Louise, in 1714, +abandoned himself to grief, refusing to attend to business of any kind, +shutting himself up in the strictest seclusion, and leaving the affairs of +the kingdom practically in the hands of the Princess Orsini, the governess +of his children, and his chief adviser. + +Sorrow-stricken as was the bereaved king, affairs were already in train to +provide him with a new wife, a plan being laid for that purpose at the +very funeral of his queen, as some writers say, between the ambitious +Princess Orsini and a cunning Italian named Alberoni, while they, with a +show of grave decorum, followed Maria Louise to the grave. + +The story of Alberoni is an interesting one. This man, destined to become +prime minister of Spain, began life as the son of a gardener in the duchy +of Parma. While a youth he showed such powers of intellect that the +Jesuits took him into their seminary and gave him an education of a +superior character. He assumed holy orders and, by a combination of +knowledge and ability with adulation and buffoonery, made his way until he +received the appointment of interpreter to the Bishop of St. Domino, who +was about to set out on a mission from the Duke of Parma to the Duke of +Vendôme, then commander of the French forces in Italy. + +The worthy bishop soon grew thoroughly disgusted with Vendôme, who, high +as he was in station, displayed a shameless grossness of manner which was +more than the pious churchman could endure. The conduct of the affair was +therefore left to the interpreter, whose delicacy was not disturbed by the +duke’s behavior, and who managed to ingratiate himself fully in the good +graces of the French general, becoming so great a favorite that in the end +he left the service of the Duke of Parma for that of Vendôme. + +Subsequently the duke was appointed to a command in Spain, where he +employed Alberoni in all his negotiations with the court of Madrid. Here +the wily and ambitious Italian won the favor of the Princess Orsini so +fully that when, on Vendôme’s death, he returned home, the Duke of Parma +sent him as his envoy to Spain. + +The princess little dreamed the character of the man whom she had taken +into confidential relations, and who was plotting to overthrow her +influence at court. Bent on retaining her influence by the choice of a +tractable queen, she spoke to Alberoni of the urgent necessity of finding +another bride for the disconsolate king. The shrewd diplomat named several +eligible princesses, each of whom he dismissed as objectionable for one +reason or another. At the end he adroitly introduced the name of Elizabeth +Farnese, step-daughter of the Duke of Parma, of whom he spoke carelessly +as a good girl, fattened on Parmesan cheese and butter, and so narrowly +educated that she had not an idea beyond her embroidery. She might +succeed, he hinted, to the throne of Parma, as the duke had no child of +his own, in which case there would be a chance for Spain to regain her +lost provinces in Italy. + +The deluded Princess Orsini was delighted with the suggestion. With such a +girl as this for queen she could continue to hold the reins of state. She +easily induced Philip to approve the choice; the Duke of Parma was charmed +with the offer; and the preliminary steps to the marriage were hurried +through with all possible rapidity. + +Before the final conclusion of the affair, however, the Princess Orsini +discovered in some way that Alberoni had lied, and that the proposed bride +was by no means the ignorant and incapable country girl she had been told. +Furious at the deception, she at once sent off a courier with orders to +stop all further proceedings relating to the marriage. The messenger +reached Parma in the morning of the day on which the marriage ceremony was +to be performed by proxy. But Alberoni was wide awake to the danger, and +managed to have the messenger detained until it was too late. Before he +could deliver his despatches Elizabeth Farnese was the legal wife of +Philip of Spain. + +The new queen had been fully advised of the state of affairs by Alberoni. +The Princess Orsini, to whom she owed her elevation, was to be got rid of, +at once and permanently. On crossing the frontiers she was met by all her +household except the princess, who was with the king, then on his way to +meet and espouse his bride. At Alcala the princess left him and hastened +to meet the queen, reaching the village of Xadraca in time to receive her +as she alighted from her carriage, kiss her hand, and in virtue of her +office at court to conduct her to her apartment. + +Elizabeth met the princess with a show of graciousness, but on entering +her chamber suddenly turned and accused her visitor of insulting her by +lack of respect, and by appearing before her in improper attire. The +amazed princess, overwhelmed by this accusation, apologized and +remonstrated, but the queen refused to listen to her, ordered her from the +room, and bade the officer of the guard to arrest and convey her beyond +the frontier. + +Here was a change in the situation! The officer hesitated to arrest one +who for years had been supreme in Spain. + +"Were you not instructed to obey me implicitly?" demanded Elizabeth. + +"Yes, your majesty." + +"Then do as I have ordered. I assume all responsibility." + +"Will your majesty give me a written sanction?" + +"Yes," said Elizabeth, in a tone very different from that of the +bread-and-butter miss whom Alberoni had represented her. + +Calling for pen, ink, and paper, she wrote upon her knee an order for the +princess’s arrest, and bade the hesitating officer to execute it at once. + +He dared no longer object. The princess, in court dress, was hurried into +a carriage, with a single female attendant and two officers, being allowed +neither a change of clothing, protection against the cold, nor money to +procure needed conveniences on the road. In this way a woman of over sixty +years of age, whose will a few hours before had been absolute in Spain, +was forced to travel throughout an inclement winter night, and continue +her journey until she was thrust beyond the limits of Spain, within which +she was never again permitted to set foot. + +Such was the first act of the docile girl whom the ambitious princess had +fully expected to use as a tool for her designs. Schooled by her skilled +adviser, and perhaps sanctioned by Philip, who may have wished to get rid +of his old favorite, Elizabeth at the start showed a grasp of the +situation which she was destined to keep until the end. The feeble-minded +monarch at once fell under her influence, and soon all the affairs of the +kingdom became subject to her control. + +Elizabeth was a woman of restless ambition and impetuous temper, and she +managed throughout Philip’s reign to keep the kingdom in constant hot +water. The objects she kept in view were two: first, to secure to Philip +the reversion of the French crown in case of the death of the then Duke of +Anjou, despite the fact that he had taken frequent oaths of renunciation; +second, to secure for her own children sovereign rule in Italy. + +We cannot detail the long story of the intrigues by which the ambitious +woman sought to bring about these purposes, but in all of them she found +an able ally in Alberoni. Elizabeth did not forget that she owed her high +position to this man. They were, besides, congenial in disposition, and +she persuaded Philip to trust and consult him, and finally to appoint him +prime minister. Not satisfied with this reward to her favorite, she, after +a few years, induced the Pope to grant him a cardinal’s hat and Philip to +make him a grandee of Spain. The gardener’s son had, by ability and +shrewdness, reached the highest summit to which his ambition could aspire. + +From the greatest height one may make the most rapid fall. The power of +Alberoni was destined quickly to reach its end. Yet it was less his own +fault than the ambition of the queen that led to the termination of his +career. As a prime minister he proved a marked success, giving Spain an +administration far superior to any she had enjoyed for many years. +Alberoni was a man of great ability, which he employed in zealous efforts +to improve the internal condition of the country, having the wisdom to +avail himself of the talents and knowledge of other able men in handling +those departments of government with which he was unfamiliar. He seemed +inclined to keep Spain at peace, at least until she had regained some of +her old power and energy; but the demands of the queen overcame his +reluctance, and in the end he entered upon the accomplishment of her +purposes with a daring and recklessness in full accordance with the +demands of her restless spirit of intrigue. + +Louis XIV. died in 1715. Louis XV., his heir, was a sickly child, not yet +five years old. Philip would have been regent during his youth, and his +heir in case of his death, had he not renounced all claim to the French +throne. He was too weak and irresolute in himself to take any steps to +gain this position, but his wife spurred him on to ambitious designs, and +Alberoni entered eagerly into her projects, beginning a series of +intrigues in France with all who were opposed to the Duke of Orleans, the +existing regent. + +These intrigues led to war. The duke concluded an alliance with England +and Germany, the former enemies of France. Philip, exasperated at seeing +himself thus thwarted, declared war against the German emperor, despite +all that Alberoni could do to prevent, and sent an expedition against +Sardinia, which captured that island. Sicily was also invaded. Alberoni +now entered into intrigues for the restoration of the banished Stuarts to +the English throne, and took part in a conspiracy in France to seize the +Duke of Orleans and appoint Philip to the regency. + +Both these plots failed, the war became general, Philip found his armies +beaten, and Alberoni was forced to treat for peace. The Spanish minister +had made bitter enemies of George I. of England and the Duke of Orleans, +who, claiming that he was responsible for disturbing the peace of Europe, +demanded his dismissal as a preliminary to peace. His failure had lost him +influence with the king, but the queen, the real power behind the throne, +supported him, and it was only by promises of the enemies of Alberoni to +aid her views for the establishment of her children that she was induced +to yield consent to his overthrow. + +On the 4th of December, 1719, Alberoni spent the evening transacting +affairs of state with the king and queen. Up to that time he remained in +full favor and authority, however he may have suspected the intrigues for +his overthrow. Their majesties that night left Madrid for their country +palace at Pardo, and from there was sent a decree by the hands of a +secretary of state, to the all-powerful minister, depriving him of all his +offices, and bidding him to quit Madrid within eight days and Spain within +three weeks. + +Alberoni had long been hated by the people of Spain, and detested by the +grandees, who could not be reconciled to the supremacy of a foreigner and +his appointment to equality with them in rank. But this sudden dismissal +seemed to change their sentiments, and rouse them to realization of the +fact that Spain was losing its ablest man. Nobles and clergy flocked to +his house in such numbers that the king became alarmed at this sudden +popularity, and ordered him to shorten the time of his departure. + +Alberoni sought refuge in Rome, but here the enmity of France and England +pursued him, and Philip accused him of misdemeanors in office, for which +he demanded a trial by the Pope and cardinals. Before these judges the +disgraced minister defended himself so ably that the court brought the +investigation to a sudden end by ordering him to retire to a monastery for +three years. + +This period the favor of the Pope reduced to one year, and his chief +enemy, the regent of France, soon after dying, he was permitted to leave +the monastery and pass the remainder of his life free from persecution. +His career was a singular one, considering the lowness of his origin, and +showed what ability and shrewdness may accomplish even against the +greatest obstacles of fortune. + + + + + +THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. + + +The great Mediterranean Sea has its gate-way, nine miles wide, opening +into the Atlantic, the gate-posts being the headland of Ceuta, on the +African coast, and the famous rock of Gibraltar, in southwestern Spain, +two natural fortresses facing each other across the sea. It is a singular +fact that the African headland is held by Spain, and the Spanish headland +by Great Britain,—this being a result of the wars of the eighteenth +century. Gibraltar, in fact, has had a striking history, one worth the +telling. + +This towering mass of rock rises in solitary grandeur at the extremity of +a sandy level, reaching upward to a height of fourteen hundred and eight +feet, while it is three miles long and three-fourths of a mile in average +width. It forms a stronghold of nature which attracted attention at an +early date. To the Greeks it was one of the Pillars of Hercules,—Abyla +(now Ceuta) being the other,—and formed the supposed western boundary of +the world. Tarik, the Arab, landed here in 711, fortified the rock, and +made it his base of operations against Gothic Spain. From him it received +its name, Gebel el Tarik (Hill of Tarik), now corrupted into Gibraltar. +For seven centuries it remained in Moorish hands, except for a short +interval after 1302, when it was taken by Ferdinand II. of Castile. The +king of Granada soon recaptured it; from him it was taken by treachery by +the king of Fez in 1333; Alfonso XI. of Castile vigorously besieged it, +but in vain; the king of Granada mastered it again in 1410; and it finally +fell into the hands of Spain in 1462. + +A formidable attempt was made by the Moors for its recovery in 1540, it +being vigorously attacked by the pirates of Algiers, who fought fiercely +to win the rock, but were finally repulsed. + +For the next event in the history of this much-coveted rock we must go on +to the year 1704, when the celebrated war of the Succession was in full +play. Louis XIV. of France supported his grandson Philip V. as the +successor to the throne of Spain. The Archduke Charles of Austria was +supported by England, Portugal, and Holland, and was conveyed to the +Peninsula and landed at Lisbon by an English fleet under Admiral Rorke. +The admiral, having disposed of the would-be king, sailed for Barcelona, +which he was told was a ripe plum, ready to fall into his mouth. He was +disappointed; Barcelona was by no means ripe for his purposes, and he +sailed back, ready for any enterprise that might offer itself. + +Soon before him towered the rock of Gibraltar, a handsome prize if it +could be captured, and poorly defended, as he knew. The Spaniards, +trusting, as it seems, in the natural strength of the place, which they +deemed impregnable, had left it with a very small supply of artillery and +ammunition, and with almost no garrison. Here was a promising opportunity +for the disappointed admiral and his associate, the prince of Hesse +Darmstadt, who headed the foreign troops. A landing was made, siege lines +were opened, batteries were erected, and a hot bombardment began, to which +the feeble garrison could make but a weak reply. But the most effective +work was done by a body of soldiers, who scrambled up a part of the rock +that no one dreamed could be ascended, and appeared above the works, +filling with terror the hearts of the garrison. + +Two days answered for the enterprise. At the end of that time the +governor, Don Diego de Salmas, capitulated, and Gibraltar was taken +possession of in the name of Queen Anne of England, the prince being left +there with a garrison of two thousand men. From that time to this +Gibraltar has remained an outpost of Great Britain, with whose outlying +strongholds the whole world bristles. + +The loss of this strong place proved a bitter draught to the pride of +Spain, and strenuous efforts to recapture it were made. In the succeeding +year (1705) it was besieged by a strong force of French and Spanish +troops, but their efforts were wasted, for the feeble court of Madrid left +the army destitute of necessary supplies. By the peace of Utrecht, 1713, +Gibraltar was formally made over to Great Britain, a country famous for +clinging with a death-grip to any place of which she has once taken hold. + +Later efforts were made to win the Rock of Tarik for Spain, one in 1756, +but the last and greatest in 1779-82. It is this vigorous effort with +which we are here concerned, the siege being one of the most famous of +recent times. + +The Revolutionary War in the United States stirred up all Europe, and +finally brought Great Britain two new foes, the allied kingdoms of France +and Spain. The latter country had never lost its irritation at seeing a +foreign power in possession of a part of its home territory. Efforts were +made to obtain Gibraltar by negotiation, Spain offering her friendly aid +to Great Britain in her wars if she would give up Gibraltar. This the +British government positively refused to do, and war was declared. A siege +of Gibraltar began which lasted for more than three years. + +Spain began the work in 1779 with a blockade by sea and an investment by +land. Supplies were cut off from the garrison, which was soon in a state +of serious distress for food, and strong hopes were entertained that it +would be forced to yield. But the British government was alert. Admiral +Rodney was sent with a strong fleet to the Mediterranean, the Spanish +blockading fleet was defeated, the garrison relieved, provisioned, and +reinforced, and Rodney sailed in triumph for the West Indies. + +For three years the blockade was continued with varying fortunes, the +garrison being now on the verge of starvation, now relieved by British +fleets. At the close of the third year it was far stronger than at the +beginning. The effort to subdue it by famine was abandoned, and +preparations for a vigorous siege were made. France had joined her forces +with those of Spain. The island of Minorca, held by the British, had been +taken by the allied fleet, and it was thought impossible for Gibraltar to +resist the projected assault. + +The land force that had so long besieged the rock was greatly +strengthened, new batteries were raised, new trenches opened, and a severe +fire was begun upon the works. Yet so commanding was the situation and so +strong were the defences of the garrison that success from the land side +seemed impossible, and it was determined to make the main attack from the +sea. + +A promising method of attack was devised by a French engineer of the +highest reputation for skill in his profession, the Chevalier D’Arçon. The +plan offered by him was so original and ingenious as to fill the besiegers +with hopes of sure success, and the necessary preparations were diligently +made. Ten powerful floating batteries were constructed, which were thought +fully adapted to resist fire, throw off shells, and quench red-hot balls. +Every effort was made to render them incombustible and incapable of being +sunk. These formidable batteries were towed to the bay of Gibraltar and +anchored at a suitable distance from the works, D’Arçon himself being in +command. Ten ships of the line were sent to co-operate with them, the +arrival of reinforcements from France increased the land army to forty +thousand men, and Crillon, the conqueror of Minorca, was placed in supreme +command. The allied fleets were ordered to cruise in the straits, so as to +prevent interference by a British fleet. + +These great and scientific preparations filled all hearts with hope. No +doubt was entertained that Gibraltar now must fall and Great Britain +receive the chastisement she deserved. The nobility of Spain sought in +numbers the scene of action, eager to be present at the triumph of her +arms. From Versailles came the French princes, full of expectation of +witnessing the humbling of British pride. So confident of success was +Charles III., king of Spain, that his first question every morning on +waking was, "Is Gibraltar taken?" All Spain and all France were instinct +with hope of seeing the pride of the islanders go down. + +Gibraltar was garrisoned by seven thousand troops under General Elliot. +These lay behind fortifications on which had been exhausted all the +resources of the engineering skill of that day, and in their hearts was +the fixed resolve never to surrender. The question had become one of +national pride rather than of utility. Gibraltar was not likely to prove +of any very important advantage to Great Britain, but the instinct to hold +on has always been with that country a national trait, and, however she +might have been induced to yield Gibraltar as an act of policy, she was +determined not to do so as an act of war. + +Early on the 13th of September, 1782, the long-threatened bombardment +began from so powerful a park of artillery that its roar is said to have +exceeded anything ever before heard. There were defects in the plan. The +trenches on land proved to be too far away. The water was rough and the +gunboats could not assist. But the work of the batteries came up to the +highest expectations. The fire poured by them upon the works was +tremendous, while for many hours the shells and red-hot balls of the +garrison, fired with the greatest precision, proved of no avail. The +batteries seemed invulnerable to fire and shell, and the hopes of the +besiegers rose to the highest point, while those of the besieged +correspondingly fell. + +In the end this powerful assault was defeated by one of those events to +which armed bodies of men are always liable,—a sudden and uncalled-for +spasm of fear that flew like wildfire through fleet and camp. The day had +nearly passed, evening was approaching, the hopes of the allies were at +their height, when a red-hot ball from the works lodged in the nearest +battery and started a fire, which the crew sought in vain to quench. + +In a sudden panic, for which there seems to have been no sufficient cause, +the terrified crew wet their powder and ceased to fire on the British +works. The panic spread to the other batteries, and from them to the +forces on shore, even the commander-in-chief being affected by the +causeless fear. At one moment the assailants were enthusiastic with +expectation of success. Not many minutes afterwards they were so overcome +with unreasoning terror that an insane order was given to burn the +batteries, and these were fired with such precipitate haste that the crews +were allowed no time to escape. More of the men were saved by their +enemies, who came with generous intrepidity to their aid, than by their +own terror-stricken friends. + +This unfortunate event put a sudden end to the costly and promising +effort. The nobles of Spain and the princes of France left the camp in +disgust. Charles III. received word that Gibraltar was not captured, and +not likely to be, and the idea of taking the stronghold by force was +abandoned, the blockade being resumed. + +To keep away British aid the allied fleet was increased until it numbered +forty-seven ships of the line, with a considerable number of smaller +vessels. Furnaces were prepared to heat shot for the destruction of any +transports and store-ships that might enter the harbor. Against this great +fleet Lord Howe appeared in October with only thirty sail, and encumbered +with a large convoy. The allied leaders seeing this small force, felt sure +of victory, and of Gibraltar as their prize. + +But again they were doomed to disappointment. The elements came to the +British aid. A violent storm drove the allied fleet from its anchorage, +dispersed the vessels, injured many of the large ships, and drove the +small craft ashore. Lord Howe, whose ships were far better handled, sailed +in good order through the straits, and for five days of rough weather +offered battle to the disabled enemy, keeping them at a distance while his +transports and store-ships entered the harbor and supplied the garrison +abundantly with provisions, ammunition, and men. The effort to take +Gibraltar was hopelessly defeated. The blockade was still kept up, but +merely as a satisfaction to Spanish pride. All hope of taking the fortress +was at an end. Gibraltar remains to-day in British hands, and no later +attempt to take it has been made. + + + + + +THE FALL OF A FAVORITE. + + +The course of our work now brings us down to recent times. After the death +of Philip II., in 1598, Spain had little history worth considering. Ruled +by a succession of painfully weak kings, who were devoid of anything +approaching political wisdom, the fortunes of the realm ran steadily +downward. From being the strongest, it became in time one of the weakest +and least considered of European kingdoms; and from taking the lead in the +politics and wars of Europe, it came to be a plaything of the neighboring +nations,—a catspaw which they used for the advancement of their own ends. + +It was in this way that Napoleon treated Spain. He played with it as a cat +plays with a mouse, and when the proper time came pounced upon it and +gathered it in. Charles IV., the Spanish king of Napoleon’s time, was one +of the feeblest of his weak line,—an imbecile whom the emperor of France +counted no more than a feather in his path. He sought to deal with him as +he had done with the equally effeminate king of Portugal. When a French +army invaded Portugal in 1807, its weak monarch cut the knot of the +difficulty by taking ship and crossing the ocean to Brazil, abandoning his +old kingdom and setting up a new one in the New World. When Spain was in +its turn invaded, its king proposed to do the same thing,—to carry the +royal court of Spain to America, and leave a kingdom without a head to +Napoleon. Such an act would have exactly suited the purposes of the astute +conqueror, but the people rose in riot, and Charles IV. remained at home. + +The real ruler of Spain at that time was a licentious and insolent +favorite of the king and queen, Emanuel Godoy by name, who began life as a +soldier, was made Duke of Alcudia by his royal patrons, and was appointed +prime minister in 1792. In 1795, having made peace with France after a +disastrous war, he received the title of "Prince of the Peace." His +administration was very corrupt, and he won the hatred of the nobles, the +people, and the heir to the throne. But his influence over the imbecile +king and the licentious queen was unbounded, and he could afford to laugh +in the face of his foes. But favorites are apt to have a short period of +power, and, though Godoy remained long in office, his downfall at length +came. + +Napoleon had marched his armies through Spain to the conquest of Portugal, +no one in Spain having the courage to object. It was stipulated that a +second French army should not cross the Pyrenees, but in defiance of this +Napoleon filled the north of Spain with his troops in 1808, and sent a +third army across the mountains without pretence of their being needed in +Portugal. No protest was made against this invasion of a neutral nation. +The court of Madrid was helpless with terror, and, with the hope of +propitiating Napoleon, admitted his legions into all the cities of +Catalonia, Biscay, and Navarre. + +Only one thing more was needed to make the French masters of the whole +country. They held the towns, but the citadels were in possession of +Spanish troops. These could not be expelled by violence while a show of +peace was kept up. But Napoleon wanted them, and employed stratagem to get +them into his hands. + +In two of the towns, St. Sebastian and Figueras, a simple lie sufficed. +The officers in command of the French garrisons asked permission to +quarter their unruly conscripts in the citadels. As the court had ordered +that all the wishes of the emperor’s officers should be gratified, this +seemingly innocent request was granted. But in place of conscripts the +best men of the regiments were sent, and these were gradually increased in +numbers until in the end they overpowered the Spanish garrisons and +admitted the French. + +At Pamplona a similar request was refused by the governor of the citadel, +but he permitted sixty unarmed men daily to enter the fortress to receive +rations for their respective divisions. Here was the fatal entering wedge. +One night the officer in charge, whose quarters were near the citadel +gate, secretly filled his house with armed grenadiers. The next morning +sixty picked men, with arms hidden under their cloaks, were sent in for +rations. The hour was too early, and the French soldiers loitered about +under pretence of waiting for the quartermaster. Some sauntered into the +Spanish guard-house. Others, by a sportive scuffle on the drawbridge, +prevented its being raised, and occupied the attention of the garrison. +Suddenly a signal was given. The men drew their weapons and seized the +arms of the Spaniards. The grenadiers rushed from their concealment. The +bridge and gate were secured, French troops hastened to the aid of their +comrades, and the citadel was won. + +At Barcelona a different stratagem was employed. A review of the French +forces was held under the walls of the citadel, whose garrison assembled +to look on. During the progress of the review the French general, on +pretence that he had been ordered from the city, rode with his staff on to +the drawbridge with the ostensible purpose of bidding farewell to the +Spanish commander. While the Spaniards curiously watched the manœuvres of +the troops others of the French quietly gathered on the drawbridge. At a +signal this was seized, a rush took place, and the citadel of Barcelona +was added to the conquests of France. + +The surprise of these fortresses produced an immense sensation in Spain. +That country had sunk into a condition of pitiable weakness. Its navy, +once powerful, was now reduced to a small number of ships, few of them in +condition for service. Its army, once the strongest in Europe, was now but +a handful of poorly equipped and half-drilled men. Its finances were in a +state of frightful disorganization. The government of a brainless king, a +dissolute queen, and an incapable favorite had brought Spain into a +condition in which she dared not raise a hand to resist the ambitious +French emperor. + +In this dilemma Godoy, the so-called "Prince of the Peace," persuaded the +king and queen of Spain that nothing was left them but flight. The royal +house of Portugal had found a great imperial realm awaiting it in America. +Spain possessed there a dominion of continental extent. What better could +they do than remove to the New World the seat of their throne and cut +loose from their threatened and distracted realm? + +The project was concealed under the form of a journey to Andalusia, for +the purpose, as announced by Godoy, of inspecting the ports. But the +extensive preparations of the court for this journey aroused a suspicion +of its true purpose among the people, whose indignation became extreme on +finding that they were to be deserted by the royal house, as Portugal had +been. The exasperation of all classes—the nobility, the middle class, and +the people—against the court grew intense. It was particularly developed +in the army, a body which Godoy had badly treated. The army leaders argued +that they had better welcome the French than permit this disgrace, and +that it was their duty to prevent by force the flight of the king. + +But all this did not deter the Prince of the Peace. He had several +frigates made ready in the port of Cadiz, the royal carriages were ordered +to be in readiness, and relays of horses were provided on the road. The +date of departure was fixed for the 15th or 16th of March, 1808. + +On the 13th Godoy made his way from Madrid to Aranjuez, a magnificent +royal residence on the banks of the Tagus, then occupied by the royal +family. This residence, in the Italian style and surrounded by superb +grounds and gardens, was fronted by a wide highway, expanding opposite the +palace into a spacious place, on which were several fine mansions +belonging to courtiers and ministers, one of the finest being occupied by +the prime minister. In the vicinity a multitude of small houses, inhabited +by tradesmen and shop-keepers, made up the town of Aranjuez. + +Godoy, on arriving at Aranjuez, summoned a council of the ministers, the +time having arrived to apprise them of what was proposed. One of them, the +Marquis of Caballero, kept him waiting, and on his arrival refused to +consent, either by word or signature, to the flight of the king. + +"I order you to sign," the prime minister angrily exclaimed. + +"I take no orders except from the king," haughtily replied the marquis. + +A sharp altercation followed, in which the other ministers took part, and +the meeting broke up in disorder, nothing being done. On retiring, the +irate counsellors, full of agitation, dropped words which were caught up +by the public and aroused a commotion that quickly spread throughout the +town. Thence it extended into the surrounding country, everywhere arousing +the disaffected, and soon strange and sinister faces appeared in the quiet +town. The elements of a popular outbreak were gathering. + +During the succeeding two days the altercation between the Prince of the +Peace and the ministers continued, and the public excitement was added to +by words attributed to Ferdinand, the king’s son and heir to the throne, +who was said to have sought aid against those who proposed to carry him +off against his will. On the morning of the 16th, the final day fixed for +the journey, the public agitation was so great that the king issued a +proclamation, which was posted in the streets, saying that he had no +thought of leaving his people. It ended: "Spaniards, be easy; your king +will not leave you." + +This for the time calmed the people. Yet on the 17th the excitement +reappeared. The carriages remained loaded in the palace court-yard; the +relays of horses were kept up; all the indications were suspicious. During +the day the troops of the garrison of Madrid not on duty, with a large +number of the populace, appeared in Aranjuez, having marched a distance of +seven or eight leagues. They shouted maledictions on their way against the +queen and the Prince of the Peace. + +The streets of Aranjuez that night were filled with an excited mob, many +of them life-guards from Madrid, who divided into bands and patrolled the +vicinity of the palace, determined that no one should leave. About +midnight an incident changed the excitement into a riot. A lady left +Godoy’s residence under escort of a few soldiers. She appeared to be about +to enter a carriage. The crowd pressed closely around, and the hussars of +the minister, who attended the lady, attempted to force a passage through +them. At this moment a gun was fired,—by whom was not known. A frightful +tumult at once arose. The life-guards and other soldiers rushed upon the +hussars, and a furious mob gathered around the palace, shouting, "Long +live the king!" "Death to the Prince of the Peace!" + +Soon a rush was made towards the residence of the prince, which the throng +surrounded, gazing at it with eyes of anger, yet hesitating to make an +attack. As they paused in doubt, a messenger from the palace approached +the mansion and sought admission. It was refused from those within. He +insisted upon entrance, and a shot came from the guards within. In an +instant all hesitation was at an end. The crowd rushed in fury against the +doors, broke them in, and swarmed into the building, driving the guards +back in dismay. + +It was magnificently furnished, but their passion to destroy soon made +havoc of its furniture and decorations. Pictures, hangings, costly +articles of use and ornament were torn down, dashed to pieces, flung from +the windows. The mob ran from room to room, destroying everything of value +they met, and eagerly seeking the object of their hatred, with a +passionate thirst for his life. The whole night was spent in the search, +and, the prince not being found, his house was reduced to a wreck. + +Word of what was taking place filled the weak soul of Charles IV. with +mortal terror. The prince failed to appear, and, by the advice of the +ministers, a decree was issued by the king on the following morning +depriving Emanuel Godoy of the offices of grand admiral and generalissimo, +and exiling him from the court. + +Thus fell this detestable favorite, the people, who blamed him for the +degradation of Spain, breaking into a passionate joy, singing, dancing, +building bonfires, and giving every manifestation of delight. In Madrid, +when the news reached there, the enthusiasm approached delirium. + +Meanwhile, where was the fallen favorite? Despite the close search made by +the mob, he remained concealed in his residence. Alarmed by the crash of +the breaking doors, he had seized a pistol and a handful of gold, rushed +up-stairs, and hid himself in a loft under the roof, rolling himself up in +a sort of rush carpet used in Spain. Here he remained during the whole of +the 18th and the succeeding night, but on the morning of the 19th, after +thirty-six hours’ suffering, thirst and hunger forced him to leave his +retreat. He presented himself suddenly before a sentry on duty in the +palace, offering him his gold. But the man refused the bribe and instantly +called the guard. Fortunately the mass of the people were not near by. +Some life-guards who just then came up placed the miserable captive +between their horses, and conveyed him as rapidly as they could towards +their barracks. But these were at some distance, the news of the capture +spread like wild-fire, and they had not gone far before the mob began to +gather around them, their hearts full of murderous rage. + +The prince was on foot between two of the mounted guardsmen, leaning for +shelter against the pommels of their saddles. Others of the horsemen +closed up in front and rear, and did their best to protect him from the +fury of the rabble, who struck wildly at him with every weapon they had +been able to snatch up. Despite the efforts of the guardsmen some of the +blows reached him, and he was finally brought to the barracks with his +feet trodden by the horses, a large wound in his thigh, and one eye nearly +out of his head. Here he was thrown, covered with blood, upon the straw in +the stables, a sad example of what comes of the favor of kings when +exercised in defiance of the will of the people. Godoy had begun life as a +life-guardsman, and now, after almost sharing the throne, he had thus +returned to the barracks and the straw bed of his youth. + +We may give in outline the remainder of the story of this fallen favorite. +Promise being given that he should have an impartial trial, the mob ceased +its efforts to kill him. Napoleon, who had use for him, now came to his +rescue, and induced him to sign a deed under which Charles IV. abdicated +the throne in favor of his son. His possessions in Spain were confiscated, +but Charles, who removed to Rome, was his friend during life. After the +death of his protector he went to Paris, where he received a pension from +Louis Philippe; and in 1847, when eighty years of age, he received +permission to return to Spain, his titles and most of his property being +restored. But he preferred to live in Paris, where he died in 1851. + + + + + + [Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.] + + THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA. + + + + + +THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA. + + +On the banks of the Ebro, in northwestern Spain, stands the ancient city +of Saragossa, formerly the capital of Aragon, and a place of fame since +early Roman days. A noble bridge of seven arches, built nearly five +centuries ago, crosses the stream, and a wealth of towers and spires gives +the city an imposing appearance. This city is famous for its sieges, of +which a celebrated one took place in the twelfth century, when the +Christians held it in siege for five years, ending in 1118. In the end the +Moors were forced to surrender, or such of them as survived, for a great +part of them had died of hunger. In modern times it gained new and high +honor from its celebrated resistance to the French in 1808. It is this +siege with which we are concerned, one almost without parallel in history. + +We have told in the preceding tale how Charles IV. of Spain was forced to +yield the throne to his son Ferdinand, who was proclaimed king March 20, +1808. This act by no means agreed with the views of Napoleon, who had +plans of his own for Spain, and who sought to end the difficulty by +deposing the Bourbon royal family and placing his own brother, Joseph +Bonaparte, on the throne. + +The imperious emperor of the French had, however, the people as well as +the rulers of Spain to deal with. The news of his arbitrary action was +received throughout the Peninsula with intense indignation, and suddenly +the land blazed into insurrection, and the French garrisons, which had +been treacherously introduced into Spain, found themselves besieged. +Everywhere the peasants seized arms and took to the field, and a fierce +guerilla warfare began which the French found it no easy matter to +overcome. At Baylen, a town of Andalusia, which was besieged by the +insurgents, the French suffered a serious defeat, an army of eighteen +thousand men being forced to surrender as prisoners of war. This was the +only important success of the Spanish, but they courageously resisted +their foes, and at Saragossa gained an honor unsurpassed in the history of +Spain. Never had there been known such a siege and such a defence. + +Saragossa was attacked by General Lefebre on June 15, 1808. Thinking that +a city protected only by a low brick wall, with peasants and townsmen for +its defenders, and few guns in condition for service, could be carried at +first assault, the French general made a vigorous attack, but found +himself driven back. He had but four or five thousand men, while the town +had fifty thousand inhabitants, the commander of the garrison being Joseph +Palafox, a man of indomitable spirit. + +Lefebre, perceiving that he had been over-confident, now encamped and +awaited reinforcements, which arrived on the 29th, increasing his force to +twelve thousand men. He was recalled for service elsewhere, General +Verdier being left in command, and during the succeeding two months the +siege was vigorously prosecuted, the French being supplied with a large +siege train, with which they hotly bombarded the city. + +Weak as were the walls of Saragossa, interiorly it was remarkably well +adapted for defence. The houses were strongly built, of incombustible +material, they being usually of two stories, each story vaulted and +practically fireproof. Every house had its garrison, and the massive +convents which rose like castles within the circuit of the wall were +filled with armed men. Usually when the walls of a city are taken the city +falls; but this was by no means the case with Saragossa. The loss of its +walls was but the beginning, not the end, of its defence. Each convent, +each house, formed a separate fortress. The walls were loop-holed for +musketry, ramparts were constructed of sand-bags, and beams were raised +endwise against the houses to afford shelter from shells. + +It was not until August that the French, now fifteen thousand strong, were +able to force their way into the city. But to enter the city was not to +capture it. They had to fight their way from street to street and from +house to house. At length the assailants penetrated to the Cosso, a public +walk formed on the line of the old Moorish ramparts, but here their +advance was checked, the citizens defending themselves with the most +desperate and unyielding energy. + +The singular feature of this defence was that the women of Saragossa took +as active a part in it as the men. The Countess Burita, a beautiful young +woman of intrepid spirit, took the lead in forming her fellow-women into +companies, at whose head were ladies of the highest rank. These, +undeterred by the hottest fire and freely braving wounds and death, +carried provisions to the combatants, removed the wounded to the +hospitals, and were everywhere active in deeds of mercy and daring. One of +them, a young woman of low rank but intrepid soul, gained world-wide +celebrity by an act of unusual courage and presence of mind. + +While engaged one day in her regular duty, that of carrying meat and wine +to the defenders of a battery, she found it deserted and the guns +abandoned. The French fire had proved so murderous that the men had shrunk +back in mortal dread. Snatching a match from the hand of a dead +artillery-man, the brave girl fired his gun, and vowed that she would +never leave it while a Frenchman remained in Saragossa. Her daring shamed +the men, who returned to their guns, but, as the story goes, the brave +girl kept her vow, working the gun she had chosen until she had the joy to +see the French in full retreat. This took place on the 14th of August, +when the populace, expecting nothing but to die amid the ruins of their +houses, beheld with delight the enemy in full retreat. The obstinate +resistance of the people and reverses to the arms of France elsewhere had +forced them to raise the siege. + +The deeds of the "Maid of Saragossa" have been celebrated in poetry by +Byron and Southey and in art by Wilkie, and she stands high on the roll of +heroic women, being given, as some declare, a more elevated position than +her exploit deserved. + +Saragossa, however, was only reprieved, not abandoned. The French found +themselves too busily occupied elsewhere to attend to this centre of +Spanish valor until months had passed. At length, after the defeat and +retreat of Sir John Moore and the English allies of Spain, a powerful +army, thirty-five thousand strong, returned to the city on the Ebro, with +a battering train of sixty guns. + +Palafox remained in command in the city, which was now much more strongly +fortified and better prepared for defence. The garrison was +super-abundant. From the field of battle at Tudela, where the Spaniards +had suffered a severe defeat, a stream of soldiers fled to Saragossa, +bringing with them wagons and military stores in abundance. As the +fugitives passed, the villagers along the road, moved by terror, joined +them, and into the gates of the city poured a flood of soldiers, +camp-followers, and peasants, until it was thronged with human beings. +Last of all came the French, reaching the city on the 20th of December, +and resuming their interrupted siege. And now Saragossa, though destined +to fall, was to cover itself with undying glory. + +The townsmen, giving up every thought of personal property, devoted all +their goods, their houses, and their persons to the war, mingling with the +soldiers and the peasants to form one great garrison for the fortress into +which the whole city was transformed. In all quarters of the city massive +churches and convents rose like citadels, the various large streets +running into the broad avenue called the Cosso, and dividing the city into +a number of districts, each with its large and massive structures, well +capable of defence. + +Not only these thick-walled buildings, but all the houses, were converted +into forts, the doors and windows being built up, the fronts loop-holed, +and openings for communication broken through the party-walls; while the +streets were defended by trenches and earthen ramparts mounted with +cannon. Never before was there such an instance of a whole city converted +into a fortress, the thickness of the ramparts being here practically +measured by the whole width of the city. + +Saragossa had been a royal depot for saltpetre, and powder-mills near by +had taught many of its people the process of manufacture, so no magazines +of powder subject to explosion were provided, this indispensable substance +being made as it was needed. Outside the walls the trees were cut down and +the houses demolished, so that they might not shield the enemy; the public +magazines contained six months’ provisions, the convents and houses were +well stocked, and every preparation was made for a long siege and a +vigorous defence. + +Again, as before, companies of women were enrolled to attend the wounded +in the hospitals and carry food and ammunition to the men, the Countess +Burita being once more their commander, and performing her important duty +with a heroism and high intelligence worthy of the utmost praise. Not less +than fifty thousand combatants within the walls faced the thirty-five +thousand French soldiers without, who had before them the gigantic task of +overcoming a city in which every dwelling was a fort and every family a +garrison. + +A month and more passed before the walls were taken. Steadily the French +guns played on these defences, breach after breach was made, a number of +the encircling convents were entered and held, and by the 1st of February +the walls and outer strongholds of the city were lost. Ordinarily, under +such circumstances, the city would have fallen, but here the work of the +assailants had but fairly begun. The inner defences—the houses with their +unyielding garrisons—stood intact, and a terrible task still faced the +French. + +The war was now in the city streets, the houses nearest the posts held by +the enemy were crowded with defenders, in every quarter the alarm-bells +called the citizens to their duty, new barricades rose in the streets, +mines were sunk in the open spaces, and the internal passages from house +to house were increased until the whole city formed a vast labyrinth, +throughout which the defenders could move under cover. + +Marshall Lannes, the French commander, viewed with dread and doubt the +scene before him. Untrained in the art of war as were the bulk of the +defenders, courage and passionate patriotism made up for all deficiencies. +Men like these, heedless of death in their determined defence, were +dangerous to meet in open battle, and the prudent Frenchman resolved to +employ the slow but surer process of excavating a passage and fighting his +way through house after house until the city should be taken piecemeal. + +Mining through the houses was not sufficient. The greater streets divided +the city into a number of small districts, the group of dwellings in each +of which forming a separate stronghold. To cross these streets it was +necessary to construct underground galleries, or build traverses, since a +Spanish battery raked each street, and each house had to be fought for and +taken separately. + +While the Spaniards held the convents and churches the capture of the +houses by the French was of little service to them, the defenders making +sudden and successful sallies from these strong buildings, and +countermining their enemies, their numbers and perseverance often +frustrating the superior skill of the French. The latter, therefore, +directed their attacks upon these buildings, mining and destroying many of +them. On the other hand, the defenders saturated with rosin and pitch the +timbers of the buildings they could no longer hold, and interposed a +barrier of fire between themselves and their assailants which often +delayed them for several days. + +Step by step, inch by inch, the French made their way forward, complete +destruction alone enabling them to advance. The fighting was incessant. +The explosion of mines, the crash of falling buildings, the roar of cannon +and musketry, the shouts of the combatants continually filled the air, +while a cloud of smoke and dust hung constantly over the city as the +terrible scene of warfare continued day after day. + +By the 17th of February the Cosso was reached and passed. But the French +soldiers had become deeply discouraged by their fifty days of unremitting +labor and battle, fighting above and beneath the earth, facing an enemy as +bold as themselves and much more numerous, and with half the city still to +be conquered. Only the obstinate determination of Marshal Lannes kept them +to their work. + +By his orders a general assault was made on the 18th. Under the +university, a large building in the Cosso, mines containing three thousand +pounds of powder were exploded, the walls falling with a terrific crash. +Meanwhile, fifty pieces of artillery were playing on the side of the Ebro, +where the great convent of St. Lazar was breached and taken, two thousand +men being here cut off from the city. On the 19th other mines were +exploded, and on the 20th six great mines under the Cosso, loaded with +thousands of pounds of powder, whose explosion would have caused immense +destruction, were ready for the match, when an offer to surrender brought +the terrible struggle to an end. + +The case had become one of surrender or death. The bombardment, incessant +since the 10th of January, had forced the women and children into the +vaults, which were abundant in Saragossa. There the closeness of the air, +the constant burning of oil, and the general unsanitary conditions had +given rise to a pestilence which threatened to carry off all the +inhabitants of the city. Such was the state of the atmosphere that slight +wounds became fatal, and many of the defenders of the barricades were fit +only for the hospitals. By the 1st of February the death-rate had become +enormous. The daily deaths numbered nearly five hundred, and thousands of +corpses, which it was impossible to bury, lay in the streets and houses, +and in heaps at the doors of the churches, infecting the air with their +decay. The French held the suburbs, most of the wall, and one-fourth of +the houses, while the bursting of thousands of shells and the explosion of +nearly fifty thousand pounds of gunpowder in mines had shaken the city to +its foundations. Of the hundred thousand people who had gathered within +its walls, more than fifty thousand were dead; thousands of others would +soon follow them to the grave; Palafox, their indomitable chief, was sick +unto death. Yet despite this there was a strong and energetic party who +wished to protract the siege, and the deputies appointed to arrange terms +of surrender were in peril of their lives. + +The terms granted were that the garrison should march out with the honors +of war, to be taken as prisoners to France; the peasants should be sent to +their homes; the rights of property and exercise of religion should be +guaranteed. + +Thus ended one of the most remarkable sieges on record,—remarkable alike +for the energy and persistence of the attack and the courage and obstinacy +of the defence. Never in all history has any other city stood out so long +after its walls had fallen. Rarely has any city been so adapted to a +protracted defence. Had not its houses been nearly incombustible it would +have been reduced to ashes by the bombardment. Had not its churches and +convents possessed the strength of forts it must have quickly yielded. Had +not the people been animated by an extraordinary enthusiasm, in which +women did the work of men, a host of peasants and citizens could not so +long have endured the terrors of assault on the one hand and of pestilence +on the other. In the words of General Napier, the historian of the +Peninsular War, "When the other events of the Spanish war shall be lost in +the obscurity of time, or only traced by disconnected fragments, the story +of Zaragoza, like some ancient triumphal pillar standing amidst ruins, +will tell a tale of past glory." + + + + + +THE HERO OF THE CARLISTS. + + +Spain for years past has had its double king,—a king in possession and a +king in exile, a holder of the throne and an aspirant to the throne. For +the greater part of a century one has rarely heard of Spain without +hearing of the Carlists, for continually since 1830 there has been a +princely claimant named Charles, or Don Carlos, struggling for the crown. + +Ferdinand VII., who succeeded to the throne on the abdication of Charles +IV. in 1808, made every effort to obtain an heir. Three wives he had +without a child, and his brother, Don Carlos, naturally hoped to succeed +him. But the persistent king married a fourth time, and this time a +daughter was born to him. There was a law excluding females from the +throne, but this law had been abrogated by Ferdinand to please his wife, +and thus the birth of his daughter robbed Don Carlos of his hopes of +becoming king. + +Ferdinand died in 1833, and the infant Isabella was proclaimed queen, with +her mother as regent. The liberals supported her, the absolutists gathered +around Don Carlos, and for years there was a bitter struggle in Spain, the +strength of the Carlists being in the Basque provinces and Spanish +Navarre,—a land of mountaineers, loyal in nature and conservative by +habit. + +The dynasty of the pretender has had three successive claimants to the +throne. The first Don Carlos abdicated in 1844, and was succeeded by Don +Carlos the Second, his son. He died in 1861, and his cousin, Don Carlos +the Third, succeeded to the claim, and renewed the struggle for the crown. +It was this third of the name that threatened to renew the insurrection +during the Spanish-American war of 1898. + +This explanation is necessary to make clear what is known by Carlism in +Spain. Many as have been the Carlist insurrections, they have had but one +leader of ability, one man capable of bringing them success. This was the +famous Basque chieftain Zumalacarregui, the renowned "Uncle Tomas" of the +Carlists, whose brilliant career alone breaks the dull monotony of Spanish +history in the nineteenth century, and who would in all probability have +placed Don Carlos on the throne but for his death from a mortal wound in +1835. Since then Carlism has struggled on with little hope of success. + +Navarre, the chief seat of the insurrection, borders on the chain of the +Pyrenees, and is a wild confusion of mountains and hills, where the +traveller is confused in a labyrinth of long and narrow valleys, deep +glens, and rugged rocks and cliffs. The mountains are highest in the +north, but nowhere can horsemen proceed the day through without +dismounting, and in many localities even foot travel is very difficult. In +passing from village to village long and winding roads must be traversed, +the short cuts across the mountains being such as only a goat or a +Navarrese can tread. + +Regular troops, in traversing this rugged country, are exhausted by the +shortest marches, while the people of the region go straight through wood +and ravine, plunging into the thick forests and following narrow paths, +through which pursuit is impossible, and where an invading force does not +dare to send out detachments for fear of having them cut off by a sudden +guerilla attack. It was here and in the Basque provinces to the west, with +their population of hardy and daring mountaineers, that the troops of +Napoleon found themselves most annoyed by the bold guerilla chiefs, and +here the Carlist forces long defied the armies of the crown. + +Tomas Zumalacarregui, the "modern Cid," as his chief historian entitles +him, was a man of high military genius, rigid in discipline, skilful in +administration, and daring in leadership; a stern, grave soldier, to whose +face a smile rarely came except when shots were falling thick around him +and when his staff appeared as if they would have preferred music of a +different kind. To this intrepid chief fear seemed unknown, prudence in +battle unthought of, and so many were his acts of rashness that when a +bullet at length reached him it seemed a miracle that he had escaped so +long. The white charger which he rode became such a mark for the enemy, +from its frequent appearance at the head of a charging troop or in +rallying a body of skirmishers, that all those of a similar color ridden +by members of his staff were successively shot, though his always escaped. +On more than one occasion he brought victory out of doubt, or saved his +little army in retreat, by an act of hare-brained bravery. Such was the +"Uncle Tomas" of the Navarrese, the darling of the mountaineers, the man +who would very likely have brought final victory to their cause had not +death cut him off in the midst of his career. + +Few were the adherents of Don Carlos when this able soldier placed himself +at their head,—a feeble remnant hunted like a band of robbers among their +native mountains. When he appeared in 1833, escaping from Madrid, where he +was known as a brave soldier and an opponent of the queen, he found but +the fragment of an insurgent army in Navarre. All he could gather under +his banner were about eight hundred half-armed and undisciplined men,—a +sorry show with which to face an army of over one hundred and twenty +thousand men, many of them veterans of the recent wars. These were thrown +in successive waves against Uncle Tomas and his handful of followers, +reinforcement following reinforcement, general succeeding general, even +the redoubtable Mina among them, each with a new plan to crush the Carlist +chief, yet each disastrously failing. + +Beginning with eight hundred badly armed peasants and fourteen horses, the +gallant leader had at the time of his death a force of twenty-eight +thousand well-organized and disciplined infantry and eight hundred +horsemen, with twenty-eight pieces of artillery and twelve thousand spare +muskets, all won by his good sword from the foe,—his arsenal being, as he +expressed it, "in the ranks of the enemy." During these two years of +incessant war more than fifty thousand of the army of Spain, including a +very large number of officers, had fallen in Navarre, sixteen fortified +places had been taken, and the cause of Don Carlos was advancing by leaps +and bounds. The road to Madrid lay open to the Carlist hero when, at the +siege of Bilboa, a distant and nearly spent shot struck him, inflicting a +wound from which he soon died. With the fall of Zumalacarregui fell the +Carlist cause. Weak hands seized the helm from which his strong one had +been struck, incompetency succeeded genius, and three years more of a +weakening struggle brought the contest to an end. In all later revivals of +the insurrection it has never gained a hopeful stand, and with the fall of +"Uncle Tomas" the Carlist claim to the throne seemingly received its +death-blow. + +The events of the war between the Navarrese and their opponents were so +numerous that it is not easy to select one of special interest from the +mass. We shall therefore speak only of the final incidents of +Zumalacarregui’s career. Among the later events was the siege and capture +of Villafranca. Espartero, the Spanish general, led seven thousand men to +the relief of this place, marching them across the mountains on a dark and +stormy night with the hope of taking the Carlists by surprise. But Uncle +Tomas was not the man to be taken unawares, and reversed the surprise, +striking Espartero with a small force in the darkness, and driving back +his men in confusion and dismay. Eighteen hundred prisoners were taken, +and the general himself narrowly escaped. General Mirasol was taken, with +all his staff, in a road-side house, from which he made an undignified +escape. He was a small man, and by turning up his embroidered cuffs, these +being the only marks of the grade of brigadier-general in the Spanish +army, he concealed his rank. He told his captors that he was a _tambor_. +In their anxiety to capture officers the soldiers considered a drummer too +small game, and dismissed the general with a sound kick to the custody of +those outside. As these had more prisoners than they could well manage, he +easily escaped. + +On learning of the defeat of Espartero the city surrendered. The news of +the fall of Villafranca had an important effect, the city of Tolosa being +abandoned by its garrison and Burgera surrendered, though it was strongly +garrisoned. Here Charles V.—as Don Carlos was styled by his party—made a +triumphal entry. He was then at the summit of his fortunes and full of +aspiring hopes. Eybar was next surrendered, the garrison of Durango fled, +and Salvatierra was evacuated. + +Victory seemed to have perched upon the banners of the Navarrese, town +after town falling in rapid succession into their hands, and the crown of +Spain appeared likely soon to change hands. Zumalacarregui proposed next +to march upon Vittoria, which had been abandoned with the exception of a +few battalions, and thence upon the important city of Burgos, where he +would either force the enemy to a battle or move forward upon Madrid. So +rapid and signal had been his successes that consternation filled the army +of the queen, the soldiers being in such terror that little opposition was +feared. Bets ran high in the Carlist army that six weeks would see them in +Madrid, and any odds could have been had that they would be there within +two months. Such was the promising state of affairs when the impolitic +interference of Don Carlos led to a turn in the tide of his fortune and +the overthrow of his cause. + +What he wanted most was money. His military chest was empty. In the path +of the army lay the rich mercantile city of Bilboa. Its capture would +furnish a temporary supply. He insisted that the army, instead of crossing +the Ebro and taking full advantage of the panic of the enemy, should +attack this place. This Zumalacarregui strongly opposed. + +"Can you take it?" asked Carlos. + +"I can take it, but it will be at an immense sacrifice, not so much of men +as of time, which now is precious," was the reply. + +Don Carlos insisted, and the general, sorely against his will, complied. +The movement was not only unwise in itself, it led to an accident that +brought to an end all the fair promise of success. + +The siege was begun. Zumalacarregui, anxious to save time, determined to +take the place by storm as soon as a practicable breach should be made, +and on the morning of the day he had fixed for the assault he, with his +usual daring, stepped into the balcony of a building not far from the +walls to inspect the state of affairs with his glass. + +On seeing a man thus exposed, evidently a superior officer, to judge from +his telescope and the black fur jacket he wore, all the men within that +part of the walls opened fire on him. The general soon came out of the +balcony limping in a way that at once created alarm, and, unable to +conceal his lameness, he admitted that he was wounded. A bullet, glancing +from one of the bars of the balcony window, had struck him in the calf of +the right leg, fracturing the small bone and dropping two or three inches +lower in the flesh. + +The wound appeared but trifling,—the slight hurt of a spent ball,—but the +surgeons, disputing as to the policy of extracting the ball, did nothing, +not even dressing the wound till the next morning. It was of slight +importance, they said. He would be on horseback within a month, perhaps in +two weeks. The wounded man was not so sanguine. + +"The pitcher goes to the well till it breaks at last," he said. "Two +months more and I would not have cared for any sort of wound." + +Those two months might have put Don Carlos on the throne and changed the +history of Spain. In eleven days the general was dead and a change had +come over the spirit of affairs. The operations against Bilboa languished, +the garrison regained their courage, the plan of storming the place was +set aside, the queen’s troops, cheered by tidings of the death of the +"terrible Zumalacarregui," took heart again and marched to the relief of +the city. Their advance ended in the siege being raised, and in the first +encounter after the death of their redoubtable chief the Carlists met with +defeat. The decline in the fortunes of Don Carlos had begun. One man had +lifted them from the lowest ebb almost to the pinnacle of success. With +the fall of Zumalacarregui Carlism received a death-blow in Spain, for +there is little hope that one of this dynasty of claimants will ever reach +the throne. + + + + + +MANILA AND SANTIAGO. + + +The record of Spain has not been glorious at sea. She has but one great +victory, that of Lepanto, to offer in evidence against a number of great +defeats, such as those of the Armada, Cape St. Vincent, and Trafalgar. In +1898 two more defeats, those of Manila and Santiago, were added to the +list, and with an account of these our series of tales from Spanish +history may fitly close. + +Exactly three centuries passed from the death of Philip II. (1598) to that +of the war with the United States, and during that long period the tide of +Spanish affairs moved steadily downward. At its beginning Spain exercised +a powerful influence over European politics; at its end she was looked +upon with disdainful pity and had no longer a voice in continental +affairs. Such was the inevitable result of the weakness and lack of +statesmanship with which the kingdom had been misgoverned during the +greater part of this period. + +In her colonial affairs Spain had shown herself as intolerant and +oppressive as at home. When the other nations of Europe were loosening the +reins of their colonial policy, Spain kept hers unyieldingly rigid. +Colonial revolution was the result, and she lost all her possessions in +America but the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. Yet she had learned no +lesson,—she seemed incapable of profiting by experience,—and the old +policy of tyranny and rapacity was exercised over these islands until +Cuba, the largest of them, was driven into insurrection. + +In attempting to suppress this insurrection Spain adopted the cruel +methods she had exercised against the Moriscos in the sixteenth century, +ignoring the fact that the twentieth century was near its dawn, and that a +new standard of humane sympathy and moral obligation had arisen in other +nations. Her cruelty towards the insurgent Cubans became so intolerable +that the great neighboring republic of the United States bade her, in +tones of no uncertain meaning, to bring it to an end. In response Spain +adopted her favorite method of procrastination, and the frightful reign of +starvation in Cuba was maintained. This was more than the American people +could endure, and war was declared. With the cause and the general course +of that war our readers are familiar, but it embraced two events of signal +significance—the naval contests of the war—which are worth telling again +as the most striking occurrences in the recent history of Spain. + +At early dawn of the 1st of May, 1898, a squadron of United States +cruisers appeared before the city of Manila, in the island of Luzon, the +largest island of the Philippine archipelago, then a colony of Spain. This +squadron, consisting of the cruisers Olympia, Baltimore, Raleigh, and +Boston, the gunboats Petrel and Concord, and the despatch-boat McCulloch, +had entered the bay of Manila during the night, passing unhurt the +batteries at its mouth, and at daybreak swept in proud array past the city +front, seeking the Spanish fleet, which lay in the little bay of Cavité, +opening into the larger bay. + + [Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.] + + THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA. + +Copyright, 1898, by Arkell Publishing Company + + +The Spanish ships consisted of five cruisers and three gunboats, inferior +in weight and armament to their enemy, but flanked by shore batteries on +each end of the line, and with an exact knowledge of the harbor, while the +Americans were ignorant of distances and soundings. These advantages on +the side of the Spanish made the two fleets practically equal in strength. +The battle about to be fought was one of leading importance in naval +affairs. It was the second time in history in which two fleets built under +the new ideas in naval architecture and armament had met in battle. The +result was looked for with intense interest by the world. + +Commodore Dewey, the commander of the American squadron, remained fully +exposed on the bridge of his flag-ship, the Olympia, as she stood daringly +in, followed in line by the Baltimore, Raleigh, Petrel, Concord, and +Boston. As they came up, the shore batteries opened fire, followed by the +Spanish ships, while two submarine mines, exploded before the Olympia, +tossed a shower of water uselessly into the air. + +Heedless of all this, the ships continued their course, their guns +remaining silent, while the Spanish fire grew continuous. Plunging shells +tore up the waters of the bay to right and left, but not a ship was +struck, and not a shot came in return from the frowning muzzles of the +American guns. The hour of 5.30 had passed and the sun was pouring its +beams brightly over the waters of the bay, when from the forward turret of +the Olympia boomed a great gun, and an 8-inch shell rushed screaming in +towards the Spanish fleet. Within ten minutes more all the ships were in +action, and a steady stream of shells were pouring upon the Spanish ships. + +The difference in effect was striking. The American gunners were trained +to accurate aiming; the Spanish idea was simply to load and fire. In +consequence few shells from the Spanish guns reached their mark, while few +of those from American guns went astray. Soon the fair ships of Spain were +frightfully torn and rent and many of their men stretched in death, while +hardly a sign of damage was visible on an American hull. + +Sweeping down parallel to the Spanish line, and pouring in its fire as it +went from a distance of forty-five hundred yards, the American squadron +swept round in a long ellipse and sailed back, now bringing its starboard +batteries into play. Six times it passed over this course, the last two at +the distance of two thousand yards. From the great cannon, and from the +batteries of smaller rapid-fire guns, a steady stream of projectiles was +hurled inward, frightfully rending the Spanish ships, until at the end of +the evolutions three of them were burning fiercely, and the others were +little more than wrecks. + +Admiral Montojo’s flag-ship, the Reina Cristina, made a sudden dash from +the line in the middle of the combat, with the evident hope of ramming and +sinking the Olympia. The attempt was a desperate one, the fire of the +entire fleet being concentrated on the single antagonist, until the storm +of projectiles grew so terrific that utter annihilation seemed at hand. +The Spanish admiral now swung his ship around and started hastily back. +Just as she had fairly started in the reverse course an 8-inch shell from +the Olympia struck her fairly in the stern and drove inward through every +obstruction, wrecking the aft-boiler and blowing up the deck in its +explosion. It was a fatal shot. Clouds of white smoke were soon followed +by the red glare of flames. For half an hour longer the crew continued to +work their guns. At the end of that time the fire was master of the ship. + +Two torpedo-boats came out with the same purpose, and met with the same +reception. Such a rain of shell poured on them that they hastily turned +and ran back. They had not gone far before one of them, torn by a shell, +plunged headlong to the bottom of the bay. The other was beached, her crew +flying in terror to the shore. + +While death and destruction were thus playing havoc with the Spanish +ships, the Spanish fire was mainly wasted upon the sea. Shots struck the +Olympia, Baltimore, and Boston, but did little damage. One passed just +under Commodore Dewey on the bridge and tore a hole in the deck. One +ripped up the main deck of the Baltimore, disabled a 6-inch gun, and +exploded a box of ammunition, by which eight men were slightly wounded. +These were the only men hurt on the American side during the whole battle. + +At 7.35 Commodore Dewey withdrew his ships that the men might breakfast. +The Spanish ships were in a hopeless state. Shortly after eleven the +Americans returned and ranged up again before the ships of Spain, nearly +all of which were in flames. For an hour and a quarter longer the blazing +ships were pounded with shot and shell, the Spaniards feebly replying. At +the end of that time the work was at an end, the batteries being silenced +and the ships sunk, their upper works still blazing. Of their crews, +nearly a thousand had perished in the fight. + +Thus ended one of the most remarkable naval battles in history. For more +than three hours the American ships had been targets for a hot fire from +the Spanish fleet and forts, and during all that time not a man had been +killed and not a ship seriously injured. Meanwhile, the Spanish fleet had +ceased to exist. Its burnt remains lay on the bottom of the bay. The forts +had been battered into shapeless heaps of earth, their garrisons killed or +put to flight. It was an awful example of the difference between accurate +gunnery and firing at random. + +Two months later a second example of the same character was made. Spain’s +finest squadron, consisting of the four first-class armored cruisers Maria +Teresa, Vizcaya, Almirante Oquendo, and Cristobal Colon, with two +torpedo-boat destroyers, lay in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, blockaded +by a powerful American fleet of battle-ships and cruisers under Admiral +Sampson. They were held in a close trap. The town was being besieged by +land. Sampson’s fleet far outnumbered them at sea. They must either +surrender with the town or take the forlorn hope of escape by flight. + +The latter was decided upon. On the morning of July 3 the lookout on the +Brooklyn, Commodore Schley’s flag-ship, reported that a ship was coming +out of the harbor. The cloud of moving smoke had been seen at the same +instant from the battle-ship Iowa, and in an instant the Sunday morning +calm on these vessels was replaced by intense excitement. + +Mast-head signals told the other ships of what was in view, the men rushed +in mad haste to quarters, the guns were made ready for service, ammunition +was hoisted, coal hurled into the furnaces, and every man on the alert. It +was like a man suddenly awoke from sleep with an alarm cry: at one moment +silent and inert, in the next moment thrilling with intense life and +activity. + +This was not a battle; it was a flight and pursuit. The Spaniards as soon +as the harbor was cleared opened a hot fire on the Brooklyn, their nearest +antagonist, which they wished to disable through fear of her superior +speed. But their gunnery here was like that at Manila, their shells being +wasted through unskilful handling. On the other hand the fire from the +American ships was frightful, precise, and destructive, the fugitive ships +being rapidly torn by such a rain of shells as had rarely been seen +before. + +Turning down the coast, the fugitive ships drove onward at their utmost +speed. After them came the cruiser Brooklyn and the battle-ships Texas, +Iowa, Oregon, and Indiana, hurling shells from their great guns in their +wake. The New York, Admiral Sampson’s flag-ship, was distant several miles +up the coast, too far away to take part in the fight. + +Such a hail of shot, sent with such accurate aim, could not long be +endured. The Maria Teresa, Admiral Cervera’s flag-ship, was quickly in +flames, while shells were piercing her sides and bursting within. The main +steam-pipe was severed, the pump was put out of service, the captain was +killed. Lowering her flag, the vessel headed for the shore, where she was +quickly beached. + +The Almirante Oquendo, equally punished, followed the same example, a mass +of flames shrouding her as she rushed for the beach. The Vizcaya was the +next to succumb, after a futile effort to ram the Brooklyn. One shell from +the cruiser went the entire length of her gun-deck, killing or wounding +all the men on it. The Oregon was pouring shells into her hull, and she in +turn, burning fiercely, was run ashore. She had made a flight of twenty +miles. + +Only one of the Spanish cruisers remained,—the Cristobal Colon. She had +passed all her consorts, and when the Vizcaya went ashore was six miles +ahead of the Brooklyn and more than seven miles from the Oregon. It looked +as if she might escape. But she would have to round Cape Cruz by a long +detour, and the Brooklyn was headed straight for the cape, while the +Oregon kept on the Colon’s trail. + +An hour, a second hour, passed; the pursuers were gaining mile by mile; +the spurt of speed of the Colon was at an end. One of the great 13-inch +shells of the Oregon, fired from four miles away, struck the water near +the Colon. A second fell beyond her. An 8-inch shell from the Brooklyn +pierced her above her armor-belt. At one o’clock both ships were pounding +away at her, an ineffective fire being returned. At 1.20 she hauled down +her flag, and, like her consorts, ran ashore. She had made a run of +forty-eight miles. + +About six hundred men were killed on the Spanish ships; the American loss +was one man killed and one wounded. The ships of Spain were blazing +wrecks; those of the United States were none the worse for the fight. It +was like the victory at Manila repeated. It resembled the latter in +another particular, two torpedo-boats taking part in the affair. These +were attacked by the Gloucester, a yacht converted into a gunboat, and +dealt with so shrewdly that both of them were sunk. + +The battle ended, efforts to save on the part of the American ships +succeeded the effort to destroy, the Yankee tars showing as much courage +and daring in their attempts to rescue the wounded from the decks of the +burning ships as they had done in the fight. The ships were blazing fore +and aft, their guns were exploding from the heat, at any moment the fire +might reach the main magazines. A heavy surf made the work of rescue +doubly dangerous; yet no risk could deter the American sailors while the +chance to save one of the wounded remained, and they made as proud a +record on the decks of the burning ships as they had done behind the guns. + +These two signal victories were the great events of the war. Conjoined +with one victory on land, they put an end to the conflict. Without a +fleet, and with no means of aiding her Cuban troops, Spain was helpless, +and the naval victories at Manila and Santiago, in which one man was +killed, virtually settled the question of Cuban independence, and taught +the nations of Europe that a new and great naval power had arisen, with +which they would have to deal when they next sought to settle the +destinies of the world. + +THE END. + + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME VII*** + + + +CREDITS + + +September 2006 + + Project Gutenberg Edition + Joshua Hutchinson + Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 19457-0.txt or 19457-0.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/5/19457/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/19457-0.zip b/19457-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6fbf94d --- /dev/null +++ b/19457-0.zip diff --git a/19457-8.txt b/19457-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..10bf2dd --- /dev/null +++ b/19457-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8723 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - +Volume VII by Charles Morris + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII + +Author: Charles Morris + +Release Date: October 3, 2006 [Ebook #19457] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME VII*** + + + + + + [Illustration: CHARLES V. AT YUSTE.] + + CHARLES V. AT YUSTE. + + + + + +Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality + + +By Charles Morris + +_Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the +Dramatists," etc._ + +in fifteen volumes + +Volume VII + +London +George Bell and Sons + +1898 + + + + + +Copyright 1898, by J. B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright 1904, by J. B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright 1908, by J. B. Lippincott Company. + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +THE GOOD KING WAMBA. +THE GREEK KING'S DAUGHTER. +THE ENCHANTED PALACE. +THE BATTLE OF THE GUADALETE. +THE TABLE OF SOLOMON. +THE STORY OF QUEEN EXILONA. +PELISTES, THE DEFENDER OF CORDOVA. +THE STRATAGEM OF THEODOMIR. +THE CAVE OF COVADONGA. +THE ADVENTURES OF A FUGITIVE PRINCE. +BERNARDO DEL CARPIO. +RUY DIAZ, THE CID CAMPEADOR. +LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA. +THE KEY OF GRANADA. +KING ABUL HASSAN AND THE ALCAIDE OF GIBRALTAR. +THE RIVAL KINGS OF GRANADA. +THE KNIGHT OF THE EXPLOITS. +THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR. +THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS. +PETER THE CRUEL AND THE FREE COMPANIES. +THE GREAT CAPTAIN. +A KING IN CAPTIVITY. +THE INVASION OF AFRICA. +AN EMPEROR RETIRED FROM BUSINESS. +THE FATE OF A RECKLESS PRINCE. +SPAIN'S GREATEST VICTORY AT SEA. +THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. +THE CAUSES OF SPAIN'S DECADENCE. +THE LAST OF A ROYAL RACE. +HENRY MORGAN AND THE BUCCANEERS. +ELIZABETH FARNESE AND ALBERONI. +THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. +THE FALL OF A FAVORITE. +THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA. +THE HERO OF THE CARLISTS. +MANILA AND SANTIAGO. + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +CHARLES V. AT YUSTE. +TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR. +A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS. +BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE. +VALENCIA DEL CID. +ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE. +KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA. +MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE. +RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. +GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS. +FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR. +LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN. +CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE. +THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID. +THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA. +STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA. +THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA. +THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA. + + + + + + +THE GOOD KING WAMBA. + + +Long had the Goths been lords of Spain. Chief after chief had they chosen, +king after king had they served; and, though it was young in time, Gothic +Spain was growing old in years. It reached its golden age in the time of +"Good King Wamba," a king of fancy as much as of fact, under whom Spain +became a land of Arcady, everybody was happy, all things prospered, and +the tide of evil events for a space ceased to flow. + +In those days, when a king died and left no son, the Goths elected a new +one, seeking their best and worthiest, and holding the election in the +place where the old king had passed away. It was in the little village of +Gerticos, some eight miles from the city of Valladolid, that King +Recesuinto had sought health and found death. Hither came the +electors,--the great nobles, the bishops, and the generals,--and here they +debated who should be king, finally settling on a venerable Goth named +Wamba, the one man of note in all the kingdom who throughout his life had +declined to accept rank and station. + +The story goes that their choice was aided by miracle. In those days +miracles were "as plentiful as blackberries," but many of these seem to +have been what we may speak of as "miracles made to order," designed by +shrewd individuals to gain some personal or other advantage. St. Leo is +said to have told the electors to seek a husbandman named Wamba, whose +lands lay somewhere in the west, asserting that he did this under +direction of the heavenly powers. However that be, scouts were sent +through the land in search of Wamba, whom they found at length in his +fields, driving his plough through the soil and asking for no higher lot. +He was like Cincinnatus, the famous Roman, who was called from the plough +to the sceptre. + +"Leave your plough in the furrow," they said to him; "nobler work awaits +you. You have been elected king of Spain." + +"There is no nobler work," answered Wamba. "Seek elsewhere your monarch. I +prefer to rule over my fields." + +The astonished heralds knew not what to make of this. To them the man who +would not be king must be a saint--or an idiot. They reasoned, begged, +implored, until Wamba, anxious to get rid of them, said,-- + +"I will accept the crown when the dry rod in my hand grows green +again,--and not till then." + +The good old husbandman fancied that he had fairly settled the question, +but miracle defeated his purpose. To his utter surprise and their deep +astonishment the dry stick which he thrust into the ground at once became +a green plant, fresh leaves breaking out on its upper end. What was the +old man fond of his plough to do in such a case? He had appealed to +Heaven, and here was Heaven's reply. He went with the heralds to the +electoral congress, but there, in spite of the green branch, he again +refused to be king. He knew what it meant to try and govern men like those +around him, and preferred not to undertake the task. But one of the chiefs +sprang up, drew his sword, and advanced to the old man. + +"If you are still obstinate in refusing the position we offer you," he +sternly said, "you shall lose your head as well as your crown." + +His fierce eyes and brandished sword gave weight to his words, and Wamba, +concluding that he would rather be a king than a corpse, accepted the +trust. He was then escorted by the council and the army to Toledo, feeling +more like a captive than a monarch. There he was anointed and crowned, +and, from being lord of his fields, the wise old husbandman became king of +Spain. + +Such a king as Wamba proved to be the Goths had never known. Age had +brought him wisdom, but it had not robbed him of energy. He knew what he +had to expect and showed himself master of the situation. Revolts broke +out, conspiracies threatened the throne, but one after another he put them +down. Yet he was as merciful as he was prompt. His enemies were set free +and bidden to behave themselves better in the future. One ambitious noble +named Paul, who thought it would be an easy thing to take the throne from +an old man who had shown so plainly that he did not want it, rose in +rebellion. He soon learned his mistake. Wamba met him in battle, routed +his army, and took him prisoner. Paul expected nothing less than to have +his head stricken off, but Wamba simply ordered that it should be shaved. + +To shave the crown of the head in those days was no trifling matter. It +formed what is known as the tonsure, then the mark of the monastic orders. +A man condemned to the tonsure could not serve as king or chieftain, but +must spend the remainder of his days in seclusion as a monk. So Paul was +disposed of without losing his life. + +Wamba, however, did not spend all his time in fighting with conspirators. +He was so just a king that all the historians praise him to the +stars,--though none of them tell us what just deeds he did. He was one of +those famous monarchs around whom legend loves to grow, as the green +leaves grew around his dry rod, and who become kings of fancy in the +absence of facts. About all we know is that he was "Good King Wamba," a +just and merciful man under whom Spain reached its age of gold. + +He made a great and beautiful city of Toledo, his capital. It had a wall, +but he gave it another, stronger and loftier. And within the city he built +a noble palace and other splendid buildings, all of which time has swept +away. But over the great gate of Toledo the inscription still remains: +_Erexit fautore Deo Rex inclytus urbem Wamba_. "To God and King Wamba the +city owes its walls." + +Alas! the end was what might be expected of such goodness in so evil an +age. A traitor arose among those he most favored. There was a youth named +Ervigio, in whose veins ran the blood of former kings, and whom Wamba so +loved and honored as to raise him to great authority in the kingdom. +Ervigio was one of those who must be king or slave. Ambition made him +forget all favors, and he determined to cast his royal benefactor from the +throne. But he was not base enough to murder the good old man to whom he +owed his greatness. It was enough if he could make him incapable of +reigning,--as Wamba had done with Paul. + +To accomplish this he gave the king a sleeping potion, and while he was +under its influence had him tonsured,--that is, had the crown of his head +shaved. He then proclaimed that this had been done at the wish of the +king, who was weary of the throne. But whether or not, the law was strict. +No matter how or why it was done, no man who had received the tonsure +could ever again sit upon the Gothic throne. Fortunately for Ervigio, +Wamba cared no more for the crown now than he had done at first, and when +he came back to his senses he made little question of the base trick of +his favorite, but cheerfully enough became a monk. The remaining seven +years of his life he passed happily in withdrawal from a world into which +he had been forced against his will. + +But the people loved him, the good old man, and were not willing to accept +the scheming Ervigio as their king unless he could prove his right to the +throne. So, in the year 681, he called together a council of lords and +bishops at Toledo, before whom he appeared with a great show of humility, +bringing testimony to prove that Wamba had become monk at his own wish, +when in peril of death. To this he added a document signed by Wamba, in +which he abdicated the throne, and another in which he recommended Ervigio +as his successor. For eight days the council considered the question. The +documents might be false, but Wamba was a monk, and Ervigio was in power; +so they chose him as king. The holy oil of consecration was poured upon +his unholy head. + +Thus it was that Wamba the husbandman first became king and afterwards +monk. In all his stations--farmer, king, and monk--he acquitted himself well +and worthily, and his name has come down to us from the mists of time as +one of those rare men of whom we know little, but all that little good. + + + + + +THE GREEK KING'S DAUGHTER. + + +History wears a double face,--one face fancy, the other fact. The worst of +it is that we cannot always tell which face is turned towards us, and we +mistake one for the other far oftener than we know. In truth, fancy works +in among the facts of the most sober history, while in that primitive form +of history known as legend or tradition fancy has much the best of it, +though it may often be founded upon fact. In the present tale we have to +do with legend pure and simple, with hardly a thread of fact to give +substance to its web. + +There was a certain Grecian king of Cadiz whose daughter was of such +peerless beauty that her hand was sought in marriage by many of the other +kings of Andalusia. In those days "that country was ruled by several +kings, each having estates not extending over more than one or two +cities." What to do with the crowd of suitors the father was puzzled to +decide. Had a single one asked for his daughter's hand he might have +settled it with a word, but among so many, equally brave, handsome, and +distinguished, answer was not so easy; and the worthy king of Cadiz was +sorely troubled and perplexed. + +Luckily for him, the fair damsel was as wise as she was beautiful, and +took the matter into her own hands, making an announcement that quickly +cut down the number of her admirers. She said that she would have no +husband but one who could prove himself "a wise king." In our days, when +every king and nearly every man thinks himself wise, such a decision would +not have deterred suitors, and she would have been compelled, in the end, +to choose among the few unwise. But wisdom, in those times of fable and +necromancy, had a wider meaning than we give it. A wise king was one who +had control of the powers of earth and air, who could call the genii to +his aid by incantations, and perform supernatural deeds. Hence it was that +the suitors fell off from the maiden like leaves from an autumn bough, +leaving but two who deemed themselves fitting aspirants to her hand. + +To test the wisdom of these two she gave them the following tasks: One was +bidden to construct on the mainland an aqueduct and a water-wheel to bring +water from the mountains into Cadiz. The other was to produce a talisman +which should save the island of Cadiz from invasion by Berbers or any +other of the fierce tribes of Africa, by whom it was frequently +threatened. + +"The one of you," said the princess, "who first and best performs his +task, shall win my hand by his work." + +The two suitors were warmly in love with the beautiful maiden, and both +ardently entered upon their duties. The first to get to work was the +aqueduct builder, whose task called for hard labor rather than magical +aid. Cadiz stands on a long, narrow peninsula, opposite which, on the +mainland, the king built a hydraulic machine, to which the water was +brought by pipes or canals from springs in a nearby mountain. This stream +of cool, refreshing water poured upon a wheel, by which it was driven into +an aqueduct crossing the bay into Cadiz. + +Here comes the fact behind the legend. Such an aqueduct stood long in +evidence, and as late as the eighteenth century traces of it could be +seen. We have an account of it by the Arab writer, Al Makkari. "It +consisted," he says, "of a long line of arches, and the way it was done +was this: whenever they came to high ground or to a mountain they cut a +passage through it; when the ground was lower, they built a bridge over +arches; if they met with a porous soil, they laid a bed of gravel for the +passage of the water; when the building reached the sea-shore, the water +was made to pass underground, and in this way it reached Cadiz." So it was +built, and "wise" was the king who built it, even if he did not call upon +the genii for assistance. + +The other king could not perform his labor so simply. He had a talisman to +construct, so powerful that it would keep out of Spain those fierce +African tribes whose boats swept the seas. What talisman could he produce +that would be proof against ships and swords? The king thought much and +deeply, and then went diligently to work. On the border of the strait that +lay between Spain and Africa he built a lofty marble column, a square, +white shaft based on a solid foundation. On its summit he erected a +colossal statue of iron and copper, melted and cast into the human form. +The figure was that of a Berber, like whom it wore a full and flowing +beard, while a tuft of hair hung over its forehead in Berber fashion. The +dress was that of the African tribes. The extended right arm of the figure +pointed across the strait towards the opposite shores. In its hand were a +padlock and keys. Though it spoke not, it seemed to say, "No one must pass +this way." It bore the aspect of a Berber captive, chained to the tower's +top, and warning his brethren to keep away from Spain. + +Rapidly wrought the rival kings, each seeking to finish his work the +first. In this the aqueduct builder succeeded. The water began to flow, +the wheel to revolve, and the refreshing liquid to pour into the public +fountains of Cadiz. The multitude were overjoyed as the glad torrent +flowed into their streets, and hailed with loud acclamations the +successful builder. + +The sound of the people's shouts of joy reached the ears of the statue +builder as he was putting the last touches to his great work of art and +magic. Despair filled his heart. Despite his labors, his rival had won the +prize. In bitterness of spirit he threw himself from the top of the column +and was dashed to pieces at its foot. "By which means," says the +chronicle, "the other prince, freed from his rival, became the master of +the lady, of the wheel, and of the charm." + +The talisman was really a watch-tower, from which the news of an African +invasion could be signalled through the land. In this cold age we can give +its builder credit for no higher magic than that of wisdom and vigilance. + + + + + +THE ENCHANTED PALACE. + + +Near the city of Toledo, the capital of Spain when that country was a +kingdom of the Goths, was a great palace of the olden time, or, as some +say, a vast cave, which had been deepened and widened and made into many +rooms. Still others say that it was a mighty tower, built by Hercules. +Whatever it was,--palace, tower, or cavern,--a spell lay upon it from far +past days, which none had dared to break. There was an ancient prophecy +that Spain would in time be invaded by barbarians from Africa, and to +prevent this a wise king, who knew the arts of magic, had placed a secret +talisman in one of the rooms. While this remained undisturbed the country +was safe from invasion. If once the secret of the talisman should be +divulged, swift ruin would descend upon the kingdom of the Goths. It must +be guarded strongly and well, for in it lay the destinies of Spain. + +A huge iron gate closed the entrance to the enchanted palace, and upon +this each king of the Goths, on coming to the throne, placed a strong +lock, so that in time huge padlocks covered much of its front and its +secrecy seemed amply assured. When Roderic, the last king of the Goths, +came to the throne, twenty-seven of such locks hung upon the gate. As for +the keys, some writers tell us that they remained in the locks, others say +that they had been hidden and lost; but it is certain that no one had +dared to open a single one of the locks; prudence and fear guarded the +secret better than gates and locks. + +At length the time came when the cherished secret was to be divulged. Don +Roderic, who had seized the throne by violence, and bore in his heart the +fatal bane of curiosity, determined to learn what had lain for centuries +behind those locks. The whole affair, he declared, was the jest of an +ancient king, which did very well when superstition ruled the world, but +which was far behind the age in which he lived. Two things moved the +epoch-breaking king,--curiosity, that vice which has led thousands to ruin, +and avarice, which has brought destruction upon thousands more. "It is a +treasure-house, not a talisman," he told himself. "Gold, silver, and +jewels lie hidden in its mouldy depths. My treasury is empty, and I should +be a fool to let a cluster of rusty locks keep me from filling it from +this ancient store." + +When it became known what Roderic proposed a shudder of horror ran through +the land. Nobles and bishops hastened to the audience chamber and sought +to hinder the fateful purpose of the rash monarch. Their hearts were +filled with dread of the perils that would follow any meddling with the +magic spell, and they earnestly implored him not to bring the foretold +disaster upon the land. + +"The kings who reigned before you have religiously obeyed the injunction," +they said. "Each of them has fixed his lock to the gate. It will be wise +and prudent in you to follow their example. If it is gold and jewels you +look for, tell us how much you think the cavern holds, even all your fancy +hopes to find, and so much we will give you. Even if it beggars us, we +will collect and bring you this sum without fail. We pray and implore you, +then, do not break a custom which our old kings have all held sacred. They +knew well what they did when they commanded that none after them should +seek to disclose the fatal secret of the hidden chamber." + +Earnest as was their appeal, it was wasted upon Roderic. Their offer of +gold did not reach his deepest motive; curiosity with him was stronger +than greed, and he laughed in his beard at the fears and tremblings of his +lords. + +"It shall not be said that Don Roderic, the king of the Goths, fears the +devil or his agents," he loudly declared, and orders were given that the +locks should be forced. + +One by one the rusty safeguards yielded to key or sledge, and the gates +shrieked disapproval when at length they reluctantly turned on their stiff +hinges, that had not moved for centuries. Into the cavern strode the king, +followed by his fearful but curious train. The rooms, as tradition had +said, were many, and from room to room he hurried with rapid feet. He +sought in vain. No gold appeared, no jewels glittered on his sight. The +rooms were drear and empty, their hollow floors mocking his footsteps with +long-silent echoes. One treasure only he found, the jewelled table of +Solomon, a famous ancient work of art which had long remained hidden from +human sight. Of this wonderful relic we shall say no more here, for it has +a history of its own, to be told in a future tale. + +On and on went the disappointed king, with nothing to satisfy his avarice +or his curiosity. At length he entered the chamber of the spell, the magic +room which had so long been locked from human vision, and looked with eyes +of wonder on the secret which had been so carefully preserved. + +What he saw was simple but threatening. On the wall of the room was a rude +painting, which represented a group of strangely dressed horsemen, some +wearing turbans, some bareheaded, with locks of coarse black hair hanging +over their foreheads. The skins of animals covered their limbs; they +carried scimitars and lances and bore fluttering pennons; their horses +were small, but of purest breed. + +Turning in doubt and dread from this enigmatical drawing, the daring +intruder saw in the centre of the apartment a pedestal bearing a marble +urn, in which lay a scroll of parchment. From this one of his scribes read +the following words: + +"Whenever this asylum is violated and the spell contained in this urn +broken, the people shown in the picture shall invade the land and overturn +the throne of its kings. The rule of the Goths shall end and the whole +country fall into the hands of heathen strangers." + +King Roderic looked again with eyes of alarm on the pictured forms. Well +he knew their meaning. The turban-wearers were Arabians, their horses the +famous steeds of the desert; the bare-headed barbarians were Berbers or +Moors. Already they threatened the land from Africa's shores; he had +broken the spell which held them back; the time for the fulfilment of the +prophecy was at hand. + +Filled with sudden terror, the rash invader hurried from the chamber of +the talisman, his courtiers flying with wild haste to the open air. The +brazen gates were closed with a clang which rang dismally through the +empty rooms, and the lock of the king was fixed upon them. But it was too +late. The voice of destiny had spoken and the fate of the kingdom been +revealed, and all the people looked upon Don Roderic as a doomed man. + +We have given this legend in its mildest form. Some Arab writers surround +it with magical incidents until it becomes a tale worthy of the "Arabian +Nights' Entertainments." They speak of two ancient men with snowy beards +who kept the keys of the gate and opened the locks only at Roderic's stern +command. When the locks were removed no one could stir the gates until the +hand of the king touched them, when they sprang open of themselves. Inside +stood a huge bronze giant with a club of steel, with which he dealt +resounding blows on the floor to right and left. He desisted at the king's +command, and the train entered unharmed. In the magic chamber they found a +golden casket containing a linen cloth between tablets of brass. On this +were painted figures of Arabs in armor. As they gazed these began to move, +sounds of war were heard, and the vision of a battle between Arab and +Christian warriors passed before the affrighted eyes of the intruders. The +Christian army was defeated, and Roderic saw the image of himself in +flight, and finally of his horse without a rider. As he rushed in terror +from the fatal room the bronze giant was no longer to be seen and the +ancient guardians of the gate lay dead upon their posts. In the end the +tower was burned by magic fire, and its very ashes were scattered by the +wings of an innumerable flight of birds. + + + + + +THE BATTLE OF THE GUADALETE. + + +The legends just given are full of the pith of facts. Dread of Africa lay +deep in the Spanish heart and gave point to these and other magical and +romantic tales. The story of how the great conqueror, Mohammed, had come +out from the deserts of Arabia and sent his generals, sword and Koran in +hand, to conquer the world, had spread far to the east and the west, and +brought terror wherever it came. From Arabia the Moslem hordes had swept +through Egypt and along the African coast to the extremity of Morocco. +They now faced Spain and coveted that rich and populous land. Well might +the degenerate sons of the Goths fear their coming and strive to keep them +out with talismans and spells. + +Years before, in the days of good King Wamba, a great Mohammedan fleet had +ravaged the Andalusian coast. Others came, not for conquest, but for +spoil. But at length all North Africa lay under the Moslem yoke, and Musa +Ibn Nasseyr, the conqueror of the African tribes, cast eyes of greed upon +Spain and laid plans for the subjugation to Arab rule of that +far-spreading Christian land. + +Africa, he was told, was rich, but Spain was richer. Its soil was as +fertile as that of Syria, its climate as mild and sweet as that of Araby +the Blest. The far-famed mines of distant Cathay did not equal it in +wealth of minerals and gems; nowhere else were such harbors, nowhere such +highlands and plains. The mountain-ranges, beautiful to see, enclosed +valleys of inexhaustible fertility. It was a land "plentiful in waters, +renowned for their sweetness and clearness,"--Andalusia's noble streams. +Famous monuments graced its towns: the statue of Hercules at Cadiz, the +idol of Galicia, the stately ruins of Merida and Tarragona. It was a realm +the conquest of which would bring wealth and fame,--great glory to the sons +of Allah and great treasure to the successors of the Prophet. Musa +determined upon its invasion. + +A traitor came to his aid. Count Julian was governor of Ceuta, a Spanish +city on the African coast. His daughter Florinda was maid of honor to the +queen of Don Roderic. But word from the daughter came to the father that +she had suffered grievous injury at the hands of the king, and Count +Julian, thirsting for revenge upon Roderic, offered to deliver Ceuta into +the hands of the Arabian warrior and aid him in the conquest of Spain. To +test the good faith of Julian, Musa demanded that he should first invade +Andalusia himself. This he did, taking over a small force in two vessels, +overrunning the coast country, killing many of its people, and returning +with a large booty in slaves and plunder. + +In the summer of 710 a Berber named Tarif was sent over to spy out the +land, and in the spring of 711 the army of invasion was led over by Tarik +Ibn Zeyad, a valiant chief, who had gained great glory in the wars with +the Berber tribes. Who Tarik was cannot be told. He was of humble origin, +probably of Persian birth, but possessed of a daring spirit that was to +bring him the highest fame. He is described as a tall man, with red hair +and a white complexion, blind of one eye, and with a mole on his hand. The +Spanish historians call him Tarik el Tuerto, meaning either "one-eyed" or +"squint-eyed." Such was the man whom Musa sent to begin the conquest of +Spain. + +The army of invasion consisted of seven thousand men,--a handful to conquer +a kingdom. They were nearly all Moorish and Berber cavalry, there being +only three hundred Arabians of pure blood, most of whom were officers. +Landing in Spain, for a time they found no one to meet them. Roderic was +busy with his army in the north and knew naught of this invasion of his +kingdom, and for two months Tarik ravaged the land at his will. But at +length the Gothic king, warned of his danger, began a hasty march +southward, sending orders in advance to levy troops in all parts of the +kingdom, the rallying place being Cordova. + +It was a large army which he thus got together, but they were ill-trained, +ill-disciplined, and ill-disposed to their king. Ninety thousand there +were, as Arab historians tell us, while Tarik had but twelve thousand, +Musa having sent him five thousand more. But the large army was a mob, +half-armed, and lacking courage and discipline; the small army was a +compact and valorous body, used to victory, fearless, and impetuous. + +It was on Sunday, the 19th of July, 711, that the two armies came face to +face on the banks of the Guadalete, a river whose waters traverse the +plain of Sidonia, in which the battle was fought. It was one of the +decisive battles in the world's history, for it gave the peninsula of +Spain for eight centuries to Arab dominion. The story of how this battle +was fought is, therefore, among the most important of the historical tales +of Spain. + +Roderic's army consisted of two bodies of men,--a smaller force of +cavaliers, clad in mail armor and armed with swords and battle-axes, and +the main body, which was a motley crew, without armor, and carrying bows, +lances, axes, clubs, scythes, and slings. Of the Moslem army the greater +number wore mail, some carrying lances and scimitars of Damascus steel, +others being armed with light long-bows. Their horses were Arabian or +Barbary steeds, such as Roderic had seen on the walls of the secret +chamber. + +It was in the early morning of a bright spring day that the Spanish +clarions sounded defiance to the enemy, and the Moorish horns and +kettle-drums rang back the challenge to battle. Nearer and nearer together +came the hosts, the shouts of the Goths met by the shrill _lelies_ of the +Moslems. + +"By the faith of the Messiah," Roderic is reported to have said, "these +are the very men I saw painted on the walls of the chamber of the spell at +Toledo." From that moment, say the chroniclers, "fear entered his heart." +And yet the story goes that he fought long and well and showed no signs of +fear. + +On his journey to the south Roderic had travelled in a chariot of ivory, +lined with cloth of gold, and drawn by three white mules harnessed +abreast. On the silken awning of the chariot pearls, rubies, and other +rich jewels were profusely sprinkled. He sat with a crown of gold on his +head, and was dressed in a robe made of strings of pearls interwoven with +silk. This splendor of display, however, was not empty ostentation, but +the state and dignity which was customary with the Gothic kings. + +In his chariot of ivory Roderic passed through the ranks, exhorting the +men to valor, and telling them that the enemy was a low rabble of +heathens, abhorred of God and men. "Remember," he said, "the valor of your +ancestors and the holy Christian faith, for whose defence we are +fighting." Then he sprang from his chariot, put on his horned helmet, +mounted his war-horse Orelia, and took his station in the field, prepared +to fight like a soldier and a king. + +For two days the battle consisted of a series of skirmishes. At the end of +that time the Christians had the advantage. Their numbers had told, and +new courage came to their hearts. Tarik saw that defeat would be his lot +if this continued, and on the morning of the third day he made a fiery +appeal to his men, rousing their fanaticism and picturing the treasures +and delights which victory would bring them. He ended with his war-cry of +"Guala! Guala! Follow me, my warriors! I shall not stop until I reach the +tyrant in the midst of his steel-clad warriors, and either kill him or he +kill me!" + +At the head of his men the dusky one-eyed warrior rushed with fiery energy +upon the Gothic lines, cleaving his way through the ranks towards a +general whose rich armor seemed to him that of the king. His impetuous +charge carried him deep into their midst. The seeming king was before him. +One blow and he fell dead; while the Moslems, crying that the king of the +Goths was killed, followed their leader with resistless ardor into the +hostile ranks. The Christians heard and believed the story, and lost heart +as their enemy gained new energy. + +At this critical moment, as we are told, Bishop Oppas, brother-in-law of +the traitor Julian, drew off and joined the Moslem ranks. Whether this was +the case or not, the charge of Tarik led the way to victory. He had +pierced the Christian centre. The wings gave way before the onset of his +chiefs. Resistance was at an end. In utter panic the soldiers flung away +their arms and took to flight, heedless of the stores and treasures of +their camp, thinking of nothing but safety, flying in all directions +through the country, while the Moslems, following on their flying steeds, +cut them down without mercy. + +Roderic, the king, had disappeared. If slain in the battle, his body was +never found. Wounded and despairing, he may have been slain in flight or +been drowned in the stream. It was afterwards said that his war-horse, its +golden saddle rich with rubies, was found riderless beside the stream, and +that near by lay a royal crown and mantle, and a sandal embroidered with +pearls and emeralds. But all we can safely say is that Roderic had +vanished, his army was dispersed, and Spain was the prize of Tarik and the +Moors, for resistance was quickly at an end, and they went on from victory +to victory until the country was nearly all in their hands. + + + + + +THE TABLE OF SOLOMON. + + +We have told how King Roderic, when he invaded the enchanted palace of +Toledo, found in its empty chambers a single treasure,--the famous table of +Solomon. But this was a treasure worth a king's ransom, a marvellous +talisman, so splendid, so beautiful, so brilliant that the chroniclers can +scarce find words fitly to describe its richness and value. Some say that +it was made of pure gold, richly inlaid with precious stones. Others say +that it was a mosaic of gold and silver, burnished yellow and gleaming +white, ornamented with three rows of priceless jewels, one being of large +pearls, one of costly rubies, and a third of gleaming emeralds. Other +writers say that its top was made of a single emerald, a talisman +revealing the fates in its lucid depths. Most writers say that it stood +upon three hundred and sixty-five feet, each made of a single emerald, +though still another writer declares that it had not a foot to stand upon. + +Evidently none of these worthy chroniclers had seen the jewelled table +except in the eye of fancy, which gave it what shape and form best fitted +its far-famed splendor. They varied equally in their history of the +talisman. A mildly drawn story says that it first came from Jerusalem to +Rome, that it fell into the hands of the Goths when they sacked the city +of the Csars, and that some of them brought it into Spain. But there was +a story more in accordance with the Arabian love of the marvellous which +stated that the table was the work of the Djinn, or Genii, the mighty +spirits of the air, whom the wise king Solomon had subdued and who obeyed +his commands. After Solomon's time it was kept among the holy treasures of +the temple, and became one of the richest spoils of the Romans when they +captured and sacked Jerusalem. It afterwards became the prize of a king of +Spain, perhaps in the way stated above. + +Thus fancy has adorned the rich and beautiful work of art which Don +Roderic is said to have found in the enchanted palace, and which he placed +as the noblest of the treasures of Spain in the splendid church of Toledo, +the Gothic capital. This city fell into the hands of Tarik el Tuerto in +his conquering progress through the realm of Spain, and the emerald table, +whose fame had reached the shores of Africa, was sought by him far and +near. + +It had disappeared from the church, perhaps carried off by the bishop in +his flight. But fast as the fugitives fled, faster rode the Arab horsemen +on their track, one swift troop riding to Medina Celi, on the high road to +Saragossa. On this route they came to a city named by them +Medinatu-l-Mayidah (city of the table), in which they found the famous +talisman. They brought it to Tarik as one of the choicest spoils of Spain. + +Its later history is as curious and much more authentic than its earlier. +Tarik, as we have told in the previous tale, had been sent to Andalusia by +Musa, the caliph's viceroy in Africa, simply that he might gain a footing +in the land, whose conquest Musa reserved for himself. But the impetuous +Tarik was not to be restrained. No sooner was Roderic slain and his army +dispersed than the Arab cavaliers spread far and wide through Spain, city +after city falling into their hands, until it seemed as if nothing would +be left for Musa to conquer. + +This state of affairs was far from agreeable to the jealous and ambitious +viceroy. He sent messengers to the caliph at Damascus, in which he claimed +the conquest of Spain as his own, and barely mentioned the name of the +real conqueror. He severely blamed Tarik for presuming to conquer a +kingdom without direct orders, and, gathering an army, he crossed to +Spain, that he might rightfully claim a share in the glory of the +conquest. + +Tarik was not ignorant of what Musa had done. He expected to be called +sharply to account by his jealous superior, and knew well that his +brilliant deeds had been overlooked in the viceroy's despatches to +Damascus, then the capital of the Arab empire. The daring soldier was +therefore full of joy when the table of Solomon fell into his hands. He +hoped to win favor from Al-Walid, the caliph, by presenting him this +splendid prize. Yet how was he to accomplish this? Would not Musa, who was +well aware of the existence and value of the table, claim it as his own +and send it to Al-Walid with the false story that he had won it by the +power of his arms? + +To defeat this probable act Tarik devised a shrewd stratagem. The table, +as has been stated, was abundantly provided with feet, but of these four +were larger than the rest. One of the latter Tarik took off and concealed, +to be used in the future if what he feared should come to pass. + +As it proved, he had not misjudged his jealous lord. In due time Musa came +to Toledo and rode in state through the gate-way of that city, Tarik +following like a humble servitor in his train. As soon as he reached the +palace he haughtily demanded a strict account of the spoils. These were at +hand, and were at once delivered up. Their number and value should have +satisfied his avarice, but the wonderful table of Solomon, of which he had +heard such marvellous accounts, was not among them, and he demanded that +this, too, should be brought forward. As Tarik had foreseen, he designed +to send it to the caliph, as an acceptable present and an evidence of his +victorious career. + +The table was produced, and Musa gazed upon it with eyes of delight. His +quick glance, however, soon discovered that one of the emerald feet was +missing. + +"It is imperfect," he said. "Where is the missing foot?" + +"That I cannot tell you," replied Tarik; "you have the table as it was +brought to me." + +Musa, accepting this answer without suspicion, gave orders that the lost +foot should be replaced with one of gold. Then, after thanking the other +leading officers for their zeal and valor, he turned upon Tarik and +accused him in severe tones of disobedience. He ended by depriving him of +his command and putting him under arrest, while he sent the caliph a +report in which Tarik was sharply blamed and the merit of his exploits +made light of. He would have gone farther and put him to death, but this +he dared not do without the caliph's orders. + +As it proved, Al-Walid, the Commander of the Faithful, knew something of +the truth. Far distant as Damascus was from Toledo, a report of Tarik's +exploits had reached his august ears, and Musa received orders to replace +him in his command, since it would not do "to render useless one of the +best swords of Islam." Musa dared not disobey; and thus, for the time +being, Tarik triumphed. + +And now, for the end of the trouble between Musa and Tarik, we must go +forward in time. They were left in Spain until they had completed the +conquest of that kingdom, then both were ordered to appear before the +caliph's judgment seat. This they did in different methods. Tarik, who had +no thirst for spoil, made haste, with empty hands, to Damascus, where, +though he had no rich presents for the commander of the faithful, he +delighted him with the story of his brilliant deeds. Musa came more slowly +and with more ostentation. Leaving his sons in command in Spain and +Africa, he journeyed slowly to Syria, with all the display of a triumphal +march. With him were one hundred of his principal officers, as many sons +of the highest Berber chiefs, and the kings of the Balearic Islands in all +their barbaric state. In his train rode four hundred captive nobles, each +wearing a crown and girdle of gold, and thirty thousand captives of lower +rank. At intervals in the train were camels and wagons, richly laden with +gold, jewels, and other spoils. He brought to the East the novelties of +the West, hawks, mules, and Barbary horses, and the curious fruits of +Africa and Spain, "treasures," we are told, "the like of which no hearer +ever heard of before, and no beholder ever saw before his eyes." + +Thus the proud conqueror came, by slow marches, with frequent halts. He +left Spain in August, 713. It was February, 715, when he reached the +vicinity of Damascus, having spent a year and a half on the way. + +Meanwhile, changes had taken place in Syria. Al-Walid, the caliph, was +sick unto death, suffering from a mortal disease, Soliman, his brother and +heir, wrote to Musa when at Tiberias, on the Sea of Galilee, asking him to +halt there, as his brother could live but a few days. He, as the new +caliph, would receive him. Al-Walid in turn ordered him to hasten his +march. Musa was in a quandary. If Al-Walid should live, delay might be +fatal. If he should die, haste might be fatal. He took what seemed to him +the safest course, hastened to Damascus, and met with a brilliant +reception. But a change soon came; in forty days Al-Walid died; Soliman, +whom he had disobeyed, was caliph of the empire. Musa's sun was near its +setting. + +It was not long before the conqueror found himself treated as a criminal. +He was charged with rapacity, injustice to Tarik, and the purpose of +throwing all power into the hands of his sons. He was even accused of +"disobedience" for making a triumphal entry into Damascus before the death +of Al-Walid. These and other charges were brought, Soliman being bent on +the ruin of the man who had added Africa to the Arabian empire. + +When Musa was brought before the caliph for a final hearing Tarik and many +other soldiers from Spain were present, and there stood before the +monarch's throne the splendid table of Solomon, one of the presents which +Musa had made to Al-Walid, declaring it to be the most magnificent of all +the prizes of his valor. + +"Tell me," said the caliph to Tarik, "if you know whence this table came." + +"It was found by me," answered Tarik. "If you would have evidence of the +truth of my words, O caliph, have it examined and see if it be perfect." + +Soliman gave orders, the table was closely examined, and it was soon +discovered that one of its emerald feet was gone and that a foot of gold +occupied its place. + +"Ask Musa," said Tarik, "if this was the condition of the table when he +found it." + +"Yes," answered Musa, "it was as you see it now." + +Tarik answered by taking from under his mantle the foot of emerald which +he had removed, and which just matched the others. + +"You may learn now," he said to the caliph, "which of us is the +truth-teller. Here is the lost leg of the table. I found the table and +kept this for evidence. It is the same with most of the treasures Musa has +shown you. It was I who won them and captured the cities in which they +were found. Ask any of these soldiers if I speak the truth or not." + +These words were ruinous to Musa. The table had revenged its finder. If +Musa had lied in this case, he had lied in all. So held the angry caliph, +who turned upon him with bitter abuse, calling him thief and liar, and +swearing by Allah that he would crucify him. In the end he ordered the old +man, fourscore years of age, corpulent and asthmatic, to be exposed to the +fierce sun of Syria for a whole summer's day, and bade his brother Omar to +see that the cruel sentence was executed. + +Until high noon had passed the old warrior stood under the scorching solar +rays, his blood at length seeming to boil in his veins, while he sank +suffocated to the earth. Death would soon have ended his suffering had not +Omar, declaring "that he had never passed a worse day in his life," +prevailed upon the caliph to abridge his punishment. + +Bent upon his utter ruin, the vindictive Soliman laid upon him the +enormous fine of four million and thirty thousand dinars, equal to about +ten million dollars. His sons were left in power in Spain that they might +aid him in paying the fine. Great as the sum was, Musa, by giving up his +own fortune, by the aid of his sons in Africa and Spain, and by assistance +from his friends, succeeded in obtaining it. But even this did not satisfy +the caliph, who now banished him to his birthplace, that his early friends +might see and despise him in his ruin. He even determined to destroy his +sons, that the whole family might be rooted out and none be left in whose +veins the blood of Musa ran. + +The ablest of these sons, Abdul-Aziz, had been left in chief command over +Spain. Thither the caliph sent orders for his death. Much as the young +ruler was esteemed, wisely as he had ruled, no one thought of questioning +an order of the Commander of the Faithful, the mighty autocrat of the +great Arabian empire, and the innocent Abdul was assassinated by some who +had been among his chief friends. His head was then cut off, embalmed, and +sent to Soliman, before whom it was laid, enclosed in a casket of precious +wood. + +Sending for Musa, the vindictive caliph had the casket opened in his +presence, saying, as the death-like features appeared, "Do you know whose +head that is?" + +The answer of Musa was a pathetic one. Never was there a Moslem, he said, +who less deserved such a fate; never a man of milder heart, braver soul, +or more pious and obedient disposition. In the end the poor old man broke +down, and he could only murmur,-- + +"Grant me his head, O Commander of the Faithful, that I may shut the lids +of his eyes." + +"Thou mayest take it," was Soliman's reply. + +And so Musa left the caliph's presence, heart-broken and disconsolate. It +is said that before he died he was forced to beg his bread. Of Tarik we +hear no more. He had fully repaid Musa for his injustice, but the caliph, +who perhaps feared to let any one become too great, failed to restore him +to his command, and he disappeared from history. The cruel Soliman lived +only a year after the death of the victim of his rage. He died in 717, of +remorse for his injustice to Musa, say some, but the record of history is +that he was defeated before Constantinople and died of grief. + +Thus ends our story of the table of Solomon. It brought good to none who +had to do with it, and utter disaster to him who had made it an agent of +falsehood and avarice. Injustice cannot hope to hide itself behind a +talisman. + + + + + +THE STORY OF QUEEN EXILONA. + + +When Roderic overthrew the ancient dynasty of Spain and made himself king, +he had the defences of the cities thrown down that they might not give +shelter to his enemies. Only the walls of the frontier cities were left, +and among these was the ancient city of Denia, on the Mediterranean +shores. Dread of the Moorish pirates was felt in this stronghold, and a +strong castle was built on a high rock that overlooked the sea. To the old +alcaide who served as governor of Denia word was brought, at the end of a +day of fierce tempest, that a Moorish ship was approaching the shore. +Instantly the bells were rung to rouse the people, and signal fires were +kindled on the tower that they might flash from peak to peak the news of +an invasion by the Moors. + +But as the ship came closer it was seen that alarm had been taken too +soon. The vessel was alone and had evidently been in the grip of the +tempest. It was seen to be a bark rich in carving and gilding, adorned +with silken banderoles, and driven through the water by banks of crimson +oars; a vessel of state and ceremony, not a ship of war. As it came nearer +it was perceived to have suffered severely in the ruthless grasp of the +storm. Broken were its masts and shattered its oars, while there fluttered +in the wind the torn remnants of its banners and sails. When at length it +grounded on the sands below the castle the proud bark was little better +than a shattered wreck. + +It was with deep curiosity that the Spaniards saw on the deck of the +stranded bark a group of high-born Moors, men and maidens dressed in robes +of silk rich with jewels, and their features bearing the stamp of lofty +rank. In their midst stood a young lady of striking beauty, sumptuously +attired, and evidently of the highest station, for all paid her reverence, +and a guard of armed Moors stood around her, scimitar in hand. + +On landing, a venerable Moor approached the alcaide, who had descended to +meet the strangers, and said, in such words of the Gothic language as he +could command,-- + +"Worthy sir, we beg your protection and compassion. The princess under our +care is the only daughter of the king of Algiers, on her way to the court +of the king of Tunis, to whom she is betrothed. The tempest has driven us +to your shores. Be not, we implore you, more cruel than the storm, which +has spared us and our precious charge." + +The alcaide returned a courteous answer, offering the princess and her +train the shelter of the castle, but saying that he had not the power to +release them. They must hold themselves the captives of Roderic, the king +of the Goths, to whom his duty required him to send them. The fate of a +royal captive, he said, could be decided only by the royal voice. + +Some days afterwards Elyata, the Moorish princess, entered Toledo in a +procession more like that of a triumphant heroine than of a captive. A +band of Christian horsemen preceded the train. The Moorish guard, richly +attired, followed. In the midst rode the princess, surrounded by her +maidens and dressed in her bridal robes, which were resplendent with +pearls, diamonds, and other gems. Roderic advanced in state from his +palace to receive her, and was so struck with her beauty and dignity of +aspect that at first sight warm emotions filled his heart. + +Elyata was sadly downcast at her captivity, but Roderic, though not +releasing her, did all he could to make her lot a pleasant one. A royal +palace was set aside for her residence, in whose spacious apartments and +charming groves and gardens the grief of the princess gradually softened +and passed away. Roderic, moved by a growing passion, frequently visited +her, and in time soft sentiments woke in her heart for the handsome and +courteous king. When, in the end, he begged her to become his bride her +blushes and soft looks spoke consent. + +One thing was wanting. Roderic's bride should be a Christian. Taught the +doctrines of the new faith by learned bishops, Elyata's consent to the +change of faith was easily won, and the princess was baptized as a +Christian maiden under the new name of Exilona. The marriage was +celebrated with the greatest magnificence, and was followed by tourneys +and banquets and all the gayeties of the time. Some of the companions of +the princess accepted the new faith and remained with her. Those who clung +to their old belief were sent back to Africa with rich presents from the +king, an embassy going with them to inform the monarch of Algiers of his +daughter's marriage, and to offer him the alliance and friendship of +Roderic the Gothic king. + + [Illustration: TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR.] + + TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR. + + +Queen Exilona passed a happy life as the bride of the Gothic monarch, but +many were the vicissitudes which lay before her, for the Arab conquest was +near at hand and its effects could not but bear heavily upon her destiny. +After the defeat and death of Roderic a considerable number of noble Goths +sought shelter in the city of Merida, among them the widowed queen. +Thither came Musa with a large army and besieged the city. It was strongly +and bravely defended, and the gallant garrison only yielded when famine +came to the aid of their foes. + +A deputation from the city sought the Arab camp and was conducted to the +splendid pavilion of Musa, whom the deputies found to be an old man with +long white beard and streaming white hair. He received them kindly, +praised them for their valor, and offered them favorable terms. They +returned the next day to complete the conditions. On this day the +Mohammedan fast of Ramadhan ended, and the Arabs, who had worn their +meanest garb, were now in their richest attire, and joy had everywhere +succeeded penitent gloom. As for Musa, he seemed transformed. The meanly +dressed and hoary ancient of the previous visit now appeared a man in the +prime of life, his beard dark-red in hue, and his robes rich with gold and +jewels. The Goths, to whom the art of dyeing the hair was unknown, looked +on the transformation as a miracle. + +"We have seen," they said on their return, "their king, who was an old +man, become a young one. We have to do with a nation of prophets who can +change their appearance at will and transform themselves into any shape +they like. Our advice is that we should grant Musa his demands, for men +like these we cannot resist." + +The stratagem of the Arab was successful, the gates were opened, and +Merida became a captive city. The people were left their private wealth +and were free to come and go as they would, with the exception of some of +their noblest, who were to be held as hostages. Among these was the +widowed Queen Exilona. + +She was still young and beautiful. By paying tribute she was allowed to +live unmolested, and in this way she passed to the second phase of her +romantic career. Arab fancy has surrounded her history with many +surprising incidents, and Lope de Vega, the Spanish dramatist, has made +her the heroine of a romantic play, but her actual history is so full of +interest that we need not draw contributions from fable or invention. + +When Musa went to Syria at the command of the caliph he left his son +Abdul-Aziz as emir or governor of Spain. The new emir was a young, +handsome, and gallant man. He had won fame in Africa, and gained new +repute for wisdom and courage in Spain. The Moorish princess who had +become a Gothic queen was now a hostage in his hands, and her charms moved +his susceptible heart. His persuasive tongue and attractive person were +not without their effect upon the fair captive, who a second time lost her +heart to her captor, and agreed once more to become a bride. Her first +husband had been the king of Gothic Spain. Her second was the ruler of +Moorish Spain. She declined to yield her Christian creed, but she became +his wife and the queen of his heart, called by him Ummi-Assam, a name of +endearment common in Arab households. + +Exilona was ambitious, and sought to induce her new husband to assume the +style of a king. She made him a crown of gold and precious stones which +her soft persuasion induced him to wear. She bowed in his presence as if +to a royal potentate, and to oblige the nobles to do the same she induced +him to have the door-way of his audience chamber made so low that no one +could enter it without making an involuntary bow. She even tried to +convert him to Christianity, and built a low door to her oratory, so that +any one entering would seem to bow to the cross. + +These arts of the queen proved fatal to the prince whom she desired to +exalt, for this and other stories were told to the caliph, who was seeking +some excuse to proceed against the sons of Musa, whose ruin he had sworn. +It was told him that Abdul-Aziz was seeking to make Spain independent and +was bowing before strange gods. Soliman asked no more, but sent the order +for his death. + +It was to friends of the emir that the fatal mandate was sent. They loved +the mild Abdul, but they were true sons of Islam, and did not dare to +question the order of the Commander of the Faithful. The emir was then at +a villa near Seville, whither he was accustomed to withdraw from the cares +of state to the society of his beloved wife. Near by he had built a +mosque, and here, on the morning of his death, he entered and began to +read the Koran. + +A noise at the door disturbed him, and in a moment a throng burst into the +building. At their head was Habib, his trusted friend, who rushed upon him +and struck him with a dagger. The emir was unhurt, and sought to escape, +but the others were quickly upon him, and in a moment his body was rent +with dagger strokes and he had fallen dead. His head was at once cut off, +embalmed, and sent to the caliph. The cruel use made of it we have told. + +A wild commotion followed when the people learned of this murder, but it +was soon quelled. The power of the caliph was yet too strong to be +questioned, even in far-off Spain. What became of Exilona we do not know. +Some say that she was slain with her husband; some that she survived him +and died in privacy. However it be, her life was one of singular romance. + +As for the kindly and unfortunate emir, his memory was long fondly +cherished in Spain, and his name still exists in the title of a valley in +the suburbs of Antequera, which was named Abdelaxis in his honor. + + + + + +PELISTES, THE DEFENDER OF CORDOVA. + + +No sooner had Tarik defeated the Christian army on the fatal field of +Sidonia than he sent out detachments of horsemen in all directions, hoping +to win the leading cities of Spain before the people should recover from +their terror. One of these detachments, composed of seven hundred horse, +was sent against Cordova, an ancient city which was to become the capital +of Moslem Spain. This force was led by a brave soldier named Magued, a +Roman or Greek by birth, who had been taken prisoner when a child and +reared in the Arab faith. He now ranked next to Tarik in the arts and +stratagems of war, and as a horseman and warrior was the model and +admiration of his followers. + +Among the Christian leaders who had fled from the field of the Guadalete +was an old and valiant Gothic noble, Pelistes by name, who had fought in +the battle front until his son sank in death and most of his followers had +fallen around him. Then, with the small band left him, he rode in all +haste to Cordova, which he hoped to hold as a stronghold of the Goths. But +he found himself almost alone in the town, most of whose inhabitants had +fled with their valuables, so that, including the invalids and old +soldiers found there, he had but four hundred men with whom to defend the +city. + +A river ran south of the city and formed one of its defences. To its banks +came Magued,--led, say some of the chronicles, by the traitor, Count +Julian,--and encamped in a forest of pines. He sent heralds to the town, +demanding its surrender, and threatening its defenders with death if they +resisted. But Pelistes defied him to do his worst. + +What Magued might have found difficult to do by force he accomplished by +stratagem. A shepherd whom he had captured told him of the weakness of the +garrison, and acquainted him with a method by which the city might be +entered. Forcing the rustic to act as guide, Magued crossed the river on a +stormy night, swimming the stream with his horses, each cavalier having a +footman mounted behind him. By the time they reached the opposite shore +the rain had changed to hail, whose loud pattering drowned the noise of +the horses' hoofs as the assailants rode to a weak place in the wall of +which the shepherd had told them. Here the battlements were broken and +part of the wall had fallen, and near by grew a fig-tree whose branches +stretched towards the breach. Up this climbed a nimble soldier, and by +hard effort reached the broken wall. He had taken with him Magued's +turban, whose long folds of linen were unfolded and let down as a rope, by +whose aid others soon climbed to the summit. The storm had caused the +sentries to leave their posts, and this part of the wall was left +unguarded. + +In a short time a considerable number of the assailants had gained the top +of the wall. Leaping from the parapet, they entered the city and ran to +the nearest gate, which they flung open to Magued and his force. The city +was theirs; the alarm was taken too late, and all who resisted were cut +down. By day-dawn Cordova was lost to Spain with the exception of the +church of St. George, a large and strong edifice, in which Pelistes had +taken refuge with the remnant of his men. Here he found an ample supply of +food and obtained water from some secret source, so that he was enabled to +hold out against the enemy. + +For three long months the brave garrison defied its foes, though Magued +made every effort to take the church. How they obtained water was what +most puzzled him, but he finally discovered the secret through the aid of +a negro whom the Christians had captured and who escaped from their hands. +The prisoner had learned during his captivity that the church communicated +by an underground channel with a spring somewhere without. This was sought +for with diligence and at length found, whereupon the water supply of the +garrison was cut off at its source, and a new summons to surrender was +made. + +There are two stories of what afterwards took place. One is that the +garrison refused to surrender, and that Magued, deeply exasperated, +ordered the church to be set on fire, most of its defenders perishing in +the flames. The other story is a far more romantic one, and perhaps as +likely to be true. This tells us that Pelistes, weary of long waiting for +assistance from without, determined to leave the church in search of aid, +promising, in case of failure, to return and die with his friends. + +Mounted on the good steed that he had kept alive in the church, and armed +with lance, sword, and shield, the valiant warrior set forth before the +dawn, and rode through the silent streets, unseen by sentinel or early +wayfarer. The vision of a Christian knight on horseback was not likely to +attract much attention, as there were many renegade Christians with the +Moors, brought thither in the train of Count Julian. Therefore, when the +armed warrior presented himself at a gate of the city just as a foraging +party was entering, he rode forth unnoticed in the confusion and galloped +briskly away towards the neighboring mountains. + +Having reached there he stopped to rest, but to his alarm he noticed a +horseman in hot pursuit upon his trail. Spurring his steed onward, +Pelistes now made his way into the rough intricacies of the mountain +paths; but, unluckily, as he was passing along the edge of a declivity, +his horse stumbled and rolled down into the ravine below, so bruising and +cutting him in the fall that, when he struggled to his feet, his face was +covered with blood. + +While he was in this condition the pursuer rode up. It proved to be Magued +himself, who had seen him leave the city and had followed in haste. To his +sharp summons for surrender the good knight responded by drawing his +sword, and, wounded and bleeding as he was, put himself in posture for +defence. + +The fight that followed was as fierce as some of those told of King +Arthur's knights. Long and sturdily the two champions fought, foot to +foot, sword to scimitar, until their shields and armor were rent and +hacked and the ground was red with their blood. Never had those hills seen +so furious a fight by so well-matched champions, and during their +breathing spells the two knights gazed upon each other with wonder and +admiration. Magued had never met so able an antagonist before, nor +Pelistes encountered so skilfully wielded a blade. + +But the Gothic warrior had been hurt by his fall. This gave Magued the +advantage, and he sought to take his noble adversary alive. Finally, weak +from loss of blood, the gallant Goth gave a last blow and fell prostrate. +In a moment Magued's point was at his throat, and he was bidden to ask for +his life or die. No answer came. Unlacing the helmet of the fallen knight, +Magued found him insensible. As he debated with himself how he would get +the captive of his sword to the city, a group of Moorish cavaliers rode up +and gazed with astonishment on the marks of the terrible fight. The +Christian knight was placed by them on a spare horse and carried to +Cordova's streets. + +As the train passed the beleaguered church its garrison, seeing their late +leader a captive in Moorish hands, sallied fiercely out to his rescue, and +for some minutes the street rang sharply with the sounds of war. But +numbers gathered to the defence, the assailants were driven back, and the +church was entered by their foes, the clash of arms resounding within its +sacred precincts. In the end most of the garrison were killed and the rest +made prisoners. + +The wounded knight was tenderly cared for by his captor, soon regaining +his senses, and in time recovering his health. Magued, who had come to +esteem him highly, celebrated his return to health by a magnificent +banquet, at which every honor was done the noble knight. The Arabs knew +well how to reward valor, even in a foe. + +In the midst of the banquet Pelistes spoke of a noble Christian knight he +once had known, his brother in arms and the cherished friend of his heart, +one whom he had most admired and loved of all the Gothic host,--his old and +dear comrade, Count Julian. + +"He is here!" cried some of the Arabs, enthusiastically, pointing to a +knight who had recently entered. "Here is your old friend and comrade, +Count Julian." + +"That Julian!" cried Pelistes, in tones of scorn; "that traitor and +renegade my friend and comrade! No, no; this is not Julian, but a fiend +from hell who has entered his body to bring him dishonor and ruin." + +Turning scornfully away he strode proudly from the room, leaving the +traitor knight, overwhelmed with shame and confusion, the centre of a +circle of scornful looks, for the Arabs loved not the traitor, however +they might have profited by his treason. + +The fate of Pelistes, as given in the Arab chronicles, was a tragic one. +Magued, who had never before met his equal at sword play, proposed to send +him to Damascus, thinking that so brave a man would be a fitting present +to the caliph and a living testimony to his own knightly prowess. But +others valued the prize of valor as well as Magued, Tarik demanding that +the valiant prisoner should be delivered to him, and Musa afterwards +claiming possession. The controversy ended in a manner suitable to the +temper of the times, Magued slaying the captive with his own hand rather +than deliver to others the prize of his sword and shield. + + + + + +THE STRATAGEM OF THEODOMIR. + + +The defeat of the Guadalete seemed for the time to have robbed the Goths +of all their ancient courage. East and west, north and south, rode the +Arab horsemen, and stronghold after stronghold fell almost without +resistance into their hands, until nearly the whole of Spain had +surrendered to the scimitar. History has but a few stories to tell of +valiant defence by the Gothic warriors. One was that of Pelistes, at +Cordova, which we have just told. The other was that of the wise and +valorous Theodomir, which we have next to relate. + +Abdul-Aziz, Musa's noble son, whose sad fate we have chronicled, had been +given the control of Southern Spain, with his head-quarters in Seville. +Here, after subduing the Comarca, he decided on an invasion of far-off +Murcia, the garden-land of the south, a realm of tropic heat, yet richly +fertile and productive. There ruled a valiant Goth named Theodomir, who +had resisted Tarik on his landing, had fought in the fatal battle in which +Roderic fell, and had afterwards, with a bare remnant of his followers, +sought his own territory, which after him was called the land of Tadmir. + +Hither marched Abdul-Aziz, eager to meet in battle a warrior of such +renown, and to add to his dominions a country so famed for beauty and +fertility. He was to find Theodomir an adversary worthy of his utmost +powers. So small was the force of the Gothic lord that he dared not meet +the formidable Arab horsemen in open contest, but he checked their advance +by all the arts known in war, occupying the mountain defiles and gorges +through which his country must be reached, cutting off detachments, and +making the approach of the Arabs difficult and dangerous. + + [Illustration: A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS.] + + A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS. + + +His defence was not confined to the hills. At times he would charge +fiercely on detached parties of Arabs in the valleys or plains, and be off +again to cover before the main force could come up. Long he defeated every +effort of the Arab leader to bring on an open battle, but at length found +himself cornered at Lorca, in a small valley at a mountain's foot. Here, +though the Goths fought bravely, they found themselves too greatly +outnumbered, and in the end were put to panic-flight, numbers of them +being left dead on the hotly contested field. + +The handful of fugitives, sharply pursued by the Moorish cavalry, rode in +all haste to the fortified town of Orihuela, a place of such strength that +with sufficient force they might have defied there the powerful enemy. But +such had been their losses in battle and in flight that Theodomir found +himself far too weak to face the Moslem host, whose advance cavalry had +followed so keenly on his track as to reach the outer walls by the time he +had fairly closed the gates. + +Defence was impossible. He had not half enough men to guard the walls and +repel assaults. It would have been folly to stand a siege, yet Theodomir +did not care to surrender except on favorable terms, and therefore adopted +a shrewd stratagem to deceive the enemy in regard to his strength. + +To the surprise of the Arab leader the walls of the town, which he had +thought half garrisoned, seemed to swarm with armed and bearded warriors, +far too great a force to be overcome by a sudden dash. In the face of so +warlike an array, caution awoke in the hearts of the assailants. They had +looked for an easy victory, but against such numbers as these assault +might lead to severe bloodshed and eventual defeat. They felt that it +would be necessary to proceed by the slow and deliberate methods of a +regular siege. + +While Abdul-Aziz was disposing his forces and making heedful preparations +for the task he saw before him, he was surprised to see the principal gate +of the city thrown open and a single Gothic horseman ride forth, bearing a +flag of truce and making signals for a parley. A safe-conduct was given +him, and he was led to the tent of the Moslem chief. + +"Theodomir has sent me to negotiate with you," he said, "and I have full +power to conclude terms of surrender. We are abundantly able to hold out, +as you may see by the forces on our walls, but as we wish to avoid +bloodshed we are willing to submit on honorable terms. Otherwise we will +defend ourselves to the bitter end." + +The boldness and assurance with which he spoke deeply impressed the Arab +chief. This was not a fearful foe seeking for mercy, but a daring +antagonist as ready to fight as to yield. + +"What terms do you demand?" asked Abdul-Aziz. + +"My lord," answered the herald, "will only surrender on such conditions as +a generous enemy should grant and a valiant people receive. He demands +peace and security for the province and its people and such authority for +himself as the strength of his walls and the numbers of his garrison +justify him in demanding." + +The wise and clement Arab saw the strength of the argument, and, glad to +obtain so rich a province without further loss of life, he assented to the +terms proposed, bidding the envoy to return and present them to his chief. +The Gothic knight replied that there was no need of this, he having full +power to sign the treaty. The terms were therefore drawn up and signed by +the Arab general, after which the envoy took the pen and, to the +astonishment of the victor, signed the name of Theodomir at the foot of +the document. It was the Gothic chief himself. + +Pleased alike with his confidence and his cleverness, Abdul-Aziz treated +the Gothic knight with the highest honor and distinction. At the dawn of +the next day the gates of the city were thrown open for surrender, and +Abdul-Aziz entered at the head of a suitable force. But when the garrison +was drawn up in the centre of the city for surrender, the surprise of the +Moslem became deep amazement. What he saw before him was a mere handful of +stalwart soldiers, eked out with feeble old men and boys. But the main +body before him was composed of women, whom the astute Goth had bidden to +dress like men and to tie their long hair under their chins to represent +beards; when, with casques on their heads and spears in their hands, they +had been ranged along the walls, looking at a distance like a line of +sturdy warriors. + +Theodomir waited with some anxiety, not knowing how the victor would +regard this stratagem. Abdul might well have viewed with anger the +capitulation of an army of women and dotards, but he had a sense of humor +and a generous heart, and the smile of amusement on his face told the +Gothic chief that he was fully forgiven for his shrewd stratagem. +Admiration was stronger than mortification in the Moslem's heart. He +praised Theodomir for his witty and successful expedient, and for the +three days that he remained at Orihuela banquets and ftes marked his +stay, he occupying the position of a guest rather than an enemy. No injury +was done to people or town, and the Arabs soon left the province to +continue their career of conquest, satisfied with the arrangements for +tribute which they had made. + +By a strange chance the treaty of surrender of the land of Tadmir still +exists. It is drawn up in Latin and in Arabic, and is of much interest as +showing the mode in which such things were managed at that remote date. It +stipulates that war shall not be waged against Theodomir, son of the +Goths, and his people; that he shall not be deprived of his kingdom; that +the Christians shall not be separated from their wives and children, or +hindered in the services of their religion; and that their temples shall +not be burned. Theodomir was left lord of seven cities,--Orihuela, +Valencia, Alicante, Mula, Biscaret, Aspis, and Lorca,--in which he was to +harbor no enemies of the Arabs. + +The tribute demanded of him and his nobles was a dinar (a gold coin) +yearly from each, also four measures each of wheat, barley, must, vinegar, +honey, and oil. Vassals and taxable people were to pay half this amount. + +These conditions were liberal in the extreme. The tribute demanded was by +no means heavy for a country so fertile, in which light culture yields +abundant harvests; the delightful valley between Orihuela and Murcia, in +particular, being the garden spot of Spain. The inhabitants for a long +period escaped the evils of war felt in other parts of the conquered +territory, their province being occupied by only small garrisons of the +enemy, while its distance from the chief seat of war removed it from +danger. + +After the murder of Abdul-Aziz, Theodomir sent an embassy to the Caliph +Soliman, begging that the treaty should be respected. The caliph in reply +sent orders that its stipulations should be faithfully observed. In this +the land of Tadmir almost stood alone in that day, when treaties were +usually made only to be set at naught. + + + + + +THE CAVE OF COVADONGA. + + +Tarik landed in Spain in April, 711. So rapid were the Arabs in conquest +that in two years from that date nearly the whole peninsula was in their +hands. Not quite all, or history might have another story to relate. In a +remote province of the once proud kingdom--a rugged northwest corner--a few +of its fugitive sons remained in freedom, left alone by the Arabs partly +through scorn, partly on account of the rude and difficult character of +their place of refuge. The conquerors despised them, yet this slender +group was to form the basis of the Spain we know to-day, and to expand and +spread until the conquerors would be driven from Spanish soil. + +The Goths had fled in all directions from their conquerors, taking with +them such of their valuables as they could carry, some crossing the +Pyrenees to France, some hiding in the mountain valleys, some seeking a +place of refuge in the Asturias, a rough hill country cut up in all +directions by steep, scarped rocks, narrow defiles, deep ravines, and +tangled thickets. Here the formidable Moslem cavalry could not pursue +them; here no army could deploy; here ten men might defy a hundred. The +place was far from inviting to the conquerors, but in it was sown the seed +of modern Spain. + +A motley crew it was that gathered in this rugged region, a medley of +fugitives of all ranks and stations,--soldiers, farmers, and artisans; +nobles and vassals; bishops and monks; men, women, and children,--brought +together by a terror that banished all distinctions of rank and avocation. +For a number of years this small band of fugitive Christians, gathered +between the mountains and the sea in northwestern Spain, remained quiet, +desiring only to be overlooked or disregarded by the conquerors. But in +the year 717 a leader came to them, and Spain once more lifted her head in +defiance of her invaders. + +Pelayo, the leader named, is a hero shrouded in mist. Fable surrounds him; +a circle of romantic stories have budded from his name. He is to us like +his modern namesake, the one battle-ship of Spain, which, during the +recent war, wandered up and down the Mediterranean with no object in view +that any foreigner could discover. Of the original Pelayo, some who +profess to know say that he was of the highest rank,--young, handsome, and +heroic, one who had fought under Roderic at the Guadalete, had been held +by the Arabs as a hostage at Cordova, and had escaped to his native hills, +there to infuse new life and hope into the hearts of the fugitive group. + +Ibun Hayyan, an Arabian chronicler, gives the following fanciful account +of Pelayo and his feeble band. "The commencement of the rebellion happened +thus: there remained no city, town, or village in Galicia but what was in +the hands of the Moslems with the exception of a steep mountain, on which +this Pelayo took refuge with a handful of men. There his followers went on +dying through hunger until he saw their numbers reduced to about thirty +men and ten women, having no other food for support than the honey which +they gathered in the crevices of the rock, which they themselves inhabited +like so many bees. However, Pelayo and his men fortified themselves by +degrees in the passes of the mountain until the Moslems were made +acquainted with their preparations; but, perceiving how few they were, +they heeded not the advice given to them, but allowed them to gather +strength, saying, 'What are thirty barbarians perched upon a rock? They +must inevitably die.'" + +Die they did not, that feeble relic of Spain on the mountain-side, though +long their only care was for shelter and safety. Here Pelayo cheered them, +doing his utmost to implant new courage in their fearful hearts. At length +the day came when Spain could again assume a defiant attitude, and in the +mountain valley of Caggas de Onis Pelayo raised the old Gothic standard +and ordered the beating of the drums. Beyond the sound of the long roll +went his messengers seeking warriors in valley and glen, and soon his +little band had grown to a thousand stalwart men, filled with his spirit +and breathing defiance to the Moslem conquerors. That was an eventful day +for Spain, in which her crushed people again lifted their heads. + +It was a varied throng that gathered around Pelayo's banner. Sons of the +Goths and the Romans were mingled with descendants of the more ancient +Celts and Iberians. Representatives of all the races that had overrun +Spain were there gathered, speaking a dozen dialects, yet instinct with a +single spirit. From them the modern Spaniard was to come, no longer Gothic +or Roman, but a descendant of all the tribes and races that had peopled +Spain. Some of them carried the swords and shields they had wielded in the +battle of the Guadalete, others brought the rude weapons of the +mountaineers. But among them were strong hands and stout hearts, summoned +by the drums of Pelayo to the reconquest of Spain. + +Word soon came to Al Horr, the new emir of Spain, that a handful of +Christians were in arms in the mountains of the northwest, and he took +instant steps to crush this presumptuous gathering, sending his trusty +general Al Kamah with a force that seemed abundant to destroy Pelayo and +his rebel band. + +Warning of the approach of the Moslem foe was quickly brought to the +Spanish leader, who at once left his place of assembly for the cave of +Covadonga, a natural fortress in Eastern Asturia, some five miles from +Caggas de Onis, which he had selected as a place strikingly adapted to a +defensive stand. Here rise three mountain-peaks to a height of nearly four +thousand feet, enclosing a small circular valley, across which rushes the +swift Diva, a stream issuing from Mount Orandi. At the base of Mount +Auseva, the western peak, rises a detached rock, one hundred and seventy +feet high, projecting from the mountain in the form of an arch. At a short +distance above its foot is visible the celebrated cave or grotto of +Covadonga, an opening forty feet wide, twelve feet high, and extending +twenty-five feet into the rock. + +The river sweeps out through a narrow and rocky defile, at whose narrowest +part the banks rise in precipitous walls. Down this ravine the stream +rushes in rapids and cascades, at one point forming a picturesque +waterfall seventy-five feet in height. Only through this straitened path +can the cave be reached, and this narrow ravine and the valley within +Pelayo proposed to hold with his slender and ill-armed force. + +Proudly onward came the Moslem captain, full of confidence in his powerful +force and despising his handful of opponents. Pelayo drew him on into the +narrow river passage by a clever stratagem. He had posted a small force at +the mouth of the pass, bidding them to take to flight after a discharge of +arrows. His plan worked well, the seeming retreat giving assurance to the +Moslems, who rushed forward in pursuit along the narrow ledge that borders +the Diva, and soon emerged into the broader path that opens into the +valley of Covadonga. + +They had incautiously entered a _cul-de-sac_, in which their numbers were +of no avail, and where a handful of men could hold an army at bay. A small +body of the best armed of the Spaniards occupied the cave, the others +being placed in ambush among the chestnut-trees that covered the heights +above the Diva. All kept silent until the Moslem advance had emerged into +the valley. Then the battle began, one of the most famous conflicts in the +whole history of Spain, famous not for the numbers engaged, but for the +issue involved. The future of Spain dwelt in the hands of that group of +patriots. The fight in the valley was sharp, but one-sided. The Moslem +arrows rebounded harmlessly from the rocky sides of the cave, whose +entrance could be reached only by a ladder, while the Christians, hurling +their missiles from their point of vantage into the crowded mass below, +punished them so severely that the advance was forced back upon those that +crowded the defile in the rear. Al Kamah, finding his army recoiling in +dismay and confusion, and discovering too late his error, ordered a +retreat; but no sooner had a reverse movement been instituted than the +ambushed Christians on the heights began their deadly work, hurling huge +stones and fallen trees into the defile, killing the Moslems by hundreds, +and choking up the pass until flight became impossible. + +The panic was complete. From every side the Christians rushed upon the +foe. Pelayo, bearing a cross of oak and crying that the Lord was fighting +for his people, leaped downward from the cave, followed by his men, who +fell with irresistible fury on the foe, forcing them backward under the +brow of Mount Auseva, where Al Kamah strove to make a stand. + +The elements now came to the aid of the Christians, a furious storm +arising whose thunders reverberated among the rocks, while lightnings +flashed luridly in the eyes of the terrified troops. The rain poured in +blinding torrents, and soon the Diva, swollen with the sudden fall, rose +into a flood, and swept away many of those who were crowded on its +slippery banks. The heavens seemed leagued with the Christians against the +Moslem host, whose destruction was so thorough that, if we can credit the +chronicles, not a man of the proud army escaped. + +This is doubtless an exaggeration, but the victory of Pelayo was complete +and the first great step in the reconquest of Spain was taken. The year +was 717, six years after the landing of the Arabs and the defeat of the +Goths. + +Thus ended perhaps the most decisive battle in the history of Spain. With +it new Spain began. The cave of Covadonga is still a place of pilgrimage +for the Spanish patriot, a stairway of marble replacing the ladder used by +Pelayo and his men. We may tell what followed in a few words. Their +terrible defeat cleared the territory of the Austurias of Moslem soldiers. +From every side fugitive Christians left their mountain retreats to seek +the standard of Pelayo. Soon the patriotic and daring leader had an army +under his command, by whom he was chosen king of Christian Spain. + +The Moslems made no further attack. They were discouraged by their defeat +and were engaged in a project for the invasion of Gaul that required their +utmost force. Pelayo slowly and cautiously extended his dominions, +descending from the mountains into the plains and valleys, and organizing +his new kingdom in civil as well as in military affairs. All the men under +his control were taught to bear arms, fortifications were built, the +ground was planted, and industry revived. Territory which the Moslems had +abandoned was occupied, and from a group of soldiers in a mountain cavern +a new nation began to emerge. + +Pelayo died at Caggas de Onis in the year 737, twenty years after his +great victory. After his death the work he had begun was carried forward, +until by the year 800 the Spanish dominion had extended over much of Old +Castile,--so called from its numerous castles. In a hundred years more it +had extended to the borders of New Castile. The work of reconquest was +slowly but surely under way. + + + + + + [Illustration: BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE.] + + BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE. + + + + + +THE ADVENTURES OF A FUGITIVE PRINCE. + + +A new dynasty came to the throne of the caliphs of Damascus in 750. The +line of the Ommeyades, who had held the throne since the days of the +Prophet Mohammed, was overthrown, and the line of the Abbassides began. +Abdullah, the new caliph, bent on destroying every remnant of the old +dynasty, invited ninety of its principal adherents to a banquet, where +they were set upon and brutally murdered. There followed a scene worthy of +a savage. The tables were removed, carpets were spread over the bleeding +corpses, and on these the viands were placed, the guests eating their +dinner to the dismal music of the groans of the dying victims beneath. + +The whole country was now scoured for all who were connected with the +fallen dynasty, and wherever found they were brutally slain; yet despite +the vigilance of the murderers a scion of the family of the Ommeyades +escaped. Abdurrahman, the princely youth in question, was fortunately +absent from Damascus when the order for his assassination was given. +Warned of his proposed fate, he gathered what money and jewels he could +and fled for his life, following little-used paths until he reached the +banks of the Euphrates. But spies were on his track and descriptions of +him had been sent to all provinces. He was just twenty years old, and, +unlike the Arabians in general, had a fair complexion and blue eyes, so +that he could easily be recognized, and it seemed impossible that he could +escape. + +His retreat on the Euphrates was quickly discovered, and the agents of +murder were so hot upon his track that he was forced to spring into the +river and seek for safety by swimming. The pursuers reached the banks when +the fugitives were nearly half-way across, Abdurrahman supporting his son, +four years of age, and Bedr, a servant, aiding his thirteen-year-old +brother. The agents of the caliph called them back, saying that they would +not harm them, and the boy, whose strength was giving out, turned back in +spite of his brother's warning. When Abdurrahman reached the opposite +bank, it was with a shudder of horror that he saw the murder of the boy, +whose head was at once cut off. That gruesome spectacle decided the +question of his trusting himself to the mercy of the caliph or his agents. + +The life of the fugitive prince now became one of unceasing adventure. He +made his way by covert paths towards Egypt, wandering through the desert +in company with bands of Bedouins, living on their scanty fare, and +constantly on the alert against surprise. Light sleep and hasty flittings +were the rule with him and his few attendants as they made their way +slowly westward over the barren sands, finally reaching Egypt. Here he was +too near the caliph for safety, and he kept on westward to Barca, where he +hoped for protection from the governor, who owed his fortunes to the favor +of the late caliph. + +He was mistaken. Ibn Habib, the governor of Barca, put self-interest above +gratitude, and made vigorous efforts to seize the fugitive, whom he hoped +to send as a welcome gift to the cruel Abdullah. The life of the fugitive +was now one of hair-breadth escapes. For five years he remained in Barca, +disguised and under a false name, yet in almost daily peril of his life. +On one occasion a band of pursuers surrounded the tent in which he was and +advanced to search it. His life was saved by Tekfah, the wife of the +chief, who hid him under her clothes. When, in later years, he came to +power, he rewarded the chief and his wife richly for their kindly aid. + +On another occasion a body of horse rode into the village of tents in +which he dwelt as a guest and demanded that he should be given up. The +handsome aspect and gentle manner of the fugitive had made the tribesmen +suspect that they were the hosts of a disguised prince; he had gained a +sure place in their hearts, and they set the pursuers on a false scent. +Such a person was with them, they said, but he had gone with a number of +young men on a lion hunt in a neighboring mountain valley and would not +return until the next evening. The pursuers at once set off for the place +mentioned, and the fugitive, who had been hidden in one of the tents, rode +away in the opposite direction with his slender train. + +Leaving Barca, he journeyed farther westward over the desert, which at +that point comes down to the Mediterranean. Finally Tahart was reached, a +town within the modern Algeria, the seat of the Beni Rustam, a tribe which +gave him the kindliest welcome. To them, as to the Barcans, he seemed a +prince in disguise. Near by was a tribe of Arabs named the Nefezah, to +which his mother had belonged, and from which he hoped for protection and +assistance. Reaching this, he told his rank and name, and was welcomed +almost as a king, the tribesmen, his mother's kindred, paying him homage, +and offering their aid to the extent of their ability in the ambitious +scheme which he disclosed. + +This was an invasion of Spain, which at that time was a scene of confusion +and turmoil, distracted by rival leaders, the people exhausted by wars and +quarrels, many of their towns burned or ruined, and the country ravaged by +famine. What could be better than for the heir of the illustrious house of +Ommeyades, flying from persecution by the Abbassides, and miraculously +preserved, to seek the throne of Spain, bring peace to that distracted +land, and found an independent kingdom in that western section of the vast +Arabian empire? + +His servant, Bedr, who had kept with him through all his varied career and +was now his chief officer, was sent to Spain on a secret mission to the +friends of the late dynasty of caliphs, of whom there were many in that +land. Bedr was highly successful in his mission. Yusuf, the Abbasside +emir, was absent from Cordova and ignorant of his danger, and all promised +well. Not waiting for the assistance promised him in Africa, the prince +put to sea almost alone. As he was about to step on board his boat a +number of Berbers gathered round and showed an intention to prevent his +departure. They were quieted by a handful of dinars and he hastened on +board,--none too soon, for another band, greedy for gold, rushed to the +beach, some of them wading out and seizing the boat and the camel's-hair +cable that held it to the anchor. These fellows got blows instead of +dinars, one, who would not let go, having his hand cut off by a sword +stroke. The edge of a scimitar cut the cable, the sail was set, and the +lonely exile set forth upon the sea to the conquest of a kingdom. It was +evening of a spring day of the year 756 that the fugitive prince landed +near Malaga, in the land of Andalusia, where some prominent chiefs were in +waiting to receive him with the homage due to a king. + +Hundreds soon flocked to the standard of the adventurer, whose manly and +handsome presence, his beaming blue eyes, sweet smile, and gracious manner +won him the friendship of all whom he met. With steadily growing forces he +marched to Seville. Here were many of his partisans, and the people flung +open the gates with wild shouts of welcome. It was in the month of May +that the fortunes of Abdurrahman were put to the test, Yusuf having +hastily gathered a powerful force and advanced to the plain of Musarah, +near Cordova, on which field the fate of the kingdom was to be decided. + +It was under a strange banner that Abdurrahman advanced to meet the army +of the emir,--a turban attached to a lance-head. This standard afterwards +became sacred, the turban, as it grew ragged, being covered by a new one. +At length the hallowed old rags were removed by an irreverent hand, "and +from that time the empire of the Beni Ummeyah began to decline." + +We may briefly conclude our tale. The battle was fierce, but Abdurrahman's +boldness and courage prevailed, and the army of Yusuf in the end gave way, +Cordova becoming the victor's prize. The generous conqueror gave liberty +and distinction to the defeated emir, and was repaid in two years by a +rebellion in which he had an army of twenty thousand men to meet. Yusuf +was again defeated, and now lost his life. + +Thus it was that the fugitive prince, who had saved his life by swimming +the Euphrates under the eyes of an assassin band, became the Caliph of the +West, for under him Spain was cut loose from the dominion of the +Abbassides and made an independent kingdom, its conqueror becoming its +first monarch under the title of Abdurrahman I. + +Almansur, then the Caliph of the East, sought to recover the lost domain, +sending a large army from Africa; but this was defeated with terrible +slaughter by the impetuous young prince, who revenged himself by sending +the heads of the general and many of his officers to the caliph in bags +borne by merchants, which were deposited at the door of Almansur's tent +during the darkness of the night. The finder was cautioned to be careful, +as the bags contained treasure. So they were brought in to the caliph, who +opened them with his own hand. Great was his fury and chagrin when he saw +what a ghastly treasure they contained. "This man is the foul fiend in +human form," he exclaimed. "Praised be Allah that he has placed a sea +between him and me." + + + + + +BERNARDO DEL CARPIO. + + +Spain, like France, had its hero of legend. The great French hero was +Roland, whose mighty deeds in the pass of Roncesvalles have been widely +commemorated in song and story. In Spanish legend the gallant opponent of +the champion of France was Bernardo del Carpio, a hero who perhaps never +lived, except on paper, but about whose name a stirring cycle of story has +grown. The tale of his life is a tragedy, as that of heroes is apt to be. +It may be briefly told. + +When Charlemagne was on the throne of France Alfonso II. was king of +Christian Spain. A hundred years had passed since all that was left to +Spain was the cave of Covadonga, and in that time a small kingdom had +grown up with Oviedo for its capital city. This kingdom had spread from +the Asturias over Leon, which gave its name to the new realm, and the slow +work of driving back the Moslem conquerors had well begun. + +Alfonso never married and had no children. People called him Alfonso the +Chaste. He went so far as to forbid any of his family to marry, so that +the love affairs of his sister, the fair infanta Ximena, ran far from +smooth. The beautiful princess loved and was loved again by the noble +Sancho Diaz, Count of Saldaa, but the king would not listen to their +union. The natural result followed; as they dared not marry in public they +did so in private, and for a year or two lived happily together, none +knowing of their marriage, and least of all the king. + +But when a son was born to them the truth came out. It threw the +tyrannical king into a violent rage. His sister was seized by his orders +and shut up in a convent, and her husband was thrown into prison for life, +some accounts saying that his eyes were put out by order of the cruel +king. As for their infant son, he was sent into the mountains of the +Asturias, to be brought up among peasants and mountaineers. + +It was known that he had been sent there by Alfonso, and the people +believed him to be the king's son and treated him as a prince. In the +healthy out-door life of the hills he grew strong and handsome, while his +native courage was shown in hunting adventures and the perils of mountain +life. When old enough he learned the use of arms, and soon left his humble +friends for the army, in which his boldness and bravery were shown in many +encounters with the French and the Arabs. Those about him still supposed +him to be the son of the king, though Alfonso, while furnishing him with +all knightly arms and needs, neither acknowledged nor treated him as his +son. But if not a king's son, he was a very valiant knight, and became the +terror of all the foes of Spain. + +All this time his unfortunate father languished in prison, where from time +to time he was told by his keepers of the mighty deeds of the young prince +Bernardo del Carpio, by which name the youthful warrior was known. Count +Sancho knew well that this was his son, and complained bitterly of the +ingratitude of the youth who could leave his father perishing in a prison +cell while he rode freely and joyously in the open air, engaged in battle +and banquet, and was everywhere admired and praised. He knew not that the +young warrior had been kept in ignorance of his birth. + +During this period came that great event in the early history of Spain in +which Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees with a great army and marched upon +the city of Saragossa. It was in the return from this expedition that the +dreadful attack took place in which Roland and the rear guard of the army +were slain in the pass of Roncesvalles. In Spanish story it was Bernardo +del Carpio who led the victorious hosts, and to whose prowess was due the +signal success. + +This fierce fight in a mountain-pass, in which a valiant band of +mountaineers overwhelmed and destroyed the flower of the French army, has +been exalted by poetic legend into one of the most stupendous and romantic +of events. Ponderous epic poems have made Roland their theme, numbers of +ballads and romances tell of his exploits, and the far-off echoes of his +ivory horn still sound through the centuries. One account tells that he +blew his horn so loud and long that the veins of his neck burst in the +strain. Others tell that he split a mountain in twain by a mighty stroke +of his sword Durandal. The print of his horse's hoofs are shown on a +mountain-peak where only a flying horse could ever have stood. In truth, +Roland, whose name is barely mentioned in history, rose to be the greatest +hero of romance, the choicest and best of the twelve paladins of +Charlemagne. + +Bernardo del Carpio was similarly celebrated in Spanish song, though he +attained no such worldwide fame. History does not name him at all, but the +ballads of Spain say much of his warlike deeds. It must suffice here to +say that this doughty champion marched upon Roland and his men while they +were winding through the narrow mountain-pass, and as they advanced the +mountaineers swelled their ranks. + + "As through the glen his spears did gleam, the soldiers from the hills, + They swelled his host, as mountain-stream receives the roaring rills; + They round his banner flocked in scorn of haughty Charlemagne, + And thus upon their swords are sworn the faithful sons of Spain." + +Roland and his force lay silent in death when the valiant prince led back +his army, flushed with victory, and hailed with the plaudits of all the +people of the land. At this moment of his highest triumph the tragedy of +his life began. His old nurse, who had feared before to tell the tale, now +made him acquainted with the true story of his birth, telling him that he +was the nephew, not the son, of the king; that his mother, whom he thought +long dead, still lived, shut up for life in a convent; and that his father +lay languishing in a dungeon cell, blind and in chains. + +As may well be imagined, this story filled the soul of the young hero with +righteous wrath. He strode into the presence of the king and asked, with +little reverence, if the story were true. Alfonso surlily admitted it. +Bernardo then demanded his father's freedom. This the king refused. +Burning with anger, the valiant youth shut himself up in his castle, +refusing to take part in the rejoicings that followed the victory, and +still sternly demanding the release of his father. + +"Is it well that I should be abroad fighting thy battles," he asked the +king, "while my father lies fettered in thy dungeons? Set him free and I +shall ask no further reward." + +Alfonso, who was obstinate in his cruelty, refused, and the indignant +prince took arms against him, joining the Moors, whom he aided to harry +the king's dominions. Fortifying his castle, and gathering a bold and +daring band from his late followers, he made incursions deep into the +country of the king, plundering hamlet and city and fighting in the ranks +of the Moslems. + +This method of argument was too forcible even for the obstinacy of +Alfonso. His counsellors, finding the kingdom itself in danger, urged him +to grant Bernardo's request, and to yield him his father in return for his +castle. The king at length consented, and Bernardo, as generous and +trusting as he was brave, immediately accepted the proposed exchange, +sought the king, handed him the keys of his castle, and asked him to +fulfil his share of the contract. + +Alfonso agreed to do so, and in a short time the king and his nephew rode +forth, Bernardo's heart full of joy at the thought of meeting the parent +whom he had never yet seen. As they rode forward a train came from the +opposite direction to meet them, in the midst a tall figure, clad in +splendid attire and mounted on horseback. But there was something in his +aspect that struck Bernardo's heart deep with dread. + +"God help me!" he exclaimed, "is that sightless and corpse-like figure the +noble Count of Saldaa, my father?" + +"You wished to see him," coldly answered the king. "He is before you. Go +and greet him." + +Bernardo did so, and reverently took the cold hand of his father to kiss +it. As he did so the body fell forward on the neck of the horse. It was +only a corpse. Alfonso had killed the father before delivering him to his +son. + +Only his guards saved the ruthless tyrant at that moment from death. The +infuriated knight swore a fearful oath of vengeance upon the king, and +rode away, taking the revered corpse with him. Unfortunately, the story of +Bernardo ends here. None of the ballads tell what he did for revenge. We +may imagine that he joined his power to the Moors and harried the land of +Leon during his after life, at length reaching Alfonso's heart with his +vengeful blade. But of this neither ballad nor legend tells, and with the +pathetic scene of the dead father's release our story ends. + + + + + +RUY DIAZ, THE CID CAMPEADOR. + + +Bernardo del Carpio is not the chief Spanish hero of romance. To find the +mate of Roland the paladin we must seek the incomparable Cid, the +campeador or champion of Spain, the noblest figure in Spanish story or +romance. _El Mio Cid_, "My Cid," as he is called, with his matchless horse +Bavieca and his trenchant sword Tisona, towers in Spanish tale far above +Christian king and Moslem caliph, as the pink of chivalry, the pearl of +knighthood, the noblest and worthiest figure in all that stirring age. + +Cid is an Arabic word, meaning "lord" or "chief." The man to whom it was +applied was a real personage, not a figment of fancy, though it is to +poetry and romance that he owes his fame, his story having been expanded +and embellished in chronicles, epic poems, and ballads until it bears +little semblance to actual history. Yet the deeds of the man himself +probably lie at the basis of all the splendid fictions of romance. + +The great poem in which his exploits were first celebrated, the famous +"Poema del Cid," is thought to be the oldest, as it is one of the noblest +in the Spanish language. Written probably not later than the year 1200, it +is of about three thousand lines in length, and of such merit that its +unknown author has been designated the "Homer of Spain." As it was written +soon after the death of the Cid, it could not have deviated far from +historic truth. Chief among the prose works is the "Chronicle of the +Cid,"--_Chronica del famoso Cavallero Cid Ruy Diez_,--which, with additions +from the poem, was charmingly rendered in English by the poet Southey, +whose production is a prose poem in itself. Such are the chief sources of +our knowledge of the Cid, an active, stirring figure, full of the spirit +of medivalism, whose story seems to bring back to us the living features +of the age in which he flourished. A brave and daring knight, rousing the +jealousy of nobles and kings by his valiant deeds, now banished and now +recalled, now fighting against the Moslems, now with them, now for his own +hand, and in the end winning himself a realm and dying a king without the +name,--such is the man whose story we propose to tell. + +This hero of romance was born about the year 1040 at Bivar, a little +village near Burgos, his father being Diego Lainez, a man of gentle birth, +his mother Teresa Rodriguez, daughter of the governor of the Asturias. He +is often called Rodrigo de Bivar, from his birthplace, but usually Rodrigo +Diaz, or Ruy Diez, as his name is given in the chronicle. + +While still a boy the future prowess of the Cid was indicated. He was keen +of intellect, active of frame, and showed such wonderful dexterity in +manly exercises as to become unrivalled in the use of arms. Those were +days of almost constant war. The kingdom of the Moors was beginning to +fall to pieces; that of the Christians was growing steadily stronger; not +only did war rage between the two races, but Moor fought with Moor, +Christian with Christian, and there was abundant work ready for the strong +hand and sharp sword. This state of affairs was to the taste of the +youthful Rodrigo, whose ambition was to become a hero of knighthood. + +While gentle in manner and magnanimous in disposition, the young soldier +had an exalted sense of honor and was sternly devoted to duty. While he +was still a boy his father was bitterly insulted by Count Gomez, who +struck him in the face. The old man brooded over his humiliation until he +lost sleep and appetite, and withdrew from society into disconsolate +seclusion. + +Rodrigo, deeply moved by his father's grief, sought and killed the +insulter, and brought the old man the bleeding head of his foe. At this +the disconsolate Diego rose and embraced his son, and bade him sit above +him at table, saying that "he who brought home that head should be the +head of the house of Layn Calvo." + +From that day on the fame of the young knight rapidly grew, until at +length he defeated and captured five Moorish kings who had invaded +Castile. This exploit won him the love of Ximena, the fair daughter of +Count Gomez, whom he had slain. Foreseeing that he would become the +greatest man in Spain, the damsel waited not to be wooed, but offered him +her hand in marriage, an offer which he was glad to accept. And ever +after, says the chronicle, she was his loving wife. + +The young champion is said to have gained the good-will of St. Lazarus and +the Holy Virgin by sleeping with a leper who had been shunned by his +knights. No evil consequences came from this example of Christian +philanthropy, while it added to the knight's high repute. + +Fernando I., who had gathered a large Christian kingdom under his crown, +died when Rodrigo was but fifteen years of age, and in his will foolishly +cut up his kingdom between his three sons and two daughters, greatly +weakening the Christian power, and quickly bringing his sons to sword's +point. By the will Sancho was placed over Castile, Alfonso became king of +Leon, Garcia ruled in Galicia; Urraca, one of the daughters, received the +city of Toro, and Elvira was given that of Zamora. + +Sancho was not satisfied with this division. Being the oldest, he thought +he should have all, and prepared to seize the shares of his brothers and +sisters. Looking for aid in this design, he was attracted by the growing +fame of young Rodrigo, and gained his aid in the restoration of Zamora, +which the Moors had destroyed. While thus engaged there came to Rodrigo +messengers with tribute from the five Moorish kings whom he had captured +and released. They hailed the young warrior as Sid, or Cid, and the king, +struck by the title, said that Ruy Diaz should thenceforth bear it; also +that he should be known as campeador or champion. + +King Sancho now knighted the young warrior with his own hand, and soon +after made him _alferez_, or commander of his troops. As such he was +despatched against Alfonso, who was soon driven from his kingdom of Leon +and sought shelter in the Moorish city of Toledo. Leon being occupied, the +Cid marched against Galicia, and drove out Garcia as he had done Alfonso. +Then he deprived Urraca and Elvira of the cities left them by their +father, and the whole kingdom was once more placed under a single ruler. + +It did not long remain so. Sancho died in 1072, and at once Alfonso and +Garcia hurried back from exile to recover their lost realms. But Alfonso's +ambition equalled that of Sancho. All or none was his motto. Invading the +kingdom of Galicia, he robbed Garcia of it and held him prisoner. Then he +prepared to invade Castile, and offered the command of the army for this +enterprise to the Cid. + +The latter was ready for fighting in any form, so that he could fight with +honor. But there was doubt in his mind if service under Alfonso was +consistent with the honor of a knight. King Sancho had been assassinated +while hunting, and it was whispered that Alfonso had some share in the +murder. The high-minded Cid would not draw sword for him unless he swore +that he had no lot or part in his brother's death. Twice the Cid gave him +the oath, whereupon, says the chronicle, "My Cid repeated the oath to him +a third time, and the king and the knights said 'Amen.' But the wrath of +the king was exceeding great; and he said to the Cid, 'Ruy Diaz, why dost +thou press me so, man?' From that day forward there was no love towards My +Cid in the heart of the king." + +But the king had sworn, and the Cid entered his service and soon conquered +Castile, so that Alfonso became monarch of Castile, Leon, Galicia, and +Portugal, and took the title of Emperor of Spain. As adelantado, or lord +of the marches, Ruy Diaz now occupied himself with the Moors,--fighting +where hostility reigned, taking tribute for the king from Seville and +other cities, and settling with the sword the disputes of the chiefs, or +aiding them in their quarrels. Thus he took part with Seville in a war +with Cordova, and was rewarded with so rich a present by the grateful king +that Alfonso, inspired by his secret hatred for the Cid, grew jealous and +envious. + +During these events years passed on, and the Cid's two fair daughters grew +to womanhood and were married, at the command of the king, to the two +counts of Carrion. The Cid liked not his sons-in-law, and good reason he +had, for they were a pair of base hounds despite their lordly title. The +brides were shamefully treated by them, being stripped and beaten nearly +to death on their wedding-journey. + +When word of this outrage came to the Cid his wrath overflowed. Stalking +with little reverence into the king's hall, he sternly demanded redress +for the brutal act. He could not appeal to the law. The husband in those +days was supreme lord and master of his wife. But there was an unwritten +law, that of the sword, and the incensed father demanded that the brutal +youths should appear in the lists and prove their honor, if they could, +against his champion. + +They dared not refuse. In those days, when the sword was the measure of +honor and justice, to refuse would have been to be disgraced. They came +into the lists, where they were beaten like the hounds that they had shown +themselves, and the noble girls were set free from their bonds. Better +husbands soon sought the Cid's daughters, and they were happily married in +the end. + +The exploits of the Cid were far too many for us to tell. Wherever he went +victory attended his sword. On one occasion the king marched to the aid of +one of his Moorish allies, leaving the Cid behind him too sick to ride. +Here was an opportunity for the Moors, a party of whom broke into Castile +and by a rapid march made themselves masters of the fortress of Gomez. Up +from his bed of sickness rose the Cid, mounted his steed (though he could +barely sit in the saddle), charged and scattered the invaders, pursued +them into the kingdom of Toledo, and returned with seven thousand +prisoners and all the Moorish spoil. + +This brilliant defence of the kingdom was the turning point in his career. +The king of Toledo complained to Alfonso that his neutral territory had +been invaded by the Cid and his troops, and King Alfonso, seeking revenge +for the three oaths he had been compelled to take, banished the Cid from +his dominions, on the charge of invading the territory of his allies. + +Thus the champion went forth as a knight-errant, with few followers, but a +great name. Tears came into his eyes as he looked back upon his home, its +doors open, its hall deserted, no hawks upon the perches, no horses in the +stalls. "My enemies have done this," he said. "God be praised for all +things." He went to Burgos, but there the people would not receive him, +having had strict orders from the king. Their houses were closed, the +inn-keepers barred their doors, only a bold little maiden dared venture +out to tell him of the decree. As there was no shelter for him there, he +was forced to seek lodging in the sands near the town. + +Needing money, he obtained it by a trick that was not very honorable, +though in full accord with the ethics of those times. He pawned to the +Jews two chests which he said were treasure chests, filled with gold. Six +hundred marks were received, and when the chests were afterwards opened +they proved to be filled with sand. This was merely a good joke to poet +and chronicler. The Jews lay outside the pale of justice and fair-dealing. + +Onward went the Cid, his followers growing in number as he marched. First +to Barcelona, then to Saragossa, he went, seeking knightly adventures +everywhere. In Saragossa he entered the service of the Moorish king, and +for several years fought well and sturdily for his old enemies. But time +brought a change. In 1081 Alfonso captured Toledo and made that city his +capital, from which he prepared to push his way still deeper into the +Moorish dominions. He now needed the Cid, whom he had banished five years +before. + +But it was easier to ask than to get. The Cid had grown too great to be at +any king's beck and call. He would fight for Alfonso, but in his own way, +holding himself free to attack whom he pleased and when he pleased, and to +capture the cities of the Moslems and rule them as their lord. He had +become a free lance, fighting for his own hand, while armies sprang, as it +were, from the ground at his call to arms. + +In those days of turmoil valor rarely had long to wait for opportunity. +Ramon Berenguer, lord of Barcelona, had laid siege to Valencia, an +important city on the Mediterranean coast. Thither marched the Cid with +all speed, seven thousand men in his train, and forced Ramon to raise the +siege. The Cid became governor of Valencia, under tribute to King Alfonso, +and under honor to hold it against the Moors. + +The famous champion was not done with his troubles with Alfonso. In the +years that followed he was once more banished by the faithless king, and +his wife and children were seized and imprisoned. At a later date he came +to the king's aid in his wars, but found him again false to his word, and +was obliged to flee for safety from the camp. + +Valencia had passed from his control and had more than once since changed +hands. At length the Moorish power grew so strong that the city refused to +pay tribute to Spain and declared its independence. Here was work for the +Cid--not for the benefit of Alfonso, but for his own honor and profit. He +was weary of being made the foot-ball of a jealous and faithless monarch, +and craved a kingdom of his own. Against Valencia he marched with an army +of free swords at his back. He was fighting now for the Cid, not for +Moorish emir or Spanish monarch. For twenty months he beseiged the fair +city, until starvation came to the aid of his sword. No relief reached the +Moors; the elements fought against them, floods of rain destroying the +roads and washing away the bridges; on June 15, 1094, the Cid Campeador +marched into the city thenceforth to be associated with his name. + +Ascending its highest tower, he gazed with joy upon the fair possession +which he had won with his own good sword without aid from Spanish king or +Moorish ally, and which he proposed to hold for his own while life +remained. His city it was, and today it bears his name, being known as +Valencia del Cid. But he had to hold it with the good sword by which he +won it, for the Moors, who had failed to aid the beleaguered city, sought +with all their strength to win it back. + +During the next year thirty thousand of them came and encamped about the +walls of the city. But fighting behind walls was not to the taste of the +Cid Campeador. Out from the gates he sallied and drove them like sheep +from their camp, killing fifteen thousand of them in the fight. + +"Be it known," the chronicle tells us, "that this was a profitable day's +work. Every foot-soldier shared a hundred marks of silver that day, and +the Cid returned full honorably to Valencia. Great was the joy of the +Christians in the Cid Ruy Diaz, who was born in a happy hour. His beard +was grown, and continued to grow, a great length. My Cid said of his chin, +'For the love of King Don Alfonso, who hath banished me from his land, no +scissors shall come upon it, nor shall a hair be cut away, and Moors and +Christians shall talk of it.'" And until he died his great beard grew on +untouched. + + [Illustration: VALENCIA DEL CID.] + + VALENCIA DEL CID. + + +Not many were the men with whom he had done his work, but they were +soldiers of tried temper and daring hearts. "There were one thousand +knights of lineage and five hundred and fifty other horsemen. There were +four thousand foot-soldiers, besides boys and others. Thus many were the +people of My Cid, him of Bivar. And his heart rejoiced, and he smiled and +said, 'Thanks be to God and to Holy Mother Mary! We had a smaller company +when we left the house of Bivar.'" + +The next year King Yussef, leader of the Moors, came again to the siege of +Valencia, this time with fifty thousand men. Small as was the force of the +Cid as compared with this great army, he had no idea of fighting cooped up +like a rat in a cage. Out once more he sallied, with but four thousand men +at his back. His bishop, Hieronymo, absolved them, saying, "He who shall +die, fighting full forward, I will take as mine his sins, and God shall +have his soul." + +A learned and wise man was the good bishop, but a valorous one as well, +mighty in arms alike on horseback and on foot. "A boon, Cid don Rodrigo," +he cried. "I have sung mass to you this morning. Let me have the giving of +the first wounds in this battle." + +"In God's name, do as you will," answered the Cid. + +That day the bishop had his will of the foe, fighting with both hands +until no man knew how many of the infidels he slew. Indeed, they were all +too busy to heed the bishop's blows, for, so the chronicle says, only +fifteen thousand of the Moslems escaped. Yussef, sorely wounded, left to +the Cid his famous sword Tisona, and barely escaped from the field with +his life. + +Bucar, the brother of Yussef, came to revenge him, but he knew not with +whom he had to deal. Bishop Hieronymo led the right wing, and made havoc +in the ranks of the foe. "The bishop pricked forward," we are told. "Two +Moors he slew with the first two thrusts of his lance; the haft broke and +he laid hold on his sword. God! how well the bishop fought. He slew two +with the lance and five with the sword. The Moors fled." + +"Turn this way, Bucar," cried the Cid, who rode close on the heels of the +Moorish chief; "you who came from behind sea to see the Cid with the long +beard. We must greet each other and cut out a friendship." + +"God confound such friendships," cried Bucar, following his flying troops +with nimble speed. + +Hard behind him rode the Cid, but his horse Bavieca was weary with the +day's hard work, and Bucar rode a fresh and swift steed. And thus they +went, fugitive and pursuer, until the ships of the Moors were at hand, +when the Cid, finding that he could not reach the Moorish king with his +sword, flung the weapon fiercely at him, striking him between the +shoulders. Bucar, with the mark of battle thus upon him, rode into the sea +and was taken into a boat, while the Cid picked up his sword from the +ground and sought his men again. + +The Moorish host did not escape so well. Set upon fiercely by the +Spaniards, they ran in a panic into the sea, where twice as many were +drowned as were slain in the battle; and of these, seventeen thousand and +more had fallen, while a vast host remained as prisoners. Of the +twenty-nine kings who came with Bucar, seventeen were left dead upon the +field. + +The chronicler uses numbers with freedom. The Cid is his hero, and it is +his task to exalt him. But the efforts of the Moors to regain Valencia and +their failure to do so may be accepted as history. In due time, however, +age began to tell upon the Cid, and death came to him as it does to all. +He died in 1099, from grief, as the story goes, that his colleague, Alvar +Faez, had suffered a defeat. Whether from grief or age, at any rate he +died, and his wife, Ximena, was left to hold the city, which for two years +she gallantly did, against all the power of the Moors. Then Alfonso +entered it, and, finding that he could not hold it, burned the principal +buildings and left it to the Moors. A century and a quarter passed before +the Christians won it again. + +When Alfonso left the city of the Cid he brought with him the body of the +campeador, mounted upon his steed Bavieca, and solemnly and slowly the +train wound on until the corpse of the mighty dead was brought to the +cloister of the monastery of Cardea. Here the dead hero was seated on a +throne, with his sword Tisona in his hand; and, the story goes, a caitiff +Jew, perhaps wishing to revenge his brethren who had been given sand for +gold, plucked the flowing beard of the Cid. At this insult the hand of the +corpse struck out and the insulter was hurled to the floor. + +The Cid Campeador is a true hero of romance, and well are the Spaniards +proud of him. Honor was the moving spring of his career. As a devoted son, +he revenged the insult to his father; as a loving husband, he made Ximena +the partner of his fame; as a tender father, he redressed his daughters' +wrongs; as a loyal subject, he would not serve a king on whom doubt of +treachery rested. In spite of the injustice of the king, he was true to +his country, and came again and again to its aid. Though forced into the +field as a free lance, he was throughout a Christian cavalier. And, though +he cheated the Jews, the story goes that he repaid them their gold. +Courage, courtesy, and honor were the jewels of his fame, and romance +holds no nobler hero. + +It will not be amiss to close our tale of the Cid with a quotation from +the famous poem in which it is shown how even a lion quailed before his +majesty: + + "Peter Bermuez arose; somewhat he had to say; + The words were strangled in his throat, they could not find their way; + Till forth they came at once, without a stop or stay: + 'Cid, I'll tell you what, this always is your way; + You have always served me thus, whenever you have come + To meet here in the Cortes, you call me Peter the Dumb. + I cannot help my nature; I never talk nor rail; + But when a thing is to be done, you know I never fail. + Fernando, you have lied, you have lied in every word; + You have been honored by the Cid and favored and preferred. + I know of all your tricks, and can tell them to your face: + Do you remember in Valencia the skirmish and the chase? + You asked leave of the Cid to make the first attack, + You went to meet a Moor, but you soon came running back. + I met the Moor and killed him, or he would have killed you; + I gave you up his arms, and all that was my due. + Up to this very hour, I never said a word; + You praised yourself before the Cid and I stood by and heard + How you had killed the Moor, and done a valiant act; + And they believed you all, but they never knew the fact. + You are tall enough and handsome, but cowardly and weak, + Thou tongue without a hand, how can you dare to speak? + There's the story of the lions should never be forgot; + Now let us hear, Fernando, what answer you have got? + The Cid was sleeping in his chair, with all his knights around; + The cry went forth along the hall that the lion was unbound. + What did you do, Fernando? Like a coward as you were, + You shrunk behind the Cid, and crouched beneath his chair. + We pressed around the throne to shield our loved from harm. + Till the good Cid awoke. He rose without alarm. + He went to meet the lion with his mantle on his arm. + The lion was abashed the noble Cid to meet; + He bowed his mane to the earth, his muzzle at his feet. + The Cid by the neck and the mane drew him to his den, + He thrust him in at the hatch, and came to the hall again. + He found his knights, his vassals, and all his valiant men. + He asked for his sons-in-law, they were neither of them there + I defy you for a coward and a traitor as you are.'" + + + + + +LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA. + + +On the 16th of July, 1212, was fought the great battle which broke the +Moorish power in Spain. During the two centuries before fresh streams of +invasion had flowed in from Africa to yield new life to the Moslem power. +From time to time in the Mohammedan world reforms have sprung up, and been +carried far and wide by fanaticism and the sword. One such body of +reformers, the Almoravides, invaded Spain in the eleventh century and +carried all before it. It was with these that the Cid Campeador had to +deal. A century later a new reformer, calling himself El Mahdi, appeared +in Africa, and set going a movement which overflowed the African states +and made its way into Spain, where it subdued the Moslem kingdoms and +threatened the Christian states. These invaders were known as the +Almohades. They were pure Moors. The Arab movement had lost its strength, +and from that time forward the Moslem dominions in Spain were peopled +chiefly by Moors. + +Spain was threatened now as France had been threatened centuries before +when Charles Martel crushed the Arab hordes on the plains of Tours. All +Christendom felt the danger and Pope Innocent III. preached a crusade for +the defence of Spain against the infidel. In response, thousands of armed +crusaders flocked into Spain, coming in corps, in bands, and as +individuals, and gathered about Toledo, the capital of Alfonso VIII., King +of Castile. From all the surrounding nations they came, and camped in the +rich country about the capital, a host which Alfonso had much ado to feed. + +Mohammed An-Nassir, the emperor of the Almohades, responded to the effort +of the Pope by organizing a crusade in Moslem Africa. He proclaimed an +_Algihed_, or Holy War, ordered a massacre of all the Christians in his +dominions, and then led the fanatical murderers to Spain to join the +forces there in arms. Christian Europe was pitted against Moslem Africa in +a holy war, Spain the prize of victory, and the plains of Andalusia the +arena of the coming desperate strife. + +The decisive moment was at hand. Mohammed left Morocco and reached Seville +in June. His new levies were pouring into Spain in hosts. On the 21st of +June Alfonso began his advance, leading southward a splendid array. +Archbishops and bishops headed the army. In the van marched a mighty force +of fifty thousand men under Don Diego Lopez de Haro, ten thousand of them +being cavalry. After them came the troops of the kings of Aragon and +Castile, each a distinct army. Next came the knights of St. John of +Calatrava and the knights of Santiago, their grand-masters leading, and +after them many other bodies, including troops from Italy and Germany. +Such a gallant host Spain had rarely seen. It was needed, for the peril +was great. While one hundred thousand marched under the Christian banners, +the green standard of the prophet, if we may credit the historians, rose +before an army nearly four times as large. + + [Illustration: ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF + BATTLE.] + + ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE. + + +Without dwelling on the events of the march, we may hasten forward to the +12th of July, when the host of Alfonso reached the vicinity of the Moorish +army, and the Navas de Tolosa, the destined field of battle, lay near at +hand. The word _navas_ means "plains." Here, on a sloping spur of the +Sierra Morena, in the upper valley of the Guadalquiver, about seventy +miles east of Cordova, lies an extended table-land, a grand plateau whose +somewhat sloping surface gave ample space for the vast hosts which met +there on that far-off July day. + +To reach the plateau was the problem before Alfonso. The Moslems held the +ground, and occupied in force the pass of Losa, Nature's highway to the +plain. What was to be done? The pass could be won, if at all, only at +great cost in life. No other pass was known. To retire would be to +inspirit the enemy and dispirit the Christian host. No easy way out of the +quandary at first appeared, but a way was found,--by miracle, the writers +of that time say; but it hardly seems a miracle that a shepherd of the +region knew of another mountain-pass. This man, Martin Halaja, had grazed +his flocks in that vicinity for years. He told the king of a pass unknown +to the enemy, by which the army might reach the table-land, and to prove +his words led Lopez de Haro and another through this little-known mountain +by-way. It was difficult but passable, the army was put in motion and +traversed it all night long, and on the morning of the 14th of July the +astonished eyes of the Mohammedans gazed on the Christian host, holding in +force the borders of the plateau, and momentarily increasing in numbers +and strength. Ten miles before the eyes of Alfonso and his men stretched +the plain, level in the centre, in the distance rising in gentle slopes to +its border of hills, like a vast natural amphitheatre. The soldiers, +filled with hope and enthusiasm, spread through their ranks the story that +the shepherd who had led them was an angel, sent by the Almighty to lead +his people to victory over the infidel. + +Mohammed and his men had been told on the previous day by their scouts +that the camp of the Christians was breaking up, and rejoiced in what +seemed a victory without a blow. But when they saw these same Christians +defiling in thousands before them on the plain, ranged in battle array +under their various standards, their joy was changed to rage and +consternation. Against the embattled front their wild riders rode, +threatening the steady troops with brandished lances and taunting them +with cowardice. But Alfonso held his mail-clad battalions firm, and the +light-armed Moorish horsemen hesitated to attack. Word was brought to +Mohammed that the Christians would not fight, and in hasty gratulation he +sent off letters to cities in the rear to that effect. He little dreamed +that he was soon to follow his messengers in swifter speed. + +It was a splendid array upon which the Christians gazed,--one well +calculated to make them tremble for the result,--for the hosts of Mohammed +covered the hill-sides and plain like "countless swarms of locusts." On an +eminence which gave an outlook over the whole broad space stood the +emperor's tent, of three-ply crimson velvet flecked with gold, strings of +pearls depending from its purple fringes. To guard it from assault rows of +iron chains were stretched, before which stood three thousand camels in +line. In front of these ten thousand negroes formed a living wall, their +front bristling with the steel of their lances, whose butts were planted +firmly in the sand. In the centre of this powerful guard stood the +emperor, wearing the green dress and turban of his ancestral line. +Grasping in one hand his scimitar, in the other he held a Koran, from +which he read those passages of inspiration to the Moslems which promised +the delights of Paradise to those who should fall in a holy war and the +torments of hell to the coward who should desert his ranks. + +The next day was Sunday. The Moslems, eager for battle, stood all day in +line, but the Christians declined to fight, occupying themselves in +arranging their different corps. Night descended without a skirmish. But +this could not continue with the two armies so closely face to face. One +side or the other must surely attack on the following day. At midnight +heralds called the Christians to mass and prayer. Everywhere priests were +busy confessing and shriving the soldiers. The sound of the furbishing of +arms mingled with the strains of religious service. At the dawn of the +next day both hosts were drawn up in battle array. The great struggle was +about to begin. + +The army of the Moors, said to contain three hundred thousand regular +troops and seventy-five thousand irregulars, was drawn up in crescent +shape in front of the imperial tent,--in the centre the vast host of the +Almohades, the tribes of the desert on the wings, in advance the +light-armed troops. The Christian host was formed in four legions, King +Alfonso occupying the centre, his banner bearing an effigy of the Virgin. +With him were Rodrigo Ximenes, the archbishop of Toledo, and many other +prelates. The force was less than one hundred thousand strong, some of the +crusaders having left it in the march. + +The sun was not high when the loud sound of the Christian trumpets and the +Moorish _atabals_ gave signal for the fray, and the two hosts surged +forward to meet in fierce assault. Sternly and fiercely the battle went +on, the struggling multitudes swaying in the ardor of the fight,--now the +Christians, now the Moslems surging forward or driven back. With +difficulty the thin ranks of the Christians bore the onsets of their +densely grouped foes, and at length King Alfonso, in fear for the result, +turned to the prelate Rodrigo and exclaimed,-- + +"Archbishop, you and I must die here." + +"Not so," cried the bold churchman. "Here we must triumph over our +enemies." + +"Then let us to the van, where we are sorely needed, for, indeed, our +lines are being bitterly pressed." + +Nothing backward, the archbishop followed the king. Fernan Garcia, one of +the king's cavaliers, urged him to wait for aid, but Alfonso, commending +himself to God and the Virgin, spurred forward and plunged into the thick +of the fight. And ever as he rode, by his side rode the archbishop, +wearing his chasuble and bearing aloft the cross. The Moorish troops, who +had been jeering at the king and the cross-bearing prelate, drew back +before this impetuous assault, which was given force by the troops who +crowded in to the rescue of the king. The Moors soon yielded to the +desperate onset, and were driven back in wild disarray. + +This was the beginning of the end. Treason in the Moorish ranks came to +the Christian aid. Some of Mohammed's force, who hated him for having +cruelly slain their chief, turned and fled. The breaking of their centre +opened a way for the Spaniards to the living fortress which guarded the +imperial tent, and on this dense line of sable lancers the Christian +cavalry madly charged. + +In vain they sought to break that serried line of steel. Some even turned +their horses and tried to back them in, but without avail. Many fell in +the attempt. The Moslem ranks seemed impervious. In the end one man did +what a host had failed to perform. A single cavalier, Alvar Nuez de Lara, +stole in between the negroes and the camels, in some way passed the +chains, and with a cheer of triumph raised his banner in the interior of +the line. A second and a third followed in his track. The gap between the +camels and the guard widened. Dozens, hundreds rushed to join their daring +leader. The camels were loosened and dispersed; the negroes, attacked +front and rear, perished or fled; the living wall that guarded the emperor +was gone, and his sacred person was in peril. + +Mohammed was dazed. His lips still repeated from the Koran, "God alone is +true, and Satan is a betrayer," but terror was beginning to stir the roots +of his hair. An Arab rode up on a swift mare, and, springing to the +ground, cried,-- + +"Mount and flee, O king. Not thy steed but my mare. She comes of the +noblest breed, and knows not how to fail her rider in his need. All is +lost! Mount and flee!" + +All was lost, indeed. Mohammed scrambled up and set off at the best speed +of the Arabian steed, followed by his troops in a panic of terror. The +rout was complete. While day continued the Christian horsemen followed and +struck, until the bodies of slain Moors lay so thick upon the plain that +there was scarce room for man or horse to pass. Then Archbishop Rodrigo, +who had done so much towards the victory, stood before Mohammed's tent and +in a loud voice intoned the _Te Deum laudamus_, the soldiers uniting in +the sacred chant of victory. + +The archbishop, who became the historian of this decisive battle, speaks +of two hundred thousand Moslem slain. We cannot believe it so many, +despite the historian's statement. Twenty-five Christians alone fell. This +is as much too small as the other estimate is too large. But, whatever the +losses, it was a great and glorious victory, and the spoils of war that +fell to the victors were immense. Gold and silver were there in abundance; +horses, camels, and wagons in profusion; arms of all kinds, commissary +stores in quantities. So vast was the number of lances strewn on the +ground that the conquering army used only these for firewood in their +camp, and did not burn the half of them. + +King Alfonso, with a wise and prudent liberality, divided the spoil among +his troops and allies, keeping only the glory of the victory for himself. +Mohammed's splendid tent was taken to Rome to adorn St. Peter's, and the +captured banners were sent to the cities of Spain as evidences of the +great victory. For himself, the king reserved a fine emerald, which he +placed in the centre of his shield. Ever since that brilliant day in +Spanish annals, the sixteenth of July has been kept as a holy festival, in +which the captured banners are carried in grand procession, to celebrate +the "Triumph of the Cross." + +The supposed miracle of the shepherd was not the only one which the +monastic writers saw in the victorious event. It was said that a red +cross, like that of Calatrava, appeared in the sky, inspiriting the +Christians and dismaying their foes; and that the sight of the Virgin +banner borne by the king's standard-bearer struck the Moslems with terror. +It was a credulous age, one in which reputed miracles could be woven out +of the most homely and every-day material. + +Death soon came to the leaders in the war. Mohammed, sullen with defeat, +hurried to Morocco, where he shut himself up in gloomy seclusion, and +died--or was poisoned--before the year's end. Alfonso died two years later. +The Christians did not follow up their victory with much energy, and the +Moslems still held a large section of Spain, but their power had +culminated and with this signal defeat began its decline. Step by step +they yielded before the Christian advance, though nearly three centuries +more passed before they lost their final hold on Spain. + + + + + +THE KEY OF GRANADA. + + +Nearly eight hundred years had passed away after the landing of Tarik, the +Arab, in Spain and the defeat and death of Don Roderic, the last king of +the Goths. During those centuries the handful of warriors which in the +mountains of the north had made a final stand against the invading hordes +had grown and spread, pushing back the Arabs and Moors, until now the +Christians held again nearly all the land, the sole remnant of Moslem +dominion being the kingdom of Granada in the south. The map of Spain shows +the present province of Granada as a narrow district bordering on the +Mediterranean Sea, but the Moorish kingdom covered a wider space, +spreading over the present provinces of Malaga and Almeria, and occupying +one of the richest sections of Spain. It was a rock-bound region. In every +direction ran sierras, or rugged mountain-chains, so rocky and steep as to +make the kingdom almost impregnable. Yet within their sterile confines lay +numbers of deep and rich valleys, prodigal in their fertility. + +In the centre of the kingdom arose its famous capital, the populous and +beautiful city of Granada, standing in the midst of a great vega or plain, +one hundred miles and more in circumference and encompassed by the snowy +mountains of the Sierra Nevada. The seventy thousand houses of the city +spread over two lofty hills and occupied the valley between them, through +which ran the waters of the Douro. On one of these hills stood the +Alcazaba, a strong fortress; on the other rose the famous Alhambra, a +royal palace and castle, with space within its confines for forty thousand +men, and so rare and charming in its halls and courts, its gardens and +fountains, that it remains to-day a place of pilgrimage to the world for +lovers of the beautiful in architecture. And from these hills the city +between showed no less attractive, with its groves of citron, orange, and +pomegranate trees, its leaping fountains, its airy minarets, its mingled +aspect of crowded dwellings and verdant gardens. + +High walls, three leagues in circuit, with twelve gates and a thousand and +thirty towers, girded it round, beyond which extended the vega, a vast +garden of delight, to be compared only with the famous plain of Damascus. +Through it the Xenil wound in silvery curves, its waters spread over the +plain in thousands of irrigating streams and rills. Blooming gardens and +fields of waving grain lent beauty to the plain; orchards and vineyards +clothed the slopes of the hills; in the orange and citron groves the voice +of the nightingale made the nights musical. In short, all was so beautiful +below and so soft and serene above that the Moors seemed not without +warrant for their fond belief that Paradise lay in the skies overhanging +this happy plain. + +But, alas for Granada! war hung round its borders, and the blare of the +trumpet and clash of the sword were ever familiar sounds within its +confines. Christian kingdoms surrounded it, whose people envied the +Moslems this final abiding-place on the soil of Spain. Hostilities were +ceaseless on the borders; plundering forays were the delight of the +Castilian cavaliers and the Moorish horsemen. Every town was a fortress, +and on every peak stood a watch-tower, ready to give warning with a signal +fire by night or a cloud of smoke by day of any movement of invasion. For +many years such a state of affairs continued between Granada and its +principal antagonist, the united kingdoms of Castile and Leon. Even when, +in 1457, a Moorish king, disheartened by a foray into the vega itself, +made a truce with Henry IV., king of Castile and Leon, and agreed to pay +him an annual tribute, the right of warlike raids was kept open. It was +only required that they must be conducted secretly, without sound of +trumpet or show of banners, and must not continue more than three days. +Such a state of affairs was desired alike by the Castilian and Moorish +chivalry, who loved these displays of daring and gallantry, and enjoyed +nothing more than a crossing of swords with their foes. In 1465 a Moorish +prince, Muley Abul Hassan, a man who enjoyed war and hated the Christians, +came to the throne, and at once the tribute ceased to be paid. For some +years still the truce continued, for Ferdinand and Isabella, the new +monarchs of Spain, had troubles at home to keep them engaged. But in 1481 +the war reopened with more than its old fury, and was continued until +Granada fell in 1492, the year in which the wise Isabella gave aid to +Columbus for the discovery of an unknown world beyond the seas. + +The war for the conquest of Granada was one full of stirring adventure and +hair-breadth escapes, of forays and sieges, of the clash of swords and the +brandishing of spears. It was no longer fought by Spain on the principle +of the raid,--to dash in, kill, plunder, and speed away with clatter of +hoofs and rattle of spurs. It was Ferdinand's policy to take and hold, +capturing stronghold after stronghold until all Granada was his. In a +memorable pun on the name of Granada, which signifies a pomegranate, he +said, "I will pick out the seeds of this pomegranate one by one." + +Muley Abul Hassan, the new Moorish king, began the work, foolishly +breaking the truce which Ferdinand wished a pretext to bring to an end. On +a dark night in 1481 he fell suddenly on Zahara, a mountain town on the +Christian frontier, so strong in itself that it was carelessly guarded. It +was taken by surprise, its inhabitants were carried off as slaves, and a +strong Moorish garrison was left to hold it. + +The Moors paid dearly for their daring assault. The Christians retaliated +by an attack on the strong and rich city of Alhama, a stronghold within +the centre of the kingdom, only a few leagues distant from the capital +itself. Strongly situated on a rocky height, with a river nearly +surrounding it and a fortress seated on a steep crag above it, and far +within the border, no dream of danger to Alhama came to the mind of the +Moors, who contented themselves with a small garrison and a negligent +guard. + +But the loss of Zahara had exasperated Ferdinand. His wars at home were +over and he had time to attend to the Moors, and scouts had brought word +of the careless security of the guard of Alhama. It could be reached by a +difficult and little-travelled route through the defiles of the mountains, +and there were possibilities that a secret and rapid march might lead to +its surprise. + +At the head of the enterprise was Don Rodrigo Ponce de Leon, Marquis of +Cadiz, the most distinguished champion in the war that followed. With a +select force of three thousand light cavalry and four thousand infantry, +adherents of several nobles who attended the expedition, the mountains +were traversed with the greatest secrecy and celerity, the marches being +made mainly by night and the troops remaining quiet and concealed during +the day. No fires were made and no noise was permitted, and midnight of +the third day found the invaders in a small, deep valley not far from the +fated town. Only now were the troops told what was in view. They had +supposed that they were on an ordinary foray. The inspiring tidings filled +them with ardor, and they demanded to be led at once to the assault. + +Two hours before daybreak the army was placed in ambush close to Alhama, +and a body of three hundred picked men set out on the difficult task of +scaling the walls of the castle and surprising its garrison. The ascent +was steep and very difficult, but they were guided by one who had +carefully studied the situation on a previous secret visit and knew what +paths to take. Following him they reached the foot of the castle walls +without discovery. + +Here, under the dark shadow of the towers, they halted and listened. There +was not a sound to be heard, not a light to be seen; sleep seemed to brood +over castle and town. The ladders were placed and the men noiselessly +ascended, Ortega, the guide, going first. The parapet reached, they moved +stealthily along its summit until they came upon a sleepy sentinel. +Seizing him by the throat, Ortega flourished a dagger before his eyes and +bade him point the way to the guard-room. The frightened Moor obeyed, and +a dagger thrust ended all danger of his giving an alarm. In a minute more +the small scaling party was in the guard-room, massacring the sleeping +garrison, while the remainder of the three hundred were rapidly ascending +to the battlements. + +Some of the awakened Moors fought desperately for their lives, the clash +of arms and cries of the combatants came loudly from the castle, and the +ambushed army, finding that the surprise had been effective, rushed from +their lurking-place with shouts and the sound of trumpets and drums, +hoping thereby to increase the dismay of the garrison. Ortega at length +fought his way to a postern, which he threw open, admitting the Marquis of +Cadiz and a strong following, who quickly overcame all opposition, the +citadel being soon in full possession of the Christians. + +While this went on the town took the alarm. The garrison had been +destroyed in the citadel, but all the Moors, citizens and soldiers alike, +were accustomed to weapons and warlike in spirit, and, looking for speedy +aid from Granada, eight leagues away, the tradesmen manned the battlements +and discharged showers of stones and arrows upon the Christians wherever +visible. The streets leading to the citadel were barricaded, and a steady +fire was maintained upon its gate, all who attempted to sally into the +city being shot down. + +It began to appear as if the Spaniards had taken too great a risk. Their +peril was great. Unless they gained the town they must soon be starved out +of the castle. Some of them declared that they could not hope to hold the +town even if they took it, and proposed to sack and burn the castle and +make good their retreat before the king of Granada could reach them with +his forces. + +This weak-hearted counsel was not to the taste of the valiant Ponce de +Leon. "God has given us the castle," he said, "and He will aid us in +holding it. We won it with bloodshed; it would be a stain upon our honor +to abandon it through fear. We knew our peril before we came; let us face +it boldly." + +His words prevailed, and the army was led to the assault, planting their +scaling-ladders against the walls and swarming up to attack the Moors upon +the ramparts. The Marquis of Cadiz, finding that the gate of the castle +was commanded by the artillery of the town, ordered a breach to be made in +the wall; and through this, sword in hand, he led a body of troops into +the town. At the same time an assault was made from every point, and the +battle raged with the greatest fury at the ramparts and in the streets. + +The Moors, who fought for life, liberty, and property, defended themselves +with desperation, fighting in the streets and from the windows and roofs +of their houses. From morning until night the contest continued; then, +overpowered, the townsmen sought shelter in a large mosque near the walls, +whence they kept up so hot a flight of arrows and lances that the +assailants dared not approach. Finally, protected by bucklers and wooden +shields, some of the soldiers succeeded in setting fire to the door of the +mosque. As the flames rolled upward the Moors, deeming that all was lost, +rushed desperately out. Many of them were killed in this final fight; the +rest surrendered as prisoners. + +The struggle was at an end; the town lay at the mercy of the Spaniards; it +was given up to plunder, and immense was the booty taken. Gold and silver, +rare jewels, rich silks, and costly goods were found in abundance; horses +and cattle, grain, oil, and honey, all the productions of the kingdom, in +fact, were there in quantities; for Alhama was the richest town in the +Moorish territory, and from its strength and situation was called the Key +of Granada. The soldiers were not content with plunder. Thinking that they +could not hold the place, they destroyed all they could not carry away. +Huge jars of oil were shattered, costly furniture was demolished, much +material of the greatest value was destroyed. In the dungeons were found +many of the Christian captives who had been taken at Zahara, and who +gladly gained their freedom again. + +The loss of Alhama was a terrible blow to the kingdom of Granada. Terror +filled the citizens of the capital when the news reached that city. Sighs +and lamentations came from all sides, the mournful ejaculation, "Woe is +me, Alhama!" was in every mouth, and this afterwards became the burden of +a plaintive ballad, "_Ay de mi, Alhama_," which remains among the gems of +Spanish poetry. + +Abul Hassan, full of wrath at the daring presumption of his foes, hastened +at the head of more than fifty thousand men against the city, driving back +a force that was marching to the aid of the Christians, attacking the +walls with the fiercest fury, and cutting off the stream upon which the +city depended for water, thus threatening the defenders with death by +thirst. Yet, though in torments, they fought with unyielding desperation, +and held their own until the duke of Medina Sidonia, a bitter enemy of the +Marquis of Cadiz in peace, but his comrade in war, came with a large army +to his aid. King Ferdinand was hastening thither with all speed, and the +Moorish monarch, after a last fierce assault upon the city, broke up his +camp and retreated in despair. From that time to the end of the contest +the Christians held the "Key of Granada," a threatening stronghold in the +heart of the land, from which they raided the vega at will, and exhausted +the resources of the kingdom. "_Ay de mi, Alhama!_" + + + + + +KING ABUL HASSAN AND THE ALCAIDE OF GIBRALTAR. + + +Muley Abul Hassan, the warlike king of Granada, weary of having his lands +raided and his towns taken, resolved to repay the Christians in kind. The +Duke of Medina Sidonia had driven him from captured Alhama. He owed this +mighty noble a grudge, and the opportunity to repay it seemed at hand. The +duke had led his forces to the aid of King Ferdinand, who was making a +foray into Moorish territory. He had left almost unguarded his +far-spreading lands, wide pasture plains covered thickly with flocks and +herds and offering a rare opportunity for a hasty foray. + +"I will give this cavalier a lesson that will cure him of his love for +campaigning," said the fierce old king. + +Leaving his port of Malaga at the head of fifteen hundred horse and six +thousand foot, the Moorish monarch followed the sea-shore route to the +border of his dominions, entering Christian territory between Gibraltar +and Castellar. There was only one man in this quarter of whom he had any +fear. This was Pedro de Vargas, governor of Gibraltar, a shrewd and +vigilant old soldier, whose daring Abul Hassan well knew, but knew also +that his garrison was too small to serve for a successful sally. + +The alert Moor, however, advanced with great caution, sending out parties +to explore every pass where an ambush might await him, since, despite his +secrecy, the news of his coming might have gone before. At length the +broken country of Castellar was traversed and the plains were reached. +Encamping on the banks of the Celemin, he sent four hundred lancers to the +vicinity of Algeciras to keep a close watch upon Gibraltar across the bay, +to attack Pedro if he sallied out, and to send word to the camp if any +movement took place. This force was four times that said to be in +Gibraltar. Remaining on the Celemin with his main body of troops, King +Hassan sent two hundred horsemen to scour the plain of Tarifa, and as many +more to the lands of Medina Sidonia, the whole district being a rich +pasture land upon which thousands of animals grazed. + +All went well. The parties of foragers came in, driving vast flocks and +herds, enough to replace those which had been swept from the vega of +Granada by the foragers of Spain. The troops on watch at Algeciras sent +word that all was quiet at Gibraltar. Satisfied that for once Pedro de +Vargas had been foiled, the old king called in his detachments and started +back in triumph with his spoils. + +He was mistaken. The vigilant governor had been advised of his movements, +but was too weak in men to leave his post. Fortunately for him, a squadron +of the armed galleys in the strait put into port, and, their commander +agreeing to take charge of Gibraltar in his absence, Pedro sallied out at +midnight with seventy of his men, bent upon giving the Moors what trouble +he could. + +Sending men to the mountain-tops, he had alarm fires kindled as a signal +to the peasants that the Moors were out and their herds in peril. Couriers +were also despatched at speed to rouse the country and bid all capable of +bearing arms to rendezvous at Castellar, a stronghold which Abul Hassan +would have to pass on his return. The Moorish king saw the fire signals +and knew well what they meant. Striking his tents, he began as hasty a +retreat as his slow-moving multitude of animals would permit. In advance +rode two hundred and fifty of his bravest men. Then came the great drove +of cattle. In the rear marched the main army, with Abul Hassan at its +head. And thus they moved across the broken country towards Castellar. + +Near that place De Vargas was on the watch, a thick and lofty cloud of +dust revealing to him the position of the Moors. A half-league of hills +and declivities separated the van and the rear of the raiding column, a +long, dense forest rising between. De Vargas saw that they were in no +position to aid each other quickly, and that something might come of a +sudden and sharp attack. Selecting the best fifty of his small force, he +made a circuit towards a place which he knew to be suitable for ambush. +Here a narrow glen opened into a defile with high, steep sides. It was the +only route open to the Moors, and he proposed to let the vanguard and the +herds pass and fall upon the rear. + +The Moors, however, were on the alert. While the Spaniards lay hidden, six +mounted scouts entered the defile and rode into the mouth of the glen, +keenly looking to right and left for a concealed enemy. They came so near +that a minute or two more must reveal to them the ambush. + +"Let us kill these men and retreat to Gibraltar," said one of the +Spaniards; "the infidels are far too many for us." + +"I have come for larger game than this," answered De Vargas, "and, by the +aid of God and Santiago, I will not go back without making my mark. I know +these Moors, and will show you how they stand a sudden charge." + +The scouts were riding deeper into the glen. The ambush could no longer be +concealed. At a quick order from De Vargas ten horsemen rushed so suddenly +upon them that four of their number were in an instant hurled to the +ground. The other two wheeled and rode back at full speed, hotly pursued +by the ten men. Their dashing pace soon brought them in sight of the +vanguard of the Moors, from which about eighty horsemen rode out to the +aid of their friends. The Spaniards turned and clattered back, with this +force in sharp pursuit. In a minute or two both parties came at a furious +rush into the glen. + +This was what De Vargas had foreseen. Bidding his trumpeter to sound, he +dashed from his concealment at the head of his men, drawn up in close +array. They were upon the Moors almost before they were seen, their +weapons making havoc in the disordered ranks. The skirmish was short and +sharp. The Moors, taken by surprise, and thrown into confusion, fell +rapidly, their ranks being soon so thinned that scarce half of them turned +in the retreat. + +"After them!" cried De Vargas. "We will have a brush with the vanguard +before the rear can come up." + +Onward after the flying Moors rode the gallant fifty, coming with such +force and fury on the advance-guard that many were overturned in the first +shock. Those behind held their own with some firmness, but their leaders, +the alcaides of Marabella and Casares, being slain, the line gave way and +fled towards the rear-guard, passing through the droves of cattle, which +they threw into utter confusion. + +Nothing further could be done. The trampling cattle had filled the air +with a blinding cloud of dust. De Vargas was badly wounded. A few minutes +might bring up the Moorish king with an overwhelming force. Despoiling the +slain, and taking with them some thirty horses, the victorious Spaniards +rode in triumph back to Castellar. + +The Moorish king, hearing the exaggerated report of the fugitives, feared +that all Xeres was up and in arms. + +"Our road is blocked," cried some of his officers. "We had better abandon +the animals and seek another route for our return." + +"Not so," cried the old king; "no true soldier gives up his booty without +a blow. Follow me; we will have a brush with these dogs of Christians." + +In hot haste he galloped onward, right through the centre of the herd, +driving the cattle to right and left. On reaching the field of battle he +found no Spaniard in sight, but dozens of his own men lay dead and +despoiled, among them the two alcaides. The sight filled the warlike old +king with rage. Confident that his foes had taken refuge in Castellar, he +rode on to that place, set fire to two houses near its walls, and sent a +shower of arrows into its streets. Pedro de Vargas was past taking to +horse, but he ordered his men to make a sally, and a sharp skirmish took +place under the walls. In the end the king drew off to the scene of the +fight, buried the dead except the alcaides, whose bodies were laid on +mules to be interred at Malaga, and, gathering the scattered herds, drove +them past the walls of Castellar by way of taunting the Christian foe. + +Yet the stern old Moorish warrior could thoroughly appreciate valor and +daring even in an enemy. + +"What are the revenues of the alcaide of Gibraltar?" he asked of two +Christian captives he had taken. + +"We know not," they replied, "except that he is entitled to one animal out +of every drove of cattle that passes his bounds." + +"Then Allah forbid that so brave a cavalier should be defrauded of his +dues." + +He gave orders to select twelve of the finest cattle from the twelve +droves that formed the herd of spoil, and directed that they should be +delivered to Pedro de Vargas. + +"Tell him," said the king, "that I beg his pardon for not sending these +cattle sooner, but have just learned they are his dues, and hasten to +satisfy them in courtesy to so worthy a cavalier. Tell him, at the same +time, that I did not know the alcaide of Gibraltar was so vigilant in +collecting his tolls." + +The soldierly pleasantry of the old king was much to the taste of the +brave De Vargas, and called for a worthy return. He bade his men deliver a +rich silken vest and a scarlet mantle to the messenger, to be presented to +the Moorish king. + +"Tell his majesty," he said, "that I kiss his hands for the honor he has +done me, and regret that my scanty force was not fitted to give him a more +signal reception. Had three hundred horsemen, whom I have been promised +from Xeres, arrived in time, I might have served him up an entertainment +more befitting his station. They may arrive during the night, in which +case his majesty, the king, may look for a royal service in the morning." + +"Allah preserve us," cried the king, on receiving this message, "from a +brush with these hard riders of Xeres! A handful of troops familiar with +these wild mountain-passes may destroy an army encumbered like ours with +booty." + +It was a relief to the king to find that De Vargas was too sorely wounded +to take the field in person. A man like him at the head of an adequate +force might have given no end of trouble. During the day the retreat was +pushed with all speed, the herds being driven with such haste that they +were frequently broken and scattered among the mountain defiles, the +result being that more than five thousand cattle were lost, being gathered +up again by the Christians. + +The king returned triumphantly to Malaga with the remainder, rejoicing in +his triumph over the Duke of Medina Sidonia, and having taught King +Ferdinand that the game of ravaging an enemy's country was one at which +two could play. + + + + + +THE RIVAL KINGS OF GRANADA. + + +"In the hand of God is the destiny of princes. He alone giveth empire," +piously says an old Arabian chronicler, and goes on with the following +story: A Moorish horseman, mounted on a fleet Arabian steed, was one day +traversing the mountains which extend between Granada and the frontier of +Murcia. He galloped swiftly through the valleys, but paused and gazed +cautiously from the summit of every height. A squadron of cavaliers +followed warily at a distance. There were fifty lances. The richness of +their armor and attire showed them to be warriors of noble rank, and their +leader had a lofty and prince-like demeanor. + +For two nights and a day the cavalcade made its way through that rugged +country, avoiding settled places and choosing the most solitary passes of +the mountains. Their hardships were severe, but campaigning was their +trade and their horses were of generous spirit. It was midnight when they +left the hills and rode through darkness and silence to the city of +Granada, under the shadows of whose high walls they passed to the gate of +the Albaycin. Here the leader ordered his followers to halt and remain +concealed. Taking four or five with him, he advanced to the gate and +struck upon it with the handle of his scimitar. + +"Who is it knocks at this unseasonable hour of the night?" demanded the +warder within. + +"Your king," was the answer. "Open and admit him." + +Opening a wicket, the warder held forth a light and looked at the man +without. Recognizing him at a glance, he opened the gate, and the +cavalier, who had feared a less favorable reception, rode in with his +followers and galloped in haste to the hill of the Albaycin, where the +new-comers knocked loudly at the doors of the principal dwellings, bidding +their tenants to rise and take arms for their lawful sovereign. The +summons was obeyed. Trumpets soon resounded in the streets; the gleam of +torches lit the dark avenues and flashed upon naked steel. From right and +left the Moors came hurrying to the rendezvous. By daybreak the whole +force of the Albaycin was under arms, ready to meet in battle the hostile +array on the opposite height of the Alhambra. + +To tell what this midnight movement meant we must go back a space in +history. The conquest of Granada was not due to Ferdinand and the +Spaniards alone. It was greatly aided by the dissensions of the Moors, who +were divided into two parties and fought bitterly with each other during +their intervals of truce with the Christians. Ferdinand won in the game +largely by a shrewd playing off of one of these factions against the other +and by taking advantage of the weakness and vacillation of the young king, +whose clandestine entrance to the city we have just seen. + +Boabdil el Chico, or Boabdil the Young, as he was called, was the son of +Muley Abul Hassan, against whom he had rebelled, and with such effect +that, after a bloody battle in the streets of the city, the old king was +driven without its walls. His tyranny had caused the people to gather +round his son. + +From that time forward there was dissension and civil war in Granada, and +the quarrels of its kings paved the way for the downfall of the state. The +country was divided into the two factions of the young and the old kings. +In the city the hill of the Albaycin, with its fortress of the Alcazaba, +was the stronghold of Boabdil, while the partisans of Abul Hassan dwelt on +the height of the Alhambra, the lower town between being the battle-ground +of the rival factions. + +The succeeding events were many, but must be told in few words. King +Boabdil, to show his prowess to the people, marched over the border to +attack the city of Lucena. As a result he was himself assailed, his army +put to the rout, and himself taken prisoner by the forces of Ferdinand of +Aragon. To regain his liberty he acknowledged himself a vassal of the +Spanish monarch, to whom he agreed to pay tribute. On his release he made +his way to the city of Granada, but his adherents were so violently +assailed by those of his father that the streets of the city ran blood, +and Boabdil the Unlucky, as he was now called, found it advisable to leave +the capital and fix his residence in Almeria, a large and splendid city +whose people were devoted to him. + +As the years went on Muley Abul Hassan became sadly stricken with age. He +grew nearly blind and was bed-ridden with paralysis. His brother Abdallah, +known as El Zagal, or "The Valiant," commander-in-chief of the Moorish +armies, assumed his duties as a sovereign, and zealously took up the +quarrel with his son. He attempted to surprise the young king at Almeria, +drove him out as a fugitive, and took possession of that city. At a later +date he endeavored to remove him by poison. It was this attempt that +spurred Boabdil to the enterprise we have just described. El Zagal was now +full king in Granada, holding the Alhambra as his palace, and his nephew, +who had been a wanderer since his flight from Almeria, was instigated to +make a bold stroke for the throne. + +On the day after the secret return of Boabdil battle raged in the streets +of Granada, a fierce encounter taking place between the two kings in the +square before the principal mosque. Hand to hand they fought with the +greatest fury till separated by the charges of their followers. + +For days the conflict went on, death and turmoil ruling in Granada, such +hatred existing between the two factions that neither side gave quarter. +Boabdil was the weaker in men. Fearing defeat in consequence, he sent a +messenger to Don Fadrique de Toledo, the Christian commander on the +border, asking for assistance. Don Fadrique had been instructed by +Ferdinand to give what aid he could to the young king, the vassal of +Spain, and responded to Boabdil's request by marching with a body of +troops to the vicinity of Granada. No sooner had Boabdil seen their +advancing banners than he sallied forth with a squadron to meet them. El +Zagal, who was equally on the alert, sallied forth at the same time, and +drew up his troops in battle array. + +The wary Don Fadrique, in doubt as to the meaning of this double movement, +and fearing treachery, halted at a safe distance, and drew off for the +night to a secure situation. Early the next morning a Moorish cavalier +approached the sentinels and asked for an audience with Don Fadrique, as +an envoy from El Zagal. The Christian troops, he said on behalf of the old +king, had come to aid his nephew, but he was ready to offer them an +alliance on better terms than those of Boabdil. Don Fadrique listened +courteously to the envoy, but for better assurance, determined to send a +representative to El Zagal himself, under protection of a flag. For this +purpose he selected Don Juan de Vera, one of the most intrepid and +discreet of his cavaliers, who had in years before been sent by King +Ferdinand on a mission to the Alhambra. + +Don Juan, on reaching the palace, was well received by the old king, +holding an interview with him which extended so far into the night that it +was too late to return to camp, and he was lodged in a sumptuous apartment +of the Alhambra. In the morning he was approached by one of the Moorish +courtiers, a man given to jest and satire, who invited him to take part in +a ceremony in the palace mosque. This invitation, given in jest, was +received by the punctilious Catholic knight in earnest, and he replied, +with stern displeasure,-- + + [Illustration: KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA.] + + KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA. + + +"The servants of Queen Isabella of Castile, who bear on their armor the +cross of St. Iago, never enter the temples of Mohammed, except to level +them to the earth and trample on them." + +This discourteous reply was repeated by the courtier to a renegade, who, +having newly adopted the Moorish faith, was eager to show his devotion to +the Moslem creed, and proposed to engage the hot-tempered Catholic knight +in argument. Seeking Don Juan, they found him playing chess with the +alcaide of the palace, and the renegade at once began to comment on the +Christian religion in uncomplimentary terms. Don Juan was quick to anger, +but he restrained himself, and replied, with grave severity,-- + +"You would do well to cease talking about what you do not understand." + +The renegade and his jesting companion replied in a series of remarks +intended as wit, though full of insolence, Don Juan fuming inwardly as he +continued to play. In the end they went too far, the courtier making an +obscene comparison between the Virgin Mary and Amina, the mother of +Mohammed. In an instant the old knight sprang up, white with rage, and +dashing aside chess-board and chessmen. Drawing his sword, he dealt such a +"_hermosa cuchillada_" ("handsome slash") across the head of the offending +Moor as to stretch him bleeding on the floor. The renegade fled in terror, +rousing the echoes of the palace with his outcries and stirring up guards +and attendants, who rushed into the room where the irate Christian stood +sword in hand defying Mohammed and his hosts. The alarm quickly reached +the ears of the king, who hurried to the scene, his appearance at once +restoring order. On hearing from the alcaide the cause of the affray, he +acted with becoming dignity, ordering the guards from the room and +directing that the renegade should be severely punished for daring to +infringe the hospitality of the palace and insult an embassador. + +Don Juan, his quick fury evaporated, sheathed his sword, thanked the king +for his courtesy, and proposed a return to the camp. But this was not easy +of accomplishment. A garbled report of the tumult in the palace had spread +to the streets, where it was rumored that Christian spies had been +introduced into the palace with treasonable intent. In a brief time +hundreds of the populace were in arms and thronging about the gate of +Justice of the Alhambra, where they loudly demanded the death of all +Christians in the palace and of all who had introduced them. + +It was impossible for Don Juan to leave the palace by the route he had +followed on his arrival. The infuriated mob would have torn him to pieces. +But it was important that he should depart at once. All that El Zagal +could do was to furnish him with a disguise, a swift horse, and an escort, +and to let him out of the Alhambra by a private gate. This secret mode of +departure was not relished by the proud Spaniard, but life was just then +of more value than dignity, as he appreciated when, in Moorish dress, he +passed through crowds who were thirsting for his blood. A gate of the city +was at length reached, and Don Juan and his escort rode quietly out. But +he was no sooner on the open plain than he spurred his horse to its speed, +and did not draw rein until the banners of Don Fadrique waved above his +head. + +Don Fadrique heard with much approval of the boldness of his envoy. His +opinion of Don Juan's discretion he kept to himself. He rewarded him with +a valuable horse, and wrote a letter of thanks to El Zagal for his +protection to his emissary. Queen Isabella, on learning how stoutly the +knight had stood up for the chastity of the Blessed Virgin, was highly +delighted, and conferred several distinctions of honor upon the cavalier +besides presenting him with three hundred thousand maravedis. + +The outcome of the advances of the two kings was that Don Fadrique chose +Boabdil as his ally, and sent him a reinforcement of foot-soldiers and +arquebusiers. This introduction of Christians into the city rekindled the +flames of war, and it continued to rage in the streets for the space of +fifty days. + +The result of the struggle between the two kings may be briefly told. +While they contended for supremacy Ferdinand of Aragon invaded their +kingdom with a large army and marched upon the great seaport of Malaga. El +Zagal sought an accommodation with Boabdil, that they might unite their +forces against the common foe, but the short-sighted young man spurned his +overtures with disdain. El Zagal then, the better patriot of the two, +marched himself against the Christian host, hoping to surprise them in the +passes of the mountains and perhaps capture King Ferdinand himself. +Unluckily for him, his well-laid plan was discovered by the Christians, +who attacked and defeated him, his troops flying in uncontrollable +disorder. + +The news of this disaster reached Granada before him and infuriated the +people, who closed their gates and threatened the defeated king from the +walls. Nothing remained to El Zagal but to march to Almeria and establish +his court in that city in which Boabdil had formerly reigned. Thus the +positions of the rival kings became reversed. From that time forward the +kingdom of Granada was divided into two, and the work of conquest by the +Christians was correspondingly reduced. + + + + + +THE KNIGHT OF THE EXPLOITS. + + +The dull monotony of sieges, of which there were many during the war with +Granada, was little to the taste of the valorous Spanish cavaliers. They +burned for adventure, and were ever ready for daring exploits, the more +welcome the more dangerous they promised to be. One day during the siege +of Baza, a strong city in El Zagal's dominions, two of these spirited +young cavaliers, Francisco de Bazan and Antonio de Cueva, were seated on +the ramparts of the siege works, bewailing the dull life to which they +were confined. They were overheard by a veteran scout, who was familiar +with the surrounding country. + +"Seors," he said, "if you pine for peril and profit and are eager to +pluck the beard of the fiery old Moorish king, I can lead you where you +will have a fine opportunity to prove your valor. There are certain +hamlets not far from the walls of El Zagal's city of Guadix where rich +booty awaits the daring raider. I can lead you there by a way that will +enable you to take them by surprise; and if you are as cool in the head as +you are hot in the spur you may bear off spoils from under the very eyes +of the king of the Moors." + +He had struck the right vein. The youths were at once hot for the +enterprise. To win booty from the very gates of Guadix was a stirring +scheme, and they quickly found others of their age as eager as themselves +for the daring adventure. In a short time they had enrolled a body of +nearly three hundred horse and two hundred foot, well armed and equipped, +and every man of them ready for the road. + +The force obtained, the raiders left the camp early one evening, keeping +their destination secret, and made their way by starlight through the +mountain passes, led by the _adalid_, or guide. Pressing rapidly onward by +day and night, they reached the hamlets one morning just before daybreak, +and fell on them suddenly, making prisoners of the inhabitants, sacking +the houses, and sweeping the fields of their grazing herds. Then, without +taking a moment to rest, they set out with all speed for the mountains, +which they hoped to reach before the country could be roused. + +Several of the herdsmen had escaped and fled to Guadix, where they told El +Zagal of the daring ravage. Wild with rage at the insult, the old king at +once sent out six hundred of his choicest horse and foot, with orders for +swift pursuit, bidding them to recover the booty and bring him as +prisoners the insolent marauders. The Christians, weary with their two +days and nights of hard marching, were driving the captured cattle and +sheep up a mountainside, when, looking back, they saw a great cloud of +dust upon their trail. Soon they discerned the turbaned host, evidently +superior to them in number, and man and horse in fresh condition. + +"They are too much for us," cried some of the horsemen. "It would be +madness in our worn-out state to face a fresh force of that number. We +shall have to let the cattle go and seek safety in flight." + +"What!" cried Antonio and Francisco, their leaders; "abandon our prey +without a blow? Desert our foot-soldiers and leave them to the enemy? Did +any of you think El Zagal would let us off without a brush? You do not +give good Spanish counsel, for every soldier knows that there is less +danger in presenting our faces than our backs to the foe, and fewer men +are killed in a brave advance than in a cowardly retreat." + +Some of the cavaliers were affected by these words, but the mass of the +party were chance volunteers, who received no pay and had nothing to gain +by risking their lives. Consequently, as the enemy came near, the +diversity of opinions grew into a tumult, and confusion reigned. The +captains ordered the standard-bearer to advance against the Moors, +confident that any true soldiers would follow his banner. He hesitated to +obey; the turmoil increased; in a moment more the horsemen might be in +full flight. + +At this critical juncture a horseman of the royal guards rode forward,--the +good knight Hernan Perez del Pulgar, governor of the fortress of Salar. +Taking off the handkerchief which, in the Andalusian fashion, he wore +round his head, he tied it to a lance and raised it in the air. + +"Comrades," he cried, "why do you load yourself with arms if you trust for +safety to your feet? We shall see who among you are the brave men and who +are the cowards. If it is a standard you want, here is mine. Let the man +who has the heart to fight follow this handkerchief." + +Waving his improvised banner, he spurred against the Moors. Many followed +him. Those who at first held back soon joined the advance. With one accord +the whole body rushed with shouts upon the enemy. The Moors, who were now +close at hand, were seized with surprise and alarm at this sudden charge. +The foremost files turned and fled in panic, followed by the others, and +pursued by the Christians, who cut them down without a blow in return. +Soon the whole body was in full flight. Several hundred of the Moors were +killed and their bodies despoiled, many were taken prisoners, and the +Christians returned in triumph to the army, driving their long array of +cattle and sheep and of mules laden with booty, and bearing in their front +the standard under which they had fought. + +King Ferdinand was so delighted with this exploit, and in particular with +the gallant action of Perez del Pulgar, that he conferred knighthood upon +the latter with much ceremony, and authorized him to bear upon his +escutcheon a golden lion in an azure field, showing a lance with a +handkerchief at its point. Round its border were to be depicted the eleven +alcaides defeated in the battle. This heroic deed was followed by so many +others during the wars with the Moors that Perez del Pulgar became in time +known by the flattering appellation of "He of the exploits." + +The most famous exploit of this daring knight took place during the siege +of Granada,--the final operation of the long war. Here single combats and +minor skirmishes between Christian and Moorish cavaliers were of almost +daily occurrence, until Ferdinand strictly forbade all such tilts, as he +saw that they gave zeal and courage to the Moors, and were attended with +considerable loss of life among his bravest followers. + +This edict of the king was very distasteful to the fiery Moorish knights, +who declared that the crafty Christian wished to destroy chivalry and put +an end to heroic valor. They did their best to provoke the Spanish knights +to combat, galloping on their fleet steeds close to the borders of the +camp and hurling their lances over the barriers, each lance bearing the +name of its owner with some defiant message. But despite the irritation +caused by these insults to the Spanish knights, none of them ventured to +disobey the mandate of the king. + +Chief among these Moorish cavaliers was one named Tarfe, a man of fierce +and daring spirit and a giant in size, who sought to surpass his fellows +in acts of audacity. In one of his sallies towards the Christian camp this +bold cavalier leaped his steed over the barrier, galloped inward close to +the royal quarters, and launched his spear with such strength that it +quivered in the earth close to the tents of the sovereigns. The royal +guards rushed out, but Tarfe was already far away, scouring the plain on +his swift Barbary steed. On examining the lance it was found to bear a +label indicating that it was intended for the queen, who was present in +the camp. + +This bravado and the insult offered Queen Isabella excited the highest +indignation among the Christian warriors. "Shall we let this insolent +fellow outdo us?" said Perez del Pulgar, who was present. "I propose to +teach these insolent Moors a lesson. Who will stand by me in an enterprise +of desperate peril?" The warriors knew Pulgar well enough to be sure that +his promise of peril was likely to be kept, yet all who heard him were +ready to volunteer. Out of them he chose fifteen,--men whom he knew he +could trust for strength of arm and valor of heart. + +His proposed enterprise was indeed a perilous one. A Moorish renegade had +agreed to guide him into the city by a secret pass. Once within, they were +to set fire to the Alcaiceria and others of the principal buildings, and +then escape as best they could. + +At dead of night they set out, provided with the necessary combustibles. +Their guide led them up a channel of the river Darro, until they halted +under a bridge near the royal gate. Here Pulgar stationed six of his +followers on guard, bidding them to keep silent and motionless. With the +others he made his way up a drain of the stream which passed under a part +of the city and opened into the streets. All was dark and silent. Not a +soul moved. The renegade, at the command of Pulgar, led the adventurers to +the principal mosque. Here the pious cavalier drew from under his cloak a +parchment inscribed in large letters with AVE MARIA, and nailed this to +the door of the mosque, thus dedicating the heathen temple to the Virgin +Mary. + +They now hurried to the Alcaiceria, where the combustibles were placed +ready to fire. Not until this moment was it discovered that the +torch-bearer had carelessly left his torch at the door of the mosque. It +was too late to return. Pulgar sought to strike fire with flint and steel, +but while doing so the Moorish guard came upon them in its rounds. Drawing +his sword and followed by his comrades, the bold Spaniard made a fierce +assault upon the astonished Moors, quickly putting them to flight. But the +enterprise was at an end. The alarm was given and soldiers were soon +hurrying in every direction through the streets. Guided by the renegade, +Pulgar and his companions hastened to the drain by which they had entered, +plunged into it, and reached their companions under the bridge. Here +mounting their horses, they rode back to the camp. + +The Moors were at a loss to imagine the purpose of this apparently +fruitless enterprise, but wild was their exasperation the next morning +when they found the "Ave Maria" on the door of a mosque in the centre of +their city. The mosque thus sanctified by Perez del Pulgar was actually +converted into a Christian cathedral after the capture of the city. + +We have yet to describe the sequel of this exploit. On the succeeding day +a powerful train left the Christian camp and advanced towards the city +walls. In its centre were the king and queen, the prince and princesses, +and the ladies of the court, surrounded by the royal body-guard,--a richly +dressed troop, composed of the sons of the most illustrious families of +Spain. The Moors gazed with wonder upon this rare pageant, which moved in +glittering array across the vega to the sound of martial music; a host +brilliant with banners and plumes, shining arms and shimmering silks, for +the court and the army moved there hand in hand. Queen Isabella had +expressed a wish to see, nearer at hand, a city whose beauty was of +world-wide renown, and the Marquis of Cadiz had drawn out this powerful +escort that she might be gratified in her desire. The queen had her wish, +but hundreds of men died that she might be pleased. + +While the royal dame and her ladies were gazing with delight on the red +towers of the Alhambra, rising in rich contrast through the green verdure +of their groves, a large force of Moorish cavalry poured from the city +gates, ready to accept the gage of battle which the Christians seemed to +offer. The first to come were a host of richly armed and gayly attired +light cavalry, mounted on fleet and fiery Barbary steeds. Heavily armed +cavalry followed, and then a strong force of foot-soldiers, until an army +was drawn up on the plain. Queen Isabella saw this display with disquiet, +and forbade an attack upon the enemy, or even a skirmish, as it would pain +her if a single warrior should lose his life through the indulgence of her +curiosity. + +As a result, though the daring Moorish horsemen rode fleetly along the +Christian front, brandishing their lances, and defying the cavaliers to +mortal combat, not a Spaniard stirred. The cavaliers were under the eyes +of Ferdinand, by whom such duels had been strictly forbidden. At length, +however, they were incensed beyond their powers of resistance. Forth from +the city rode a stalwart Moorish horseman, clad in steel armor, and +bearing a huge buckler and a ponderous lance. His device showed him to be +the giant warrior Tarfe, the daring infidel who had flung his lance at the +queen's tent. As he rode out he was followed by the shouts and laughter of +a mob, and when he came within full view of the Spanish army the cavaliers +saw, with indignant horror, tied to his horse's tail and dragging in the +dust, the parchment with its inscription of "Ave Maria" which Hernan Perez +del Pulgar had nailed to the door of the mosque. + +This insult was more than Castilian flesh and blood could bear. Hernan was +not present to maintain his deed, but Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the +young companions of his exploit, galloped to the king and earnestly begged +permission to avenge the degrading insult to their holy faith. The king, +who was as indignant as the knight, gave the desired permission, and +Garcilasso, closing his visor and grasping his spear, rode out before the +ranks and defied the Moor to combat to the death. + +Tarfe asked nothing better, and an exciting passage at arms took place on +the plain with the two armies as witnesses. Tarfe was the stronger of the +two, and the more completely armed. He was skilled in the use of his +weapons and dexterous in managing his horse, and the Christians trembled +for their champion. + +The warriors met in mid career with a furious shock. Their lances were +shivered, and Garcilasso was borne back in his saddle. But his horse +wheeled away and he was quickly firm in his seat again, sword in hand. +Sword against scimitar, the combatants returned to the encounter. The Moor +rode a trained horse, that obeyed his every signal. Round the Christian he +circled, seeking some opening for a blow. But the smaller size of +Garcilasso was made equal by greater agility. Now he parried a blow with +his sword, now he received a furious stroke on his shield. Each of the +combatants before many minutes felt the edge of the steel, and their blood +began to flow. + +At length the Moor, thinking his antagonist exhausted, rushed in and +grappled with him, using all his force to fling him from his horse. +Garcilasso grasped him in return with all his strength, and they fell +together to the earth, the Moor uppermost. Placing his knee on the breast +of the Spaniard, Tarfe drew his dagger and brandished it above his throat. +Terror filled the Christian ranks; a shout of triumph rose from those of +the Moors. But suddenly Tarfe was seen to loosen his grasp and roll over +in the dust. Garcilasso had shortened his sword and, as Tarfe raised his +arm, had struck him to the heart. + +The rules of chivalry were rigidly observed. No one interfered on either +side. Garcilasso despoiled his victim, raised the inscription "Ave Maria" +on the point of his sword, and bore it triumphantly back, amid shouts of +triumph from the Christian army. + +By this time the passions of the Moors were so excited that they could not +be restrained. They made a furious charge upon the Spanish host, driving +in its advanced ranks. The word to attack was given the Spaniards in +return, the war-cry "Santiago!" rang along the line, and in a short time +both armies were locked in furious combat. The affair ended in a repulse +of the Moors, the foot-soldiers taking to flight, and the cavalry vainly +endeavoring to rally them. They were pursued to the gates of the city, +more than two thousand of them being killed, wounded, or taken prisoners +in "the queen's skirmish," as the affair came to be called. + + + + + +THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR. + + +In 1492, nearly eight centuries after the conquest of Spain by the Arabs, +their dominion ended in the surrender of the city of Granada by King +Boabdil to the army of Ferdinand and Isabella. The empire of the Arab +Moors had shrunk, year by year and century by century, before the steady +advance of the Christians, until only the small kingdom of Granada +remained. This, distracted by anarchy within and assailed by King +Ferdinand with all the arts of statecraft and all the strength of arms, +gradually decreased in dimensions, city after city, district after +district, being lost, until only the single city of Granada remained. + +This populous and powerful city would have proved very difficult to take +by the ordinary methods of war, and could only have been subdued with +great loss of life and expenditure of treasure. Ferdinand assailed it by a +less costly and more exasperating method. Granada subsisted on the broad +and fertile vega or plain surrounding it, a region marvellously productive +in grain and fruits and rich in cattle and sheep. It was a cold-blooded +and cruel system adopted by the Spanish monarch. He assailed the city +through the vega. Disregarding the city, he marched his army into the +plain at the time of harvest and so thoroughly destroyed its growing crops +that the smiling and verdant expanse was left a scene of frightful +desolation. This was not accomplished without sharp reprisals by the +Moors, but the Spaniard persisted until he had converted the fruitful +paradise into a hopeless desert, and then marched away, leaving the +citizens to a winter of despair. + +The next year he came again, encamped his army near the city, destroyed +what little verdure remained near its walls, and waited calmly until +famine and anarchy should force the citizens to yield. He attempted no +siege. It was not necessary. He could safely trust to his terrible allies. +The crowded city held out desperately while the summer passed and autumn +moved on to winter's verge, and then, with famine stalking through their +streets and invading their homes, but one resource remained to the +citizens,--surrender. + +Ferdinand did not wish to distress too deeply the unhappy people. To +obtain possession of the city on any terms was the one thought then in his +mind. Harshness could come later, if necessary. Therefore, on the 25th of +November, 1492, articles of capitulation were signed, under which the +Moors of Granada were to retain all their possessions, be protected in +their religious exercises, and governed by their own laws, which were to +be administered by their own officials; the one unwelcome proviso being +that they should become subjects of Spain. To Boabdil were secured all his +rich estates and the patrimony of the crown, while he was to receive in +addition thirty thousand castellanos in gold. Excellent terms, one would +say, in view of the fact that Granada was at the mercy of Ferdinand, and +might soon have been obliged to surrender unconditionally. + +On the night preceding the surrender doleful lamentations filled the halls +of the Alhambra, for the household of Boabdil were bidding a last farewell +to that delightful abode. The most precious effects were hastily packed +upon mules, and with tears and wailings the rich hangings and ornaments of +the beautiful apartments were removed. Day had not yet dawned when a +sorrowful cavalcade moved through an obscure postern gate of the palace +and wound through a retired quarter of the city. It was the family of the +deposed monarch, which he had sent off thus early to save them from +possible scoffs and insults. + +The sun had barely risen when three signal-guns boomed from the heights of +the Alhambra, and the Christian army began its march across the vega. To +spare the feelings of the citizens it was decided that the city should not +be entered by its usual gates, and a special road had been opened leading +to the Alhambra. + +At the head of the procession moved the king and queen, with the prince +and princesses and the dignitaries and ladies of the court, attended by +the royal guards in their rich array. This cortege halted at the village +of Armilla, a league and a half from the city. Meanwhile, Don Pedro +Gonzalez de Mendoza, Grand Cardinal of Spain, with an escort of three +thousand foot and a troop of cavalry, proceeded towards the Alhambra to +take possession of that noblest work of the Moors. At their approach +Boabdil left the palace by a postern gate attended by fifty cavaliers, and +advanced to meet the grand cardinal, whom, in words of mournful +renunciation, he bade to take possession of the royal fortress of the +Moors. Then he passed sadly onward to meet the sovereigns of Spain, who +had halted awaiting his approach, while the army stood drawn up on the +broad plain. + +As the Spaniards waited in anxious hope, all eyes fixed on the Alhambra +heights, they saw the silver cross, the great standard of this crusade, +rise upon the great watch-tower, where it sparkled in the sunbeams, while +beside it floated the pennon of St. James, at sight of which a great shout +of "Santiago! Santiago!" rose from the awaiting host. Next rose the royal +standard, amid resounding cries of "Castile! Castile! For King Ferdinand +and Queen Isabella." The sovereigns sank upon their knees, giving thanks +to God for their great victory, the whole army followed their example, and +the choristers of the royal chapel broke forth into the solemn anthem of +"_Te Deum laudamus_." + +Ferdinand now advanced to a point near the banks of the Xenil, where he +was met by the unfortunate Boabdil. As the Moorish king approached he made +a movement to dismount, which Ferdinand prevented. He then offered to kiss +the king's hand. This homage also, as previously arranged, was declined, +whereupon Boabdil leaned forward and kissed the king's right arm. He then +with a resigned mien delivered the keys of the city. + +"These keys," he said, "are the last relics of the Arabian empire in +Spain. Thine, O king, are our trophies, our kingdom, and our person. Such +is the will of God! Receive them with the clemency thou hast promised, and +which we look for at thy hands." + + [Illustration: MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE.] + + MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE. + + +"Doubt not our promises," said Ferdinand, kindly, "nor that thou shalt +regain from our friendship the prosperity of which the fortune of war has +deprived thee." + +Then drawing from his finger a gold ring set with a precious stone, +Boabdil presented it to the Count of Tendilla, who, he was informed, was +to be governor of the city, saying,-- + +"With this ring Granada has been governed. Take it and govern with it, and +God make you more fortunate than I." + +He then proceeded to the village of Armilla, where Queen Isabella +remained. She received him with the utmost courtesy and graciousness, and +delivered to him his son, who had been held as a hostage for the +fulfilment of the capitulation. Boabdil pressed the child tenderly to his +bosom, and moved on until he had joined his family, from whom and their +attendants the shouts and strains of music of the victorious army drew +tears and moans. + +At length the weeping train reached the summit of an eminence about two +leagues distant which commanded the last view of Granada. Here they paused +for a look of farewell at the beautiful and beloved city, whose towers and +minarets gleamed brightly before them in the sunshine. While they still +gazed a peal of artillery, faint with distance, told them that the city +was taken possession of and was lost to the Moorish kings forever. Boabdil +could no longer contain himself. + +"Allah achbar! God is great!" he murmured, tears accompanying his words of +resignation. + +His mother, a woman of intrepid soul, was indignant at this display of +weakness. + +"You do well," she cried, "to weep like a woman for what you failed to +defend like a man." + +Others strove to console the king, but his tears were not to be +restrained. + +"Allah achbar!" he exclaimed again; "when did misfortunes ever equal +mine?" + +The hill where this took place afterwards became known as Feg Allah +Achbar; but the point of view where Boabdil obtained the last prospect of +Granada is called by the Spaniards "_El ultimo suspiro del Moro_" or "The +last sigh of the Moor." + +As Boabdil thus took his last look at beautiful Granada, it behooves us to +take a final backward glance at Arabian Spain, from whose history we have +drawn so much of interest and romance. In this hospitable realm +civilization dwelt when few traces of it existed elsewhere. Here luxury +reigned while barbarism prevailed widely in Europe. We are told that in +Cordova a man might walk ten miles by the light of the public lamps, while +centuries afterwards there was not a single public lamp in London streets. +Its avenues were solidly paved, while centuries afterwards the people of +Paris, on rainy days, stepped from their door-sills into mud ankle-deep. +The dwellings were marked by beauty and luxury, while the people of +Europe, as a rule in that semi-barbaric period, dwelt in miserable huts, +dressed in leather, and lived on the rudest and least nutritive food. + +The rulers of France, England, and Germany lived in rude buildings without +chimneys or windows, with a hole in the roof for the smoke to escape, at a +time when the royal halls of Arabian Spain were visions of grace and +beauty. The residences of the Arabs had marble balconies overhanging +orange-gardens; their floors and walls were frequently of rich and +graceful mosaic; fountains gushed in their courts, quicksilver often +taking the place of water, and falling in a glistening spray. In summer +cool air was drawn into the apartments through ventilating towers; in +winter warm and perfumed air was discharged through hidden passages. From +the ceilings, corniced with fretted gold, great chandeliers hung. Here +were clusters of frail marble columns, which, in the boudoirs of the +sultanas, gave way to verd-antique incrusted with lapis lazuli. The +furniture was of sandal- or citron-wood, richly inlaid with gold, silver, +or precious minerals. Tapestry hid the walls, Persian carpets covered the +floors, pillows and couches of elegant forms were spread about the rooms. +Great care was given to bathing and personal cleanliness at a time when +such a thought had not dawned upon Christian Europe. Their +pleasure-gardens were of unequalled beauty, and were rich with flowers and +fruits. In short, in this brief space it is impossible to give more than a +bare outline of the marvellous luxury which surrounded this people, +recently come from the deserts of Arabia, at a time when most of the +remainder of Europe was plunged into the rudest barbarism. + +Much might be said of their libraries, their universities, their scholars +and scientists, and the magnificence of their architecture, of which +abundant examples still remain in the cities of Spain, the Alhambra of +Granada, the palace which Boabdil so reluctantly left, being almost +without an equal for lightness, grace, and architectural beauty in the +cities of the world. Well might the dethroned monarch look back with +bitter regret upon this rarest monument of the Arabian civilization and +give vent, in farewell to its far-seen towers, to "The last sigh of the +Moor." + + + + + +THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS. + + +In the spring succeeding the fall of Granada there came to Spain a glory +and renown that made her the envy of all the nations of Europe. During the +year before an Italian mariner, Christopher Columbus by name, after long +haunting the camp and court of Ferdinand and Isabella, had been sent out +with a meagre expedition in the forlorn hope of discovering new lands +beyond the seas. In March, 1493, extraordinary tidings spread through the +kingdom and reached the ears of the monarchs at their court in Barcelona. +The tidings were that the poor and despised mariner had returned to Palos +with wonderful tales of the discovery of a vast, rich realm beyond the +seas,--a mighty new empire for Spain. + +The marvellous news set the whole kingdom wild with joy. The ringing of +bells and solemn thanksgivings welcomed Columbus at the port from which he +had set sail. On his journey to the king's court his progress was impeded +by the multitudes who thronged to see the suddenly famous man,--the humble +mariner who had discovered for Spain what every one already spoke of as a +"New World." With him he brought several of the bronze-hued natives of +that far land, dressed in their simple island costume, and decorated, as +they passed through the principal cities, with collars, bracelets, and +other ornaments of gold. He exhibited, also, gold in dust and in shapeless +masses, many new plants, some of them of high medicinal value, several +animals never before seen in Europe, and birds whose brilliant plumage +attracted glances of delight from all eyes. + +It was mid-April when Columbus reached Barcelona. The nobility and knights +of the court met him in splendid array and escorted him to the royal +presence through the admiring throngs that filled the streets. Ferdinand +and Isabella, with their son, Prince John, awaited his arrival seated +under a superb canopy of state. On the approach of the discoverer they +rose and extended their hands to him to kiss, not suffering him to kneel +in homage. Instead, they bade him seat himself before them,--a mark of +condescension to a person of his rank unknown before in the haughty court +of Castile. He was, at that moment, "the man whom the king delighted to +honor," and it was the proudest period in his life when, having proved +triumphantly all for which he had so long contended, he was honored as the +equal of the proud monarchs of Spain. + +At the request of the sovereigns Columbus gave them a brief account of his +adventures, in a dignified tone, that warmed with enthusiasm as he +proceeded. He described the various tropical islands he had landed upon, +spoke with favor of their delightful climate and the fertility of their +soil, and exhibited the specimens he had brought as examples of their +fruitfulness. He dwelt still more fully upon their wealth in the precious +metals, of which he had been assured by the natives, and offered the gold +he brought with him as evidence. Lastly, he expatiated on the opportunity +offered for the extension of the Christian religion through lands populous +with pagans,--a suggestion which appealed strongly to the Spanish heart. +When he ceased the king and queen, with all present, threw themselves on +their knees and gave thanks to God, while the solemn strains of the _Te +Deum_ were poured forth by the choir of the royal chapel. + + [Illustration: RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.] + + RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. + + +Throughout his residence in Barcelona Columbus continued to receive the +most honorable distinction from the Spanish sovereigns. When Ferdinand +rode abroad the admiral rode by his side. Isabella, the true promoter of +his expedition, treated him with the most gracious consideration. The +courtiers, emulating their sovereigns, gave frequent entertainments in his +honor, treating him with the punctilious deference usually shown only to a +noble of the highest rank. It cannot be said, however, that envy at the +high distinction shown this lately obscure and penniless adventurer was +quite concealed, and at one of these entertainments is said to have taken +place the famous episode of the egg. + +A courtier of shallow wit, with the purpose of throwing discredit on the +achievement of Columbus, intimated that it was not so great an exploit +after all; all that was necessary was to sail west a certain number of +days; the lands lay there waiting to be discovered. Were there not other +men in Spain, he asked, capable of this? + +The response of Columbus was to take an egg and ask those present to make +it stand upright on its end. After they had tried and failed he struck the +egg on the table, cracking the shell and giving it a base on which to +stand. + +"But anybody could do that!" cried the critic. + +"Yes; and anybody can become a discoverer when once he has been shown the +way," retorted Columbus. "It is easy to follow in a known track." + +By this time all Europe had heard of the brilliant discovery of the +Genoese mariner, and everywhere admiration at his achievement and interest +in its results were manifested. Europe had never been so excited by any +single event. The world was found to be larger than had been dreamed of, +and it was evident that hundreds of new things remained to be known. Word +came to Barcelona that King John of Portugal was equipping a large +armament to obtain a share of the new realms in the west, and all haste +was made to anticipate this dangerous rival by sending Columbus again to +the New World. + +On the 25th of September, 1493, he set sail with a gallant armament, which +quite threw into the shade his three humble caravels of the year before. +It consisted of seventeen vessels, some of them of large size for that +day, and fifteen hundred souls, including several persons of rank, and +members of the royal household. Many of those that had taken part in the +Moorish war, stimulated by the love of adventure, were to win fame in the +coming years in the conquest of the alluring realms of the West, and the +earliest of these sailed now under the banner of the Great Admiral. + +The story of Columbus is too familiar to readers for more to be said of it +here. It was one in which the boasted honor of the Spanish court was +replaced by injustice and lack of good faith. Envy and malice surrounded +the discoverer, and in 1500 he was sent home in chains by an infamous +governor. The king, roused by a strong display of public indignation, +disavowed the base act of his agent, and received Columbus again with a +show of favor, but failed to reinstate him in the office of which he had +been unjustly deprived. The discoverer of America died at Valladolid in +1506, giving directions that the fetters which he had once worn, and which +he had kept as evidence of Spanish ingratitude, should be buried with him. + + + + + +PETER THE CRUEL AND THE FREE COMPANIES. + + +About the middle of the year 1365 a formidable expedition set out from +France for the invasion of Castile. It consisted of the celebrated Free +Companies, marauding bands of French and English knights and archers whose +allegiance was to the sword, and who, having laid waste France, now sought +fresh prey in Spain. Valiant and daring were these reckless freebooters, +bred to war, living on rapine, battle their delight, revel their +relaxation. For years the French and English Free Companies had been +enemies. Now a truce existed between their princes, and they had joined +hands under the leadership of the renowned knight Bertrand du Guesclin, at +that time the most famous soldier of France. Sir Hugh de Calverley headed +the English bands, known as the White Company, and made up largely of +men-at-arms, that is, of heavy armed horsemen; but with a strong +contingent of the formidable English archers. The total force comprised +more than twelve thousand men. + +"You lead the life of robbers," said Du Guesclin to them. "Every day you +risk your lives in forays, which yield you more blows than booty. I come +to propose an enterprise worthy of gallant knights and to open to you a +new field of action. In Spain both glory and profit await you. You will +there find a rich and avaricious king who possesses great treasures, and +is the ally of the Saracens; in fact, is half a pagan himself. We propose +to conquer his kingdom and to bestow it on the Count of Trastamara, an old +comrade of yours, a good lance, as you all know, and a gentle and generous +knight, who will share with you his land when you win it for him from the +Jews and Moslems of that wicked king, Don Pedro. Come, comrades, let us +honor God and shame the devil." + +The Free Companies were ready at a word to follow his banner. Among them +were many knights of noble birth who valued glory above booty, and looked +upon it as a worthy enterprise to dethrone a cruel and wicked king, the +murderer of his queen. As for the soldiers, they cared not against whom +they fought, if booty was to be had. + +"Messire Bertrand," they said, "gives all that he wins to his men-at-arms. +He is the father of the soldier. Let us march with him." + +And so the bargain was made and the Free Companies marched away, light of +heart and strong of hand, with a promising goal before them, and a chance +of abundance of fighting before they would see their homes again. + +Peter the Cruel, King of Castile and Leon, amply deserved to be dethroned. +His reign had been one of massacre. All whom he suspected died by the +dagger of the assassin. He bitterly hated his two half-brothers, Fadrique +and Henry. Fadrique he enticed to his court by a show of friendship, and +then had him brutally murdered at the gate of his palace, the Alcazar of +Seville. But his treatment of his queen was what made him specially odious +to his people. He married a French princess, Blanche of Bourbon, but +deserted her after two days to return to his mistress, Maria de Pedilla. +Blanche was taken to Toledo, where she was so closely confined that the +people rose and rescued her from the king's guards. Peter marched in anger +against the city, but its people defied him and kept the queen. Then the +crafty villain pretended sorrow and asked for a reconciliation. The queen +consented, went back to him, and was quickly imprisoned in a strong +fortress, where she was murdered by his orders in 1361. + +It was this shameful act and the murder of his brother Fadrique that +roused the people to insurrection. Henry of Trastamara, the remaining +brother, headed a revolt against the tyrant and invited the Free Companies +to his aid. These were the circumstances that gave rise to the march of Du +Guesclin and Calverley and their battle-loving bands. + +The adventurers wore crosses on their vests and banners, as though they +were a company of crusaders raised in the service of the church. But in +truth they were under the ban of excommunication, for they had no more +spared the church than the castle or the cottage. Du Guesclin, determined +to relieve them from this ban and force the Pope to grant them absolution, +directed his march upon Avignon, the papal residence in France. It was not +only absolution he wanted. The papal coffers were full; his military chest +was empty; his soldiers would not remain tractable unless well paid; the +church should have the privilege of aiding the army. + +It was with dismay that the people of Avignon beheld the White Company +encamp before their ramparts, late in the year 1365. An envoy from the +Pope was sent in haste to their camp, with a promise from the Holy Father +that he would remove the ban of excommunication if they would evacuate the +territory of the Church. The envoy's mission was a dangerous one, for the +fierce Free Companions had no reverence for priest or pope. He had hardly +crossed the Rhone before he was confronted by a turbulent band of English +archers, who demanded if he had brought money. + +"Money?" he asked, in faltering tones. + +"Ay, money!" they insolently cried, impeding his passage. + +On reaching Du Guesclin's tent he was treated with more politeness, but +was met with the same demand. + +"We cannot control our troops," said some of the chiefs; "and, as they are +ready to hazard their lives for the greater glory of the faith, they well +deserve the aid of the Church." + +"The Holy Father will incur much danger if he refuses the demand of our +men," said Du Guesclin, in smooth but menacing tones. "They have become +good Catholics in spite of themselves, and would very readily return to +their old trade." + +Imminent as the danger was, the Pope resisted, and tried to scare off that +flock of reckless war-hawks by the thunders of papal condemnation. But he +soon learned that appeals and threats alike were wasted on the Free +Companies. From the windows of his palace he could see groups of his +unruly visitors at work plundering farms and country houses. Fires were +here and there kindled. The rich lands of Avignon were in danger of a +general ravage. + +"What can I do?" said Du Guesclin to the complaints of the people. "My +soldiers are excommunicated. The devil is in them, and we are no longer +their masters." + +Evidently there was but one way to get rid of this irreligious crew. The +chiefs agreed to be satisfied with five thousand golden florins. This sum +was paid, and the knights companions, laden with plunder and absolved from +their sins, set out in the highest spirits, singing the praises of their +captain and the joys of war. Such was their farewell to France. + +Onward they marched, across the Pyrenees and into Aragon, whose king had +joined with Henry of Trastamara in requesting their presence. They were +far from welcome to the people of this region of Spain. Pedro IV. of +Aragon had agreed to pay them one hundred thousand golden florins on +condition that they should pass through his dominions without disorder; +but the adventurers, imagining that they were already in the enemy's +country, began their usual service of fire and sword. In Barbastro they +pillaged the houses, killed the burghers or tortured them to extort +ransom, and set fire to a church in which some had taken refuge, burning +alive more than two hundred persons. + +If such was the course of these freebooting bands in the country of their +friends, what would it be in that of their foes? Every effort was made to +get them out of the country as soon as possible. Immediate action was +needed, for the warlike mountaineers were beginning to revenge the +robberies of the adventurers by waylaying their convoys and killing their +stragglers. In early March, 1366, the frontier was passed, Sir Hugh de +Calverley leading his men against Borja, a town of Aragon which was +occupied by soldiers of Castile. + +The garrison fled on their approach, and soon the army entered Castile and +marched upon Calahorra, a town friendly to Prince Henry, and which opened +its gates at sight of their banners. Here an interesting ceremony took +place. Du Guesclin and the other leaders of the Free Companies, with as +much assurance as if they had already conquered Castile, offered Henry the +throne. + +"Take the crown," said the burly leader. "You owe this honor to the many +noble knights who have elected you their leader in this campaign. Don +Pedro, your enemy, has refused to meet you in the battle-field, and thus +acknowledges that the throne of Castile is vacant." + +Henry held back. He felt that these foreigners had not the crown of +Castile in their gift. But when the Castilians present joined in the +demand he yielded, and permitted them to place the crown upon his head. +His chief captain at once unfurled the royal standard, and passed through +the camp, crying, "Castile for King Henry! Long live King Henry!" Then, +amid loud acclamations, he planted the banner on the crest of a hill on +the road to Burgos. + +We need not delay on the events of this campaign. Everywhere the people of +Castile fell away from their cruel king, and Henry's advance was almost +unopposed. Soon he was in Burgos, and Don Pedro had become a fugitive +without an army and almost without a friend. Henry was now again crowned +king, many of the Castilian nobles taking part in the imposing ceremony. + +The first acts of the new king were to recompense the men who had raised +him to that high office. The money which he found in the treasury served +as a rich reward to the followers of Du Guesclin. He gave titles of +nobility and grants of land with a free hand to the chiefs of the Free +Companies and his other companions in arms. On Du Guesclin he conferred +his own countship of Trastamara, and added to it the lordship of Molino, +with the domains appertaining to both. Calverley was made Count of +Carrion, and received the domains which had formerly been held by the +sons-in-law of the Cid. Lesser rewards were given to lesser chiefs, and +none had reason to accuse Henry of Castile of want of generosity. + +But the Free Companions soon became a sword in the side of the new king. +As there was no more fighting to be done, they resumed their old +occupation of pillaging, and from every side complaints rained in upon the +throne. Henry felt it necessary to get rid of his unruly friends with all +despatch. Retaining Du Guesclin and Calverley in his service, with fifteen +hundred lances, mainly French and Breton, he dismissed the remainder, +placating them with rich presents and warm thanks. Nothing loath, and +gratified that they had avenged the murdered Queen Blanche, they took +their way back, finding abundant chance for fighting on their return. The +Castilians, the Navarrese, and the Aragonese all rose against them, and +everywhere they had to force a passage with their swords. But nothing +could stop them. Spain, accustomed to fight with Arabs and Moors, had no +warriors fit to face these intrepid and heavily armed veterans. Through +the Pyrenees they made their way, and here cut a road with their swords +through the main body of a French army which had gathered to oppose their +march. Once more they were upon the soil of France. + +It was the English and Gascon bands that were principally opposed. It was +known that the Black Prince was preparing to invade Spain, and an effort +was made to cut off the free lances who might enlist under his banners. +This famous knight, son of Edward III. of England, and victor at the +battle of Poitiers, where he had taken prisoner the king of France, was a +cousin of the fugitive king of Castile, who sought him at Cape Breton, and +begged his aid to recover his dominions. The chivalrous prince of Wales +knew little of the dastardly deeds of the suppliant. Don Pedro had brought +with him his three young maiden daughters, whose helpless state appealed +warmly to the generous knight. National policy accorded with the +inclination of the prince, for the Castilian revolution had been promoted +by France, and the usurper had been in the pay of the French king. These +inducements were enough to win for Don Pedro the support of Edward III., +and the aid of the Black Prince, who entered upon the enterprise with the +passionate enthusiasm which was a part of his nature. + +Soon again two armies were in the field, that of King Henry, raised to +defend his new dominions, and that of the Prince of Wales, gathered to +replace the fugitive Don Pedro upon the throne. With the latter was the +White Company, which had aided to drive Pedro from his seat and was now +equally ready to replace him there. These bold lancers and archers fought +for their own hands, with little care whose cause they backed. + +It was through the valley of Roncesvalles, that celebrated pass which was +associated with the name of the famous Roland, the chief knight of French +romance, that the army of the Black Prince made its way into Spain. +Calverley, who was not willing to fight against his liege lord, joined him +with his lances, King Henry generously consenting. Du Guesclin, a veteran +in the art of war, advised the Castilian king to employ a Fabian policy, +harassing the invaders by skirmishes, drawing them deep into the country, +and wearing them out with fatigue and hunger. He frankly told him that his +men could not face in a pitched battle the English veterans, led by such a +soldier as the Black Prince. But the policy suggested would have been +hazardous in Castile, divided as it was between two parties. Henry +remembered that his rival had lost the kingdom through not daring to risk +a battle, and he determined to fight for his throne, trusting his cause to +Providence and the strength of his arms. + +It was in the month of April, 1367, that the two armies came face to face +on a broad plain. They were fairly matched in numbers, and as day broke +both marched resolutely to the encounter, amid opposing shouts of "King +Henry for Castile" and "St. George and Guyenne." It was a hard, fierce, +bitter struggle that followed, in which the onset of Du Guesclin was so +impetuous as for a moment to break the English line. But the end was at +hand when the Castilian cavalry broke in panic before the charge of an +English squadron, which turned Du Guesclin's battalion and took it in +flank. The Captal de Buch at the same time fell on the flank of the +Castilian vanguard. Thus beset and surrounded, the French and Spanish +men-at-arms desperately sought to hold their own against much superior +numbers. King Henry fought valiantly, and called on all to rally round his +standard. But at length the banner fell, the disorder grew general, the +ranks broke, and knights and foot-soldiers joined in a tumultuous retreat. + +Their only hope now was the bridge of Najera, over the Najerilla, which +stream lay behind their line. Some rushed for the bridge, others leaped +into the river, which became instantly red with blood, for the arrows of +the archers were poured into the crowded stream. Only the approach of +night, the fatigue of the victors, and the temptation to plunder the town +and the camp saved the wreck of the Castilian army, which had lost seven +thousand foot-soldiers and some six hundred men-at-arms. Du Guesclin's +battalion, which alone had made a gallant stand, was half slain. A large +number of prisoners were taken, among them the valorous Du Guesclin +himself. + +Edward the Black Prince now first learned the character of the man whom he +had come to aid. Don Pedro galloped excitedly over the plain seeking his +rival, and, chancing to meet Lopez de Orozco, one of his former friends, +now the prisoner of a Gascon knight, he stabbed him to the heart, despite +the efforts of the Gascon in his defence. The report of this murder filled +the Black Prince with indignation, which was heightened when Don Pedro +offered to ransom all the Castilian prisoners, plainly indicating that he +intended to murder them. Prince Edward sternly refused, only consenting to +deliver up certain nobles who had been declared traitors before the +revolution. These Don Pedro immediately had beheaded before his tent. + +The breach between the allies rapidly widened, Don Pedro, as soon as he +fairly got possession of the throne, breaking all his engagements with the +Black Prince, while he was unable, from the empty state of his treasury, +to pay the allied troops. Four months Prince Edward waited, with growing +indignation, for redress, while disease was rapidly carrying off his men, +and then marched in anger from Spain with scarcely a fifth of the proud +array with which he had won the battle of Najera. + +The restored king soon justified his title of Peter the Cruel by a series +of sanguinary executions, murdering all of the adherents of his rival on +whom he could lay his hands. In this thirst for revenge not even women +escaped, and at length he committed an act which aroused the indignation +of the whole kingdom. Don Alfonso de Guzman had refused to follow the king +into exile. He now kept out of his reach, but his mother, Doa Urraca de +Osorio, fell into the hands of the monster, and was punished for being the +mother of a rebel by being burned alive on the ramparts of Seville. + +These excesses of cruelty roused a rebellious sentiment throughout +Castile, of which Henry, who had escaped to Aragon from the field of +Najera, took advantage. Supplied with money by the king of France, he +purchased arms and recruited soldiers, many of the French and Castilians +who had been taken prisoners at Najera and been released on parole joining +him in hopes of winning the means of paying their ransoms. Crossing the +Ebro, he marched upon Calahorra, in which the year before he had been +proclaimed king. Here numerous volunteers joined him, and at the head of a +considerable force he marched upon Burgos, which surrendered after a faint +show of resistance. + +During the winter the campaign continued, Leon, Madrid, and other towns +being captured, and in the spring of 1368 all northern Castile was in +Henry's hands. Don Pedro, whose army was small, had entered into alliance +with the Moorish king of Granada, who sent him an army of thirty-five +thousand men, with which force a vigorous attack was made on the city of +Cordova,--a holy city in the eyes of the Moors. Among its defenders was Don +Alfonso de Guzman, whose mother had been burned to death. The defence was +obstinate, but the Moors at length made breaches in the walls. They were +about to pour into the city when the women, mad with fear, rushed into the +streets with cries and moans, now reproaching the men-at-arms with +cowardice, now begging them with sobs and tears to make a last effort to +save the city from the brutal infidels. + +This appeal gave new courage to the Christians. They rushed on the Moors +with the fury of despair, drove them from the posts they had taken, hurled +them from the ramparts, tore down the black flags which already waved on +the towers, and finally expelled them from the breaches and the walls in a +panic. The breaches were repaired and the city was saved. In a few days +the Moors, thoroughly disheartened by their repulse, dispersed, and Don +Pedro lost his allies. + +Meanwhile, Henry was engaged in the siege of Toledo, the strongest place +in the kingdom, and before which he persistently lay for months, despite +all allurements to use his forces in other directions. Here Bertrand du +Guesclin, who had been ransomed by the Black Prince, joined him with a +force of some six hundred men-at-arms, all picked men; and hither, in +March, 1369, Don Pedro marched to the city's relief at the head of a +strong army. + +Henry, on learning of this movement, at once gathered all the forces he +could spare from the siege, three thousand men-at-arms in all, and +hastened to intercept his rival on the march. Not dreaming of such a +movement, Don Pedro had halted at Montiel, where his men lay dispersed, in +search of food and forage, over a space of several leagues. They were +attacked at daybreak, their surprise being so complete that the main body +was at once put to flight, while each division was routed as soon as it +appeared. Henry's forces suffered almost no loss, and within an hour's +time his rival's kingdom was reduced to the castle of Montiel, in which he +had taken refuge with a few of his followers. + +Leaving the defeated army to take care of itself, Henry devoted himself to +the siege of the castle, within whose poorly fortified walls lay the prize +for which he fought. Escape was impossible, and the small supply of +provisions would soon be exhausted. Don Pedro's only hope was to bribe +some of his foes. He sent an agent to Du Guesclin, offering him a rich +reward in gold and lands if he would aid in his escape. Du Guesclin asked +for time to consider, and immediately informed Henry of the whole +transaction. He was at once offered a richer reward than Pedro had +promised if he would entice the king out of the castle, and after some +hesitation and much persuasion he consented. + +On the night of March 23, ten days after the battle, Don Pedro, +accompanied by several of his knights, secretly left the fortress, the +feet of their horses being bound with cloth to deaden the sound of hoofs. +The sentinels, who had been instructed in advance, allowed them to pass, +and they approached the camp of the French adventurers, where Du Guesclin +was waiting to receive them. + +"To horse, Messire Bertrand," said the king, in a low voice; "it is time +to set out." + +No answer was returned. This silence frightened Don Pedro. He attempted to +spring into his saddle, but he was surrounded, and a man-at-arms held the +bridle of his horse. An officer asked him to wait in a neighboring tent. +Resistance was impossible, and he silently obeyed. + +Here he found himself encompassed by a voiceless group, through whose +lines, after a few minutes of dread suspense, a man in full armor +advanced. It was Henry of Trastamara, who now faced his brother for the +first time in fifteen years. He gazed with searching eyes upon Don Pedro +and his followers. + +"Where is this bastard," he harshly asked, "this Jew who calls himself +King of Castile?" + +"There stands your enemy," said a French esquire, pointing to Don Pedro. + +Henry gazed at him fixedly. So many years had elapsed that he failed to +recognize him easily. + +"Yes, it is I," exclaimed Don Pedro, "I, the King of Castile. All the +world knows that I am the legitimate son of good King Alfonso. It is thou +that art the bastard." + +At this insult Henry drew his dagger and struck the speaker a light blow +in the face. They were in too close a circle to draw their swords, and in +mortal fury they seized each other by the waist and struggled furiously, +the men around drawing back and no one attempting to interfere. + +After a brief period the wrestling brothers fell on a camp bed in a corner +of the tent, Don Pedro, who was the stronger, being uppermost. While he +felt desperately for a weapon with which to pierce his antagonist, one of +those present seized him by the foot and threw him on one side, so that +Henry found himself uppermost. Popular tradition says that it was Du +Guesclin's hand that did this act, and that he cried, "I neither make nor +unmake kings, but I serve my lord;" but some writers say it was the +Viscount de Rocaberti, of Aragon. + +However that be, Henry at once took advantage of the opportunity, picked +up his dagger, lifted the king's coat of mail, and plunged the weapon +again and again into his side. Only two of Don Pedro's companions sought +to defend him, and they were killed on the spot. Henry had his brother's +head at once cut off, and despatched the gruesome relic to Seville. + +Thus perished, by an uncalled-for act of treachery on the part of Du +Guesclin, for the castle must soon have surrendered, one of the most +bloodthirsty kings who ever sat upon a throne. Don Fadrique, his brother, +and Blanche of Bourbon, his wife, both of whom he had basely murdered, +were at length avenged. Henry ascended the throne as Henry II., and for +years reigned over Castile with a mild and just rule that threw still +deeper horror upon the bloody career of him who is known in history as +Peter the Cruel. + + + + + +THE GREAT CAPTAIN. + + +The long and bitter war for the conquest of Granada filled Spain with +trained soldiers and skilful leaders, men who had seen service on a +hundred fields, grim, daring veterans, without their equals in Europe. The +Spanish foot-soldiers of that day were inflexibly resolute, the cavalry +were skilled in the brilliant tactics of the Moors, and the leaders were +men experienced in all the arts of war. These were the soldiers who in the +New World overthrew empires with a handful of adventurers, and within a +fraction of a century conquered a continent for Spain. In Europe they were +kept actively employed. Charles VIII. of France, moved by ambition and +thirst for glory, led an army of invasion into Italy. He was followed in +this career of foreign conquest by his successor, Louis XII. The armies of +France were opposed by those of Spain, led by the greatest soldier of the +age, Gonsalvo de Cordova, a man who had learned the art of war in Granada, +but in Italy showed such brilliant and remarkable powers that he gained +the distinguishing title of the Great Captain. + +These wars were stretched out over years, and the most we can do is to +give some of their interesting incidents. In 1502 the Great Captain lay in +the far south of Italy, faced by a more powerful French army under the +Duke of Nemours, a young nobleman not wanting in courage, but quite unfit +to cope with the experienced veteran before him. Gonsalvo, however, was in +no condition to try conclusions with his well-appointed enemy. His little +corps was destitute of proper supplies, the men had been so long unpaid +that they were mutinous, he had pleaded for reinforcements in vain, and +the most he could do was to concentrate his small force in the seaport of +Barleta and the neighboring strongholds, and make the best show he could +in the face of his powerful foe. + +The war now declined into foraging inroads on the part of the French, in +which they swept the flocks and herds from the fertile pastures, and into +guerilla operations on the part of the Spanish, who ambushed and sought to +cut off the detached troops of the enemy. But more romantic encounters +occasionally took place. The knights on both sides, full of the spirit of +chivalry, and eager to prove their prowess, defied one another to jousts +and tourneys, and for the time being brought back a state of warfare then +fast passing away. + +The most striking of these meetings arose from the contempt with which the +French knights spoke of the cavalry of their enemy, which they declared to +be far inferior to their own. This insult, when told to the proud knights +of Gonsalvo's army, brought from them a challenge to the knights of +France, and a warlike meeting between eleven Spanish and as many French +warriors was arranged. A fair field was offered the combatants in the +neutral territory under the walls of the Venetian city of Trani, and on +the appointed day a gallant array of well-armed knights of both parties +appeared to guard the lists and maintain the honor of the tournament. + +Spectators crowded the roofs and battlements of Trani, while the lists +were thronged with French and Spanish cavaliers, who for the time laid +aside their enmity in favor of national honor and a fair fight. At the +fixed hour the champions rode into the lists, armed at all points, and +their horses richly caparisoned and covered with steel panoply. Among +those on the Castilian side were Diego de Paredes and Diego de Vera, men +who had won renown in the Moorish wars. Most conspicuous on the other side +was the good knight Pierre de Bayard, the chevalier "_sans peur et sans +reproche_," who was then entering upon his famous career. + +At the sound of the signal trumpets the hostile parties rushed to the +encounter, meeting in the centre of the lists with a shock that hurled +three of the Spaniards from their saddle, while four of their antagonists' +horses were slain. The fight, which began at ten in the morning, and was +to end at sunset, if not concluded before, was prosecuted with great fury +and varied success. Long before the hour of closing all the French were +dismounted except the Chevalier Bayard and one of his companions, their +horses, at which the Spaniards had specially aimed, being disabled or +slain. Seven of the Spaniards were still on horseback, and pressed so hard +upon their antagonists that the victory seemed safely theirs. + +But Bayard and his comrade bravely held their own, while the others, +intrenched behind their dead horses, defended themselves vigorously with +sword and shield, the Spaniards vainly attempting to spur their terrified +horses over the barrier. The fight went on in this way until the sun sank +below the horizon, when, both parties still holding the field, neither was +given the palm of victory, all the combatants being declared to have +proved themselves good and valiant knights. + +Both parties now met in the centre of the lists, where the combatants +embraced as true companions in chivalry, "making good cheer together" +before they separated. But the Great Captain did not receive the report of +the result with favor. + +"We have," said one of his knights, "disproved the taunts of the +Frenchmen, and shown ourselves as good horsemen as they." + +"I sent you for better," Gonsalvo coldly replied. + +A second combat in which the Chevalier Bayard was concerned met with a +more tragic termination. A Spanish cavalier, Alonzo de Sotomayor, +complained that Bayard had treated him uncourteously while holding him +prisoner. Bayard denied the charge, and defied the Spaniard to prove it by +force of arms, on horse or on foot, as he preferred. Sotomayor, well +knowing Bayard's skill as a horseman, challenged him to a battle on foot +_ l'outrance_, or "to the death." + +At the appointed time the two combatants entered the lists, armed with +sword and dagger and in complete armor, though wearing their visors up. +For a few minutes both knelt in silent prayer. They then rose, crossed +themselves, and advanced to the combat, "the good knight Bayard," we are +told, "moving as light of step as if he were going to lead some fair lady +down the dance." + +Bayard was the smaller man of the two, and still felt weakness from a +fever which had recently prostrated him. The Spaniard, taking advantage of +this, sought to crush him by the weight of his blows, or to close with him +and bring him to the ground by dint of his superior strength. But the +lightness and agility of the French knight enabled him to avoid the +Spaniard's grasp, while, by skill with the sword, he parried his enemy's +strokes, and dealt him an occasional one in return. + +At length, the Spaniard having exposed himself to attack by an +ill-directed blow, Bayard got in so sharp a thrust on the gorget that it +gave way, and the point of the blade entered his throat. Maddened by the +pain of the wound, Sotomayor leaped furiously on his antagonist and +grasped him in his arms, both rolling on the ground together. While thus +clasped in fierce struggle Bayard, who had kept his poniard in his left +hand throughout the fight, while his enemy had left his in his belt, drove +the steel home under his eye with such force that it pierced through his +brain. + +As the victor sprang to his feet, the judges awarded him the honors of the +day, and the minstrels began to pour forth triumphant strains in his +honor. The good knight, however, bade them desist, as it was no time for +gratulation when a good knight lay dead, and, first kneeling and returning +grateful thanks for his victory, he walked slowly from the lists, saying +that he was sorry for the result of the combat, and wished, since his +honor was saved, that his antagonist had lived. + +In these passages at arms we discern the fading gleam of the spirit of +medival chivalry, soon to vanish before the new art of war. Rough and +violent as were these displays as compared with the pastimes of later +days, the magnificence with which they were conducted, and the +manifestations of knightly honor and courtesy which attended them, threw +something of grace and softness over an age in which ferocity was the +ruling spirit. + +Meanwhile, the position of the little garrison of Barleta grew daily +worse. No help came, the French gradually occupied the strongholds of the +neighboring country, and a French fleet in the Adriatic stood seriously in +the way of the arrival of stores and reinforcements. But the Great Captain +maintained his cheerfulness through all discouragement, and sought to +infuse his spirit into the hearts of his followers. His condition would +have been desperate with an able opponent, but he perfectly understood the +character of the French commander and patiently bided his time. + +The opportunity came. The French, weary of the slow game of blockade, +marched from their quarters and appeared before the walls of Barleta, bent +on drawing the garrison from the "old den" and deciding the affair in a +pitched battle. The Duke of Nemours sent a trumpet into the town to defy +the Great Captain to the encounter, but the latter coolly sent back word,-- + +"It is my custom to choose my own time and place for fighting, and I would +thank the Duc de Nemours to wait till my men have time to shoe their +horses and burnish up their arms." + +The duke waited a few days, then, finding that he could not decoy his wily +foe from the walls, broke camp and marched back, proud of having flaunted +a challenge in the face of the enemy. He knew not Gonsalvo. The French had +not gone far before the latter opened the gates and sent out his whole +force of cavalry, under Diego de Mendoza, with two corps of infantry, in +rapid pursuit. Mendoza was so eager that he left the infantry in the rear, +and fell on the French before they had got many miles away. + +A lively skirmish followed, though of short duration, Mendoza quickly +retiring, pursued by the French rear-guard, whose straggling march had +detached it from the main body of the army. Mendoza's feigned retreat soon +brought him back to the infantry columns, which closed in on the enemy's +flanks, while the flying cavalry wheeled in the rapid Moorish style and +charged their pursuers boldly in front. All was now confusion in the +French ranks. Some resisted, but the greater part, finding themselves +entrapped, sought to escape. In the end, nearly all who did not fall on +the field were carried prisoners to Barleta, under whose walls Gonsalvo +had drawn up his whole army, in readiness to support Mendoza if necessary. +The whole affair had passed so quickly that Nemours knew nothing of it +until the bulk of his rear-guard were safely lodged within the walls of +the Spanish stronghold. + +This brilliant success proved the turning-point in the tide of the war. A +convoy of transports soon after reached Barleta, bringing in an abundance +of provisions, and the Spaniards, restored in health and spirits, looked +eagerly for some new enterprise. Nemours having incautiously set out on a +distant expedition, Gonsalvo at once fell on the town of Ruvo and took it +by storm, in spite of a most obstinate defence. On April 28, 1503, +Gonsalvo, strengthened by reinforcements, finally left the stronghold of +Barleta, where he and his followers had suffered so severely and shown +such indomitable constancy. Reaching Cerignola, about sixteen miles from +Barleta, he awaited the advancing army of the French, rapidly intrenching +the ground, which was well suited for defence. Before these works were +completed, Nemours and his army appeared, and, though it was near +nightfall, made an immediate attack. The commander was incited to this by +taunts on his courage from some hot-headed subordinates, to whom he weakly +gave way, saying, "We will fight to-night, then; and perhaps those who +vaunt the loudest will be found to trust more to their spurs than to their +swords,"--a prediction which was to prove true. + +Of the battle, it must suffice to say that the trenches dug by the +Spaniards fatally checked the French advance, and in the effort to find a +passage Nemours fell mortally wounded. Soon the French lines were in +confusion, the Spanish arquebusiers pouring a galling fire into their +dense masses. Perceiving the situation, Gonsalvo ordered a general +advance, and, leaping their intrenchments, the Spaniards rushed in fury on +their foes, most of whose leaders had fallen. Panic succeeded, and the +flying French were cut down almost without resistance. + +The next morning the Great Captain passed over the field of battle, where +lay more than three thousand of the French, half their entire force. The +loss of the Spaniards was very small, and all the artillery, the baggage, +and most of the colors of the enemy were in their hands. Rarely had so +complete a victory been gained in so brief a time, the battle being hardly +more than one hour in duration. The body of the unfortunate Duke of +Nemours was found under a heap of the slain, much disfigured and bearing +the marks of three wounds. Gonsalvo was affected to tears at the sight of +the mutilated body of his young and gallant adversary, who, though +unfitted to head an army, had always proved himself a valiant knight. +During the following month Gonsalvo entered Naples, the main prize of the +war, where he was received with acclamations of joy and given the triumph +which his brilliant exploits so richly deserved. + +The work of the Great Captain was not yet at an end. Finding that his +forces were being defeated in every encounter and the cities held by them +captured, Louis XII. sent a large army to their relief, and late in the +year 1503 the hostile forces came face to face again, Gonsalvo being +forced by the exigencies of the campaign to encamp in a deplorable +situation, a region of swamp, which had been converted by the incessant +rains into a mere quagmire. The French occupied higher ground and were +much more comfortably situated. But Gonsalvo refused to move. He was +playing his old waiting game, knowing that the French dared not attack his +intrenched camp, and that time would work steadily in his favor. + + [Illustration: GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF + NEMOURS.] + + GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS. + + +"It is indispensable to the public service to maintain our present +position," he said to the officers who appealed to him to move; "and be +assured, I would sooner march forward two steps, though it would bring me +to my grave, than fall back one, to gain a hundred years of life." + +After that there were no more appeals. Gonsalvo's usual cheerfulness was +maintained, infusing spirit into his men in all the inconveniences of +their situation. He had a well-planned object in view. The hardy +Spaniards, long used to rough campaigning, bore their trying position with +unyielding resolution. The French, on the contrary, largely new recruits, +grew weary and mutinous, while sickness broke out in their ranks and +increased with alarming rapidity. + +At length Gonsalvo's day came. His opponent, not dreaming of an attack, +had extended his men over a wide space. On the night of December 28, in +darkness and storm, the Spanish army broke camp, marched to the river that +divided the forces, silently threw a bridge across the stream, and were +soon on its opposite side. Here they fell like a thunderbolt on the +unsuspecting and unprepared French, who were soon in disordered retreat, +hotly pursued by their foes, their knights vainly attempting to check the +enemy. Bayard had three horses killed under him, and was barely rescued +from death by a friend. So utterly were the French beaten that their +discouraged garrisons gave up town after town without a blow, and that +brilliant night's work not only ended the control of France over the +kingdom of Naples, but filled Louis XII. with apprehension of losing all +his possessions in Italy. + +Such were the most brilliant exploits of the man who well earned the proud +title of the Great Captain. He was as generous in victory as vigorous in +battle, and as courteous and genial with all he met as if he had been a +courtier instead of a soldier. In the end, his striking and unbroken +success in war aroused the envy and jealousy of King Ferdinand, and after +the return of Gonsalvo to Spain the unjust monarch kept him in retirement +till his death, putting smaller men at the head of his armies rather than +permit the greatest soldier of the century to throw his own exploits more +deeply into the shade. + + + + + +A KING IN CAPTIVITY. + + +Two great rivals were on the thrones of France and Spain,--Francis I., who +came to power in France in 1515, and Charles I., who became king of Spain +in 1516. In 1519 they were rivals for the imperial power in Germany. +Charles gained the German throne, being afterwards known as the emperor +Charles V., and during the remainder of their reigns these rival monarchs +were frequently at war. A league was formed against the French king by +Charles V., Henry VIII. of England, and Pope Leo X., as a result of which +the French were driven from the territory of Milan, in Italy. In 1524 they +were defeated at the battle of Sesia, the famous Chevalier Bayard here +falling with a mortal wound; and in 1525 they met with a more disastrous +defeat at the battle of Pavia, whose result is said to have caused Francis +to write to his mother, "_Madame, tout est perdu fors l'honneur_" ("All is +lost but honor"). + +The reason for these words may be briefly given. Francis was besieging +Pavia, with hopes of a speedy surrender, when the forces of Charles +marched to its relief. The most experienced French generals advised the +king to retire, but he refused. He had said he would take Pavia or perish +in the attempt, and a romantic notion of honor held him fast. The result +was ruinous, as may be expected where sentiment outweighs prudence. +Strongly as the French were intrenched, they were broken and put to rout, +and soon there was no resistance except where the king obstinately +continued to fight. + +Wounded in several places, and thrown from his horse, which was killed +under him, Francis defended himself on foot with heroic valor, while the +group of brave officers who sought to save his life, one after another, +lost their own. At length, exhausted with his efforts, and barely able to +wield his sword, the king was left almost alone, exposed to the fierce +assault of some Spanish soldiers, who were enraged by his obstinacy and +ignorant of his rank. + +At this moment a French gentleman named Pomperant, who had entered the +service of Spain, recognized the struggling king and hurried to his aid, +helping to keep off the assailants, and begging him to surrender to the +Duke of Bourbon, who was close at hand. Great as was the peril, Francis +indignantly refused to surrender to a rebel and traitor, as he held +Bourbon to be, and calling to Lannoy, a general in the imperial army who +was also near by, he gave up his sword to him. Lannoy, recognizing his +prisoner, received the sword with a show of the deepest respect, and +handed the king his own in return, saying,-- + +"It does not become so great a monarch to remain disarmed in the presence +of one of the emperor's subjects." + +The lack of prudence in Francis had proved serious not only to himself, +but to his troops, ten thousand of whom fell, among them many +distinguished nobles who preferred death to dishonor. Numbers of high rank +were taken prisoners, among them the king of Navarre. In two weeks not a +Frenchman remained in Italy. The gains from years of war had vanished in a +single battle. + +The tidings of the captivity of the French king filled France with +consternation and Spain with delight, while to all Europe it was an event +of the deepest concern, for all the nations felt the danger that might +arise from the ambition of the powerful emperor of Spain and Germany. +Henry VIII. requested that Francis should be delivered to him, as an ally +of Spain, though knowing well that such a demand would not gain a moment's +consideration. As for Italy, it was in terror lest it should be overrun by +the imperial armies. + +Francis, whom Lannoy held with great respect, but with the utmost care to +prevent an escape, hoped much from the generosity of Charles, whose +disposition he judged from his own. But Charles proposed to weaken his +enemy and refused to set him free unless he would renounce all claims upon +Italy, yield the provinces of Provence and Dauphin to form a kingdom for +the Constable Bourbon, and give up Burgundy to Germany. On hearing these +severe conditions, Francis, in a transport of rage, drew his dagger, +exclaiming,-- + +"It were better that a king should die thus!" + +A by-stander arrested the thrust; but, though Francis soon regained his +composure, he declared that he would remain a prisoner for life rather +than purchase liberty at such a price to his country. + +Thinking that these conditions came from the Spanish council, and not from +Charles himself, Francis now became anxious to visit the emperor in Spain, +hoping to soften him in a personal interview. He even furnished the +galleys for that purpose, Charles at that time being too poor to fit out a +squadron, and soon the spectacle was seen of a captive monarch sailing in +his own ships past his own dominions, of which he had a distant and +sorrowful view, to a land in which he was to suffer the indignities of +prison life. + +Landing at Barcelona, Francis was taken to Madrid and lodged in the +alcazar, under the most vigilant guard. He soon found that he had been far +too hasty in trusting to the generosity of his captor. Charles, on +learning of his captivity, had made a politic show of sympathy and +feeling, but on getting his rival fully into his hands manifested a plain +intention of forcing upon him the hardest bargain possible. Instead of +treating his prisoner with the courtesy due from one monarch to another, +he seemed to seek by rigorous usage to force from him a great ransom. + +The captive king was confined in an old castle, under a keeper of such +formal austerity of manners as added to the disgust of the high-spirited +French monarch. The only exercise allowed him was to ride on a mule, +surrounded by armed guards on horseback. Though Francis pressingly +solicited an interview, Charles suffered several weeks to pass before +going near him. These indignities made so deep an impression on the +prisoner that his natural lightness of temper deserted him, and after a +period of deep depression he fell into a dangerous fever, in which he +bitterly complained of the harshness with which he had been treated, and +said that the emperor would now have the satisfaction of having his +captive die on his hands. + +The physicians at length despaired of his life, and informed Charles that +they saw no hope of his recovery unless he was granted the interview he so +deeply desired. This news put the emperor into a quandary. If Francis +should die, all the advantage gained from the battle of Pavia would be +lost. And there were clouds in the sky elsewhere. Henry VIII. had +concluded a treaty of alliance with Queen Louise, regent of France, and +engaged to use all his efforts for the release of the king. In Italy a +dangerous conspiracy had been detected. There was danger of a general +European confederacy against him unless he should come to some speedy +agreement with the captive king. + +Charles, moved by these various considerations, at length visited Francis, +and, with a show of respect and affection, gave him such promises of +speedy release and princely treatment as greatly cheered the sad heart of +the captive. The interview was short; Francis was too ill to bear a long +one; but its effect was excellent, and the sick man at once began to +recover, soon regaining his former health. Hope had proved a medicine far +superior to all the drugs of the doctors. + +But the obdurate captor had said more than he meant. Francis was kept as +closely confined as ever. And insult was added to indignity by the +emperor's reception of the Constable Bourbon, a traitorous subject of +France, whom Charles received with the highest honors which a monarch +could show his noblest visitor, and whom he made his general-in-chief in +Italy. This act had a most serious result, which may here be briefly +described. In 1527 Bourbon made an assault on Rome, with an army largely +composed of Lutherans from Germany, and took it by assault, he being +killed on the walls. There followed a sack of the great city which had not +been surpassed in brutality by the Vandals themselves, and for months Rome +lay in the hands of a barbarous soldiery, who plundered and destroyed +without stint or mercy. + +What Charles mainly insisted upon and Francis most indignantly refused was +the cession of Burgundy to the German empire. He was willing to yield on +all other points, but bitterly refused to dismember his kingdom. He would +yield all claim to territory in Italy and the Netherlands, would pay a +large sum in ransom, and would make other concessions, but Burgundy was +part of France, and Burgundy he would not give up. + +In the end Francis, in deep despair, took steps towards resigning his +crown to his son, the dauphin. A plot for his escape was also formed, +which filled Charles with the fear that a second effort might succeed. In +dread that, through seeking too much, he might lose all, he finally agreed +upon a compromise in regard to Burgundy, Francis consenting to yield it, +but not until after he was set at liberty. The treaty included many other +articles, most of them severe and rigorous, while Francis agreed to leave +his sons, the dauphin and the Duke of Orleans, in the emperor's hands as +hostages for the fulfilment of the treaty. This treaty was signed at +Madrid, January 14, 1526. By it Charles believed that he had effectually +humbled his rival, and weakened him so that he could never regain any +great power. In this the statesmen of the day did not agree with him, as +they were not ready to believe that the king of France would live up to +conditions of such severity, forced from him under constraint. + + [Illustration: FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR.] + + FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR. + + +The treaty signed, the two monarchs seemed to become at once the best of +friends. They often appeared together in public; they had long conferences +in private; they travelled in the same litter and joined in the same +amusements; the highest confidence and affection seemed to exist between +them. Yet this love was all a false show,--Francis still distrusted the +emperor, and Charles still had him watched like a prisoner. + +In about a month the ratification of the treaty was brought from France, +and Francis set out from Madrid with the first true emotions of joy which +he had felt for a year. He was escorted by a body of horse under Alarcon, +who, when the frontiers of France were reached, guarded him as +scrupulously as ever. On arriving at the banks of the Andaye River, which +there separated the two kingdoms, Lautrec appeared on the opposite bank, +with a guard of horse equal to that of Alarcon. An empty bark was moored +in mid-stream. The cavalry drew up in order on each bank. Lannoy, with +eight gentlemen and the king, put off in a boat from the Spanish side of +the stream. Lautrec did the same from the French side, bringing with him +the dauphin and the Duke of Orleans. The two parties met in the empty +vessel, where in a moment the exchange was made, Francis embracing his +sons and then handing them over as hostages. Leaping into Lautrec's boat, +he was quickly on the soil of France. + +Mounting a Barbary horse which awaited him, the freed captive waved his +hand triumphantly over his head, shouted joyfully several times, "I am yet +a king!" and galloped away at full speed for Bayonne. He had been held in +captivity for a year and twenty-two days. + +Our tale of the captivity of the king ends here, but the consequences of +that captivity must be told. A league was immediately afterwards formed +against Charles, named the Holy League, from the Pope being at its head. +The nobles of Burgundy refused to be handed over to the imperial realm, +and an assembly called by Francis absolved him from his oath to keep the +treaty of Madrid. Francis, bewailing his lack of power to do what he had +promised in regard to Burgundy, offered to pay the emperor two millions of +crowns instead. In short, Charles had overreached himself through his +stringency to a captive rival, and lost all through his eagerness to +obtain too much. + +Ten years afterwards the relations between the two monarchs were in a +measure reversed. A rebellion had broken out in Flanders which needed the +immediate presence of Charles, and, for reasons satisfactory to himself, +he wished to go through France. His counsellors at Madrid looked upon such +a movement as fatally rash; but Charles persisted, feeling that he knew +the character of Francis better than they. The French king was ready +enough to grant the permission asked, and looked upon the occasion as an +opportunity to show his rival how kings should deal with their royal +neighbors. + +Charles was received with an ostentatious welcome, each town entertaining +him with all the magnificence it could display. He was presented with the +keys of the gates, the prisoners were set at liberty, and he was shown all +the honor due to the sovereign of the country itself. The emperor, though +impatient to continue his journey, remained six days in Paris, where all +things possible were done to render his visit a pleasant one. Had Francis +listened to the advice of some of his ministers, he would have seized and +held prisoner the incautious monarch who had so long kept him in +captivity. But the confidence of the emperor was not misplaced; no +consideration could induce the high-minded French king to violate his +plighted word, or make him believe that Charles would fail to carry out +certain promises he had made. He forgot for the time how he had dealt with +his own compacts, but Charles remembered, and was no sooner out of France +than all his promises faded from his mind, and Francis learned that he was +not the only king who could enter into engagements which he had no +intention to fulfil. + + + + + +THE INVASION OF AFRICA. + + +As Italy was invaded by Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great Captain, so Africa +was invaded by Cardinal Ximenes, the Great Churchman, one of the ablest +men who ever appeared in Spain, despite the fact that he made a dreadful +bonfire of thousands of Arabian manuscripts in the great square of +Granada. The greater part of these were copies of the Koran, but many of +them were of high scientific and literary value, and impossible to +replace. Yet, while thus engaged in a work fitted for an unlettered +barbarian, Ximenes was using his large revenues to found the University of +Alcala, the greatest educational institution in Spain, and was preparing +his famous polyglot Bible, for which the rarest manuscripts were +purchased, without regard to cost, that the Scriptures might be shown at +one view in their various ancient languages. To indicate the cost of this +work, it is said that he paid four thousand golden crowns for seven +manuscripts, which came too late to be of use in the work. It is strange, +under these circumstances, that he failed to preserve the valuable part of +the Arabian manuscripts. + +The vast labors undertaken by Ximenes at home did not keep him from +enterprises abroad. He was filled with a burning zeal for the propagation +of the Catholic faith, formed plans for a crusade to the Holy Land, and +organized a remarkably successful expedition against the Moslems of +Africa. It is of the latter that we desire to speak. + +Soon after the death of Isabella, Mazalquivir, a nest of pirates on the +Barbary coast, had been captured by an expedition organized by the +energetic Ximenes. He quickly set in train a more difficult enterprise, +one directed against Oran, a Moorish city of twenty thousand inhabitants, +strongly fortified, with a large commerce, and the haunt of a swarm of +piratical cruisers. The Spanish king had no money and little heart for +this enterprise, but that did not check the enthusiastic cardinal, who +offered to loan all the sums needed, and to take full charge of the +expedition, leading it himself, if the king pleased. Ferdinand made no +objection to this, being quite willing to make conquests at some one +else's expense, and the cardinal set to work. + +It is not often that an individual can equip an army, but Ximenes had a +great income of his own and had the resources of the Church at his back. +By the close of the spring of 1509 he had made ready a fleet of ten +galleys and eighty smaller vessels, and assembled an army of four thousand +horse and ten thousand foot, fully supplied with provisions and military +stores for a four months' campaign. Such was the energy and activity of a +man whose life, until a few years before, had been spent in the solitude +of the cloister and in the quiet practices of religion, and who was now an +infirm invalid of more than seventy years of age. + +The nobles thwarted his plans, and mocked at the idea of "a monk fighting +the battles of Spain." The soldiers had little taste for fighting under a +father of the Church, "while the Great Captain was left to stay at home +and count his beads like a hermit." The king threw cold water on the +enterprise. But the spirit and enthusiasm of the old monk triumphed over +them all, and on the 16th of May the fleet weighed anchor, reaching the +port of Mazalquivir on the following day. Oran, the goal of the +expedition, lay about a league away. + +As soon as the army was landed and drawn up in line, Ximenes mounted his +mule and rode along its front, dressed in his priestly robes, but with a +sword by his side. A group of friars followed, also with monastic garbs +and weapons of war. The cardinal, ascending a rising ground, made an +animated address to the soldiers, rousing their indignation by speaking of +the devastation of the coast of Spain by the Moslems, and awakening their +cupidity by dwelling on the golden spoil to be found in the rich city of +Oran. He concluded by saying that he had come to peril his own life in the +service of the cross and lead them in person to battle. + +The officers now crowded around the warlike old monk and earnestly begged +him not to expose his sacred person to the hazards of the fight, saying +that his presence would do more harm than good, as the men might be +distracted from the work before them by attending to his personal safety. +This last argument moved the warlike cardinal, who, with much reluctance, +consented to keep in the rear and leave the command of the army to its +military leader, Count Pedro Navarro. + +The day was now far advanced. Beacon-fires on the hill-tops showed that +the country was in alarm. Dark groups of Moorish soldiers could be seen on +the summit of the ridge that lay between Oran and Mazalquivir, and which +it would be necessary to take before the city could be reached. The men +were weary with the labors of landing, and needed rest and refreshment, +and Navarro deemed it unsafe to attempt anything more that day; but the +energetic prelate bade him "to go forward in God's name," and orders to +advance were at once given. + +Silently the Spanish troops began to ascend the steep sides of the +acclivity. Fortunately for them, a dense mist had arisen, which rolled +down the skirts of the hills and filled the valley through which they +moved. As soon as they left its cover and were revealed to the Moors a +shower of balls and arrows greeted them, followed by a desperate charge +down the hill. But the Spanish infantry, with their deep ranks and long +pikes, moved on unbroken by the assault, while Navarro opened with a +battery of heavy guns on the flank of the enemy. + +Thrown into disorder by the deadly volleys, the Moors began to give +ground, and, pressed upon heavily by the Spanish spearsmen, soon broke +into flight. The Spaniards hotly pursued, breaking rank in their eagerness +in a way that might have proved fatal but for the panic of the Moors, who +had lost all sense of discipline. The hill-top was reached, and down its +opposite slope poured the Spaniards, driving the fleeing Moors. Not far +before them rose the walls of Oran. The fleet had anchored before the city +and was vigorously cannonading it, being answered with equal spirit by +sixty pieces of artillery on the fortifications. Such were the excitement +and enthusiasm of the soldiers that they forgot weariness and disregarded +obstacles. In swift pursuit they followed the scattering Moors, and in a +brief time were close to the walls, defended by a deeply discouraged +garrison. + +The Spaniards had brought few ladders, but in the intense excitement and +energy of the moment no obstacle deterred them. Planting their long pikes +against the walls, or thrusting them into the crevices between the stones, +they clambered up with remarkable dexterity,--a feat which they were +utterly unable to repeat the next day, when they tried it in cold blood. + +A weak defence was made, and the ramparts soon swarmed with Spanish +soldiers. Sousa, the captain of the cardinal's guard, was the first to +gain the summit, where he unfurled the banner of Ximenes,--the cross on one +side and the cardinal's arms on the other. Six other banners soon floated +from the walls, and the soldiers, leaping down into the streets, gained +and threw open the gates. In streamed the army, sweeping all opposition +before it. Resistance and flight were alike unavailing. Houses and mosques +were tumultuously entered, no mercy being shown, no regard for age or sex, +the soldiers abandoning themselves to the brutal license and ferocity +common to the wars of that epoch. + +In vain Navarro sought to check his brutal troops; they were beyond +control; the butchery never ceased until, gorged with the food and wine +found in the houses, the worn-out soldiers flung themselves down in the +streets and squares to sleep. Four thousand Moors had been slain in the +brief assault, and perhaps twice that number were taken prisoners. The +city of Oran, that morning an opulent and prosperous community, was at +night a ruined and captive city, with its ferocious conquerors sleeping +amidst their slaughtered victims. + + [Illustration: LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN.] + + LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN. + + +It was an almost incredible victory, considering the rapidity with which +it had been achieved. On the morning of the 16th the fleet of transports +had set sail from Spain. On the night of the 17th the object of the +expedition was fully accomplished, the army being in complete possession +of Oran, a strongly manned and fortified city, taken almost without loss. +Ximenes, to whose warlike enthusiasm this remarkable victory was wholly +due, embarked in his galley the next morning and sailed along the city's +margin, his soul swelling with satisfaction at his wonderful success. On +landing, the army hailed him as the true victor of Oran, a wave of +acclamations following him as he advanced to the alcazar, where the keys +of the fortress were put into his hands. A few hours after the surrender +of the city a powerful reinforcement arrived for its relief, but on +learning of its loss the disconcerted Moors retired. Had the attack been +deferred to the next day, as Navarro proposed, it would probably have +failed. The people of Spain ascribed the victory to inspiration from +heaven; but the only inspiration lay in the impetuous energy and +enthusiasm of the cardinal. Yet at that period it was by no means uncommon +to invent stories of miracles, and it is soberly asserted that the sun +stood still for several hours while the action went on, Heaven repeating +the miracle of Joshua, and halting the solar orb in its career, that more +of the heathen might be slaughtered. The greatest miracle of all would +have been had the sun stood still nowhere else than over the fated city of +Oran. + +It may not be amiss to add to this narrative an account of a second +expedition against Africa, made by Charles V. some thirty years later, in +which Heaven failed to come to the aid of Spain, and whose termination was +as disastrous as that of the expedition of Ximenes had been fortunate. + +It was the city of Algiers that Charles set out to reduce, and, though the +season was late and it was the time of the violent autumnal winds, he +persisted in his purpose in spite of the advice of experienced mariners. +The expedition consisted of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse, +with a large body of noble volunteers. The storms came as promised and +gave the army no small trouble in its voyage, but at length, with much +difficulty and danger, the troops were landed on the coast near Algiers +and advanced at once upon the town. + +Hascan, the Moorish leader, had only about six thousand men to oppose to +the large Spanish army, and had little hope of a successful resistance by +force of arms. But in this case Heaven--if we admit its interference at +all--came to the aid of the Moors. On the second day after landing, and +before operations had fairly begun, the clouds gathered and the skies grew +threatening. Towards evening rain began to fall and a fierce wind arose. +During the night a violent tempest swept the camp, and the soldiers, who +were without tents or shelter of any kind, were soon in a deplorable +state. Their camp, which was in a low situation, was quickly overflowed by +the pouring rains, and the ground became ankle deep in mud. No one could +lie down, while the wind blew so furiously that they could only stand by +thrusting their spears into the ground and clinging to them. About +day-dawn they were attacked by the vigilant Hascan, and a considerable +number of them killed before the enemy was forced to retire. + +Bad as the night had been, the day proved more disastrous still. The +tempest continued, its force increasing, and the sea, roused to its utmost +fury by the winds, made sad havoc of the ships. They were torn from their +anchorage, flung violently together, beat to pieces on the rocks, and +driven ashore, while many sank bodily in the waves. In less than an hour +fifteen war-vessels and a hundred and forty transports were wrecked and +eight thousand men had perished, those of the crews who reached shore +being murdered by the Moors as soon as they touched land. + +It was with anguish and astoundment that the emperor witnessed this wreck +of all his hopes, the great stores which he had collected for subsistence +and military purposes being in one fatal hour buried in the depths of the +sea. At length the wind began to fall, and some hopes arose that vessels +enough might have escaped to carry the distressed army back to Europe. But +darkness was again at hand, and a second night of suspense and misery was +passed. In the morning a boat reached land with a messenger from Andrew +Doria, the admiral of the fleet, who sent word that in fifty years of +maritime life he had never seen so frightful a storm, and that he had been +forced to bear away with his shattered ships to Cape Metafuz, whither he +advised the emperor to march with all speed, as the skies were still +threatening and the tempest might be renewed. + +The emperor was now in a fearful quandary. Metafuz was at least three +days' march away. All the food that had been brought ashore was consumed. +The soldiers, worn out with fatigue, were in no condition for such a +journey. Yet it was impossible to stay where they were. There was no need +of deliberation; no choice was left; their only hope of safety lay in +instant movement. + +The sick, wounded, and feeble were placed in the centre, the stronger in +front and rear, and the disastrous march began. Some of the men could +hardly bear the weight of their arms; others, worn out with toiling +through the nearly impassable roads, lay down and died; many perished from +hunger and exhaustion, there being no food but roots and berries gathered +by the way and the flesh of horses killed by the emperor's order; many +were drowned in the streams, swollen by the severe rains; many were killed +by the enemy, who followed and harassed them throughout the march. The +late gallant army was a bedraggled and miserable fragment when the +survivors at length reached Metafuz. Fortunately the storm was at an end, +and they were able to obtain from the ships the provisions of which they +stood so sorely in need. + +The calamities which attended this unlucky expedition were not yet at an +end. No sooner had the soldiers embarked than a new storm arose, less +violent than the former, but sufficient to scatter the ships to right and +left, some making port in Spain, some in Italy, all seeking such harbors +of refuge as they could find. The emperor, after passing through great +perils, was driven to the port of Bugia in Africa, where contrary winds +held him prisoner for several weeks. He at length reached Spain, to find +the whole land in dismay at the fate of the gallant expedition, which had +set out with such high hopes of success. To the end of his reign Charles +V. had no further aspirations for conquest in Africa. + + + + + +AN EMPEROR RETIRED FROM BUSINESS. + + +In October of the year 1555 a strange procession passed through a rugged +and hilly region of Spain. At its head rode an alcalde with a posse of +alguazils. Next came a gouty old man in a horse-litter, like a prisoner in +the hands of a convoy of officers of justice. A body of horsemen followed, +and in the rear toiled onward a long file of baggage-mules. + +As the train advanced into the more settled regions of the country it +became evident that the personage thus convoyed was not a prisoner, but a +person of the highest consequence. On each side of the road the people +assembled to see him pass, with a show of deep respect. At the towns along +the route the great lords of the neighborhood gathered in his honor, and +in the cities the traveller was greeted by respectful deputations of +officials. When Burgos was approached the great constable of Castile, with +a strong retinue of attendants, came to meet him, and when he passed +through the illuminated streets of that city the bells rang out in merry +peals, while enthusiastic people filled the streets. + +It was not a prisoner to the law, but a captive to gout, who thus passed +in slow procession through the lands and cities of Spain. It was the royal +Charles, King of Spain and the Netherlands, Emperor of Germany, and +magnate of America, at that time the greatest monarch in Europe, lord of a +realm greater than that of Charlemagne, who made his way with this small +following and in this simple manner through the heart of his Spanish +dominions. He had done what few kings have done before or since, +voluntarily thrown off his crown in the height of his power,--weary of +reigning, surfeited with greatness,--and retired to spend the remainder of +his life in privacy, to dwell far from the pomp of courts in a simple +community of monks. + +The next principal halting-place of the retired monarch was the city of +Valladolid, once the capital of the kingdom and still a rich and splendid +place, adorned with stately public buildings and the palaces of great +nobles. Here he remained for some time resting from his journey, his house +thronged with visitors of distinction. Among these, one day, came the +court fool. Charles touched his cap to him. + +"Welcome, brother," said the jester; "do you raise your hat to me because +you are no longer emperor?" + +"No," answered Charles, "but because this sorry courtesy is all I have +left to give you." + +On quitting Valladolid Charles seemed to turn his back finally on the +world, with all its pomps and vanities. Before leaving he took his last +dinner in public, and bade an affectionate farewell to his sisters, his +daughter, and his grandson, who had accompanied him thus far in his +journey. A large train of nobles and cavaliers rode with him to the gates +of the city, where he courteously dismissed them, and moved onward +attended only by his simple train. + +"Heaven be praised!" said the world-weary monarch, as he came nearer his +place of retreat; "after this no more visits of ceremony, no more +receptions!" + +But he was not yet rid of show and ostentation. Spending the night at +Medina del Campo, at the house of a rich banker named Rodrigo de Dueas, +the latter, by way of display, warmed the emperor's room with a brazier of +pure gold, in which, in place of common fuel, sticks of cinnamon were +burned. Neither the perfume nor the ostentation was agreeable to Charles, +and on leaving the next morning he punished his over-officious host by +refusing to permit him to kiss his hand, and by causing him to be paid for +the night's lodging like a common inn-keeper. + +This was not the first time that cinnamon had been burned in the emperor's +chamber. The same was done by the Fuggers, the famous bankers of Germany, +who had loaned Charles large sums for his expedition against Tunis, and +entertained him at their house on his return. In this case the emperor was +not offended by the odor of cinnamon, since it was modified by a different +and more agreeable perfume. The bankers, grateful to Charles for breaking +up a pestilent nest of Barbary pirates, threw the receipts for the money +they had loaned him into the fire, turning their gold into ashes in his +behalf. This was a grateful sacrifice to the emperor, whose war-like +enterprises consumed more money than he could readily command. + +The vicinity of Yuste was reached late in November. Here resided a +community of Jeronymite monks, in whose monastery he proposed to pass the +remainder of his days. There were two roads by which it could be +reached,--one an easy, winding highway, the other a rugged mountain-pass. +But by the latter four days would be saved, and Charles, tired of the long +journey, determined to take it, difficult as it might prove. + +He had been warned against the mountain pathway, and found it fully as +formidable as he had been told. A body of hardy rustics were sent ahead, +with pikes, shovels, and other implements, to clear the way. But it was +choked here and there with fallen stones and trunks of trees which they +were unable to move. In some localities the path wound round dizzy +precipices, where a false step would have been fatal. To any traveller it +would have been very difficult; to the helpless emperor it was frightfully +dangerous. The peasants carried the litter; in bad parts of the way the +emperor was transferred to his chair; in very perilous places the vigorous +peasants carried him in their arms. + +Several hours of this hard toil passed before they reached the summit. As +they emerged from the dark defiles of the _Puerto Nuevo_--now known as "The +Emperor's Pass"--Charles exclaimed, "It is the last pass I shall go through +in this world, save that of death." + +The descent was much more easy, and soon the gray walls of Yuste, half +hidden in chestnut-groves, came in sight. Yet it was three months before +the traveller reached there, for the apartments preparing for him were far +from ready, and he had to wait throughout the winter in the vicinity, in a +castle of the Count of Oropesa, and in the midst of an almost continual +downpour of rain, which turned the roads to mire, the country almost to a +swamp, and the mountains to vapor-heaps. The threshold of his new home was +far from an agreeable one. + +Charles V. had long contemplated the step he had thus taken. He was only +fifty-five years of age, but he had become an old man at fifty, and was +such a victim to the gout as to render his life a constant torment and the +duties of royalty too heavy to be borne. So, taking a resolution which few +monarchs have taken before or since, he gave up his power and resolved to +spend the remainder of his life in such quiet and peace as a retired +monastery would give. Spain and its subject lands he transferred to his +son Philip, who was to gain both fame and infamy as Philip II. He did his +best, also, to transfer the imperial crown of Germany to his fanatical and +heartless heir, but his brother Ferdinand, who was in power there, would +not consent, and he was obliged to make Ferdinand emperor of Germany, and +break in two the vast dominion which he had controlled. + +Charles had only himself to thank for his gout. Like many a man in humbler +life, he had abused the laws of nature until they had avenged themselves +upon him. The pleasures of the table with him far surpassed those of +intellectual or business pursuits. He had an extraordinary appetite, equal +to that of any royal _gourmand_ of whom history speaks, and, while leaving +his power behind him, he brought this enemy with him into his retirement. + + [Illustration: CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE.] + + CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE. + + +We are told by a Venetian envoy at his court, in the latter part of his +reign, that, while still in bed in the morning, he was served with potted +capon, prepared with sugar, milk, and spices, and then went to sleep +again. At noon a meal of various dishes was served him, and another after +vespers. In the evening he supped heartily on anchovies, of which he was +particularly fond, or some other gross and savory food. His cooks were +often at their wits' end to devise some new dish, rich and highly seasoned +enough to satisfy his appetite, and his perplexed purveyor one day, +knowing Charles's passion for timepieces, told him "that he really did not +know what new dish he could prepare him, unless it were a _fricasse_ of +watches." + +Charles drank as heartily as he ate. His huge repasts were washed down +with potations proportionately large. Iced beer was a favorite beverage, +with which he began on rising and kept up during the day. By way of a +stronger potation, Rhenish wine was much to his taste. Roger Ascham, who +saw him on St. Andrew's day dining at the feast of the Golden Fleece, +tells us: "He drank the best that I ever saw. He had his head in the glass +five times as long as any of us, and never drank less than a good quart at +once of Rhenish." + +It was this over-indulgence in the pleasures of the table that brought the +emperor to Yuste. His physician warned him in vain. His confessor wasted +admonitions on his besetting sin. Sickness and suffering vainly gave him +warning to desist. Indigestion troubled him; bilious disorders brought +misery to his overworked stomach. At length came gout, the most terrible +of his foes. This enemy gave him little rest day or night. The man who had +hunted in the mountains for days without fatigue, who had kept the saddle +day and night in his campaigns, who had held his own in the lists with the +best knights of Europe, was now a miserable cripple, carried, wherever he +went, in the litter of an invalid. + +One would have thought that, in his monastic retreat, Charles would cease +to indulge in gastronomic excesses, but the retired emperor, with little +else to think of, gave as much attention to his appetite as ever. Yuste +was kept in constant communication with the rest of the world on matters +connected with the emperor's table. He was especially fond of fish and all +the progeny of the water,--eels, frogs, oysters, and the like. The trout of +the neighborhood were too small for his liking, so he had larger ones sent +from a distance. Potted fish--anchovies in particular--were favorite viands. +Eel pasty appealed strongly to his taste. Soles, lampreys, flounders +reached his kitchen from Seville and Portugal. The country around supplied +pork, mutton, and game. Sausages were sent him from a distance; olives +were brought from afar, as those near at hand were not to his liking. +Presents of sweetmeats and confectionery were sent him by ladies who +remembered his ancient tastes. In truth, Charles, tortured with gout, did +everything he well could to favor its attacks. + +The retired emperor, though he made a monastery his abode, had no idea of +living like a monk. His apartments were richly furnished and hung with +handsome tapestry, and every attention was paid to his personal comfort. +Rich carpets, canopies of velvet, sofas and chairs of carved walnut, seats +amply garnished with cushions for the ease of his tender joints, gave a +luxurious aspect to his retirement. His wardrobe contained no less than +sixteen robes of silk and velvet, lined with ermine, eider-down, or the +soft hair of the Barbary goat. He could not endure cold weather, and had +fireplaces and chimneys constructed in every room, usually keeping his +apartments almost at furnace heat, much to the discomfort of his +household. With all this, and his wrappings of fur and eider-down, he +would often be in a shiver and complain that he was chilled to the bone. + +His table was richly provided with plate, its service being of silver, as +were also the articles of the toilet, the basins, pitchers, and other +utensils of his bed-chamber. With these were articles of pure gold, +valuable for their curious workmanship. He had brought with him many +jewels of value, and a small but choice collection of paintings, some of +them among the noblest masterpieces of art. Among them were eight gems +from the hand of Titian. These were hung in rich frames around his rooms. +He was no reader, and had brought few books, his whole library comprising +but thirty-one volumes, and these mostly religious works, such as +psalters, missals, breviaries, and the like. There was some little science +and some little history, but the work which chiefly pleased him was a +French poem, "_Le Chevalier Dlibr_," then popular, which celebrated the +exploits of the house of Burgundy, and especially of Charles the Bold. + +And now it comes in place to say something of how Charles employed himself +at Yuste, aside from eating and drinking and shivering in his chimney +corner. The mode in which a monarch retired from business passes his time +cannot be devoid of interest. He by no means gave up his attention to the +affairs of the realm, but kept himself well informed in all that was going +on, sometimes much to his annoyance, since blunders were made that gave +him a passing desire to be again at the head of affairs. In truth, two +years after his retirement, the public concerns got into such a snarl that +Philip earnestly sought to induce the emperor to leave his retreat and aid +him with his ripened experience. This Charles utterly refused to do. He +had had his fill of politics. It was much less trouble to run a household +than a nation. But he undertook to do what he could to improve the +revenues of the crown. Despatches about public affairs were brought to him +constantly, and his mental thermometer went up or down as things prospered +or the reverse. But he was not to be tempted to plunge again into the +turbulent tide of public affairs. + +Charles had other and more humble duties to occupy his time. His paroxysms +of gout came only at intervals, and in the periods between he kept himself +engaged. He had a taste for mechanics, and among his attendants was an +Italian named Torriano, a man of much ingenuity, who afterwards +constructed the celebrated hydraulic works at Toledo. He was a skilful +clock-maker, and, as Charles took a special interest in timepieces, his +assistant furnished his apartments with a series of elaborate clocks. One +of these was so complicated that its construction occupied more than three +years, every detail of the work being curiously watched by Charles. +Watches were then of recent invention, yet there were a number of them at +Yuste, made by Torriano. + +The attempt to make his clocks keep time together is said to have been one +of the daily occupations of the retired emperor, and the adjustment of his +clocks and watches gave him so much trouble that he is said to have one +day remarked that it was absurd to try and make men think alike, when, do +what he would, he could not make two of his timepieces agree. + +He often amused himself with Torriano in making little puppets,--soldiers +that would go through their exercises, dancing tambourine-girls, etc. It +is even asserted that they constructed birds that would fly in and out of +the window, a story rather difficult to accept. The monks began to look +upon Torriano as a professor of magic when he invented a handmill small +enough to be hidden in a friar's sleeve, yet capable of grinding enough +meal in a day to last a man for a week. + +The emperor was very fond of music, particularly devotional music, and was +a devotee in religious exercises, spending much of his time in listening +to the addresses of the chaplains, and observing the fasts and festivals +of the Church. His fondness for fish made the Lenten season anything but a +period of penance for him. + +He went on, indeed, eating and drinking as he would; and his disease went +on growing and deepening, until at length the shadow of death lay heavy on +the man whose religion did not include temperance in its precepts. During +1558 he grew steadily weaker, and on the 21st of September the final day +came; his eyes quietly closed and life fled from his frame. + +Yuste, famous as the abiding-place of Charles in his retirement, remained +unmolested in the subsequent history of the country until 1810, when a +party of French dragoons, foraging near by, found the murdered body of one +of their comrades not far from the monastery gates. Sure in their minds +that the monks had killed him, they broke in, dispersed the inmates, and +set the buildings on fire. The extensive pile of edifices continued to +burn for eight days, no one seeking to quench the flames. On the ninth the +ancient monastery was left a heap of ashes, only the church remaining, +and, protected by it, the palace of Charles. + +In 1820 a body of neighboring insurgents entered and defaced the remaining +buildings, carrying off everything they could find of value and turning +the church into a stable. Some of the monks returned, but in 1837 came an +act suppressing the convents, and the poor Jeronymites were finally turned +adrift. To-day the palace of Charles V. presents only desolate and dreary +chambers, used as magazines for grain and olives. So passes away the glory +of the world. + + + + + +THE FATE OF A RECKLESS PRINCE. + + +In 1568 died Don Carlos, Prince of Asturias, the son of Philip II. of +Spain; and in the same year died Isabella of Valois, the young and +beautiful queen of the Spanish monarch. Legend has connected the names of +Carlos and Isabella, and a mystery hangs over them which research has +failed to dispel. Their supposed love, their untimely fate, and the +suspicion that their death was due to the jealousy of the king, have +proved a prolific theme for fiction, and the story of the supposed unhappy +fate of the two has passed from the domain of history into that of romance +and the drama, there being more than one fine play based on the loves and +misfortunes of Carlos and Isabella. But sober history tells nothing of the +kind, and it is with history that we are here concerned. + +Carlos, the heir of the throne of Spain, was born in 1545. He was a bold, +headstrong boy, reckless in disposition, fond of manly exercises, generous +to a fault, fearless of heart, and passionately desirous of a military +life. In figure he was deformed, one shoulder being higher and one leg +longer than the other, while his chest was flat and his back slightly +humped. His features were not unhandsome, though very pale, and he spoke +with some difficulty. He was feeble and sickly as a boy, subject to +intermittent fever, and wasted away so greatly that it seemed as if he +would not live to manhood. + +Such were the mental and physical characteristics of the princely youth +who while still young was betrothed by treaty to the beautiful French +princess Isabella of Valois. The marriage was not destined to take place. +Before the treaty was ratified, Queen Mary of England, Philip's wife, +died, and his name was substituted for that of his son in the marriage +treaty. The wedding ceremony took place at Toledo, in February, 1560, and +was celebrated with great splendor. Carlos was present, and may have felt +some resentment at being robbed by his father of this beautiful bride. +Romantic historians tell us that Isabella felt a tender sentiment for him, +a very unlikely statement in view of the fact that he was at that time a +sickly, ill-favored boy of only fourteen years of age. Shortly after the +marriage Carlos was formally recognized as heir to the crown. + +Two years afterwards a serious accident occurred. In descending a flight +of stairs the boy slipped and fell headlong, injuring his head so severely +that his life was despaired of. His head swelled to an enormous size; he +became delirious and totally blind; examination showed that his skull was +fractured; a part of the bone was removed, but no relief was obtained. All +the arts of the doctors of that day were tried in vain, but the boy got no +better. Processions were made to the churches, prayers were offered, and +pilgrimages were vowed, all without avail. Then more radical means were +tried. The mouldering bones of a holy Franciscan, who had died a hundred +years before, and had always been the object of the prince's especial +veneration, were taken from their coffin and laid on the boy's bed, and +the cloth that had enclosed the dead man's skull was placed on his +forehead. + +That night, we are gravely told, the dead friar came to Carlos in his +sleep, bidding him to "be of good cheer, for he would certainly recover." +Soon after, the fever subsided, his head shrank back to its natural size, +his sight returned. In two months from the date of the accident he was +physically well, his recovery being partly or wholly due to the skill of +an Italian surgeon, who trepanned him and by this act restored him to +consciousness. + +Likely enough the boy was never cured. The blow may have done some +permanent injury to his brain. At any rate, he became strikingly eccentric +and reckless, giving way to every mad whim that came into his mind. The +stories of his wild doings formed the scandal of Madrid. In 1564 one of +his habits was to patrol the streets with a number of young nobles as +lawless as himself, attacking the passengers with their swords, kissing +the women, and using foul language to ladies of the highest rank. + +At that time it was the custom for the young gallants of the court to wear +very large boots. Carlos increased the size of his, that he might carry in +them a pair of small pistols. Fearing mischief, the king ordered the +shoemaker to reduce the size of his son's boots; but when the unlucky son +of St. Crispin brought them to the palace, the prince flew into a rage, +beat him severely, and then ordered the leather to be cut into pieces and +stewed, and forced the shoemaker to swallow it on the spot--or as much of +it as he could get down. + +These are only a sample of his pranks. He beat his governor, attempted to +throw his chamberlain out of the window, and threatened to stab Cardinal +Espinosa for banishing a favorite actor from the palace. + +One anecdote told of him displays a reckless and whimsical humor. Having +need of money, Carlos asked of a merchant, named Grimaldo, a loan of +fifteen hundred ducats. The money-lender readily consented, thanked the +prince for the compliment, and, in the usual grandiloquent vein of +Castilian courtesy, told Carlos that all he had was at his disposal. + +"I am glad to learn that," answered the prince. "You may make the loan, +then, one hundred thousand ducats." + +Poor Grimaldo was thunderstruck. He tremblingly protested that it was +impossible,--he had not the money. "It would ruin my credit," he declared. +"What I said were only words of compliment." + +"You have no right to bandy compliments with princes," Don Carlos replied. +"I take you at your word. If you do not, in twenty-four hours, pay over +the money to the last _real_, you shall have bitter cause to rue it." + +The unhappy Grimaldo knew not what to do. Carlos was persistent. It took +much negotiation to induce the prince to reduce the sum to sixty thousand +ducats, which the merchant raised and paid,--with a malediction on all +words of compliment. The money flew like smoke from the prince's hands, he +being quite capable of squandering the revenues of a kingdom. He lived in +the utmost splendor, and was lavish with all who came near him, saying, in +support of his gifts and charities, "Who will give if princes do not?" + +The mad excesses of the prince, his wild defiance of decency and decorum, +were little to the liking of his father, who surrounded the young man with +agents whom he justly looked upon as spies, and became wilder in his +conduct in consequence. Offers of marriage were made from abroad. +Catharine de Mdicis proposed the hand of a younger sister of Isabella. +The emperor of Germany pressed for a union with his daughter Anne, the +cousin of Carlos. Philip agreed to the latter, but deferred the marriage. +He married Anne himself after the death of Carlos, making her his fourth +wife. Thus both the princesses intended for the son became the brides of +the father. + +The trouble between Carlos and his father steadily grew. The prince was +now twenty-one years of age, and, in his eagerness for a military life, +wished to take charge of affairs in the Netherlands, then in rebellion +against Spain. On learning that the Duke of Alva was to be sent thither, +Carlos said to him, "You are not to go there; I will go myself." + +The efforts of the duke to soothe him only irritated him, and in the end +he drew his dagger and exclaimed, "You shall not go; if you do I will kill +you." + +A struggle followed, the prince making violent efforts to stab the duke. +It only ended when a chamberlain came in and rescued Alva. This outrage on +his minister doubled the feeling of animosity between father and son, and +they grew so hostile that they ceased to speak, though living in the same +palace. + +The next escapade of Carlos brought matters to a crisis. He determined to +fly from Spain and seek a more agreeable home in Germany or the +Netherlands. As usual, he had no money, and he tried to obtain funds by +demanding loans from different cities,--a reckless process which at once +proclaimed that he had some mad design in mind. He went further than this, +saying to his confidants that "he wished to kill a man with whom he had a +quarrel." This purpose he confessed to a priest, and demanded absolution. +The priest refused this startling request, and as the prince persisted in +his sanguinary purpose, a conclave of sixteen theologians was called +together to decide what action it was advisable to take in so +extraordinary a case. + +After a debate on the subject, one of them asked Carlos the name of his +enemy. The prince calmly replied,-- + +"My father is the person. I wish to take his life." + +This extraordinary declaration, in which the mad prince persisted, threw +the conclave into a state of the utmost consternation. On breaking up, +they sent a messenger to the king, then at the Escorial Palace, and made +him acquainted with the whole affair. This story, if it is true, seems to +indicate that the prince was insane. + +His application to the cities for funds was in a measure successful. By +the middle of January, 1568, his agents brought him in a hundred and fifty +thousand ducats,--a fourth of the sum he had demanded. On the 17th he sent +an order to Don Ramon de Tassis, director-general of the posts, demanding +that eight horses should be provided for him that evening. Tassis, +suspecting something wrong, sent word that the horses were all out. Carlos +repeated his order in a peremptory manner, and the postmaster now sent all +the horses out, and proceeded with the news to the king at the Escorial. +Philip immediately returned to Madrid, where, the next morning, Carlos +attacked his uncle, Don John of Austria, with a drawn sword, because the +latter refused to repeat a conversation he had had with the king. + +For some time Carlos had slept with the utmost precautions, as if he +feared an attack upon his life. His sword and dagger lay ready by his +bedside, and he kept a loaded musket within reach. He had also a bolt +constructed in such a manner that, by aid of pulleys, he could fasten or +unfasten the door of his chamber while in bed. All this was known to +Philip, and he ordered the mechanic who had made it to derange the +mechanism so that it would not work. To force a way into the chamber of a +man like Carlos might not have been safe. + + [Illustration: THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID.] + + THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID. + + +At the hour of eleven that night the king came down-stairs, wearing armor +on his body and a helmet on his head. With him were the Duke of Feria, +captain of the guard, several other lords, and twelve guardsmen. They +quietly entered the chamber of the prince, and the duke, stealing to the +bedside, secured the sword, dagger, and musket which lay there. + +The noise now wakened Carlos, who sprang up, demanding who was there. + +"It is the council of state," answered the duke. + +On hearing this the prince leaped from the bed, uttering threats and +imprecations, and endeavored to seize his arms. Philip, who had prudently +kept in the background until the weapons were secured, now advanced and +bade his son to return to bed and keep quiet. + +"What does your majesty want of me?" demanded the prince. + +"You will soon learn," Philip harshly replied. + +He then gave orders that the windows and doors of the room should be +strongly secured and the keys brought to him. Every article of furniture, +even the andirons, with which violence might have been done, was removed +from the room. The king then appointed Feria keeper of the prince, and +bade the other nobles to serve him, with due respect, saying that he would +hold them as traitors if they permitted him to escape. + +"Your majesty had better kill me than keep me a prisoner," exclaimed +Carlos. "It will be a great scandal to the kingdom. If you do not kill me +I will kill myself." + +"You will do no such thing," answered Philip. "That would be the act of a +madman." + +"Your majesty," replied the prince, "treats me so ill that you drive me to +this extremity. I am not mad, but you drive me to despair." + +Other words passed, and on the withdrawal of the king the voice of Carlos +was so broken by sobs that his words could scarcely be heard. That night +the Duke of Feria and two other lords remained in the prince's room,--now +his prison. Each succeeding night two of the six appointed lords performed +this duty. They were not allowed to wear their swords in the presence of +the prince, but his meat was cut up before serving, as no knife was +permitted to be used at his meals. A guard was stationed in the passage +without, and, as the prince could not look from his barricaded windows, he +was from that day dead to the world. + +The king immediately summoned his council of state and began a process +against the prisoner. Though making a show of deep affliction, he was +present at all the meetings and listened to all the testimony, which, when +written out, formed a heap of paper half a foot thick. + +The news of the arrest of Don Carlos made a great sensation in Spain. The +wildest rumors were set afloat. Some said that he had tried to kill his +father, others that he was plotting rebellion. Many laid all the blame on +the king. "Others, more prudent than their neighbors, laid their fingers +on their lips and were silent." The affair created almost as much +sensation throughout Europe as in Spain. Philip, in his despatches to +other courts, spoke in such vague and mysterious language that it was +impossible to tell what he meant, and the most varied surmises were +advanced. + +Meanwhile, Carlos was kept rigorously confined, so much so that he was not +left alone day or night. Of the two nobles in his chamber at night, one +was required to keep awake while the other slept. They were permitted to +talk with him, but not on political matters nor on the subject of his +imprisonment. They were ordered to bring him no messages from without nor +receive any from him. No books except devotional ones were allowed him. + +If it was the purpose of Philip to end the life of his son by other means +than execution he could not have taken better measures. For a young man of +his high spirit and fiery temper such strict confinement was maddening. At +first he was thrown into a frenzy, and tried more than once to make way +with himself. The sullenness of despair succeeded. He grew daily more +emaciated, and the malarial fever which had so long affected him now +returned in a severe degree. To allay the heat of the fever he would +deluge the floor of his chamber with water, and walk for hours with bare +feet on the cold floor. He had a warming-pan filled with ice and snow +brought him, and kept it for hours at night in his bed. He would drink +snow-water in immoderate draughts. In his eating he seemed anxious to +break down his strength,--now refusing all food for days together, now +devouring a pasty of four partridges at a sitting, washing it down with +three gallons or more of iced water. + +That he was permitted to indulge in such caprices seems to indicate that +Philip wished him to kill himself. No constitution, certainly not so weak +a one as that of Carlos, could long withstand these excesses. His stomach +refused to perform its duty; severe vomiting attacked him; dysentery set +in; his strength rapidly failed. The expected end came on the 24th of +July, six months after the date of his imprisonment, death releasing the +prince from the misery of his unhappy lot. One writer tells us that it was +hastened by a strong purgative dose, administered by his father's orders, +and that he was really assassinated. However that be, Philip had little +reason to be sorry at the death of his lunatic son. To one of his austere +temperament it was probably an easy solution of a difficult problem. + +Less than three months passed after the death of Carlos when Isabella +followed him to the grave. She was then but twenty-three years old,--about +the same age as himself. The story was soon set afloat that Philip had +murdered both his son and his wife, moved thereto by jealousy; and from +this has arisen the romantic story of secret love between the two, with +the novels and dramas based thereon. In all probability the story is +without foundation. Philip is said to have been warmly loved by his wife, +and the poison which carried her away seems to have been the heavy doses +of medicine with which the doctors of that day sought to cure a passing +illness. + + + + + +SPAIN'S GREATEST VICTORY AT SEA. + + +On the 16th of September, 1571, there sailed from the harbor of Messina +one of the greatest fleets the Mediterranean had ever borne upon its +waves. It consisted of more than three hundred vessels, most of them +small, but some of great bulk for that day, carrying forty pieces of +artillery. On board these ships were eighty thousand men. Of these, less +than thirty thousand were soldiers, for in those days, when war-galleys +were moved by oars rather than sails, great numbers of oarsmen were +needed. At the head of this powerful armament was Don John of Austria, +brother of Philip II., and the ablest naval commander that Spain +possessed. + +At sunrise on the 7th of October the Christian fleet came in sight, at the +entrance to the Bay of Lepanto, on the west of Greece, of the great +Turkish armament, consisting of nearly two hundred and fifty royal +galleys, with a number of smaller vessels in the rear. On these ships are +said to have been not less than one hundred and twenty thousand men. A +great battle for the supremacy of Christian or Mohammedan was about to be +fought between two of the largest fleets ever seen in the Mediterranean. + +For more than a century the Turks had been masters of Constantinople and +the Eastern Empire, and had extended their dominion far to the west. The +Mediterranean had become a Turkish lake, which the fleets of the Ottoman +emperors swept at will. Cyprus had fallen, Malta had sustained a terrible +siege, and the coasts of Italy and Spain were exposed to frightful +ravages, in which the corsairs of the Barbary states joined hands with the +Turks. France only was exempt, its princes having made an alliance with +Turkey, in which they gained safety at the cost of honor. + +Spain was the leading opponent of this devastating power. For centuries +the Spanish people had been engaged in a bitter crusade against the Moslem +forces. The conquest of Granada was followed by descents upon the African +coast, the most important of which was the conquest of Tunis by Charles +the Fifth in 1535, on which occasion ten thousand Christian captives were +set free from a dreadful bondage. An expedition against Tripoli in 1559, +however, ended in disaster, the Turks and the Moors continued triumphant +at sea, and it was not until 1571 that the proud Moslem powers received an +effectual check. + +The great fleet of which Don John of Austria was admiral-in-chief had not +come solely from Spain. Genoa had furnished a large number of galleys, +under their famous admiral, Andrew Doria,--a name to make the Moslems +tremble. Venice had added its fleet, and the Papal States had sent a +strong contingent of ships. Italy had been suffering from the Turkish +fleet, fire and sword had turned the Venetian coasts into a smoking +desolation, and this was the answer of Christian Europe to the Turkish +menace. + +The sight of the Turkish fleet on that memorable 7th of October created +instant animation in the Christian armament. Don John hoisted his pennon, +ordered the great standard of the league, given by the Pope, to be +unfurled, and fired a gun in defiance of the Turks. Some of the commanders +doubted the wisdom of engaging the enemy in a position where he had the +advantage, but the daring young commander curtly cut short the discussion. + +"Gentlemen," he said, "this is the time for combat, not for counsel." + +Steadily the two fleets approached each other on that quiet sea. The +Christian ships extended over a width of three miles. On the right was +Andrew Doria, with sixty-four galleys. The centre, consisting of +sixty-three galleys, was commanded by Don John, with Colonna, the +captain-general of the Pope, on one flank, and Veniero, the Venetian +captain-general, on the other. The left wing, commanded by the noble +Venetian Barbarigo, extended as near to the coast of tolia as it was +deemed safe to venture. The reserve, of thirty-five galleys, was under the +Marquis of Santa Cruz. The plan of battle was simple. Don John's orders to +his captains were for each to select an adversary, close with him at once, +and board as soon as possible. + +As the fleet advanced the armament of the Turks came into full view, +spread out in half-moon shape over a wider space than that of the allies. +The great galleys, with their gilded and brightly painted prows and their +myriad of banners and pennons, presented a magnificent spectacle. But the +wind, which had thus far favored the Turks, now suddenly shifted and blew +in their faces, and the sun, as the day advanced, shone directly in their +eyes. The centre of their line was occupied by the huge galley of Ali +Pasha, their leader. Their right was commanded by Mahomet Sirocco, viceroy +of Egypt; their left by Uluch Ali, dey of Algiers, the most redoubtable of +the corsair lords of the sea. + +The breeze continued light. It was nearly noon when the fleets came face +to face. The sun, now nearing the zenith, shone down from a cloudless sky. +As yet it seemed like some grand holiday spectacle rather than the coming +of a struggle for life or death. + +Suddenly the shrill war-cry of the Turks rang out on the air. Their cannon +began to play. The firing ran along the line until the whole fleet was +engaged. On the Christian side the trumpets rang defiance and the guns +answered the Turkish peals. The _galeazzas_, a number of mammoth +war-ships, had been towed a half-mile in advance of the Spanish fleet, and +as the Turks came up poured broadsides from their heavy guns with striking +effect, doing considerable damage. But Ali Pasha, not caring to engage +these monster craft, opened his lines and passed them by. They had done +their work, and took no further part, being too unwieldy to enter into +close action. + +The battle began on the left. Barbarigo, the Venetian admiral, had brought +his ships as near the coast as he dared. But Mahomet Sirocco knew the +waters better, passed between his ships and the shore, and doubled upon +him, bringing the Christian line between two fires. Barbarigo was wounded, +eight galleys were sent to the bottom, and several were captured. Yet the +Venetians, who hated the Turks with a mortal hatred, fought on with +unyielding fury. + +Uluch Ali, on the Christian right, tried the same manoeuvre. But he had +Andrew Doria, the experienced Genoese, to deal with, and his purpose was +defeated by a wide extension of the Christian line. It was a trial of +skill between the two ablest commanders on the Mediterranean. Doria, by +stretching out his line, had weakened his centre, and the corsair captain, +with alert decision, fell upon some galleys separated from their +companions, sinking several, and carrying off the great Capitana of Malta +as a prize. + +Thus both on the right and on the left the Christians had the worst of it. +The severest struggle was in the centre. Here were the flag-ships of the +commanders,--the Real, Don John's vessel, flying the holy banner of the +League; Ali Pasha displaying the great Ottoman standard, covered with +texts from the Koran in letters of gold, and having the name of Allah +written upon it many thousands of times. + +Both the commanders, young and ardent, burned with desire to meet in mid +battle. The rowers urged forward their vessels with an energy that sent +them ahead of the rest of their lines, driving them through the foaming +water with such force that the pasha's galley, much the larger and loftier +of the two, was hurled upon its opponent until its prow reached the fourth +bench of rowers. Both vessels groaned and quivered to their very keels +with the shock. + +As soon as the vessels could be disengaged the combat began, the pasha +opening with a fierce fire of cannon and musketry, which was returned with +equal fury and more effect. The Spanish gunners and musketeers were +protected by high defences, and much of the Turkish fire went over their +heads, while their missiles, poured into the unprotected and crowded crews +of Ali's flag-ship, caused terrible loss. But the Turks had much the +advantage in numbers, and both sides fought with a courage that made the +result a matter of doubt. + +The flag-ships were not long left alone. Other vessels quickly gathered +round them, and the combat spread fiercely to both sides. The new-comers +attacked one another and assailed at every opportunity the two central +ships. But the latter, beating off their assailants, clung together with +unyielding pertinacity, as if upon them depended the whole issue of the +fight. + +The complete width of the entrance to the bay of Lepanto was now a scene +of mortal combat, though the vessels were so lost under a pall of smoke +that none of the combatants could see far to the right or left. The lines, +indeed, were broken up into small detachments, each fighting the +antagonists in its front, without regard to what was going on elsewhere. +The battle was in no sense a grand whole, but a series of separate combats +in which the galleys grappled and the soldiers and sailors boarded and +fought hand to hand. The slaughter was frightful. In the case of some +vessels, it is said, every man on board was killed or wounded, while the +blood that flowed from the decks stained the waters of the gulf red for +miles. + +The left wing of the allies, as has been said, was worsted at the +beginning of the fight, its commander receiving a wound which proved +mortal. But the Venetians fought on with the courage of despair. In the +end they drove back their adversaries and themselves became the +assailants, taking vessel after vessel from the foe. The vessel of Mahomet +Sirocco was sunk, and he was slain after escaping death by drowning. His +death ended the resistance of his followers. They turned to fly, many of +the vessels being run ashore and abandoned and their crews largely +perishing in the water. + +While victory in this quarter perched on the Christian banners, the mortal +struggle in the centre went on. The flag-ships still clung together, an +incessant fire of artillery and musketry sweeping both decks. The +Spaniards proved much the better marksmen, but the greater numbers of the +Turks, and reinforcements received from an accompanying vessel, balanced +this advantage. Twice the Spaniards tried to board and were driven back. A +third effort was more successful, and the deck of the Turkish galley was +reached. The two commanders cheered on their men, exposing themselves to +danger as freely as the meanest soldier. Don John received a wound in the +foot,--fortunately a slight one. Ali Pasha led his janizaries boldly +against the boarders, but as he did so he was struck in the head by a +musket-ball and fell. The loss of his inspiring voice discouraged his men. +For a time they continued to struggle, but, borne back by their impetuous +assailants, they threw down their arms and asked for quarter. + +The deck was covered with the bodies of the dead and wounded. From beneath +them the body of Ali was drawn, severely, perhaps mortally, wounded. His +rescuers would have killed him on the spot, but he diverted them by +pointing out where his money and jewels could be found. The next soldier +to come up was one of the galley-slaves, whom Don John had unchained from +the oar and supplied with arms. Ali's story of treasure was lost on him. +With one blow he severed his head from his shoulders, and carried the gory +prize to Don John, laying it at his feet. The generous Spaniard looked at +it with a mingling of pity and horror. + +"Of what use can such a present be to me?" he coldly asked the slave, who +looked for some rich reward; "throw it into the sea." + +This was not done. The head was stuck on a pike and raised aloft on the +captured galley. At the same time the great Ottoman banner was drawn down, +while that of the Cross was elevated with cheers of triumph in its place. + +The shouts of "victory!" the sight of the Christian standard at the +mast-head of Ali's ship, the news of his death, which spread from ship to +ship, gave new courage to the allies and robbed the Turks of spirit. They +fought on, but more feebly. Many of their vessels were boarded and taken. +Others were sunk. After four hours of fighting the resistance of the +Turkish centre was at an end. + +On the right, as related, Andrew Doria had suffered a severe loss by +stretching his line too far. He would have suffered still more had not the +reserve under Santa Cruz, which had already given aid to Don John, come to +his relief. Strengthened by Cardona with the Sicilian squadron, he fell on +the Algerine galleys with such fierceness that they were forced to recoil. +In their retreat they were hotly assailed by Doria, and Uluch, beset on +all sides, was obliged to abandon his prizes and take to flight. Tidings +now came to him of the defeat of the centre and the death of Ali, and, +hoisting signals for retreat, he stood in all haste to the north, followed +by the galleys of his fleet. + +With all sail spread and all its oarsmen vigorously at work, the corsair +fleet sped rapidly away, followed by Doria and Santa Cruz. Don John joined +in the pursuit, hoping to intercept the fugitives in front of a rocky +headland which stretched far into the sea. But the skilled Algerine leader +weathered this peril, losing a few vessels on the rocks, the remainder, +nearly forty in number, bearing boldly onward. Soon they distanced their +pursuers, many of whose oarsmen had taken part and been wounded in the +fight. Before nightfall the Algerines were vanishing below the horizon. + +There being signs of a coming storm, Don John hastened to seek a harbor of +refuge, setting fire to such vessels as were damaged beyond usefulness, +and with the remainder of his prizes making all haste to the neighboring +port of Petala, the best harbor within reach. + +The loss of the Turks had been immense, probably not less than twenty-five +thousand being killed and five thousand taken prisoners. To Don John's +prizes may be added twelve thousand Christian captives, chained to the +oars by the Turks, who now came forth, with tears of joy, to bless their +deliverers. The allies had lost no more than eight thousand men. This +discrepancy was largely due to their use of fire-arms, while many of the +Turks fought with bows and arrows. Only the forty Algerine ships escaped; +one hundred and thirty vessels were taken. The Christian loss was but +fifteen galleys. The spoils were large and valuable, consisting in great +measure of gold, jewels, and rich brocades. + +Of the noble cavaliers who took part in the fight, we shall speak only of +Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, a nephew of Don John, whom he was +destined to succeed in military renown. He began here his career with a +display of courage and daring unsurpassed on the fleet. Among the +combatants was a common soldier, Cervantes by name, whose future glory was +to throw into the shade that of all the leaders in the fight. Though +confined to bed with a fever on the morning of the battle, he insisted on +taking part, and his courage in the affray was shown by two wounds on his +breast and a third in his hand which disabled it for life. Fortunately it +was the left hand. The right remained to write the immortal story of Don +Quixote de la Mancha. + +Thus ended one of the greatest naval battles of modern times. No important +political effect came from it, but it yielded an immense moral result. It +had been the opinion of Europe that the Turks were invincible at sea. This +victory dispelled that theory, gave new heart to Christendom, and so +dispirited the Turks that in the next year they dared not meet the +Christians at sea, though they were commanded by the daring dey of +Algiers. The beginning of the decline of the Ottoman empire may be said to +date from the battle of Lepanto. + + + + + +THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. + + +During almost the whole reign of Philip II. the army of Spain was kept +busily engaged, now with the Turks and the Barbary states, now with the +revolted Moriscos, or descendants of the Moors of Granada, now in the +conquest of Portugal, now with the heretics of the Netherlands. All this +was not enough for the ambition of the Spanish king. Elizabeth of England +had aided the Netherland rebels and had insulted him in America by sending +fleets to plunder his colonies; England, besides, was a nest of enemies of +the church of which Philip was one of the most zealous supporters; he +determined to attempt the conquest of that heretical and hostile island +and the conversion of its people. + +For months all the shipwrights of Spain were kept busy in building vessels +of an extraordinary size. Throughout the kingdom stores were actively +collected for their equipment. Levies of soldiers were made in Italy, +Germany, and the Netherlands, to augment the armies of Spain. What was in +view was the secret of the king, but through most of 1587 all Europe +resounded with the noise of his preparations. + +Philip broached his project to his council of state, but did not gain much +support for his enterprise. "England," said one of them, "is surrounded +with a tempestuous ocean and has few harbors. Its navy is equal to that of +any other nation, and if a landing is made we shall find its coasts +defended by a powerful army. It would be better first to subdue the +Netherlands; that done we shall be better able to chastise the English +queen." The Duke of Parma, Philip's general in chief, was of the same +opinion. Before any success could be hoped for, he said, Spain should get +possession of some large seaport in Zealand, for the accommodation of its +fleet. + +These prudent counsels were thrown away on the self-willed king. His +armies had lately conquered Portugal; England could not stand before their +valor; one battle at sea and another on shore would decide the contest; +the fleet he was building would overwhelm all the ships that England +possessed; the land forces of Elizabeth, undisciplined and unused to war, +could not resist his veteran troops, the heroes of a hundred battles, and +led by the greatest general of the age. All this he insisted on. Europe +should see what he could do. England should be punished for its heresy and +Elizabeth pay dearly for her discourtesy. + +Philip was confirmed in his purpose by the approbation of the Pope. +Elizabeth of England was the greatest enemy of the Catholic faith. She had +abolished it throughout her dominions and executed as a traitor the +Catholic Queen Mary of Scotland. For nearly thirty years she had been the +chief support of the Protestants in Germany, France, and the Netherlands. +Pope Pius V. had already issued a bull deposing Elizabeth, on the ground +of acts of perfidy. Sixtus VI., who succeeded, renewed this bull and +encouraged Philip who, ambitious to be considered the guardian of the +Church, hastened his preparations for the conquest of the island kingdom. + +Elizabeth was not deceived by the stories set afloat by Spain. She did not +believe that this great fleet was intended partly for the reduction of +Holland, partly for use in America, as Philip declared. Scenting danger +afar, she sent Sir Francis Drake with a fleet to the coast of Spain to +interrupt these stupendous preparations. + +Drake was the man for the work. Dispersing the Spanish fleet sent to +oppose him, he entered the harbor of Cadiz, where he destroyed two large +galleons and a handsome vessel filled with provisions and naval stores. +Then he sailed for the Azores, captured a rich carrack on the way home +from the East Indies, and returned to England laden with spoils. He had +effectually put an end to Philip's enterprise for that year. + +Philip now took steps towards a treaty of peace with England, for the +purpose of quieting the suspicions of the queen. She appeared to fall into +the snare, pretended to believe that his fleet was intended for Holland +and America, and entered into a conference with Spain for the settlement +of all disturbing questions. But at the same time she raised an army of +eighty thousand men, fortified all exposed ports, and went vigorously to +work to equip her fleet. She had then less than thirty ships in her navy, +and these much smaller than those of Spain, but the English sailors were +the best and boldest in the world, new ships were rapidly built, and pains +was taken to increase the abhorrence which the people felt for the tyranny +of Spain. Accounts were spread abroad of the barbarities practised in +America and in the Netherlands, vivid pictures were drawn of the cruelties +of the Inquisition, and the Catholic as well as the Protestant people of +England became active in preparing for defence. The whole island was of +one mind; loyalty seemed universal; the citizens of London provided thirty +ships, and the nobility and gentry of England forty or fifty more. But +these were of small size as compared with those of their antagonist, and +throughout the island apprehension prevailed. + +In the beginning of May, 1588, Philip's strenuous labors were concluded +and the great fleet was ready. It was immense as compared with that with +which William the Conqueror had invaded and conquered England five +centuries before. The Invincible Armada, as the Spaniards called it, +consisted of one hundred and fifty ships, many of them of enormous size. +They were armed with more than two thousand six hundred great guns, were +provisioned for half a year, and contained military stores in a profusion +which only the wealth of America and the Indies could have supplied. On +them were nearly twenty thousand of the famous troops of Spain, with two +thousand volunteers of the most distinguished families, and eight thousand +sailors. In addition there was assembled in the coast districts of the +Netherlands an army of thirty-four thousand men, for whose transportation +to England a great number of flat-bottomed vessels had been procured. +These were to venture upon the sea as soon as the Armada was in position +for their support. + +And now, indeed, "perfidious Albion" had reason to tremble. Never had that +nation of islanders been so seriously threatened, not even when the ships +of William of Normandy were setting sail for its shores. The great fleet, +which lay at Lisbon, then a city of Spain, was to set sail in the early +days of May, and no small degree of fear affected the hearts of all +Protestant Europe, for the conquest of England by Philip the fanatic would +have been a frightful blow to the cause of religious and political +liberty. + +All had so far gone well with Spain; now all began to go ill. At the very +time fixed for sailing the Marquis of Santa Cruz, the admiral of the +fleet, was taken violently ill and died, and with him died the Duke of +Paliano, the vice-admiral. Santa Cruz's place was not easy to fill. Philip +chose to succeed him the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a nobleman totally +ignorant of sea affairs, giving him for vice-admiral Martinez de Recaldo, +a seaman of much experience. All this caused so much delay that the fleet +did not sail till May 29. + +Storm succeeded sickness to interfere with Philip's plans. A tempest fell +on the fleet on its way to Corunna, where it was to take on some troops +and stores. All but four of the ships reached Corunna, but they had been +so battered and dishevelled by the winds that several weeks passed before +they could again be got ready for sea,--much to the discomfiture of the +king, who was eager to become the lord and master of England. He had dwelt +there in former years as the husband of Queen Mary; now he was ambitious +to set foot there as absolute king. + +England, meanwhile, was in an ebullition of joy. Word had reached there +that the Spanish fleet was rendered unseaworthy by the storm, and the +queen's secretary, in undue haste, ordered Lord Howard, the admiral, to +lay up four of his largest ships and discharge their crews, as they would +not be needed. But Howard was not so ready to believe a vague report, and +begged the queen to let him keep the ships, even if at his own expense, +till the truth could be learned. To satisfy himself, he set sail for +Corunna, intending to try and destroy the Armada if as much injured as +reported. Learning the truth, and finding that a favorable wind for Spain +had begun to blow, he returned to Plymouth in all haste, in some dread +lest the Armada might precede him to the English coast. + +He had not long been back when stirring tidings came. The Armada had been +seen upon the seas. Lord Howard at once left harbor with his fleet. The +terrible moment of conflict, so long and nervously awaited, was at hand. +On the next day--July 30--he came in view of the great Spanish fleet, drawn +up in the form of a crescent, with a space of seven miles between its +wings. Before this giant fleet his own seemed but a dwarf. Paying no +attention to Lord Howard's ships, the Armada moved on with dignity up the +Channel, its purpose being to disperse the Dutch and English ships off the +Netherland coast and escort to England the Duke of Parma's army, then +ready to sail. + +Lord Howard deemed it wisest to pursue a guerilla mode of warfare, +harassing the Spaniards and taking any advantage that offered. He first +attacked the flag-ship of the vice-admiral Recaldo, and with such vigor +and dexterity as to excite great alarm in the Spanish fleet. From that +time it kept closer order, yet on the same day Howard attacked one of its +largest ships. Others hurried to the aid; but in their haste two of them +ran afoul, one, a large galleon, having her mast broken. She fell behind +and was captured by Sir Francis Drake, who discovered, to his delight, +that she had on board a chief part of the Spanish treasure. + +Other combats took place, in all of which the English were victorious. The +Spaniards proved ignorant of marine evolutions, and the English sailed +around them with a velocity which none of their ships could equal, and +proved so much better marksmen that nearly every shot told, while the +Spanish gunners fired high and wasted their balls in the air. The fight +with the Armada seemed a prototype of the much later sea-battles at Manila +and Santiago de Cuba. + +Finally, after a halt before Calais, the Armada came within sight of +Dunkirk, where Parma's army, with its flat-bottomed transports, was +waiting to embark. Here a calm fell upon the fleets, and they remained +motionless for a whole day. But about midnight a breeze sprang up and Lord +Howard put into effect a scheme he had devised the previous day. He had +made a number of fire-ships by filling eight vessels with pitch, sulphur, +and other combustibles, and these were now set on fire and sent down the +wind against the Spanish fleet. + +It was with terror that the Spaniards beheld the coming of these flaming +ships. They remembered vividly the havoc occasioned by fire-ships at the +siege of Antwerp. The darkness of the night added to their fears, and +panic spread from end to end of the fleet. All discipline vanished; +self-preservation was the sole thought of each crew. Some took time to +weigh their anchors, but others, in wild haste, cut their cables, and soon +the ships were driving blindly before the wind, some running afoul of each +other and being completely disabled by the shock. + +When day dawned Lord Howard saw with the highest satisfaction the results +of his stratagem. The Spanish fleet was in the utmost disorder, its ships +widely dispersed. His own fleet had just been strengthened, and he at once +made an impetuous attack upon the scattered Armada. The battle began at +four in the morning and lasted till six in the evening, the Spaniards +fighting with great bravery but doing little execution. Many of their +ships were greatly damaged, and ten of the largest were sunk, run aground, +or captured. The principal galeas, or large galley, manned with three +hundred galley slaves and having on board four hundred soldiers, was +driven ashore near Calais, and nearly all the Spaniards were killed or +drowned in attempting to reach land. The rowers were set at liberty. + +The Spanish admiral was greatly dejected by this series of misfortunes. As +yet the English had lost but one small ship and about one hundred men, +while his losses had been so severe that he began to dread the destruction +of the entire fleet. He could not without great danger remain where he +was. His ships were too large to approach nearer to the coast of Flanders. +Philip had declined to secure a suitable harbor in Zealand, as advised. +The Armada was a great and clumsy giant, from which Lord Howard's much +smaller fleet had not fled in terror, as had been expected, and which now +was in such a condition that there was nothing left for it but to try and +return to Spain. + +But the getting there was not easy. A return through the Channel was +hindered by the wind, which blew strongly from the south. Nor was it a +wise movement in the face of the English fleet. The admiral, therefore, +determined to sail northward and make the circuit of the British islands. + +Unfortunately for Lord Howard, he was in no condition to pursue. By the +neglect of the authorities he had been ill-supplied with gunpowder, and +was forced to return to England for a fresh supply. But for this +deficiency he possibly might, in the distressed condition of the Spanish +fleet, have forced a surrender of the entire Armada. As it was, his return +proved fortunate, for the fleets had not far separated when a frightful +tempest began, which did considerable harm to the English ships, but fell +with all its rage on the exposed Armada. + +The ships, drawn up in close ranks, were hurled fiercely together, many +being sunk. Driven helplessly before the wind, some were dashed to pieces +on the rocks of Norway, others on the Scottish coast or the shores of the +western islands. Some went down in the open sea. A subsequent storm, which +came from the west, drove more than thirty of them on the Irish coast. Of +these, some got off in a shattered state, others were utterly wrecked and +their crews murdered on reaching the shore. The admiral's ship, which had +kept in the open sea, reached the Spanish coast about the close of +September. + +Even after reaching harbor in Spain troubles pursued them, two of the +galleons taking fire and burning to ashes. Of the delicately reared noble +volunteers, great numbers had died from the hardships of the voyage, and +many more died from diseases contracted at sea. The total loss is not +known; some say that thirty-two, some that more than eighty, ships were +lost, while the loss of life is estimated at from ten thousand to fifteen +thousand. Spain felt the calamity severely. There was hardly a family of +rank that had not some one of its members to mourn, and so universal was +the grief that Philip, to whose ambition the disaster was due, felt +obliged to issue an edict to abridge the time of public mourning. + +In England and Holland, on the contrary, the event was hailed with +universal joy. Days of solemn thanksgiving were appointed, and Elizabeth, +seated in a triumphal chariot and surrounded by her ministers and nobles, +went for this purpose to St. Paul's Cathedral, the concourse bearing a +great number of flags that had been taken from the enemy. + +The joy at the destruction of the Armada was not confined to England and +Holland. All Northern Europe joined in it. Philip's ambition, in the event +of victory over England, might have led him to attempt the subjection of +every Protestant state in Europe, while Catholic France, which he +afterwards attempted to conquer, had the greatest reason to dread his +success. + +Thus ended the most threatening enterprise in the religious wars of the +sixteenth century, and to Lord Howard and his gallant captains England and +Europe owe the deepest debt of gratitude, for the success of the Armada +and the conquest of England by Spain might have proved a calamity whose +effects would have been felt to the present day. + + + + + +THE CAUSES OF SPAIN'S DECADENCE. + + +The golden age of Spain began in 1492, in which year the conquest of +Granada extinguished the Arab dominion, and the discovery of America by +Columbus opened a new world to the enterprise of the Spanish cavaliers. It +continued during the reigns of Charles I. and Philip II., extending over a +period of about a century, during which Spain was the leading power in +Europe, and occupied the foremost position in the civilized world. In +Europe its possessions included the Netherlands and important regions in +Italy, while its king, Charles I., ruled as Charles V. over the German +empire, possessing a dominion in Europe only surpassed by that of +Charlemagne. Under Philip II. Portugal became a part of the Spanish realm, +and with it its colony of Brazil, so that Spain was the unquestioned owner +of the whole continent of South America, while much of North America lay +under its flag. + +Wealth flowed into the coffers of this broad kingdom in steady streams, +the riches of America over-flowing its treasury; its fleet was the +greatest, its army the best trained and most irresistible in Europe; it +stood as the bulwark against that mighty Ottoman power before which the +other nations trembled, and checked its career of victory at Lepanto; in +short, as above said, it was for a brief period the leading power in +Europe, and appeared to have in it the promise of a glorious career. + +Such was the status of Spain during the reigns of the monarchs named. This +was followed by a long period of decline, which reduced that kingdom from +its position of supremacy into that of one of the minor powers of Europe. +Various causes contributed to this change, the chief being the accession +of a series of weak monarchs and the false ideas of the principles of +political economy which then prevailed. The great treasure which flowed +into Spain from her American colonies rather hastened than retarded her +decline. The restrictions and monopolies of her colonial policy gave rise +to an active contraband trade, which reaped the harvest of her commerce. +The over-abundant supply of gold and silver had the effect of increasing +the price of other commodities and discouraging her rising industries, the +result being that she was obliged to purchase abroad the things she ceased +to produce at home and the wealth of America flowed from her coffers into +those of the adjoining nations. Her policy towards the Moriscos banished +the most active agriculturists from the land, and large districts became +desert, population declined, and the resources of the kingdom diminished +yearly. In a century after the death of Philip II. Spain, from being the +arbiter of the destinies of Europe, had grown so weak that the other +nations ceased to regard her otherwise than as a prey for their ambition, +her population had fallen from eight to six millions, her revenue from two +hundred and eighty to thirty millions, her navy had vanished, her army had +weakened, and her able soldiers and statesmen had disappeared. + +In addition to the causes of decline named, others of importance were her +treatment of the Jews and the Moriscos, though the banishment of the +former took place at an earlier date. Despite their activity in trade and +finance and the value to the nations of their genius for business, the +Jews of Europe were everywhere persecuted, often exposed to robbery and +massacre, and expelled from some kingdoms. In Spain their expulsion was +conducted with cruel severity. + +Many of the unfortunate Jews, seeking to escape persecution, embraced +Christianity. But their conversion was doubted, they were subjected to +constant espionage, and the least suspicion of indulging in their old +worship exposed them to the dangerous charge of heresy, a word of +frightful omen in Spain. It was to punish these delinquent Jews that in +1480 the Inquisition was introduced, and at once began its frightful work, +no less than two thousand "heretics" being burned alive in 1481, while +seventeen thousand were "reconciled," a word of mild meaning elsewhere, +but which in Spain signified torture, confiscation of property, loss of +citizenship, and frequently imprisonment for life in the dungeons of the +Inquisition. Severe as was the treatment of the Jews throughout +Christendom, nowhere were they treated more pitilessly than in Spain. + +The year 1492, in which Spain gained glory by the conquest of Granada and +the discovery of America, was one of the deepest misfortune to this +people, who were cruelly driven from the kingdom. The edict for this was +signed by Ferdinand and Isabella at Granada, March 30, 1492, and decreed +that all unbaptized Jews, without regard to sex, age, or condition, should +leave Spain before the end of the next July, and never return thither +under penalty of death and confiscation of property. Every Spaniard was +forbidden to give aid in any form to a Jew after the date named. The Jews +might sell their property and carry the proceeds with them in bills of +exchange or merchandise, but not in gold or silver. + +This edict came like a thunderbolt to the Israelites. At a tyrant's word +they must go forth as exiles from the land in which they and their +forefathers had dwelt for ages, break all their old ties of habit and +association, and be cast out helpless and defenceless, marked with a brand +of infamy, among nations who held them in hatred and contempt. + +Under the unjust terms of the edict they were forced to abandon most of +the property which they had spent their lives in gaining. It was +impossible to sell their effects in the brief time given, in a market +glutted with similar commodities, for more than a tithe of their value. As +a result their hard-won wealth was frightfully sacrificed. One chronicler +relates that he saw a house exchanged for an ass and a vineyard for a suit +of clothes. In Aragon the property of the Jews was confiscated for the +benefit of their creditors, with little regard to its value. As for the +bills of exchange which they were to take instead of gold and silver, it +was impossible to obtain them to the amount required in that age of +limited commerce, and here again they were mercilessly robbed. + +The migration was one of the most pitiable known in history. As the time +fixed for their departure approached the roads of the country swarmed with +emigrants, young and old, strong and feeble, sick and well, some on horses +or mules, but the great multitude on foot. The largest division, some +eighty thousand in number, passed through Portugal, whose monarch taxed +them for a free passage through his dominions, but, wiser than Ferdinand, +permitted certain skilful artisans among them to settle in his kingdom. + +Those who reached Africa and marched towards Fez, where many of their race +resided, were attacked by the desert tribes, robbed, slain, and treated +with the most shameful barbarity. Many of them, half-dead with famine and +in utter despair, returned to the coast, where they consented to be +baptized with the hope that they might be permitted to return to their +native land. + +Those who sought Italy contracted an infectious disease in the crowded and +filthy vessels which they were obliged to take; a disorder so malignant +that it carried off twenty thousand of the people of Naples during the +year, and spread far over the remainder of Italy. As for the Jews, hosts +of them perished of hunger and disease, and of the whole number expelled, +estimated at one hundred and sixty thousand, only a miserable fragment +found homes at length in foreign lands, some seeking Turkey, others +gaining refuge and protection in France and England. As for the effect of +the migration on Spain it must suffice here to quote the remark of a +monarch of that day: "Do they call this Ferdinand a politic prince, who +can thus impoverish his own kingdom and enrich ours?" + +Spain was in this barbarous manner freed of her Jewish population. There +remained the Moors, who had capitulated, under favorable terms, to +Ferdinand in 1492. These terms were violated a few years later by Cardinal +Ximenes, his severity driving them into insurrection in 1500. This was +suppressed, and then punishment began. So rigid was the inquiry that it +seemed as if all the people of Granada would be condemned as guilty, and +in mortal dread many of them made peace by embracing Christianity, while +others sold their estates and migrated to Barbary. In the end, all who +remained escaped persecution only by consenting to be baptized, the total +number of converts being estimated at fifty thousand. The name of Moors, +which had superseded that of Arabs, was now changed to that of Moriscos, +by which these unfortunate people were afterwards known. + +The ill-faith shown to the Moors of the plain gave rise to an insurrection +in the mountains, in which the Spaniards suffered a severe defeat. The +insurgents, however, were soon subdued, and most of them, to prevent being +driven from their homes, professed the Christian faith. By the free use of +torture and the sword the kings of Spain had succeeded in adding largely +to their Christian subjects. + +The Moriscos became the most skilful and industrious agriculturists of +Spain, but they were an alien element of the population and from time to +time irritating edicts were issued for their control. In 1560 the Moriscos +were forbidden to employ African slaves, for fear that they might make +infidels of them. This was a severe annoyance, for the wealthy farmers +depended on the labor of these slaves. In 1563 they were forbidden to +possess arms except under license. In 1566 still more oppressive edicts +were passed. They were no longer to use the Arabic language or wear the +Moorish dress, and the women were required to go about with their faces +unveiled,--a scandalous thing among Mohammedans. Their weddings were to be +conducted in public, after the Christian forms, their national songs and +dances were interdicted, and they were even forbidden to indulge in warm +baths, bathing being a custom of which the Spaniard of that day appears to +have disapproved. + +The result of these oppressive edicts was a violent and dangerous +insurrection, which involved nearly all the Moriscos of Spain, and +continued for more than two years, requiring all the power of Spain for +its suppression. Don John of Austria, the victor at Lepanto, led the +Spanish troops, but he had a difficult task, the Moriscos, sheltered in +their mountain fastnesses, making a desperate and protracted resistance, +and showing a warlike energy equal to that which had been displayed in the +defence of Granada. + +The end of the war was followed by a decree from Philip II. that all the +Moors of Granada should be removed into the interior of the country, their +lands and houses being forfeited, and nothing left them but their personal +effects. This act of confiscation was followed by their reduction to a +state of serfdom in their new homes, no one being permitted to change his +abode without permission, under a very severe penalty. If found within ten +leagues of Granada they were condemned, if between the ages of ten and +seventeen, to the galleys for life; if older, to the punishment of death. + +The dispersal of the Moriscos of Granada, while cruel to them, proved of +the greatest benefit to Spain. Wherever they went the effects of their +superior skill and industry were soon manifested. They were skilled not +only in husbandry, but in the mechanic arts, and their industry gave a new +aspect of prosperity to the provinces to which they were banished, while +the valleys and hill-sides of Granada, which had flourished under their +cultivation, sank into barrenness under the unskilful hands of their +successors. + +Yet this benefit to agriculture did not appeal to the ruling powers in +Spain. The Moriscos were not Spaniards, and could not easily become so +while deprived of all civil rights. While nominally Christian, there was a +suspicion that at heart they were still Moslems. And their relations to +the Moors of Africa and possible league with the corsairs of the +Mediterranean aroused distrust. Under Philip III., a timid and incapable +king, the final act came. He was induced to sign an edict for the +expulsion of the Moriscos, and this quiet and industrious people, a +million in number, were in 1610, like the Jews before them, forced to +leave their homes in Spain. + +It is not necessary to repeat the story of the suffering which necessarily +followed so barbarous an act. What has been said of the circumstances +attending the expulsion of the Jews will suffice. That of the Moriscos was +not so inhuman in its consequences, but it was serious enough. +Fortunately, in view of the intense impolicy and deep intolerance +indicated in the act, its evil effects reacted upon its advocates. To the +Moriscos the suffering was personal; to Spain it was national. As France +half-ruined herself by expelling the Huguenots, the most industrious of +her population, Spain did the same in expelling the Moriscos, to whose +skill and industry she owed so much of her prosperity. So it ever must be +when bigotry is allowed to control the policy of states. France recovered +from the evil effects of her mad act. Spain never did. The expulsion of +the Moriscos was one of the most prominent causes of her decline, and no +indications of a recovery have yet been shown. + +The expulsion of the Jews and Moriscos was not sufficient to satisfy the +intolerant spirit of Spain. Heresy had made its way even into the minds of +Spaniards. Sons of the Church themselves had begun to think in other lines +than those laid down for them by the priestly guardians of their minds. +Protestant books were introduced into the ever-faithful land, and a +considerable number of converts to Protestantism were made. + +Upon these heretics the Inquisition descended with all its frightful +force. Philip, in a monstrous edict, condemned all to be burned alive who +bought, sold, or read books prohibited by the Church. The result was +terrible. The land was filled with spies. Arrests were made on all sides. +The instruments of torture were kept busy. In all the principal cities of +Spain the monstrous spectacle of the _auto-de-f_ was to be seen, +multitudes being burned at the stake for having dared to read the books or +accept the arguments of Protestant writers. + +The total effect of this horrible system of persecution we can only +epitomize. Thousands were burned at the stake, thousands imprisoned for +life after terrible torture, thousands robbed of their property, and their +children condemned to poverty and opprobrium; and the kingdom of Christ, +as the Spanish monarchs of that day estimated it, was established in +Spain. + +The Spanish Inquisition proved an instrument of conviction which none +dared question. Heresy was blotted out from Spain,--and Spain was blotted +out from the ranks of enlightened nations. Freedom of thought was at an +end. The mind of the Spaniard was put in fetters. Spain, under the sombre +shadow of this barbarity, was shut out from the light which was breaking +over the remainder of Europe. Literature moved in narrow channels, +philosophy was checked, the domain of science was closed, progress was at +an end. Spain stood still while the rest of the world was sweeping onward; +and she stands still to-day, her mind in the fifteenth century. The +decadence of Spain is due to the various causes named,--the weakness of her +rulers, lack of just and advantageous ideas of political and commercial +economy, suppression of freedom of thought and opinion on topics which +were being freely handled elsewhere in Christendom, and a narrow and +intolerant policy which, wherever shown, is a fatal barrier to the +progress of mankind. + + + + + +THE LAST OF A ROYAL RACE. + + +The rebellion of the Moriscos, due to the oppressive edicts of Philip II., +as stated in the preceding tale, was marked by numerous interesting +events. Some of these are worth giving in illustration of the final +struggle of the Moors in Spain. The insurgents failed in their first +effort, that of seizing the city of Granada, still filled with their +fellow-countrymen, and restoring as far as possible their old kingdom; and +they afterwards confined themselves to the difficult passes and mountain +fastnesses of the Sierra Nevada, where they presented a bold front to the +power of Spain. + +Having proclaimed their independence, and cast off all allegiance to the +crown of Spain, their first step was to select a new monarch of their own +race. The man selected for this purpose was of royal blood, being +descended in a direct line from the ancient family of the Omeyades, +caliphs of Damascus, and for nearly four centuries rulers in Spain. This +man, who bore the Castilian name of Don Fernando de Valor, but was known +by the Moors as Aben-Humeya, was at that time twenty-two years of age, +comely in person and engaging in manners, and of a deportment worthy of +the princely line from which he had descended. A man of courage and +energy, he escaped from Granada and took refuge in the mountains, where he +began a war to the knife against Spain. + +The early events of the war were unfavorable to the Moors. Their +strongholds were invaded by a powerful Spanish force under the Marquis of +Mondejar, and their forces soon put to flight. Aben-Humeya was so hotly +pursued that he was forced to spring from his horse, cut the hamstrings of +the animal to render it useless to his pursuers, and seek refuge in the +depths of the sierras, where dozens of hiding-places unknown to his +pursuers could be found. + +The insurrection was now in a desperate stage. Mondejar was driving the +rebels in arms in terror before him; tower and town fell in succession +into his hands; everywhere his arms were victorious, and only one thing +was wanting to bring all opposition to an end,--the capture of Aben-Humeya, +the "little king" of the Alpujarras. This crownless monarch was known to +be wandering with a few followers in the wilds of the mountains; but while +he lived the insurrection might at any moment blaze out again, and +detachments of soldiers were sent to pursue him through the sierras. + +The captain of one of these parties learned from a traitor that the +fugitive prince remained hidden in the mountains only during the day, +finding shelter at night in the house of a kinsman, Aben-Aboo, on the +skirts of the sierras. Learning the situation of this mansion, the Spanish +captain led his men with the greatest secrecy towards it. Travelling by +night, they reached the vicinity of the dwelling under cover of the +darkness. In a minute more the house would have been surrounded and its +inmates secured; but at this critical moment the arquebuse of one of the +Spaniards was accidentally discharged, the report echoing loudly among the +hills and warning the lightly sleeping inmates of their danger. + +One of them, El Zaguer, the uncle of Aben-Humeya, at once sprang up and +leaped from the window of his room, making his way with all haste to the +mountains. His nephew was not so fortunate. Running to his window, in the +front of the house, he saw the ground occupied by troops. He hastily +sought another window, but his foes were there before him. Bewildered and +distressed, he knew not where to turn. The house was surrounded; the +Spaniards were thundering on the door for admittance; he was like a wolf +caught in its lair, and with as little mercy to hope from his captors. + +By good fortune the door was well secured. One possible chance for safety +occurred to the hunted prince. Hastening down-stairs, he stood behind the +portal and noiselessly drew its bolts. The Spaniards, finding the door +give way, and supposing that it had yielded to their blows, rushed hastily +in and hurried through the house in search of the fugitive who was hidden +behind the door. The instant they had all passed he slipped out, and, +concealed by the darkness outside, hastened away, soon finding a secure +refuge in the mountains. + +Aben-Aboo remained in the hands of the assaillants, who vainly questioned +him as to the haunts of his kinsmen. On his refusal to answer they +employed torture, but with no better effect. "I may die," he courageously +said, "but my friends will live." So severe and cruel was their treatment, +that in the end they left him for dead, returning to camp with the other +prisoners they had taken. As it proved, however, the heroic Aben-Aboo did +not die, but lived to play a leading part in the war. + +With kindly treatment of the Moriscos he would probably have given no more +trouble, but the Spanish proved utterly merciless, their soldiers raging +through the mountains, and committing the foulest acts of outrage and +rapine. In Granada a frightful deed was committed. A large number of the +leading Moriscos, about one hundred and fifty in all, had been seized and +imprisoned, being held as hostages for the good behavior of their friends. +Here, on a night in March, the prison was entered by a body of Spaniards, +who assailed the unfortunate captives, arms in hand, and began an +indiscriminate massacre. The prisoners seizing what means of defence they +could find, fought desperately for their lives, and for two hours the +unequal combat continued, not ending while a Morisco remained alive. + +This savage act led to terrible reprisals on the part of the insurgents, +who in the subsequent war treated with atrocious cruelty many of their +captives. The Moriscos were soon in arms again, Aben-Humeya at their head, +and the war blazed throughout the length and breadth of the mountains. +Even from Barbary came a considerable body of Moors, who entered the +service of the Morisco chief. Fierce and intrepid, trained to the military +career, and accustomed to a life of wild adventure, these were a most +valuable reinforcement to Aben-Humeya's forces, and enabled him to carry +on a guerilla warfare which proved highly vexatious to the troops of +Spain. He made forays from the mountains into the plain, penetrating into +the vega and boldly venturing even to the walls of Granada. The +insurrection spread far and wide through the Sierra Nevada, and the +Spanish army, now led by Don John of Austria, the king's brother, found +itself confronted by a most serious task. + +The weak point in the organization of the Moriscos lay in the character of +their king. Aben-Humeya, at first popular, soon displayed traits of +character which lost him the support of his followers. Surrounded by a +strong body-guard, he led a voluptuous life, and struck down without mercy +those whom he feared, no less than three hundred and fifty persons falling +victims to his jealousy or revenge. His cruelty and injustice at length +led to a plot for his death, and his brief reign ended in assassination, +his kinsman, Aben-Aboo, being chosen as his successor. + +The new king was a very different man from his slain predecessor. He was +much the older of the two, a man of high integrity and great decorum of +character. While lacking the dash and love of adventure of Aben-Humeya, he +had superior judgment in military affairs, and full courage in carrying +out his plans. His election was confirmed from Algiers, a large quantity +of arms and ammunition was imported from Barbary, reinforcements crossed +the Mediterranean, and the new king began his reign under excellent +auspices, his first movement being against Orgiba, a fortified place on +the road to Granada, which he invested in October with an army of ten +thousand men. + + [Illustration: THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA.] + + THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA. + + +The capture of this place, which soon followed, roused the enthusiasm of +the Moriscos to the highest pitch. From all sides the warlike peasantry +flocked to the standard of their able chief, and a war began resembling +that of a century before, when the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella were +invading the Kingdom of Granada. From peak to peak of the sierras +beacon-fires flashed their signals, calling the bold mountaineers to +forays on the lands of the enemy. Pouring suddenly down on the lower +levels, the daring marauders swept away in triumph to the mountains the +flocks and herds of their Christian foes. The vega of Granada became, as +in ancient times, the battle-ground of Moorish and Christian cavaliers, +the latter having generally the advantage, though occasionally the +insurgent bands would break into the suburbs, or even the city of Granada, +filling its people with consternation, and causing the great bell of the +Alhambra to peal out its tocsin of alarm and call the Spanish chivalry in +haste to the fray. + +We cannot describe, even in epitome, the varied course of this sanguinary +war. As might well have been expected, the greater force of the Spaniards +gradually prevailed, and the autumn of 1570 found the insurgents almost +everywhere subdued. Only Aben-Aboo, the "little king," remained in arms, a +force of four hundred men being all that were left to him of his recent +army. But these were men warmly devoted to him, and until the spring of +1571 every effort for his capture proved in vain. Hiding in mountain caves +and in inaccessible districts, he defied pursuit, and in a measure kept +alive the flame of rebellion. + +Treason at length brought his career to an end. One of the few insurgent +prisoners who escaped death at the hands of the Spanish executioners +revealed the hiding-place of the fugitive king, and named the two persons +on whom Aben-Aboo most relied, his secretary, Abou Amer, and a Moorish +captain named El Senix. + +An effort was made to win over the secretary by one who had formerly known +him, a letter being sent him which roused him to intense indignation. El +Senix, however, becoming aware of its contents, and having a private +grudge against his master, sent word by the messenger that he would +undertake, for a suitable recompense, to betray him to the Christians. + +An interview soon after took place between the Moor and Barredo, the +Spanish agent, some intimation of which came to the ears of Aben-Aboo. The +king at once sought a cavern in the neighborhood where El Senix was +secreted, and, leaving his followers outside, imprudently entered alone. +He found El Senix surrounded by several of his friends, and sternly +demanded of him the purpose of his interview with Barredo. Senix, confused +by the accusation, faltered out that he had simply been seeking to obtain +an amnesty for him. Aben-Aboo listened with a face of scorn, and, turning +on his heel with the word "treachery," walked back to the mouth of the +cave. + +Unluckily, his men, with the exception of two guards stationed at the +entrance, had left the spot to visit some near-by friends. Senix, +perceiving that his own life was in danger, and that this was his only +opportunity for safety, fell with his followers on the guards, one of whom +was killed and the other put to flight. Then an attack was made on +Aben-Aboo. The latter defended himself desperately, but the odds were too +great, and the dastardly El Senix ended the struggle by felling him with +the butt-end of his musket, when he was quickly despatched. + +Thus died the last of the Omeyades, the famous dynasty of Arabian caliphs +founded in 660, and established in Spain in 756. Aben-Aboo, the last of +this royal race, was given in death a triumphal entrance to Granada, as if +he were one whom the Spaniards delighted to honor. The corpse was set +astride on a mule, being supported by a wooden frame, which lay hidden +beneath flowing robes. On one side rode Barredo; on the other the murderer +El Senix bore the scimitar and arquebuse of the dead prince. The kinsmen +and friends of the Morisco chief rode in his train, and after them came a +regiment of infantry and a troop of horse. + +As the procession moved along the street of Zacatin salvos of musketry +saluted it, peals of artillery roared from the towers of the Alhambra, and +the multitude thronged to gaze with silent curiosity on the ghastly face. +Thus the cavalcade proceeded until the great square of Vivarambla was +reached. Here were assembled the principal cavaliers and magistrates of +the city, and here El Senix dismounted and delivered to Deza, the +president of the tribunal before which were tried the insurgent captives, +the arms of the murdered prince. + +And now this semblance of respect to a brave enemy was followed by a scene +of barbarity worthy of the Spain of that day. The ceremony of a public +execution was gone through with, the head of the corpse being struck off, +after which the body was given to the boys of Granada, who dragged it +through the streets and exposed it to every indignity, finally committing +it to the flames. The head, enclosed in a cage, was set over the gate that +faced towards the Alpujarras. There it remained for a year, seeming to +gaze towards the hills which the Morisco chief had loved so well, and +which had witnessed his brief and disastrous reign. + +Such was the fate of Aben-Aboo, the last of a line of great monarchs, and +one of the best of them all; a man of lofty spirit, temperate appetites, +and courageous endurance, who, had he lived in more prosperous days, might +have ruled in the royal halls of Cordova with a renown equal to that of +the most famous caliph of his race. + + + + + +HENRY MORGAN AND THE BUCCANEERS. + + +As the seventeenth century passed on, Spain, under the influence of +religious intolerance and bad government, grew weak, both at home and +abroad. Its prominent place in Europe was lost. Its vast colonial +provinces in America were scenes of persecution and anarchy. There the +fortresses were allowed to decay, the soldiers, half-clothed and unpaid, +to become beggars or bandits, the treasures to be pilfered, and commerce +to become a system of fraud; while the colonists were driven to detest +their mother land. This weakness was followed by dire consequences. Bands +of outcasts from various nations, who had settled on Spanish territory in +the West Indies, at first to forage on the cattle of Hispaniola, organized +into pirate crews, and, under the name of buccaneers, became frightful +scourges of the commerce of Spain. + +These wretches, mainly French, English, and Dutch, deserters and outlaws, +the scum of their nations, made the rich merchant and treasure ships of +Spain their prey, slaughtering their crews, torturing them for hidden +wealth, rioting with profuse prodigality at their lurking-places on land, +and turning those fair tropical islands into a pandemonium of outrage, +crime, and slaughter. As they troubled little the ships of other nations, +these nations rather favored than sought to suppress them, and Spain +seemed powerless to bring their ravages to an end. In consequence, as the +years went on, they grew bolder and more adventurous. Beginning with a few +small, deckless sloops, they in time gained large and well-armed vessels, +and created so deep a terror among the Spaniards by their savage attacks +that the latter rarely made a strong resistance. + +Lurking in forest-hidden creeks and inlets of the West India islands, they +kept a keen lookout for the ships that bore to Spain the gold, silver, +precious stones, and rich products of the New World, pursued them in their +swift barks, boarded them, and killed all who ventured to resist. If the +cargo was a rich one, and there had been little effort at defence, the +prisoners might be spared their lives; if otherwise, they were flung +mercilessly into the sea. Sailing then to their place of rendezvous, the +captors indulged in the wildest and most luxurious orgies, their tables +groaning with strong liquors and rich provisions; gaming, music, and +dancing succeeding; extravagance, debauchery, and profusion of every kind +soon dissipating their blood-bought wealth. + +Among the pirate leaders several gained prominence for superior boldness +or cruelty, among whom we may particularly name L'Olonnois, a Frenchman, +of such savage ferocity that all mariners of Spanish birth shuddered with +fear at his very name. This wretch suffered the fate he deserved. In an +expedition to the Isthmus of Darien he was taken prisoner by a band of +savage Indians, who tore him to pieces alive, flung his quivering limbs +into the fire, and then scattered the ashes to the air. + +Most renowned of all the buccaneers was Henry Morgan, a native of Wales, +who ran away from home as a boy, was sold as a slave in Barbadoes, and +afterwards joined a pirate crew, in time becoming a leader among the +lawless hordes. By this time the raids of the ferocious buccaneers had +almost put an end to Spanish commerce with the New World, and the daring +freebooters, finding their gains at sea falling off, collected fleets and +made attacks on land, plundering rich towns and laying waste thriving +settlements. So greatly had Spanish courage degenerated that the pirates +with ease put to flight ten times their number of that Spanish soldiery +which, a century before, had been the finest in the world. + +The first pirate to make such a raid was Lewis Scott, who sacked the town +of Campeachy, robbing it of all its wealth, and forcing its inhabitants to +pay an enormous ransom. Another named Davies marched inland to Nicaragua, +took and plundered that town, and carried off a rich booty in silver and +precious stones. He afterwards pillaged the city of St. Augustine, +Florida. Others performed similar exploits, but we must confine our +attention to the deeds of Morgan, the boldest and most successful of them +all. + +Morgan's first enterprise was directed against Port au Prince, Cuba, +where, however, the Spaniards had received warning and concealed their +treasures, so that the buccaneer gained little for his pains. His next +expedition was against Porto Bello, on the Isthmus, one of the richest and +best fortified of American cities. Two castles, believed to be +impregnable, commanded the entrances to the harbor. When the freebooters +learned that their leader proposed to attack so strong a place as this the +hearts of the boldest among them shrank. But Morgan, with a few inspiring +words, restored their courage. + +"What boots it," he exclaimed, "how small our number, if our hearts be +great! The fewer we are the closer will be our union and the larger our +shares of plunder." + +Boldness and secrecy carried the day. One of the castles was taken by +surprise, the first knowledge of the attack coming to the people of the +town from the concussion when Morgan blew it up. Before the garrison or +the citizens could prepare to oppose them the freebooters were in the +town. The governor and garrison fled in panic haste to the other castle, +while the terrified people threw their treasures into wells and cisterns. +The castle made a gallant resistance, but was soon obliged to yield to the +impetuous attacks of the pirate crews. + +It was no light exploit which Morgan had performed,--to take with five +hundred men a fortified city with a large garrison and strengthened by +natural obstacles to assault. The ablest general in ordinary war might +well have claimed renown for so signal a victory. But the ability of the +leader was tarnished by the cruelty of the buccaneer. The people were +treated with shocking barbarity, many of them being shut up in convents +and churches and burned alive, while the pirates gave themselves up to +every excess of debauchery. + +The great booty gained by this raid caused numerous pirate captains to +enlist under Morgan's flag, and other towns were taken, in which similar +orgies of cruelty and debauchery followed. But the impunity of the +buccaneers was nearing its end. Their atrocious acts had at length aroused +the indignation of the civilized world, and a treaty was concluded between +Great Britain and Spain whose chief purpose was to put an end to these +sanguinary and ferocious deeds. + +The first effect of this treaty was to spur the buccaneers to the +performance of some exploit surpassing any they had yet achieved. So high +was Morgan's reputation among the pirates that they flocked from all +quarters to enlist under his flag, and he soon had a fleet of no fewer +than thirty-seven vessels manned by two thousand men. With so large a +force an expedition on a greater scale could well be undertaken, and a +counsel of the chiefs debated whether they should make an assault upon +Vera Cruz, Carthagena, or Panama. Their choice fell upon Panama, as the +richest of the three. + +The city of Panama at that time (1670) was considered one of the greatest +and most opulent in America. It contained two thousand large buildings and +five thousand smaller, all of which were three stories high. Many of these +were built of stone, others of cedar wood, being elegantly constructed and +richly furnished. The city was the emporium for the silver- and gold-mines +of New Spain, and its merchants lived in great opulence, their houses rich +in articles of gold and silver, adorned with beautiful paintings and other +works of art, and full of the luxuries of the age. The churches were +magnificent in their decorations, and richly embellished with ornaments in +gold and silver. The city presented such a prize to cupidity as +freebooters and bandits had rarely conceived of in their wildest dreams. + + [Illustration: STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA.] + + STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA. + + +The daring enterprise began with the capture by four hundred men of the +Fort of St. Laurence, at the mouth of the Chagres River. Up this +serpentine stream sailed the freebooters, as far as it would bear them, +and thence they marched overland, suffering the greatest hardships and +overcoming difficulties which would have deterred men of less intrepid +spirit. Eight days of this terrible march brought the adventurers within +sight of the far-spreading Pacific, and of the spires of the coveted city +on its shores. + +The people of Panama had been apprised of what was in store for them, and +had laid ambuscades for the buccaneers, but Morgan, by taking an indirect +route to the town, avoided these. Panama was but partly fortified. In +several quarters it lay open to attack. It must be fought for and won or +lost on the open plain. Here the Spaniards had assembled to the number of +two thousand infantry and four hundred cavalry, well equipped and +possessing everything needed but spirit to meet the dreaded foe. They had +adopted an expedient sure to prove a dangerous one. A herd of wild bulls, +to the number of more than two thousand, was provided, with Indians and +negroes to drive them on the pirate horde. The result resembled that in +which the Greeks drove elephants upon the Roman legions. Many of the +buccaneers were accustomed to the chase of wild cattle, and, by shouts and +the waving of colored flags, turned the bulls back upon the Spanish lines, +which they threw into disorder. + +The buccaneers followed with an impetuous charge which broke the ranks of +the defenders of the town, who, after a two hours' combat, were completely +routed, the most of them being killed or taken prisoners. The assault was +now directed upon the town, which was strongly defended, the pirates being +twice repulsed and suffering much from the numerous Spanish guns. But +after a three hours' fight they overcame all opposition and the city fell +into their hands. + +A scene of frightful bloodshed and inhumanity followed. The buccaneers +gave no quarter, killing all they met. Lest they should be exposed to a +counter assault while intoxicated, Morgan called them together and forbade +them to taste the wine of the town, saying that it had been poisoned. +Conflagration followed massacre. Fires broke out in several quarters of +the city, and great numbers of dwellings, with churches, convents, and +numerous warehouses filled with valuable goods were reduced to ashes. +These fires continued to burn during most of the month in which the +freebooters held the city, and in which they indulged to the full in their +accustomed cruelty, rapacity, and licentiousness. + +Treasure was found in great quantities in the wells and caves, where it +had been thrown by the terrified people. The vessels taken in the harbor +yielded valuable commodities. Detachments were sent into the country to +capture and bring back those who had fled for safety, and by torturing +these several rich deposits of treasure were discovered in the surrounding +forests. A few of the inhabitants escaped with their wealth by sea, +seeking shelter in the islands of the bay, and a galleon laden with the +king's plate and jewels and other precious articles belonging to the +church and the people narrowly escaped after a hot chase by the +buccaneers. With these exceptions the rich city was completely looted. + +After a month spent among the ruins of Panama Morgan and his villainous +followers departed, one hundred and seventy-five mules carrying their more +bulky spoil, while with them were six hundred prisoners, some carrying +burdens, others held to ransom. Thus laden, they reached again the mouth +of the Chagres, where their ships awaited them and where a division of the +spoil was to be made. + +Treachery followed this stupendous act of piracy, Morgan's later history +being an extraordinary one for a man of his infamous record. He was +possessed with the demon of cupidity, and a quarrel arose between him and +his men concerning the division of the spoil. Morgan ended it by running +off with the disputed plunder. On the night preceding the final division, +during the hours of deepest slumber, the treacherous chief, with a few of +his confidants, set sail for Jamaica, in a vessel deeply laden with +spoils. On waking and learning this act of base treachery, the infuriated +pirates pursued him, but in vain; he safely reached Jamaica with his +ill-gotten wealth. + +In this English island the pirate chief gained not only safety, but +honors. In some way he won the favor of Charles II., who knighted him as +Sir Henry Morgan and placed him on the admiralty court in Jamaica. He +subsequently, for a time, acted as deputy governor, and in this office +displayed the greatest severity towards his old associates, several of +whom were tried before him and executed. One whole crew of buccaneers were +sent by him to the Spaniards at Carthagena, in whose hands they were +likely to find little favor. He was subsequently arrested, sent to +England, and imprisoned for three years under charges from Spain; but this +was the sole punishment dealt out to the most notorious of the buccaneers. + +The success of Morgan's enterprise stimulated the piratical crews to +similar deeds of daring, and the depredations continued, not only in the +West Indies and eastern South America, but afterwards along the Pacific, +the cities of Leon, in Mexico, New Granada, on the lake of Nicaragua, and +Guayaquil, the port of Quito, being taken, sacked, and burned. Finally, +France and England joined Spain in efforts for their suppression, the +coasts were more strictly guarded, and many of the freebooters settled as +planters or became mariners in honest trade. Some of them, however, +continued in their old courses, dispersing over all seas as enemies of the +shipping of the world; but by the year 1700 their career had fairly come +to an end, and the race of buccaneers ceased to exist. + + + + + +ELIZABETH FARNESE AND ALBERONI. + + +In 1714 certain events took place in Spain of sufficient interest to be +worth the telling. Philip V., a feeble monarch, like all those for the +century preceding him, was on the throne. In his youth he had been the +Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. of France, and upon the death of +that great monarch would be close in the succession to the throne of that +kingdom. But, chosen as king of Spain by the will of Charles II., he +preferred a sure seat to a doubtful one, and renounced his claim to the +French crown, thus bringing to an end the fierce "War of the Succession," +which had involved most of the powers of Europe for many years. + +Philip, by nature weak and yielding, became in time a confirmed +hypochondriac, and on the death of his wife, Maria Louise, in 1714, +abandoned himself to grief, refusing to attend to business of any kind, +shutting himself up in the strictest seclusion, and leaving the affairs of +the kingdom practically in the hands of the Princess Orsini, the governess +of his children, and his chief adviser. + +Sorrow-stricken as was the bereaved king, affairs were already in train to +provide him with a new wife, a plan being laid for that purpose at the +very funeral of his queen, as some writers say, between the ambitious +Princess Orsini and a cunning Italian named Alberoni, while they, with a +show of grave decorum, followed Maria Louise to the grave. + +The story of Alberoni is an interesting one. This man, destined to become +prime minister of Spain, began life as the son of a gardener in the duchy +of Parma. While a youth he showed such powers of intellect that the +Jesuits took him into their seminary and gave him an education of a +superior character. He assumed holy orders and, by a combination of +knowledge and ability with adulation and buffoonery, made his way until he +received the appointment of interpreter to the Bishop of St. Domino, who +was about to set out on a mission from the Duke of Parma to the Duke of +Vendme, then commander of the French forces in Italy. + +The worthy bishop soon grew thoroughly disgusted with Vendme, who, high +as he was in station, displayed a shameless grossness of manner which was +more than the pious churchman could endure. The conduct of the affair was +therefore left to the interpreter, whose delicacy was not disturbed by the +duke's behavior, and who managed to ingratiate himself fully in the good +graces of the French general, becoming so great a favorite that in the end +he left the service of the Duke of Parma for that of Vendme. + +Subsequently the duke was appointed to a command in Spain, where he +employed Alberoni in all his negotiations with the court of Madrid. Here +the wily and ambitious Italian won the favor of the Princess Orsini so +fully that when, on Vendme's death, he returned home, the Duke of Parma +sent him as his envoy to Spain. + +The princess little dreamed the character of the man whom she had taken +into confidential relations, and who was plotting to overthrow her +influence at court. Bent on retaining her influence by the choice of a +tractable queen, she spoke to Alberoni of the urgent necessity of finding +another bride for the disconsolate king. The shrewd diplomat named several +eligible princesses, each of whom he dismissed as objectionable for one +reason or another. At the end he adroitly introduced the name of Elizabeth +Farnese, step-daughter of the Duke of Parma, of whom he spoke carelessly +as a good girl, fattened on Parmesan cheese and butter, and so narrowly +educated that she had not an idea beyond her embroidery. She might +succeed, he hinted, to the throne of Parma, as the duke had no child of +his own, in which case there would be a chance for Spain to regain her +lost provinces in Italy. + +The deluded Princess Orsini was delighted with the suggestion. With such a +girl as this for queen she could continue to hold the reins of state. She +easily induced Philip to approve the choice; the Duke of Parma was charmed +with the offer; and the preliminary steps to the marriage were hurried +through with all possible rapidity. + +Before the final conclusion of the affair, however, the Princess Orsini +discovered in some way that Alberoni had lied, and that the proposed bride +was by no means the ignorant and incapable country girl she had been told. +Furious at the deception, she at once sent off a courier with orders to +stop all further proceedings relating to the marriage. The messenger +reached Parma in the morning of the day on which the marriage ceremony was +to be performed by proxy. But Alberoni was wide awake to the danger, and +managed to have the messenger detained until it was too late. Before he +could deliver his despatches Elizabeth Farnese was the legal wife of +Philip of Spain. + +The new queen had been fully advised of the state of affairs by Alberoni. +The Princess Orsini, to whom she owed her elevation, was to be got rid of, +at once and permanently. On crossing the frontiers she was met by all her +household except the princess, who was with the king, then on his way to +meet and espouse his bride. At Alcala the princess left him and hastened +to meet the queen, reaching the village of Xadraca in time to receive her +as she alighted from her carriage, kiss her hand, and in virtue of her +office at court to conduct her to her apartment. + +Elizabeth met the princess with a show of graciousness, but on entering +her chamber suddenly turned and accused her visitor of insulting her by +lack of respect, and by appearing before her in improper attire. The +amazed princess, overwhelmed by this accusation, apologized and +remonstrated, but the queen refused to listen to her, ordered her from the +room, and bade the officer of the guard to arrest and convey her beyond +the frontier. + +Here was a change in the situation! The officer hesitated to arrest one +who for years had been supreme in Spain. + +"Were you not instructed to obey me implicitly?" demanded Elizabeth. + +"Yes, your majesty." + +"Then do as I have ordered. I assume all responsibility." + +"Will your majesty give me a written sanction?" + +"Yes," said Elizabeth, in a tone very different from that of the +bread-and-butter miss whom Alberoni had represented her. + +Calling for pen, ink, and paper, she wrote upon her knee an order for the +princess's arrest, and bade the hesitating officer to execute it at once. + +He dared no longer object. The princess, in court dress, was hurried into +a carriage, with a single female attendant and two officers, being allowed +neither a change of clothing, protection against the cold, nor money to +procure needed conveniences on the road. In this way a woman of over sixty +years of age, whose will a few hours before had been absolute in Spain, +was forced to travel throughout an inclement winter night, and continue +her journey until she was thrust beyond the limits of Spain, within which +she was never again permitted to set foot. + +Such was the first act of the docile girl whom the ambitious princess had +fully expected to use as a tool for her designs. Schooled by her skilled +adviser, and perhaps sanctioned by Philip, who may have wished to get rid +of his old favorite, Elizabeth at the start showed a grasp of the +situation which she was destined to keep until the end. The feeble-minded +monarch at once fell under her influence, and soon all the affairs of the +kingdom became subject to her control. + +Elizabeth was a woman of restless ambition and impetuous temper, and she +managed throughout Philip's reign to keep the kingdom in constant hot +water. The objects she kept in view were two: first, to secure to Philip +the reversion of the French crown in case of the death of the then Duke of +Anjou, despite the fact that he had taken frequent oaths of renunciation; +second, to secure for her own children sovereign rule in Italy. + +We cannot detail the long story of the intrigues by which the ambitious +woman sought to bring about these purposes, but in all of them she found +an able ally in Alberoni. Elizabeth did not forget that she owed her high +position to this man. They were, besides, congenial in disposition, and +she persuaded Philip to trust and consult him, and finally to appoint him +prime minister. Not satisfied with this reward to her favorite, she, after +a few years, induced the Pope to grant him a cardinal's hat and Philip to +make him a grandee of Spain. The gardener's son had, by ability and +shrewdness, reached the highest summit to which his ambition could aspire. + +From the greatest height one may make the most rapid fall. The power of +Alberoni was destined quickly to reach its end. Yet it was less his own +fault than the ambition of the queen that led to the termination of his +career. As a prime minister he proved a marked success, giving Spain an +administration far superior to any she had enjoyed for many years. +Alberoni was a man of great ability, which he employed in zealous efforts +to improve the internal condition of the country, having the wisdom to +avail himself of the talents and knowledge of other able men in handling +those departments of government with which he was unfamiliar. He seemed +inclined to keep Spain at peace, at least until she had regained some of +her old power and energy; but the demands of the queen overcame his +reluctance, and in the end he entered upon the accomplishment of her +purposes with a daring and recklessness in full accordance with the +demands of her restless spirit of intrigue. + +Louis XIV. died in 1715. Louis XV., his heir, was a sickly child, not yet +five years old. Philip would have been regent during his youth, and his +heir in case of his death, had he not renounced all claim to the French +throne. He was too weak and irresolute in himself to take any steps to +gain this position, but his wife spurred him on to ambitious designs, and +Alberoni entered eagerly into her projects, beginning a series of +intrigues in France with all who were opposed to the Duke of Orleans, the +existing regent. + +These intrigues led to war. The duke concluded an alliance with England +and Germany, the former enemies of France. Philip, exasperated at seeing +himself thus thwarted, declared war against the German emperor, despite +all that Alberoni could do to prevent, and sent an expedition against +Sardinia, which captured that island. Sicily was also invaded. Alberoni +now entered into intrigues for the restoration of the banished Stuarts to +the English throne, and took part in a conspiracy in France to seize the +Duke of Orleans and appoint Philip to the regency. + +Both these plots failed, the war became general, Philip found his armies +beaten, and Alberoni was forced to treat for peace. The Spanish minister +had made bitter enemies of George I. of England and the Duke of Orleans, +who, claiming that he was responsible for disturbing the peace of Europe, +demanded his dismissal as a preliminary to peace. His failure had lost him +influence with the king, but the queen, the real power behind the throne, +supported him, and it was only by promises of the enemies of Alberoni to +aid her views for the establishment of her children that she was induced +to yield consent to his overthrow. + +On the 4th of December, 1719, Alberoni spent the evening transacting +affairs of state with the king and queen. Up to that time he remained in +full favor and authority, however he may have suspected the intrigues for +his overthrow. Their majesties that night left Madrid for their country +palace at Pardo, and from there was sent a decree by the hands of a +secretary of state, to the all-powerful minister, depriving him of all his +offices, and bidding him to quit Madrid within eight days and Spain within +three weeks. + +Alberoni had long been hated by the people of Spain, and detested by the +grandees, who could not be reconciled to the supremacy of a foreigner and +his appointment to equality with them in rank. But this sudden dismissal +seemed to change their sentiments, and rouse them to realization of the +fact that Spain was losing its ablest man. Nobles and clergy flocked to +his house in such numbers that the king became alarmed at this sudden +popularity, and ordered him to shorten the time of his departure. + +Alberoni sought refuge in Rome, but here the enmity of France and England +pursued him, and Philip accused him of misdemeanors in office, for which +he demanded a trial by the Pope and cardinals. Before these judges the +disgraced minister defended himself so ably that the court brought the +investigation to a sudden end by ordering him to retire to a monastery for +three years. + +This period the favor of the Pope reduced to one year, and his chief +enemy, the regent of France, soon after dying, he was permitted to leave +the monastery and pass the remainder of his life free from persecution. +His career was a singular one, considering the lowness of his origin, and +showed what ability and shrewdness may accomplish even against the +greatest obstacles of fortune. + + + + + +THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. + + +The great Mediterranean Sea has its gate-way, nine miles wide, opening +into the Atlantic, the gate-posts being the headland of Ceuta, on the +African coast, and the famous rock of Gibraltar, in southwestern Spain, +two natural fortresses facing each other across the sea. It is a singular +fact that the African headland is held by Spain, and the Spanish headland +by Great Britain,--this being a result of the wars of the eighteenth +century. Gibraltar, in fact, has had a striking history, one worth the +telling. + +This towering mass of rock rises in solitary grandeur at the extremity of +a sandy level, reaching upward to a height of fourteen hundred and eight +feet, while it is three miles long and three-fourths of a mile in average +width. It forms a stronghold of nature which attracted attention at an +early date. To the Greeks it was one of the Pillars of Hercules,--Abyla +(now Ceuta) being the other,--and formed the supposed western boundary of +the world. Tarik, the Arab, landed here in 711, fortified the rock, and +made it his base of operations against Gothic Spain. From him it received +its name, Gebel el Tarik (Hill of Tarik), now corrupted into Gibraltar. +For seven centuries it remained in Moorish hands, except for a short +interval after 1302, when it was taken by Ferdinand II. of Castile. The +king of Granada soon recaptured it; from him it was taken by treachery by +the king of Fez in 1333; Alfonso XI. of Castile vigorously besieged it, +but in vain; the king of Granada mastered it again in 1410; and it finally +fell into the hands of Spain in 1462. + +A formidable attempt was made by the Moors for its recovery in 1540, it +being vigorously attacked by the pirates of Algiers, who fought fiercely +to win the rock, but were finally repulsed. + +For the next event in the history of this much-coveted rock we must go on +to the year 1704, when the celebrated war of the Succession was in full +play. Louis XIV. of France supported his grandson Philip V. as the +successor to the throne of Spain. The Archduke Charles of Austria was +supported by England, Portugal, and Holland, and was conveyed to the +Peninsula and landed at Lisbon by an English fleet under Admiral Rorke. +The admiral, having disposed of the would-be king, sailed for Barcelona, +which he was told was a ripe plum, ready to fall into his mouth. He was +disappointed; Barcelona was by no means ripe for his purposes, and he +sailed back, ready for any enterprise that might offer itself. + +Soon before him towered the rock of Gibraltar, a handsome prize if it +could be captured, and poorly defended, as he knew. The Spaniards, +trusting, as it seems, in the natural strength of the place, which they +deemed impregnable, had left it with a very small supply of artillery and +ammunition, and with almost no garrison. Here was a promising opportunity +for the disappointed admiral and his associate, the prince of Hesse +Darmstadt, who headed the foreign troops. A landing was made, siege lines +were opened, batteries were erected, and a hot bombardment began, to which +the feeble garrison could make but a weak reply. But the most effective +work was done by a body of soldiers, who scrambled up a part of the rock +that no one dreamed could be ascended, and appeared above the works, +filling with terror the hearts of the garrison. + +Two days answered for the enterprise. At the end of that time the +governor, Don Diego de Salmas, capitulated, and Gibraltar was taken +possession of in the name of Queen Anne of England, the prince being left +there with a garrison of two thousand men. From that time to this +Gibraltar has remained an outpost of Great Britain, with whose outlying +strongholds the whole world bristles. + +The loss of this strong place proved a bitter draught to the pride of +Spain, and strenuous efforts to recapture it were made. In the succeeding +year (1705) it was besieged by a strong force of French and Spanish +troops, but their efforts were wasted, for the feeble court of Madrid left +the army destitute of necessary supplies. By the peace of Utrecht, 1713, +Gibraltar was formally made over to Great Britain, a country famous for +clinging with a death-grip to any place of which she has once taken hold. + +Later efforts were made to win the Rock of Tarik for Spain, one in 1756, +but the last and greatest in 1779-82. It is this vigorous effort with +which we are here concerned, the siege being one of the most famous of +recent times. + +The Revolutionary War in the United States stirred up all Europe, and +finally brought Great Britain two new foes, the allied kingdoms of France +and Spain. The latter country had never lost its irritation at seeing a +foreign power in possession of a part of its home territory. Efforts were +made to obtain Gibraltar by negotiation, Spain offering her friendly aid +to Great Britain in her wars if she would give up Gibraltar. This the +British government positively refused to do, and war was declared. A siege +of Gibraltar began which lasted for more than three years. + +Spain began the work in 1779 with a blockade by sea and an investment by +land. Supplies were cut off from the garrison, which was soon in a state +of serious distress for food, and strong hopes were entertained that it +would be forced to yield. But the British government was alert. Admiral +Rodney was sent with a strong fleet to the Mediterranean, the Spanish +blockading fleet was defeated, the garrison relieved, provisioned, and +reinforced, and Rodney sailed in triumph for the West Indies. + +For three years the blockade was continued with varying fortunes, the +garrison being now on the verge of starvation, now relieved by British +fleets. At the close of the third year it was far stronger than at the +beginning. The effort to subdue it by famine was abandoned, and +preparations for a vigorous siege were made. France had joined her forces +with those of Spain. The island of Minorca, held by the British, had been +taken by the allied fleet, and it was thought impossible for Gibraltar to +resist the projected assault. + +The land force that had so long besieged the rock was greatly +strengthened, new batteries were raised, new trenches opened, and a severe +fire was begun upon the works. Yet so commanding was the situation and so +strong were the defences of the garrison that success from the land side +seemed impossible, and it was determined to make the main attack from the +sea. + +A promising method of attack was devised by a French engineer of the +highest reputation for skill in his profession, the Chevalier D'Aron. The +plan offered by him was so original and ingenious as to fill the besiegers +with hopes of sure success, and the necessary preparations were diligently +made. Ten powerful floating batteries were constructed, which were thought +fully adapted to resist fire, throw off shells, and quench red-hot balls. +Every effort was made to render them incombustible and incapable of being +sunk. These formidable batteries were towed to the bay of Gibraltar and +anchored at a suitable distance from the works, D'Aron himself being in +command. Ten ships of the line were sent to co-operate with them, the +arrival of reinforcements from France increased the land army to forty +thousand men, and Crillon, the conqueror of Minorca, was placed in supreme +command. The allied fleets were ordered to cruise in the straits, so as to +prevent interference by a British fleet. + +These great and scientific preparations filled all hearts with hope. No +doubt was entertained that Gibraltar now must fall and Great Britain +receive the chastisement she deserved. The nobility of Spain sought in +numbers the scene of action, eager to be present at the triumph of her +arms. From Versailles came the French princes, full of expectation of +witnessing the humbling of British pride. So confident of success was +Charles III., king of Spain, that his first question every morning on +waking was, "Is Gibraltar taken?" All Spain and all France were instinct +with hope of seeing the pride of the islanders go down. + +Gibraltar was garrisoned by seven thousand troops under General Elliot. +These lay behind fortifications on which had been exhausted all the +resources of the engineering skill of that day, and in their hearts was +the fixed resolve never to surrender. The question had become one of +national pride rather than of utility. Gibraltar was not likely to prove +of any very important advantage to Great Britain, but the instinct to hold +on has always been with that country a national trait, and, however she +might have been induced to yield Gibraltar as an act of policy, she was +determined not to do so as an act of war. + +Early on the 13th of September, 1782, the long-threatened bombardment +began from so powerful a park of artillery that its roar is said to have +exceeded anything ever before heard. There were defects in the plan. The +trenches on land proved to be too far away. The water was rough and the +gunboats could not assist. But the work of the batteries came up to the +highest expectations. The fire poured by them upon the works was +tremendous, while for many hours the shells and red-hot balls of the +garrison, fired with the greatest precision, proved of no avail. The +batteries seemed invulnerable to fire and shell, and the hopes of the +besiegers rose to the highest point, while those of the besieged +correspondingly fell. + +In the end this powerful assault was defeated by one of those events to +which armed bodies of men are always liable,--a sudden and uncalled-for +spasm of fear that flew like wildfire through fleet and camp. The day had +nearly passed, evening was approaching, the hopes of the allies were at +their height, when a red-hot ball from the works lodged in the nearest +battery and started a fire, which the crew sought in vain to quench. + +In a sudden panic, for which there seems to have been no sufficient cause, +the terrified crew wet their powder and ceased to fire on the British +works. The panic spread to the other batteries, and from them to the +forces on shore, even the commander-in-chief being affected by the +causeless fear. At one moment the assailants were enthusiastic with +expectation of success. Not many minutes afterwards they were so overcome +with unreasoning terror that an insane order was given to burn the +batteries, and these were fired with such precipitate haste that the crews +were allowed no time to escape. More of the men were saved by their +enemies, who came with generous intrepidity to their aid, than by their +own terror-stricken friends. + +This unfortunate event put a sudden end to the costly and promising +effort. The nobles of Spain and the princes of France left the camp in +disgust. Charles III. received word that Gibraltar was not captured, and +not likely to be, and the idea of taking the stronghold by force was +abandoned, the blockade being resumed. + +To keep away British aid the allied fleet was increased until it numbered +forty-seven ships of the line, with a considerable number of smaller +vessels. Furnaces were prepared to heat shot for the destruction of any +transports and store-ships that might enter the harbor. Against this great +fleet Lord Howe appeared in October with only thirty sail, and encumbered +with a large convoy. The allied leaders seeing this small force, felt sure +of victory, and of Gibraltar as their prize. + +But again they were doomed to disappointment. The elements came to the +British aid. A violent storm drove the allied fleet from its anchorage, +dispersed the vessels, injured many of the large ships, and drove the +small craft ashore. Lord Howe, whose ships were far better handled, sailed +in good order through the straits, and for five days of rough weather +offered battle to the disabled enemy, keeping them at a distance while his +transports and store-ships entered the harbor and supplied the garrison +abundantly with provisions, ammunition, and men. The effort to take +Gibraltar was hopelessly defeated. The blockade was still kept up, but +merely as a satisfaction to Spanish pride. All hope of taking the fortress +was at an end. Gibraltar remains to-day in British hands, and no later +attempt to take it has been made. + + + + + +THE FALL OF A FAVORITE. + + +The course of our work now brings us down to recent times. After the death +of Philip II., in 1598, Spain had little history worth considering. Ruled +by a succession of painfully weak kings, who were devoid of anything +approaching political wisdom, the fortunes of the realm ran steadily +downward. From being the strongest, it became in time one of the weakest +and least considered of European kingdoms; and from taking the lead in the +politics and wars of Europe, it came to be a plaything of the neighboring +nations,--a catspaw which they used for the advancement of their own ends. + +It was in this way that Napoleon treated Spain. He played with it as a cat +plays with a mouse, and when the proper time came pounced upon it and +gathered it in. Charles IV., the Spanish king of Napoleon's time, was one +of the feeblest of his weak line,--an imbecile whom the emperor of France +counted no more than a feather in his path. He sought to deal with him as +he had done with the equally effeminate king of Portugal. When a French +army invaded Portugal in 1807, its weak monarch cut the knot of the +difficulty by taking ship and crossing the ocean to Brazil, abandoning his +old kingdom and setting up a new one in the New World. When Spain was in +its turn invaded, its king proposed to do the same thing,--to carry the +royal court of Spain to America, and leave a kingdom without a head to +Napoleon. Such an act would have exactly suited the purposes of the astute +conqueror, but the people rose in riot, and Charles IV. remained at home. + +The real ruler of Spain at that time was a licentious and insolent +favorite of the king and queen, Emanuel Godoy by name, who began life as a +soldier, was made Duke of Alcudia by his royal patrons, and was appointed +prime minister in 1792. In 1795, having made peace with France after a +disastrous war, he received the title of "Prince of the Peace." His +administration was very corrupt, and he won the hatred of the nobles, the +people, and the heir to the throne. But his influence over the imbecile +king and the licentious queen was unbounded, and he could afford to laugh +in the face of his foes. But favorites are apt to have a short period of +power, and, though Godoy remained long in office, his downfall at length +came. + +Napoleon had marched his armies through Spain to the conquest of Portugal, +no one in Spain having the courage to object. It was stipulated that a +second French army should not cross the Pyrenees, but in defiance of this +Napoleon filled the north of Spain with his troops in 1808, and sent a +third army across the mountains without pretence of their being needed in +Portugal. No protest was made against this invasion of a neutral nation. +The court of Madrid was helpless with terror, and, with the hope of +propitiating Napoleon, admitted his legions into all the cities of +Catalonia, Biscay, and Navarre. + +Only one thing more was needed to make the French masters of the whole +country. They held the towns, but the citadels were in possession of +Spanish troops. These could not be expelled by violence while a show of +peace was kept up. But Napoleon wanted them, and employed stratagem to get +them into his hands. + +In two of the towns, St. Sebastian and Figueras, a simple lie sufficed. +The officers in command of the French garrisons asked permission to +quarter their unruly conscripts in the citadels. As the court had ordered +that all the wishes of the emperor's officers should be gratified, this +seemingly innocent request was granted. But in place of conscripts the +best men of the regiments were sent, and these were gradually increased in +numbers until in the end they overpowered the Spanish garrisons and +admitted the French. + +At Pamplona a similar request was refused by the governor of the citadel, +but he permitted sixty unarmed men daily to enter the fortress to receive +rations for their respective divisions. Here was the fatal entering wedge. +One night the officer in charge, whose quarters were near the citadel +gate, secretly filled his house with armed grenadiers. The next morning +sixty picked men, with arms hidden under their cloaks, were sent in for +rations. The hour was too early, and the French soldiers loitered about +under pretence of waiting for the quartermaster. Some sauntered into the +Spanish guard-house. Others, by a sportive scuffle on the drawbridge, +prevented its being raised, and occupied the attention of the garrison. +Suddenly a signal was given. The men drew their weapons and seized the +arms of the Spaniards. The grenadiers rushed from their concealment. The +bridge and gate were secured, French troops hastened to the aid of their +comrades, and the citadel was won. + +At Barcelona a different stratagem was employed. A review of the French +forces was held under the walls of the citadel, whose garrison assembled +to look on. During the progress of the review the French general, on +pretence that he had been ordered from the city, rode with his staff on to +the drawbridge with the ostensible purpose of bidding farewell to the +Spanish commander. While the Spaniards curiously watched the manoeuvres of +the troops others of the French quietly gathered on the drawbridge. At a +signal this was seized, a rush took place, and the citadel of Barcelona +was added to the conquests of France. + +The surprise of these fortresses produced an immense sensation in Spain. +That country had sunk into a condition of pitiable weakness. Its navy, +once powerful, was now reduced to a small number of ships, few of them in +condition for service. Its army, once the strongest in Europe, was now but +a handful of poorly equipped and half-drilled men. Its finances were in a +state of frightful disorganization. The government of a brainless king, a +dissolute queen, and an incapable favorite had brought Spain into a +condition in which she dared not raise a hand to resist the ambitious +French emperor. + +In this dilemma Godoy, the so-called "Prince of the Peace," persuaded the +king and queen of Spain that nothing was left them but flight. The royal +house of Portugal had found a great imperial realm awaiting it in America. +Spain possessed there a dominion of continental extent. What better could +they do than remove to the New World the seat of their throne and cut +loose from their threatened and distracted realm? + +The project was concealed under the form of a journey to Andalusia, for +the purpose, as announced by Godoy, of inspecting the ports. But the +extensive preparations of the court for this journey aroused a suspicion +of its true purpose among the people, whose indignation became extreme on +finding that they were to be deserted by the royal house, as Portugal had +been. The exasperation of all classes--the nobility, the middle class, and +the people--against the court grew intense. It was particularly developed +in the army, a body which Godoy had badly treated. The army leaders argued +that they had better welcome the French than permit this disgrace, and +that it was their duty to prevent by force the flight of the king. + +But all this did not deter the Prince of the Peace. He had several +frigates made ready in the port of Cadiz, the royal carriages were ordered +to be in readiness, and relays of horses were provided on the road. The +date of departure was fixed for the 15th or 16th of March, 1808. + +On the 13th Godoy made his way from Madrid to Aranjuez, a magnificent +royal residence on the banks of the Tagus, then occupied by the royal +family. This residence, in the Italian style and surrounded by superb +grounds and gardens, was fronted by a wide highway, expanding opposite the +palace into a spacious place, on which were several fine mansions +belonging to courtiers and ministers, one of the finest being occupied by +the prime minister. In the vicinity a multitude of small houses, inhabited +by tradesmen and shop-keepers, made up the town of Aranjuez. + +Godoy, on arriving at Aranjuez, summoned a council of the ministers, the +time having arrived to apprise them of what was proposed. One of them, the +Marquis of Caballero, kept him waiting, and on his arrival refused to +consent, either by word or signature, to the flight of the king. + +"I order you to sign," the prime minister angrily exclaimed. + +"I take no orders except from the king," haughtily replied the marquis. + +A sharp altercation followed, in which the other ministers took part, and +the meeting broke up in disorder, nothing being done. On retiring, the +irate counsellors, full of agitation, dropped words which were caught up +by the public and aroused a commotion that quickly spread throughout the +town. Thence it extended into the surrounding country, everywhere arousing +the disaffected, and soon strange and sinister faces appeared in the quiet +town. The elements of a popular outbreak were gathering. + +During the succeeding two days the altercation between the Prince of the +Peace and the ministers continued, and the public excitement was added to +by words attributed to Ferdinand, the king's son and heir to the throne, +who was said to have sought aid against those who proposed to carry him +off against his will. On the morning of the 16th, the final day fixed for +the journey, the public agitation was so great that the king issued a +proclamation, which was posted in the streets, saying that he had no +thought of leaving his people. It ended: "Spaniards, be easy; your king +will not leave you." + +This for the time calmed the people. Yet on the 17th the excitement +reappeared. The carriages remained loaded in the palace court-yard; the +relays of horses were kept up; all the indications were suspicious. During +the day the troops of the garrison of Madrid not on duty, with a large +number of the populace, appeared in Aranjuez, having marched a distance of +seven or eight leagues. They shouted maledictions on their way against the +queen and the Prince of the Peace. + +The streets of Aranjuez that night were filled with an excited mob, many +of them life-guards from Madrid, who divided into bands and patrolled the +vicinity of the palace, determined that no one should leave. About +midnight an incident changed the excitement into a riot. A lady left +Godoy's residence under escort of a few soldiers. She appeared to be about +to enter a carriage. The crowd pressed closely around, and the hussars of +the minister, who attended the lady, attempted to force a passage through +them. At this moment a gun was fired,--by whom was not known. A frightful +tumult at once arose. The life-guards and other soldiers rushed upon the +hussars, and a furious mob gathered around the palace, shouting, "Long +live the king!" "Death to the Prince of the Peace!" + +Soon a rush was made towards the residence of the prince, which the throng +surrounded, gazing at it with eyes of anger, yet hesitating to make an +attack. As they paused in doubt, a messenger from the palace approached +the mansion and sought admission. It was refused from those within. He +insisted upon entrance, and a shot came from the guards within. In an +instant all hesitation was at an end. The crowd rushed in fury against the +doors, broke them in, and swarmed into the building, driving the guards +back in dismay. + +It was magnificently furnished, but their passion to destroy soon made +havoc of its furniture and decorations. Pictures, hangings, costly +articles of use and ornament were torn down, dashed to pieces, flung from +the windows. The mob ran from room to room, destroying everything of value +they met, and eagerly seeking the object of their hatred, with a +passionate thirst for his life. The whole night was spent in the search, +and, the prince not being found, his house was reduced to a wreck. + +Word of what was taking place filled the weak soul of Charles IV. with +mortal terror. The prince failed to appear, and, by the advice of the +ministers, a decree was issued by the king on the following morning +depriving Emanuel Godoy of the offices of grand admiral and generalissimo, +and exiling him from the court. + +Thus fell this detestable favorite, the people, who blamed him for the +degradation of Spain, breaking into a passionate joy, singing, dancing, +building bonfires, and giving every manifestation of delight. In Madrid, +when the news reached there, the enthusiasm approached delirium. + +Meanwhile, where was the fallen favorite? Despite the close search made by +the mob, he remained concealed in his residence. Alarmed by the crash of +the breaking doors, he had seized a pistol and a handful of gold, rushed +up-stairs, and hid himself in a loft under the roof, rolling himself up in +a sort of rush carpet used in Spain. Here he remained during the whole of +the 18th and the succeeding night, but on the morning of the 19th, after +thirty-six hours' suffering, thirst and hunger forced him to leave his +retreat. He presented himself suddenly before a sentry on duty in the +palace, offering him his gold. But the man refused the bribe and instantly +called the guard. Fortunately the mass of the people were not near by. +Some life-guards who just then came up placed the miserable captive +between their horses, and conveyed him as rapidly as they could towards +their barracks. But these were at some distance, the news of the capture +spread like wild-fire, and they had not gone far before the mob began to +gather around them, their hearts full of murderous rage. + +The prince was on foot between two of the mounted guardsmen, leaning for +shelter against the pommels of their saddles. Others of the horsemen +closed up in front and rear, and did their best to protect him from the +fury of the rabble, who struck wildly at him with every weapon they had +been able to snatch up. Despite the efforts of the guardsmen some of the +blows reached him, and he was finally brought to the barracks with his +feet trodden by the horses, a large wound in his thigh, and one eye nearly +out of his head. Here he was thrown, covered with blood, upon the straw in +the stables, a sad example of what comes of the favor of kings when +exercised in defiance of the will of the people. Godoy had begun life as a +life-guardsman, and now, after almost sharing the throne, he had thus +returned to the barracks and the straw bed of his youth. + +We may give in outline the remainder of the story of this fallen favorite. +Promise being given that he should have an impartial trial, the mob ceased +its efforts to kill him. Napoleon, who had use for him, now came to his +rescue, and induced him to sign a deed under which Charles IV. abdicated +the throne in favor of his son. His possessions in Spain were confiscated, +but Charles, who removed to Rome, was his friend during life. After the +death of his protector he went to Paris, where he received a pension from +Louis Philippe; and in 1847, when eighty years of age, he received +permission to return to Spain, his titles and most of his property being +restored. But he preferred to live in Paris, where he died in 1851. + + + + + + [Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.] + + THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA. + + + + + +THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA. + + +On the banks of the Ebro, in northwestern Spain, stands the ancient city +of Saragossa, formerly the capital of Aragon, and a place of fame since +early Roman days. A noble bridge of seven arches, built nearly five +centuries ago, crosses the stream, and a wealth of towers and spires gives +the city an imposing appearance. This city is famous for its sieges, of +which a celebrated one took place in the twelfth century, when the +Christians held it in siege for five years, ending in 1118. In the end the +Moors were forced to surrender, or such of them as survived, for a great +part of them had died of hunger. In modern times it gained new and high +honor from its celebrated resistance to the French in 1808. It is this +siege with which we are concerned, one almost without parallel in history. + +We have told in the preceding tale how Charles IV. of Spain was forced to +yield the throne to his son Ferdinand, who was proclaimed king March 20, +1808. This act by no means agreed with the views of Napoleon, who had +plans of his own for Spain, and who sought to end the difficulty by +deposing the Bourbon royal family and placing his own brother, Joseph +Bonaparte, on the throne. + +The imperious emperor of the French had, however, the people as well as +the rulers of Spain to deal with. The news of his arbitrary action was +received throughout the Peninsula with intense indignation, and suddenly +the land blazed into insurrection, and the French garrisons, which had +been treacherously introduced into Spain, found themselves besieged. +Everywhere the peasants seized arms and took to the field, and a fierce +guerilla warfare began which the French found it no easy matter to +overcome. At Baylen, a town of Andalusia, which was besieged by the +insurgents, the French suffered a serious defeat, an army of eighteen +thousand men being forced to surrender as prisoners of war. This was the +only important success of the Spanish, but they courageously resisted +their foes, and at Saragossa gained an honor unsurpassed in the history of +Spain. Never had there been known such a siege and such a defence. + +Saragossa was attacked by General Lefebre on June 15, 1808. Thinking that +a city protected only by a low brick wall, with peasants and townsmen for +its defenders, and few guns in condition for service, could be carried at +first assault, the French general made a vigorous attack, but found +himself driven back. He had but four or five thousand men, while the town +had fifty thousand inhabitants, the commander of the garrison being Joseph +Palafox, a man of indomitable spirit. + +Lefebre, perceiving that he had been over-confident, now encamped and +awaited reinforcements, which arrived on the 29th, increasing his force to +twelve thousand men. He was recalled for service elsewhere, General +Verdier being left in command, and during the succeeding two months the +siege was vigorously prosecuted, the French being supplied with a large +siege train, with which they hotly bombarded the city. + +Weak as were the walls of Saragossa, interiorly it was remarkably well +adapted for defence. The houses were strongly built, of incombustible +material, they being usually of two stories, each story vaulted and +practically fireproof. Every house had its garrison, and the massive +convents which rose like castles within the circuit of the wall were +filled with armed men. Usually when the walls of a city are taken the city +falls; but this was by no means the case with Saragossa. The loss of its +walls was but the beginning, not the end, of its defence. Each convent, +each house, formed a separate fortress. The walls were loop-holed for +musketry, ramparts were constructed of sand-bags, and beams were raised +endwise against the houses to afford shelter from shells. + +It was not until August that the French, now fifteen thousand strong, were +able to force their way into the city. But to enter the city was not to +capture it. They had to fight their way from street to street and from +house to house. At length the assailants penetrated to the Cosso, a public +walk formed on the line of the old Moorish ramparts, but here their +advance was checked, the citizens defending themselves with the most +desperate and unyielding energy. + +The singular feature of this defence was that the women of Saragossa took +as active a part in it as the men. The Countess Burita, a beautiful young +woman of intrepid spirit, took the lead in forming her fellow-women into +companies, at whose head were ladies of the highest rank. These, +undeterred by the hottest fire and freely braving wounds and death, +carried provisions to the combatants, removed the wounded to the +hospitals, and were everywhere active in deeds of mercy and daring. One of +them, a young woman of low rank but intrepid soul, gained world-wide +celebrity by an act of unusual courage and presence of mind. + +While engaged one day in her regular duty, that of carrying meat and wine +to the defenders of a battery, she found it deserted and the guns +abandoned. The French fire had proved so murderous that the men had shrunk +back in mortal dread. Snatching a match from the hand of a dead +artillery-man, the brave girl fired his gun, and vowed that she would +never leave it while a Frenchman remained in Saragossa. Her daring shamed +the men, who returned to their guns, but, as the story goes, the brave +girl kept her vow, working the gun she had chosen until she had the joy to +see the French in full retreat. This took place on the 14th of August, +when the populace, expecting nothing but to die amid the ruins of their +houses, beheld with delight the enemy in full retreat. The obstinate +resistance of the people and reverses to the arms of France elsewhere had +forced them to raise the siege. + +The deeds of the "Maid of Saragossa" have been celebrated in poetry by +Byron and Southey and in art by Wilkie, and she stands high on the roll of +heroic women, being given, as some declare, a more elevated position than +her exploit deserved. + +Saragossa, however, was only reprieved, not abandoned. The French found +themselves too busily occupied elsewhere to attend to this centre of +Spanish valor until months had passed. At length, after the defeat and +retreat of Sir John Moore and the English allies of Spain, a powerful +army, thirty-five thousand strong, returned to the city on the Ebro, with +a battering train of sixty guns. + +Palafox remained in command in the city, which was now much more strongly +fortified and better prepared for defence. The garrison was +super-abundant. From the field of battle at Tudela, where the Spaniards +had suffered a severe defeat, a stream of soldiers fled to Saragossa, +bringing with them wagons and military stores in abundance. As the +fugitives passed, the villagers along the road, moved by terror, joined +them, and into the gates of the city poured a flood of soldiers, +camp-followers, and peasants, until it was thronged with human beings. +Last of all came the French, reaching the city on the 20th of December, +and resuming their interrupted siege. And now Saragossa, though destined +to fall, was to cover itself with undying glory. + +The townsmen, giving up every thought of personal property, devoted all +their goods, their houses, and their persons to the war, mingling with the +soldiers and the peasants to form one great garrison for the fortress into +which the whole city was transformed. In all quarters of the city massive +churches and convents rose like citadels, the various large streets +running into the broad avenue called the Cosso, and dividing the city into +a number of districts, each with its large and massive structures, well +capable of defence. + +Not only these thick-walled buildings, but all the houses, were converted +into forts, the doors and windows being built up, the fronts loop-holed, +and openings for communication broken through the party-walls; while the +streets were defended by trenches and earthen ramparts mounted with +cannon. Never before was there such an instance of a whole city converted +into a fortress, the thickness of the ramparts being here practically +measured by the whole width of the city. + +Saragossa had been a royal depot for saltpetre, and powder-mills near by +had taught many of its people the process of manufacture, so no magazines +of powder subject to explosion were provided, this indispensable substance +being made as it was needed. Outside the walls the trees were cut down and +the houses demolished, so that they might not shield the enemy; the public +magazines contained six months' provisions, the convents and houses were +well stocked, and every preparation was made for a long siege and a +vigorous defence. + +Again, as before, companies of women were enrolled to attend the wounded +in the hospitals and carry food and ammunition to the men, the Countess +Burita being once more their commander, and performing her important duty +with a heroism and high intelligence worthy of the utmost praise. Not less +than fifty thousand combatants within the walls faced the thirty-five +thousand French soldiers without, who had before them the gigantic task of +overcoming a city in which every dwelling was a fort and every family a +garrison. + +A month and more passed before the walls were taken. Steadily the French +guns played on these defences, breach after breach was made, a number of +the encircling convents were entered and held, and by the 1st of February +the walls and outer strongholds of the city were lost. Ordinarily, under +such circumstances, the city would have fallen, but here the work of the +assailants had but fairly begun. The inner defences--the houses with their +unyielding garrisons--stood intact, and a terrible task still faced the +French. + +The war was now in the city streets, the houses nearest the posts held by +the enemy were crowded with defenders, in every quarter the alarm-bells +called the citizens to their duty, new barricades rose in the streets, +mines were sunk in the open spaces, and the internal passages from house +to house were increased until the whole city formed a vast labyrinth, +throughout which the defenders could move under cover. + +Marshall Lannes, the French commander, viewed with dread and doubt the +scene before him. Untrained in the art of war as were the bulk of the +defenders, courage and passionate patriotism made up for all deficiencies. +Men like these, heedless of death in their determined defence, were +dangerous to meet in open battle, and the prudent Frenchman resolved to +employ the slow but surer process of excavating a passage and fighting his +way through house after house until the city should be taken piecemeal. + +Mining through the houses was not sufficient. The greater streets divided +the city into a number of small districts, the group of dwellings in each +of which forming a separate stronghold. To cross these streets it was +necessary to construct underground galleries, or build traverses, since a +Spanish battery raked each street, and each house had to be fought for and +taken separately. + +While the Spaniards held the convents and churches the capture of the +houses by the French was of little service to them, the defenders making +sudden and successful sallies from these strong buildings, and +countermining their enemies, their numbers and perseverance often +frustrating the superior skill of the French. The latter, therefore, +directed their attacks upon these buildings, mining and destroying many of +them. On the other hand, the defenders saturated with rosin and pitch the +timbers of the buildings they could no longer hold, and interposed a +barrier of fire between themselves and their assailants which often +delayed them for several days. + +Step by step, inch by inch, the French made their way forward, complete +destruction alone enabling them to advance. The fighting was incessant. +The explosion of mines, the crash of falling buildings, the roar of cannon +and musketry, the shouts of the combatants continually filled the air, +while a cloud of smoke and dust hung constantly over the city as the +terrible scene of warfare continued day after day. + +By the 17th of February the Cosso was reached and passed. But the French +soldiers had become deeply discouraged by their fifty days of unremitting +labor and battle, fighting above and beneath the earth, facing an enemy as +bold as themselves and much more numerous, and with half the city still to +be conquered. Only the obstinate determination of Marshal Lannes kept them +to their work. + +By his orders a general assault was made on the 18th. Under the +university, a large building in the Cosso, mines containing three thousand +pounds of powder were exploded, the walls falling with a terrific crash. +Meanwhile, fifty pieces of artillery were playing on the side of the Ebro, +where the great convent of St. Lazar was breached and taken, two thousand +men being here cut off from the city. On the 19th other mines were +exploded, and on the 20th six great mines under the Cosso, loaded with +thousands of pounds of powder, whose explosion would have caused immense +destruction, were ready for the match, when an offer to surrender brought +the terrible struggle to an end. + +The case had become one of surrender or death. The bombardment, incessant +since the 10th of January, had forced the women and children into the +vaults, which were abundant in Saragossa. There the closeness of the air, +the constant burning of oil, and the general unsanitary conditions had +given rise to a pestilence which threatened to carry off all the +inhabitants of the city. Such was the state of the atmosphere that slight +wounds became fatal, and many of the defenders of the barricades were fit +only for the hospitals. By the 1st of February the death-rate had become +enormous. The daily deaths numbered nearly five hundred, and thousands of +corpses, which it was impossible to bury, lay in the streets and houses, +and in heaps at the doors of the churches, infecting the air with their +decay. The French held the suburbs, most of the wall, and one-fourth of +the houses, while the bursting of thousands of shells and the explosion of +nearly fifty thousand pounds of gunpowder in mines had shaken the city to +its foundations. Of the hundred thousand people who had gathered within +its walls, more than fifty thousand were dead; thousands of others would +soon follow them to the grave; Palafox, their indomitable chief, was sick +unto death. Yet despite this there was a strong and energetic party who +wished to protract the siege, and the deputies appointed to arrange terms +of surrender were in peril of their lives. + +The terms granted were that the garrison should march out with the honors +of war, to be taken as prisoners to France; the peasants should be sent to +their homes; the rights of property and exercise of religion should be +guaranteed. + +Thus ended one of the most remarkable sieges on record,--remarkable alike +for the energy and persistence of the attack and the courage and obstinacy +of the defence. Never in all history has any other city stood out so long +after its walls had fallen. Rarely has any city been so adapted to a +protracted defence. Had not its houses been nearly incombustible it would +have been reduced to ashes by the bombardment. Had not its churches and +convents possessed the strength of forts it must have quickly yielded. Had +not the people been animated by an extraordinary enthusiasm, in which +women did the work of men, a host of peasants and citizens could not so +long have endured the terrors of assault on the one hand and of pestilence +on the other. In the words of General Napier, the historian of the +Peninsular War, "When the other events of the Spanish war shall be lost in +the obscurity of time, or only traced by disconnected fragments, the story +of Zaragoza, like some ancient triumphal pillar standing amidst ruins, +will tell a tale of past glory." + + + + + +THE HERO OF THE CARLISTS. + + +Spain for years past has had its double king,--a king in possession and a +king in exile, a holder of the throne and an aspirant to the throne. For +the greater part of a century one has rarely heard of Spain without +hearing of the Carlists, for continually since 1830 there has been a +princely claimant named Charles, or Don Carlos, struggling for the crown. + +Ferdinand VII., who succeeded to the throne on the abdication of Charles +IV. in 1808, made every effort to obtain an heir. Three wives he had +without a child, and his brother, Don Carlos, naturally hoped to succeed +him. But the persistent king married a fourth time, and this time a +daughter was born to him. There was a law excluding females from the +throne, but this law had been abrogated by Ferdinand to please his wife, +and thus the birth of his daughter robbed Don Carlos of his hopes of +becoming king. + +Ferdinand died in 1833, and the infant Isabella was proclaimed queen, with +her mother as regent. The liberals supported her, the absolutists gathered +around Don Carlos, and for years there was a bitter struggle in Spain, the +strength of the Carlists being in the Basque provinces and Spanish +Navarre,--a land of mountaineers, loyal in nature and conservative by +habit. + +The dynasty of the pretender has had three successive claimants to the +throne. The first Don Carlos abdicated in 1844, and was succeeded by Don +Carlos the Second, his son. He died in 1861, and his cousin, Don Carlos +the Third, succeeded to the claim, and renewed the struggle for the crown. +It was this third of the name that threatened to renew the insurrection +during the Spanish-American war of 1898. + +This explanation is necessary to make clear what is known by Carlism in +Spain. Many as have been the Carlist insurrections, they have had but one +leader of ability, one man capable of bringing them success. This was the +famous Basque chieftain Zumalacarregui, the renowned "Uncle Tomas" of the +Carlists, whose brilliant career alone breaks the dull monotony of Spanish +history in the nineteenth century, and who would in all probability have +placed Don Carlos on the throne but for his death from a mortal wound in +1835. Since then Carlism has struggled on with little hope of success. + +Navarre, the chief seat of the insurrection, borders on the chain of the +Pyrenees, and is a wild confusion of mountains and hills, where the +traveller is confused in a labyrinth of long and narrow valleys, deep +glens, and rugged rocks and cliffs. The mountains are highest in the +north, but nowhere can horsemen proceed the day through without +dismounting, and in many localities even foot travel is very difficult. In +passing from village to village long and winding roads must be traversed, +the short cuts across the mountains being such as only a goat or a +Navarrese can tread. + +Regular troops, in traversing this rugged country, are exhausted by the +shortest marches, while the people of the region go straight through wood +and ravine, plunging into the thick forests and following narrow paths, +through which pursuit is impossible, and where an invading force does not +dare to send out detachments for fear of having them cut off by a sudden +guerilla attack. It was here and in the Basque provinces to the west, with +their population of hardy and daring mountaineers, that the troops of +Napoleon found themselves most annoyed by the bold guerilla chiefs, and +here the Carlist forces long defied the armies of the crown. + +Tomas Zumalacarregui, the "modern Cid," as his chief historian entitles +him, was a man of high military genius, rigid in discipline, skilful in +administration, and daring in leadership; a stern, grave soldier, to whose +face a smile rarely came except when shots were falling thick around him +and when his staff appeared as if they would have preferred music of a +different kind. To this intrepid chief fear seemed unknown, prudence in +battle unthought of, and so many were his acts of rashness that when a +bullet at length reached him it seemed a miracle that he had escaped so +long. The white charger which he rode became such a mark for the enemy, +from its frequent appearance at the head of a charging troop or in +rallying a body of skirmishers, that all those of a similar color ridden +by members of his staff were successively shot, though his always escaped. +On more than one occasion he brought victory out of doubt, or saved his +little army in retreat, by an act of hare-brained bravery. Such was the +"Uncle Tomas" of the Navarrese, the darling of the mountaineers, the man +who would very likely have brought final victory to their cause had not +death cut him off in the midst of his career. + +Few were the adherents of Don Carlos when this able soldier placed himself +at their head,--a feeble remnant hunted like a band of robbers among their +native mountains. When he appeared in 1833, escaping from Madrid, where he +was known as a brave soldier and an opponent of the queen, he found but +the fragment of an insurgent army in Navarre. All he could gather under +his banner were about eight hundred half-armed and undisciplined men,--a +sorry show with which to face an army of over one hundred and twenty +thousand men, many of them veterans of the recent wars. These were thrown +in successive waves against Uncle Tomas and his handful of followers, +reinforcement following reinforcement, general succeeding general, even +the redoubtable Mina among them, each with a new plan to crush the Carlist +chief, yet each disastrously failing. + +Beginning with eight hundred badly armed peasants and fourteen horses, the +gallant leader had at the time of his death a force of twenty-eight +thousand well-organized and disciplined infantry and eight hundred +horsemen, with twenty-eight pieces of artillery and twelve thousand spare +muskets, all won by his good sword from the foe,--his arsenal being, as he +expressed it, "in the ranks of the enemy." During these two years of +incessant war more than fifty thousand of the army of Spain, including a +very large number of officers, had fallen in Navarre, sixteen fortified +places had been taken, and the cause of Don Carlos was advancing by leaps +and bounds. The road to Madrid lay open to the Carlist hero when, at the +siege of Bilboa, a distant and nearly spent shot struck him, inflicting a +wound from which he soon died. With the fall of Zumalacarregui fell the +Carlist cause. Weak hands seized the helm from which his strong one had +been struck, incompetency succeeded genius, and three years more of a +weakening struggle brought the contest to an end. In all later revivals of +the insurrection it has never gained a hopeful stand, and with the fall of +"Uncle Tomas" the Carlist claim to the throne seemingly received its +death-blow. + +The events of the war between the Navarrese and their opponents were so +numerous that it is not easy to select one of special interest from the +mass. We shall therefore speak only of the final incidents of +Zumalacarregui's career. Among the later events was the siege and capture +of Villafranca. Espartero, the Spanish general, led seven thousand men to +the relief of this place, marching them across the mountains on a dark and +stormy night with the hope of taking the Carlists by surprise. But Uncle +Tomas was not the man to be taken unawares, and reversed the surprise, +striking Espartero with a small force in the darkness, and driving back +his men in confusion and dismay. Eighteen hundred prisoners were taken, +and the general himself narrowly escaped. General Mirasol was taken, with +all his staff, in a road-side house, from which he made an undignified +escape. He was a small man, and by turning up his embroidered cuffs, these +being the only marks of the grade of brigadier-general in the Spanish +army, he concealed his rank. He told his captors that he was a _tambor_. +In their anxiety to capture officers the soldiers considered a drummer too +small game, and dismissed the general with a sound kick to the custody of +those outside. As these had more prisoners than they could well manage, he +easily escaped. + +On learning of the defeat of Espartero the city surrendered. The news of +the fall of Villafranca had an important effect, the city of Tolosa being +abandoned by its garrison and Burgera surrendered, though it was strongly +garrisoned. Here Charles V.--as Don Carlos was styled by his party--made a +triumphal entry. He was then at the summit of his fortunes and full of +aspiring hopes. Eybar was next surrendered, the garrison of Durango fled, +and Salvatierra was evacuated. + +Victory seemed to have perched upon the banners of the Navarrese, town +after town falling in rapid succession into their hands, and the crown of +Spain appeared likely soon to change hands. Zumalacarregui proposed next +to march upon Vittoria, which had been abandoned with the exception of a +few battalions, and thence upon the important city of Burgos, where he +would either force the enemy to a battle or move forward upon Madrid. So +rapid and signal had been his successes that consternation filled the army +of the queen, the soldiers being in such terror that little opposition was +feared. Bets ran high in the Carlist army that six weeks would see them in +Madrid, and any odds could have been had that they would be there within +two months. Such was the promising state of affairs when the impolitic +interference of Don Carlos led to a turn in the tide of his fortune and +the overthrow of his cause. + +What he wanted most was money. His military chest was empty. In the path +of the army lay the rich mercantile city of Bilboa. Its capture would +furnish a temporary supply. He insisted that the army, instead of crossing +the Ebro and taking full advantage of the panic of the enemy, should +attack this place. This Zumalacarregui strongly opposed. + +"Can you take it?" asked Carlos. + +"I can take it, but it will be at an immense sacrifice, not so much of men +as of time, which now is precious," was the reply. + +Don Carlos insisted, and the general, sorely against his will, complied. +The movement was not only unwise in itself, it led to an accident that +brought to an end all the fair promise of success. + +The siege was begun. Zumalacarregui, anxious to save time, determined to +take the place by storm as soon as a practicable breach should be made, +and on the morning of the day he had fixed for the assault he, with his +usual daring, stepped into the balcony of a building not far from the +walls to inspect the state of affairs with his glass. + +On seeing a man thus exposed, evidently a superior officer, to judge from +his telescope and the black fur jacket he wore, all the men within that +part of the walls opened fire on him. The general soon came out of the +balcony limping in a way that at once created alarm, and, unable to +conceal his lameness, he admitted that he was wounded. A bullet, glancing +from one of the bars of the balcony window, had struck him in the calf of +the right leg, fracturing the small bone and dropping two or three inches +lower in the flesh. + +The wound appeared but trifling,--the slight hurt of a spent ball,--but the +surgeons, disputing as to the policy of extracting the ball, did nothing, +not even dressing the wound till the next morning. It was of slight +importance, they said. He would be on horseback within a month, perhaps in +two weeks. The wounded man was not so sanguine. + +"The pitcher goes to the well till it breaks at last," he said. "Two +months more and I would not have cared for any sort of wound." + +Those two months might have put Don Carlos on the throne and changed the +history of Spain. In eleven days the general was dead and a change had +come over the spirit of affairs. The operations against Bilboa languished, +the garrison regained their courage, the plan of storming the place was +set aside, the queen's troops, cheered by tidings of the death of the +"terrible Zumalacarregui," took heart again and marched to the relief of +the city. Their advance ended in the siege being raised, and in the first +encounter after the death of their redoubtable chief the Carlists met with +defeat. The decline in the fortunes of Don Carlos had begun. One man had +lifted them from the lowest ebb almost to the pinnacle of success. With +the fall of Zumalacarregui Carlism received a death-blow in Spain, for +there is little hope that one of this dynasty of claimants will ever reach +the throne. + + + + + +MANILA AND SANTIAGO. + + +The record of Spain has not been glorious at sea. She has but one great +victory, that of Lepanto, to offer in evidence against a number of great +defeats, such as those of the Armada, Cape St. Vincent, and Trafalgar. In +1898 two more defeats, those of Manila and Santiago, were added to the +list, and with an account of these our series of tales from Spanish +history may fitly close. + +Exactly three centuries passed from the death of Philip II. (1598) to that +of the war with the United States, and during that long period the tide of +Spanish affairs moved steadily downward. At its beginning Spain exercised +a powerful influence over European politics; at its end she was looked +upon with disdainful pity and had no longer a voice in continental +affairs. Such was the inevitable result of the weakness and lack of +statesmanship with which the kingdom had been misgoverned during the +greater part of this period. + +In her colonial affairs Spain had shown herself as intolerant and +oppressive as at home. When the other nations of Europe were loosening the +reins of their colonial policy, Spain kept hers unyieldingly rigid. +Colonial revolution was the result, and she lost all her possessions in +America but the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. Yet she had learned no +lesson,--she seemed incapable of profiting by experience,--and the old +policy of tyranny and rapacity was exercised over these islands until +Cuba, the largest of them, was driven into insurrection. + +In attempting to suppress this insurrection Spain adopted the cruel +methods she had exercised against the Moriscos in the sixteenth century, +ignoring the fact that the twentieth century was near its dawn, and that a +new standard of humane sympathy and moral obligation had arisen in other +nations. Her cruelty towards the insurgent Cubans became so intolerable +that the great neighboring republic of the United States bade her, in +tones of no uncertain meaning, to bring it to an end. In response Spain +adopted her favorite method of procrastination, and the frightful reign of +starvation in Cuba was maintained. This was more than the American people +could endure, and war was declared. With the cause and the general course +of that war our readers are familiar, but it embraced two events of signal +significance--the naval contests of the war--which are worth telling again +as the most striking occurrences in the recent history of Spain. + +At early dawn of the 1st of May, 1898, a squadron of United States +cruisers appeared before the city of Manila, in the island of Luzon, the +largest island of the Philippine archipelago, then a colony of Spain. This +squadron, consisting of the cruisers Olympia, Baltimore, Raleigh, and +Boston, the gunboats Petrel and Concord, and the despatch-boat McCulloch, +had entered the bay of Manila during the night, passing unhurt the +batteries at its mouth, and at daybreak swept in proud array past the city +front, seeking the Spanish fleet, which lay in the little bay of Cavit, +opening into the larger bay. + + [Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.] + + THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA. + +Copyright, 1898, by Arkell Publishing Company + + +The Spanish ships consisted of five cruisers and three gunboats, inferior +in weight and armament to their enemy, but flanked by shore batteries on +each end of the line, and with an exact knowledge of the harbor, while the +Americans were ignorant of distances and soundings. These advantages on +the side of the Spanish made the two fleets practically equal in strength. +The battle about to be fought was one of leading importance in naval +affairs. It was the second time in history in which two fleets built under +the new ideas in naval architecture and armament had met in battle. The +result was looked for with intense interest by the world. + +Commodore Dewey, the commander of the American squadron, remained fully +exposed on the bridge of his flag-ship, the Olympia, as she stood daringly +in, followed in line by the Baltimore, Raleigh, Petrel, Concord, and +Boston. As they came up, the shore batteries opened fire, followed by the +Spanish ships, while two submarine mines, exploded before the Olympia, +tossed a shower of water uselessly into the air. + +Heedless of all this, the ships continued their course, their guns +remaining silent, while the Spanish fire grew continuous. Plunging shells +tore up the waters of the bay to right and left, but not a ship was +struck, and not a shot came in return from the frowning muzzles of the +American guns. The hour of 5.30 had passed and the sun was pouring its +beams brightly over the waters of the bay, when from the forward turret of +the Olympia boomed a great gun, and an 8-inch shell rushed screaming in +towards the Spanish fleet. Within ten minutes more all the ships were in +action, and a steady stream of shells were pouring upon the Spanish ships. + +The difference in effect was striking. The American gunners were trained +to accurate aiming; the Spanish idea was simply to load and fire. In +consequence few shells from the Spanish guns reached their mark, while few +of those from American guns went astray. Soon the fair ships of Spain were +frightfully torn and rent and many of their men stretched in death, while +hardly a sign of damage was visible on an American hull. + +Sweeping down parallel to the Spanish line, and pouring in its fire as it +went from a distance of forty-five hundred yards, the American squadron +swept round in a long ellipse and sailed back, now bringing its starboard +batteries into play. Six times it passed over this course, the last two at +the distance of two thousand yards. From the great cannon, and from the +batteries of smaller rapid-fire guns, a steady stream of projectiles was +hurled inward, frightfully rending the Spanish ships, until at the end of +the evolutions three of them were burning fiercely, and the others were +little more than wrecks. + +Admiral Montojo's flag-ship, the Reina Cristina, made a sudden dash from +the line in the middle of the combat, with the evident hope of ramming and +sinking the Olympia. The attempt was a desperate one, the fire of the +entire fleet being concentrated on the single antagonist, until the storm +of projectiles grew so terrific that utter annihilation seemed at hand. +The Spanish admiral now swung his ship around and started hastily back. +Just as she had fairly started in the reverse course an 8-inch shell from +the Olympia struck her fairly in the stern and drove inward through every +obstruction, wrecking the aft-boiler and blowing up the deck in its +explosion. It was a fatal shot. Clouds of white smoke were soon followed +by the red glare of flames. For half an hour longer the crew continued to +work their guns. At the end of that time the fire was master of the ship. + +Two torpedo-boats came out with the same purpose, and met with the same +reception. Such a rain of shell poured on them that they hastily turned +and ran back. They had not gone far before one of them, torn by a shell, +plunged headlong to the bottom of the bay. The other was beached, her crew +flying in terror to the shore. + +While death and destruction were thus playing havoc with the Spanish +ships, the Spanish fire was mainly wasted upon the sea. Shots struck the +Olympia, Baltimore, and Boston, but did little damage. One passed just +under Commodore Dewey on the bridge and tore a hole in the deck. One +ripped up the main deck of the Baltimore, disabled a 6-inch gun, and +exploded a box of ammunition, by which eight men were slightly wounded. +These were the only men hurt on the American side during the whole battle. + +At 7.35 Commodore Dewey withdrew his ships that the men might breakfast. +The Spanish ships were in a hopeless state. Shortly after eleven the +Americans returned and ranged up again before the ships of Spain, nearly +all of which were in flames. For an hour and a quarter longer the blazing +ships were pounded with shot and shell, the Spaniards feebly replying. At +the end of that time the work was at an end, the batteries being silenced +and the ships sunk, their upper works still blazing. Of their crews, +nearly a thousand had perished in the fight. + +Thus ended one of the most remarkable naval battles in history. For more +than three hours the American ships had been targets for a hot fire from +the Spanish fleet and forts, and during all that time not a man had been +killed and not a ship seriously injured. Meanwhile, the Spanish fleet had +ceased to exist. Its burnt remains lay on the bottom of the bay. The forts +had been battered into shapeless heaps of earth, their garrisons killed or +put to flight. It was an awful example of the difference between accurate +gunnery and firing at random. + +Two months later a second example of the same character was made. Spain's +finest squadron, consisting of the four first-class armored cruisers Maria +Teresa, Vizcaya, Almirante Oquendo, and Cristobal Colon, with two +torpedo-boat destroyers, lay in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, blockaded +by a powerful American fleet of battle-ships and cruisers under Admiral +Sampson. They were held in a close trap. The town was being besieged by +land. Sampson's fleet far outnumbered them at sea. They must either +surrender with the town or take the forlorn hope of escape by flight. + +The latter was decided upon. On the morning of July 3 the lookout on the +Brooklyn, Commodore Schley's flag-ship, reported that a ship was coming +out of the harbor. The cloud of moving smoke had been seen at the same +instant from the battle-ship Iowa, and in an instant the Sunday morning +calm on these vessels was replaced by intense excitement. + +Mast-head signals told the other ships of what was in view, the men rushed +in mad haste to quarters, the guns were made ready for service, ammunition +was hoisted, coal hurled into the furnaces, and every man on the alert. It +was like a man suddenly awoke from sleep with an alarm cry: at one moment +silent and inert, in the next moment thrilling with intense life and +activity. + +This was not a battle; it was a flight and pursuit. The Spaniards as soon +as the harbor was cleared opened a hot fire on the Brooklyn, their nearest +antagonist, which they wished to disable through fear of her superior +speed. But their gunnery here was like that at Manila, their shells being +wasted through unskilful handling. On the other hand the fire from the +American ships was frightful, precise, and destructive, the fugitive ships +being rapidly torn by such a rain of shells as had rarely been seen +before. + +Turning down the coast, the fugitive ships drove onward at their utmost +speed. After them came the cruiser Brooklyn and the battle-ships Texas, +Iowa, Oregon, and Indiana, hurling shells from their great guns in their +wake. The New York, Admiral Sampson's flag-ship, was distant several miles +up the coast, too far away to take part in the fight. + +Such a hail of shot, sent with such accurate aim, could not long be +endured. The Maria Teresa, Admiral Cervera's flag-ship, was quickly in +flames, while shells were piercing her sides and bursting within. The main +steam-pipe was severed, the pump was put out of service, the captain was +killed. Lowering her flag, the vessel headed for the shore, where she was +quickly beached. + +The Almirante Oquendo, equally punished, followed the same example, a mass +of flames shrouding her as she rushed for the beach. The Vizcaya was the +next to succumb, after a futile effort to ram the Brooklyn. One shell from +the cruiser went the entire length of her gun-deck, killing or wounding +all the men on it. The Oregon was pouring shells into her hull, and she in +turn, burning fiercely, was run ashore. She had made a flight of twenty +miles. + +Only one of the Spanish cruisers remained,--the Cristobal Colon. She had +passed all her consorts, and when the Vizcaya went ashore was six miles +ahead of the Brooklyn and more than seven miles from the Oregon. It looked +as if she might escape. But she would have to round Cape Cruz by a long +detour, and the Brooklyn was headed straight for the cape, while the +Oregon kept on the Colon's trail. + +An hour, a second hour, passed; the pursuers were gaining mile by mile; +the spurt of speed of the Colon was at an end. One of the great 13-inch +shells of the Oregon, fired from four miles away, struck the water near +the Colon. A second fell beyond her. An 8-inch shell from the Brooklyn +pierced her above her armor-belt. At one o'clock both ships were pounding +away at her, an ineffective fire being returned. At 1.20 she hauled down +her flag, and, like her consorts, ran ashore. She had made a run of +forty-eight miles. + +About six hundred men were killed on the Spanish ships; the American loss +was one man killed and one wounded. The ships of Spain were blazing +wrecks; those of the United States were none the worse for the fight. It +was like the victory at Manila repeated. It resembled the latter in +another particular, two torpedo-boats taking part in the affair. These +were attacked by the Gloucester, a yacht converted into a gunboat, and +dealt with so shrewdly that both of them were sunk. + +The battle ended, efforts to save on the part of the American ships +succeeded the effort to destroy, the Yankee tars showing as much courage +and daring in their attempts to rescue the wounded from the decks of the +burning ships as they had done in the fight. The ships were blazing fore +and aft, their guns were exploding from the heat, at any moment the fire +might reach the main magazines. A heavy surf made the work of rescue +doubly dangerous; yet no risk could deter the American sailors while the +chance to save one of the wounded remained, and they made as proud a +record on the decks of the burning ships as they had done behind the guns. + +These two signal victories were the great events of the war. Conjoined +with one victory on land, they put an end to the conflict. Without a +fleet, and with no means of aiding her Cuban troops, Spain was helpless, +and the naval victories at Manila and Santiago, in which one man was +killed, virtually settled the question of Cuban independence, and taught +the nations of Europe that a new and great naval power had arisen, with +which they would have to deal when they next sought to settle the +destinies of the world. + +THE END. + + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME VII*** + + + +CREDITS + + +September 2006 + + Project Gutenberg Edition + Joshua Hutchinson + Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 19457-8.txt or 19457-8.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/5/19457/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/19457-8.zip b/19457-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..90483c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/19457-8.zip diff --git a/19457-h.zip b/19457-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1f0e3d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/19457-h.zip diff --git a/19457-h/19457-h.html b/19457-h/19457-h.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..766cab9 --- /dev/null +++ b/19457-h/19457-h.html @@ -0,0 +1,11344 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /><meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" /><meta name="DC.Creator" content="Charles Morris" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII" /><meta name="DC.Date" content="October 3, 2006" /><meta name="DC.Language" content="English" /><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="Project Gutenberg" /><meta name="DC.Identifier" content="http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19457" /><meta name="DC.Rights" content="This text is in the public domain." /><title>The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII by Charles Morris</title><style type="text/css">/* +The Gnutenberg Press - default CSS2 stylesheet + +Any generated element will have a class "tei" and a class "tei-elem" +where elem is the element name in TEI. +The order of statements is important !!! 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You may copy it, + give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this + eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII + +Author: Charles Morris + +Release Date: October 3, 2006 [Ebook #19457] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME VII*** +</pre></div> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image01.png" width="640" height="427" alt="Illustration: CHARLES V. AT YUSTE." title="CHARLES V. AT YUSTE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">CHARLES V. AT YUSTE.</div></div> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-titlePage"> + <span class="tei tei-docTitle"><span class="tei tei-titlePart"><span style="font-size: 144%">Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality</span></span><br /><br /></span> + <div class="tei tei-byline"><br />By <span class="tei tei-docAuthor">Charles Morris</span><br /><br /> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the Dramatists," etc.</span></span><br /><br /> + in fifteen volumes<br /><br /> + Volume VII<br /><br /> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-docImprint">London<br /> +George Bell and Sons<br /><br /></span> +<span class="tei tei-docDate">1898</span> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Copyright 1898, by J. B. Lippincott Company.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Copyright 1904, by J. B. Lippincott Company.</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Copyright 1908, by J. B. Lippincott Company.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> +<ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc2">THE GOOD KING WAMBA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc4">THE GREEK KING'S DAUGHTER.</a></li><li><a href="#toc6">THE ENCHANTED PALACE.</a></li><li><a href="#toc8">THE BATTLE OF THE GUADALETE.</a></li><li><a href="#toc10">THE TABLE OF SOLOMON.</a></li><li><a href="#toc12">THE STORY OF QUEEN EXILONA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc15">PELISTES, THE DEFENDER OF CORDOVA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc17">THE STRATAGEM OF THEODOMIR.</a></li><li><a href="#toc20">THE CAVE OF COVADONGA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc23">THE ADVENTURES OF A FUGITIVE PRINCE.</a></li><li><a href="#toc25">BERNARDO DEL CARPIO.</a></li><li><a href="#toc27">RUY DIAZ, THE CID CAMPEADOR.</a></li><li><a href="#toc30">LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc33">THE KEY OF GRANADA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc35">KING ABUL HASSAN AND THE ALCAIDE OF GIBRALTAR.</a></li><li><a href="#toc37">THE RIVAL KINGS OF GRANADA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc40">THE KNIGHT OF THE EXPLOITS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc42">THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR.</a></li><li><a href="#toc45">THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc48">PETER THE CRUEL AND THE FREE COMPANIES.</a></li><li><a href="#toc50">THE GREAT CAPTAIN.</a></li><li><a href="#toc53">A KING IN CAPTIVITY.</a></li><li><a href="#toc56">THE INVASION OF AFRICA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc59">AN EMPEROR RETIRED FROM BUSINESS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc62">THE FATE OF A RECKLESS PRINCE.</a></li><li><a href="#toc65">SPAIN'S GREATEST VICTORY AT SEA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc67">THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc69">THE CAUSES OF SPAIN'S DECADENCE.</a></li><li><a href="#toc71">THE LAST OF A ROYAL RACE.</a></li><li><a href="#toc74">HENRY MORGAN AND THE BUCCANEERS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc77">ELIZABETH FARNESE AND ALBERONI.</a></li><li><a href="#toc79">THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR.</a></li><li><a href="#toc81">THE FALL OF A FAVORITE.</a></li><li><a href="#toc84">THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA.</a></li><li><a href="#toc86">THE HERO OF THE CARLISTS.</a></li><li><a href="#toc88">MANILA AND SANTIAGO.</a></li></ul> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexi">[pg xi]</span><a name="Pgxi" id="Pgxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Illustrations</span></h1> +<ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-fig"><li><a href="#fig1">CHARLES V. AT YUSTE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig14">TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR.</a></li><li><a href="#fig19">A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS.</a></li><li><a href="#fig22">BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig29">VALENCIA DEL CID.</a></li><li><a href="#fig32">ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig39">KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA.</a></li><li><a href="#fig44">MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig47">RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.</a></li><li><a href="#fig52">GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS.</a></li><li><a href="#fig55">FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR.</a></li><li><a href="#fig58">LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN.</a></li><li><a href="#fig61">CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE.</a></li><li><a href="#fig64">THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID.</a></li><li><a href="#fig73">THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA.</a></li><li><a href="#fig76">STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA.</a></li><li><a href="#fig83">THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.</a></li><li><a href="#fig90">THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA.</a></li></ul> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc2" id="toc2"></a> +<a name="pdf3" id="pdf3"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE GOOD KING WAMBA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Long had the Goths been lords of Spain. Chief +after chief had they chosen, king after king had +they served; and, though it was young in time, +Gothic Spain was growing old in years. It reached +its golden age in the time of "Good King Wamba," +a king of fancy as much as of fact, under whom +Spain became a land of Arcady, everybody was +happy, all things prospered, and the tide of evil +events for a space ceased to flow.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In those days, when a king died and left no son, +the Goths elected a new one, seeking their best and +worthiest, and holding the election in the place +where the old king had passed away. It was in the +little village of Gerticos, some eight miles from the +city of Valladolid, that King Recesuinto had sought +health and found death. Hither came the electors,—the +great nobles, the bishops, and the generals,—and +here they debated who should be king, finally +settling on a venerable Goth named Wamba, the one +man of note in all the kingdom who throughout his +life had declined to accept rank and station.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story goes that their choice was aided by +miracle. In those days miracles were "as plentiful +as blackberries," but many of these seem to have +been what we may speak of as "miracles made to +order," designed by shrewd individuals to gain<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +some personal or other advantage. St. Leo is said +to have told the electors to seek a husbandman +named Wamba, whose lands lay somewhere in the +west, asserting that he did this under direction of +the heavenly powers. However that be, scouts +were sent through the land in search of Wamba, +whom they found at length in his fields, driving his +plough through the soil and asking for no higher +lot. He was like Cincinnatus, the famous Roman, +who was called from the plough to the sceptre.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Leave your plough in the furrow," they said to +him; "nobler work awaits you. You have been +elected king of Spain."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"There is no nobler work," answered Wamba. +"Seek elsewhere your monarch. I prefer to rule +over my fields."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The astonished heralds knew not what to make +of this. To them the man who would not be king +must be a saint—or an idiot. They reasoned, begged, +implored, until Wamba, anxious to get rid of them, +said,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I will accept the crown when the dry rod in my +hand grows green again,—and not till then."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The good old husbandman fancied that he had +fairly settled the question, but miracle defeated his +purpose. To his utter surprise and their deep astonishment +the dry stick which he thrust into the +ground at once became a green plant, fresh leaves +breaking out on its upper end. What was the old +man fond of his plough to do in such a case? He had +appealed to Heaven, and here was Heaven's reply. +He went with the heralds to the electoral congress,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but there, in spite of the green branch, he again refused +to be king. He knew what it meant to try +and govern men like those around him, and preferred +not to undertake the task. But one of the chiefs +sprang up, drew his sword, and advanced to the old +man.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"If you are still obstinate in refusing the position +we offer you," he sternly said, "you shall lose your +head as well as your crown."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His fierce eyes and brandished sword gave weight +to his words, and Wamba, concluding that he would +rather be a king than a corpse, accepted the trust. +He was then escorted by the council and the army +to Toledo, feeling more like a captive than a monarch. +There he was anointed and crowned, and, +from being lord of his fields, the wise old husbandman +became king of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such a king as Wamba proved to be the Goths +had never known. Age had brought him wisdom, +but it had not robbed him of energy. He knew +what he had to expect and showed himself master +of the situation. Revolts broke out, conspiracies +threatened the throne, but one after another he put +them down. Yet he was as merciful as he was +prompt. His enemies were set free and bidden to +behave themselves better in the future. One ambitious +noble named Paul, who thought it would be +an easy thing to take the throne from an old man +who had shown so plainly that he did not want +it, rose in rebellion. He soon learned his mistake. +Wamba met him in battle, routed his army, and took +him prisoner. Paul expected nothing less than to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +have his head stricken off, but Wamba simply ordered +that it should be shaved.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To shave the crown of the head in those days was +no trifling matter. It formed what is known as +the tonsure, then the mark of the monastic orders. +A man condemned to the tonsure could not serve as +king or chieftain, but must spend the remainder of +his days in seclusion as a monk. So Paul was disposed +of without losing his life.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Wamba, however, did not spend all his time in +fighting with conspirators. He was so just a king +that all the historians praise him to the stars,—though +none of them tell us what just deeds he did. +He was one of those famous monarchs around whom +legend loves to grow, as the green leaves grew around +his dry rod, and who become kings of fancy in the +absence of facts. About all we know is that he was +"Good King Wamba," a just and merciful man under +whom Spain reached its age of gold.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He made a great and beautiful city of Toledo, his +capital. It had a wall, but he gave it another, +stronger and loftier. And within the city he built +a noble palace and other splendid buildings, all of +which time has swept away. But over the great +gate of Toledo the inscription still remains: <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Erexit +fautore Deo Rex inclytus urbem Wamba</span></span>. "To God +and King Wamba the city owes its walls."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alas! the end was what might be expected of such +goodness in so evil an age. A traitor arose among +those he most favored. There was a youth named +Ervigio, in whose veins ran the blood of former +kings, and whom Wamba so loved and honored as<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to raise him to great authority in the kingdom. +Ervigio was one of those who must be king or slave. +Ambition made him forget all favors, and he determined +to cast his royal benefactor from the throne. +But he was not base enough to murder the good old +man to whom he owed his greatness. It was enough +if he could make him incapable of reigning,—as +Wamba had done with Paul.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To accomplish this he gave the king a sleeping +potion, and while he was under its influence had him +tonsured,—that is, had the crown of his head shaved. +He then proclaimed that this had been done at the +wish of the king, who was weary of the throne. But +whether or not, the law was strict. No matter how +or why it was done, no man who had received the +tonsure could ever again sit upon the Gothic throne. +Fortunately for Ervigio, Wamba cared no more for +the crown now than he had done at first, and when +he came back to his senses he made little question +of the base trick of his favorite, but cheerfully +enough became a monk. The remaining seven years +of his life he passed happily in withdrawal from a +world into which he had been forced against his will.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the people loved him, the good old man, and +were not willing to accept the scheming Ervigio as +their king unless he could prove his right to the +throne. So, in the year 681, he called together a +council of lords and bishops at Toledo, before whom +he appeared with a great show of humility, bringing +testimony to prove that Wamba had become monk +at his own wish, when in peril of death. To this he +added a document signed by Wamba, in which he<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +abdicated the throne, and another in which he recommended +Ervigio as his successor. For eight days +the council considered the question. The documents +might be false, but Wamba was a monk, and Ervigio +was in power; so they chose him as king. The holy +oil of consecration was poured upon his unholy head.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it was that Wamba the husbandman first became +king and afterwards monk. In all his stations—farmer, +king, and monk—he acquitted himself well +and worthily, and his name has come down to us +from the mists of time as one of those rare men of +whom we know little, but all that little good.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc4" id="toc4"></a> +<a name="pdf5" id="pdf5"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE GREEK KING'S DAUGHTER.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">History wears a double face,—one face fancy, the +other fact. The worst of it is that we cannot always +tell which face is turned towards us, and we mistake +one for the other far oftener than we know. In +truth, fancy works in among the facts of the most +sober history, while in that primitive form of history +known as legend or tradition fancy has much the +best of it, though it may often be founded upon fact. +In the present tale we have to do with legend pure +and simple, with hardly a thread of fact to give substance +to its web.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was a certain Grecian king of Cadiz whose +daughter was of such peerless beauty that her hand +was sought in marriage by many of the other kings +of Andalusia. In those days "that country was +ruled by several kings, each having estates not extending +over more than one or two cities." What +to do with the crowd of suitors the father was puzzled +to decide. Had a single one asked for his +daughter's hand he might have settled it with a word, +but among so many, equally brave, handsome, and distinguished, +answer was not so easy; and the worthy +king of Cadiz was sorely troubled and perplexed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Luckily for him, the fair damsel was as wise as +she was beautiful, and took the matter into her own +hands, making an announcement that quickly cut<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +down the number of her admirers. She said that +she would have no husband but one who could prove +himself "a wise king." In our days, when every +king and nearly every man thinks himself wise, such +a decision would not have deterred suitors, and she +would have been compelled, in the end, to choose +among the few unwise. But wisdom, in those times +of fable and necromancy, had a wider meaning than +we give it. A wise king was one who had control +of the powers of earth and air, who could call the +genii to his aid by incantations, and perform supernatural +deeds. Hence it was that the suitors fell +off from the maiden like leaves from an autumn +bough, leaving but two who deemed themselves fitting +aspirants to her hand.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To test the wisdom of these two she gave them +the following tasks: One was bidden to construct +on the mainland an aqueduct and a water-wheel to +bring water from the mountains into Cadiz. The +other was to produce a talisman which should save +the island of Cadiz from invasion by Berbers or any +other of the fierce tribes of Africa, by whom it was +frequently threatened.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The one of you," said the princess, "who first +and best performs his task, shall win my hand by +his work."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The two suitors were warmly in love with the +beautiful maiden, and both ardently entered upon +their duties. The first to get to work was the aqueduct +builder, whose task called for hard labor rather +than magical aid. Cadiz stands on a long, narrow +peninsula, opposite which, on the mainland, the king<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +built a hydraulic machine, to which the water was +brought by pipes or canals from springs in a nearby +mountain. This stream of cool, refreshing water +poured upon a wheel, by which it was driven into +an aqueduct crossing the bay into Cadiz.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here comes the fact behind the legend. Such +an aqueduct stood long in evidence, and as late as +the eighteenth century traces of it could be seen. +We have an account of it by the Arab writer, Al +Makkari. "It consisted," he says, "of a long line +of arches, and the way it was done was this: whenever +they came to high ground or to a mountain +they cut a passage through it; when the ground +was lower, they built a bridge over arches; if they +met with a porous soil, they laid a bed of gravel for +the passage of the water; when the building reached +the sea-shore, the water was made to pass underground, +and in this way it reached Cadiz." So it +was built, and "wise" was the king who built it, +even if he did not call upon the genii for assistance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The other king could not perform his labor so +simply. He had a talisman to construct, so powerful +that it would keep out of Spain those fierce African +tribes whose boats swept the seas. What +talisman could he produce that would be proof +against ships and swords? The king thought much +and deeply, and then went diligently to work. On +the border of the strait that lay between Spain and +Africa he built a lofty marble column, a square, +white shaft based on a solid foundation. On its +summit he erected a colossal statue of iron and copper, +melted and cast into the human form. The<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +figure was that of a Berber, like whom it wore a +full and flowing beard, while a tuft of hair hung +over its forehead in Berber fashion. The dress was +that of the African tribes. The extended right arm +of the figure pointed across the strait towards the +opposite shores. In its hand were a padlock and +keys. Though it spoke not, it seemed to say, "No +one must pass this way." It bore the aspect of a +Berber captive, chained to the tower's top, and +warning his brethren to keep away from Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Rapidly wrought the rival kings, each seeking to +finish his work the first. In this the aqueduct +builder succeeded. The water began to flow, the +wheel to revolve, and the refreshing liquid to pour +into the public fountains of Cadiz. The multitude +were overjoyed as the glad torrent flowed into their +streets, and hailed with loud acclamations the successful +builder.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sound of the people's shouts of joy reached the +ears of the statue builder as he was putting the last +touches to his great work of art and magic. Despair +filled his heart. Despite his labors, his rival had won +the prize. In bitterness of spirit he threw himself +from the top of the column and was dashed to pieces +at its foot. "By which means," says the chronicle, +"the other prince, freed from his rival, became the +master of the lady, of the wheel, and of the charm."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The talisman was really a watch-tower, from +which the news of an African invasion could be signalled +through the land. In this cold age we can +give its builder credit for no higher magic than that +of wisdom and vigilance.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc6" id="toc6"></a> +<a name="pdf7" id="pdf7"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE ENCHANTED PALACE.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Near the city of Toledo, the capital of Spain when +that country was a kingdom of the Goths, was a +great palace of the olden time, or, as some say, a +vast cave, which had been deepened and widened and +made into many rooms. Still others say that it was +a mighty tower, built by Hercules. Whatever it was,—palace, +tower, or cavern,—a spell lay upon it from +far past days, which none had dared to break. There +was an ancient prophecy that Spain would in time +be invaded by barbarians from Africa, and to prevent +this a wise king, who knew the arts of magic, had +placed a secret talisman in one of the rooms. While +this remained undisturbed the country was safe from +invasion. If once the secret of the talisman should +be divulged, swift ruin would descend upon the kingdom +of the Goths. It must be guarded strongly and +well, for in it lay the destinies of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A huge iron gate closed the entrance to the enchanted +palace, and upon this each king of the Goths, +on coming to the throne, placed a strong lock, so +that in time huge padlocks covered much of its +front and its secrecy seemed amply assured. When +Roderic, the last king of the Goths, came to the +throne, twenty-seven of such locks hung upon the +gate. As for the keys, some writers tell us that they +remained in the locks, others say that they had been<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hidden and lost; but it is certain that no one had +dared to open a single one of the locks; prudence +and fear guarded the secret better than gates and +locks.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length the time came when the cherished secret +was to be divulged. Don Roderic, who had seized +the throne by violence, and bore in his heart the fatal +bane of curiosity, determined to learn what had lain +for centuries behind those locks. The whole affair, +he declared, was the jest of an ancient king, which +did very well when superstition ruled the world, but +which was far behind the age in which he lived. Two +things moved the epoch-breaking king,—curiosity, +that vice which has led thousands to ruin, and avarice, +which has brought destruction upon thousands more. +"It is a treasure-house, not a talisman," he told +himself. "Gold, silver, and jewels lie hidden in its +mouldy depths. My treasury is empty, and I should +be a fool to let a cluster of rusty locks keep me from +filling it from this ancient store."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When it became known what Roderic proposed a +shudder of horror ran through the land. Nobles +and bishops hastened to the audience chamber and +sought to hinder the fateful purpose of the rash +monarch. Their hearts were filled with dread of +the perils that would follow any meddling with the +magic spell, and they earnestly implored him not to +bring the foretold disaster upon the land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The kings who reigned before you have religiously +obeyed the injunction," they said. "Each +of them has fixed his lock to the gate. It will be +wise and prudent in you to follow their example. If<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it is gold and jewels you look for, tell us how much +you think the cavern holds, even all your fancy +hopes to find, and so much we will give you. Even +if it beggars us, we will collect and bring you this +sum without fail. We pray and implore you, then, +do not break a custom which our old kings have all +held sacred. They knew well what they did when +they commanded that none after them should seek +to disclose the fatal secret of the hidden chamber."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Earnest as was their appeal, it was wasted upon +Roderic. Their offer of gold did not reach his deepest +motive; curiosity with him was stronger than +greed, and he laughed in his beard at the fears and +tremblings of his lords.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It shall not be said that Don Roderic, the king +of the Goths, fears the devil or his agents," he loudly +declared, and orders were given that the locks should +be forced.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One by one the rusty safeguards yielded to key +or sledge, and the gates shrieked disapproval when at +length they reluctantly turned on their stiff hinges, +that had not moved for centuries. Into the cavern +strode the king, followed by his fearful but curious +train. The rooms, as tradition had said, were many, +and from room to room he hurried with rapid feet. +He sought in vain. No gold appeared, no jewels +glittered on his sight. The rooms were drear and +empty, their hollow floors mocking his footsteps with +long-silent echoes. One treasure only he found, the +jewelled table of Solomon, a famous ancient work +of art which had long remained hidden from human +sight. Of this wonderful relic we shall say no more<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +here, for it has a history of its own, to be told in a +future tale.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On and on went the disappointed king, with +nothing to satisfy his avarice or his curiosity. At +length he entered the chamber of the spell, the magic +room which had so long been locked from human +vision, and looked with eyes of wonder on the secret +which had been so carefully preserved.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What he saw was simple but threatening. On the +wall of the room was a rude painting, which represented +a group of strangely dressed horsemen, some +wearing turbans, some bareheaded, with locks of +coarse black hair hanging over their foreheads. The +skins of animals covered their limbs; they carried +scimitars and lances and bore fluttering pennons; +their horses were small, but of purest breed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Turning in doubt and dread from this enigmatical +drawing, the daring intruder saw in the centre of +the apartment a pedestal bearing a marble urn, in +which lay a scroll of parchment. From this one of +his scribes read the following words:</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Whenever this asylum is violated and the spell +contained in this urn broken, the people shown in +the picture shall invade the land and overturn the +throne of its kings. The rule of the Goths shall end +and the whole country fall into the hands of heathen +strangers."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">King Roderic looked again with eyes of alarm +on the pictured forms. Well he knew their meaning. +The turban-wearers were Arabians, their horses +the famous steeds of the desert; the bare-headed +barbarians were Berbers or Moors. Already they<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +threatened the land from Africa's shores; he had +broken the spell which held them back; the time +for the fulfilment of the prophecy was at hand.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Filled with sudden terror, the rash invader hurried +from the chamber of the talisman, his courtiers flying +with wild haste to the open air. The brazen gates +were closed with a clang which rang dismally through +the empty rooms, and the lock of the king was fixed +upon them. But it was too late. The voice of destiny +had spoken and the fate of the kingdom been +revealed, and all the people looked upon Don Roderic +as a doomed man.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have given this legend in its mildest form. +Some Arab writers surround it with magical incidents +until it becomes a tale worthy of the "Arabian +Nights' Entertainments." They speak of two ancient +men with snowy beards who kept the keys of +the gate and opened the locks only at Roderic's +stern command. When the locks were removed no +one could stir the gates until the hand of the king +touched them, when they sprang open of themselves. +Inside stood a huge bronze giant with a club of steel, +with which he dealt resounding blows on the floor +to right and left. He desisted at the king's command, +and the train entered unharmed. In the +magic chamber they found a golden casket containing +a linen cloth between tablets of brass. On this +were painted figures of Arabs in armor. As they +gazed these began to move, sounds of war were +heard, and the vision of a battle between Arab and +Christian warriors passed before the affrighted eyes +of the intruders. The Christian army was defeated,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and Roderic saw the image of himself in flight, and +finally of his horse without a rider. As he rushed +in terror from the fatal room the bronze giant was +no longer to be seen and the ancient guardians of +the gate lay dead upon their posts. In the end the +tower was burned by magic fire, and its very ashes +were scattered by the wings of an innumerable flight +of birds.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc8" id="toc8"></a> +<a name="pdf9" id="pdf9"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE BATTLE OF THE GUADALETE.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The legends just given are full of the pith of facts. +Dread of Africa lay deep in the Spanish heart and +gave point to these and other magical and romantic +tales. The story of how the great conqueror, Mohammed, +had come out from the deserts of Arabia +and sent his generals, sword and Koran in hand, to +conquer the world, had spread far to the east and +the west, and brought terror wherever it came. +From Arabia the Moslem hordes had swept through +Egypt and along the African coast to the extremity +of Morocco. They now faced Spain and coveted +that rich and populous land. Well might the degenerate +sons of the Goths fear their coming and +strive to keep them out with talismans and spells.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Years before, in the days of good King Wamba, a +great Mohammedan fleet had ravaged the Andalusian +coast. Others came, not for conquest, but for +spoil. But at length all North Africa lay under the +Moslem yoke, and Musa Ibn Nasseyr, the conqueror +of the African tribes, cast eyes of greed upon Spain +and laid plans for the subjugation to Arab rule of +that far-spreading Christian land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Africa, he was told, was rich, but Spain was richer. +Its soil was as fertile as that of Syria, its climate as<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +mild and sweet as that of Araby the Blest. The +far-famed mines of distant Cathay did not equal it +in wealth of minerals and gems; nowhere else were +such harbors, nowhere such highlands and plains. +The mountain-ranges, beautiful to see, enclosed valleys +of inexhaustible fertility. It was a land "plentiful +in waters, renowned for their sweetness and +clearness,"—Andalusia's noble streams. Famous +monuments graced its towns: the statue of Hercules +at Cadiz, the idol of Galicia, the stately ruins of +Merida and Tarragona. It was a realm the conquest +of which would bring wealth and fame,—great +glory to the sons of Allah and great treasure to the +successors of the Prophet. Musa determined upon +its invasion.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A traitor came to his aid. Count Julian was governor +of Ceuta, a Spanish city on the African coast. +His daughter Florinda was maid of honor to the +queen of Don Roderic. But word from the daughter +came to the father that she had suffered grievous +injury at the hands of the king, and Count Julian, +thirsting for revenge upon Roderic, offered to deliver +Ceuta into the hands of the Arabian warrior and +aid him in the conquest of Spain. To test the good +faith of Julian, Musa demanded that he should first +invade Andalusia himself. This he did, taking over +a small force in two vessels, overrunning the coast +country, killing many of its people, and returning +with a large booty in slaves and plunder.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the summer of 710 a Berber named Tarif was +sent over to spy out the land, and in the spring of +711 the army of invasion was led over by Tarik Ibn<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Zeyad, a valiant chief, who had gained great glory +in the wars with the Berber tribes. Who Tarik was +cannot be told. He was of humble origin, probably +of Persian birth, but possessed of a daring spirit that +was to bring him the highest fame. He is described +as a tall man, with red hair and a white complexion, +blind of one eye, and with a mole on his hand. The +Spanish historians call him Tarik el Tuerto, meaning +either "one-eyed" or "squint-eyed." Such was the +man whom Musa sent to begin the conquest of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The army of invasion consisted of seven thousand +men,—a handful to conquer a kingdom. They were +nearly all Moorish and Berber cavalry, there being +only three hundred Arabians of pure blood, most of +whom were officers. Landing in Spain, for a time +they found no one to meet them. Roderic was busy +with his army in the north and knew naught of this +invasion of his kingdom, and for two months Tarik +ravaged the land at his will. But at length the +Gothic king, warned of his danger, began a hasty +march southward, sending orders in advance to levy +troops in all parts of the kingdom, the rallying place +being Cordova.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a large army which he thus got together, +but they were ill-trained, ill-disciplined, and ill-disposed +to their king. Ninety thousand there were, +as Arab historians tell us, while Tarik had but twelve +thousand, Musa having sent him five thousand more. +But the large army was a mob, half-armed, and +lacking courage and discipline; the small army was +a compact and valorous body, used to victory, fearless, +and impetuous.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was on Sunday, the 19th of July, 711, that the +two armies came face to face on the banks of the +Guadalete, a river whose waters traverse the plain +of Sidonia, in which the battle was fought. It was +one of the decisive battles in the world's history, for +it gave the peninsula of Spain for eight centuries to +Arab dominion. The story of how this battle was +fought is, therefore, among the most important of +the historical tales of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Roderic's army consisted of two bodies of men,—a +smaller force of cavaliers, clad in mail armor and +armed with swords and battle-axes, and the main +body, which was a motley crew, without armor, and +carrying bows, lances, axes, clubs, scythes, and slings. +Of the Moslem army the greater number wore mail, +some carrying lances and scimitars of Damascus +steel, others being armed with light long-bows. +Their horses were Arabian or Barbary steeds, such +as Roderic had seen on the walls of the secret +chamber.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was in the early morning of a bright spring +day that the Spanish clarions sounded defiance to +the enemy, and the Moorish horns and kettle-drums +rang back the challenge to battle. Nearer and +nearer together came the hosts, the shouts of the +Goths met by the shrill <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lelies</span></span> of the Moslems.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"By the faith of the Messiah," Roderic is reported +to have said, "these are the very men I saw +painted on the walls of the chamber of the spell at +Toledo." From that moment, say the chroniclers, +"fear entered his heart." And yet the story goes that +he fought long and well and showed no signs of fear.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On his journey to the south Roderic had travelled +in a chariot of ivory, lined with cloth of gold, and +drawn by three white mules harnessed abreast. On +the silken awning of the chariot pearls, rubies, and +other rich jewels were profusely sprinkled. He sat +with a crown of gold on his head, and was dressed +in a robe made of strings of pearls interwoven with +silk. This splendor of display, however, was not +empty ostentation, but the state and dignity which +was customary with the Gothic kings.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his chariot of ivory Roderic passed through +the ranks, exhorting the men to valor, and telling +them that the enemy was a low rabble of heathens, +abhorred of God and men. "Remember," he said, +"the valor of your ancestors and the holy Christian +faith, for whose defence we are fighting." Then he +sprang from his chariot, put on his horned helmet, +mounted his war-horse Orelia, and took his station +in the field, prepared to fight like a soldier and a +king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For two days the battle consisted of a series of +skirmishes. At the end of that time the Christians +had the advantage. Their numbers had told, and +new courage came to their hearts. Tarik saw that +defeat would be his lot if this continued, and on the +morning of the third day he made a fiery appeal to +his men, rousing their fanaticism and picturing the +treasures and delights which victory would bring +them. He ended with his war-cry of "Guala! +Guala! Follow me, my warriors! I shall not stop +until I reach the tyrant in the midst of his steel-clad +warriors, and either kill him or he kill me!"</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the head of his men the dusky one-eyed warrior +rushed with fiery energy upon the Gothic lines, +cleaving his way through the ranks towards a general +whose rich armor seemed to him that of the +king. His impetuous charge carried him deep into +their midst. The seeming king was before him. +One blow and he fell dead; while the Moslems, crying +that the king of the Goths was killed, followed +their leader with resistless ardor into the hostile +ranks. The Christians heard and believed the +story, and lost heart as their enemy gained new +energy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this critical moment, as we are told, Bishop +Oppas, brother-in-law of the traitor Julian, drew off +and joined the Moslem ranks. Whether this was +the case or not, the charge of Tarik led the way to +victory. He had pierced the Christian centre. The +wings gave way before the onset of his chiefs. Resistance +was at an end. In utter panic the soldiers +flung away their arms and took to flight, heedless +of the stores and treasures of their camp, thinking +of nothing but safety, flying in all directions through +the country, while the Moslems, following on their +flying steeds, cut them down without mercy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Roderic, the king, had disappeared. If slain in +the battle, his body was never found. Wounded and +despairing, he may have been slain in flight or been +drowned in the stream. It was afterwards said that +his war-horse, its golden saddle rich with rubies, +was found riderless beside the stream, and that near +by lay a royal crown and mantle, and a sandal embroidered +with pearls and emeralds. But all we can<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +safely say is that Roderic had vanished, his army +was dispersed, and Spain was the prize of Tarik and +the Moors, for resistance was quickly at an end, and +they went on from victory to victory until the country +was nearly all in their hands.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc10" id="toc10"></a> +<a name="pdf11" id="pdf11"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE TABLE OF SOLOMON.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have told how King Roderic, when he invaded +the enchanted palace of Toledo, found in its +empty chambers a single treasure,—the famous table +of Solomon. But this was a treasure worth a king's +ransom, a marvellous talisman, so splendid, so beautiful, +so brilliant that the chroniclers can scarce find +words fitly to describe its richness and value. Some +say that it was made of pure gold, richly inlaid with +precious stones. Others say that it was a mosaic of +gold and silver, burnished yellow and gleaming +white, ornamented with three rows of priceless +jewels, one being of large pearls, one of costly +rubies, and a third of gleaming emeralds. Other +writers say that its top was made of a single emerald, +a talisman revealing the fates in its lucid depths. +Most writers say that it stood upon three hundred +and sixty-five feet, each made of a single emerald, +though still another writer declares that it had not +a foot to stand upon.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Evidently none of these worthy chroniclers had +seen the jewelled table except in the eye of fancy, +which gave it what shape and form best fitted its +far-famed splendor. They varied equally in their +history of the talisman. A mildly drawn story says +that it first came from Jerusalem to Rome, that it +fell into the hands of the Goths when they sacked<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the city of the Cæsars, and that some of them brought +it into Spain. But there was a story more in accordance +with the Arabian love of the marvellous +which stated that the table was the work of the +Djinn, or Genii, the mighty spirits of the air, whom +the wise king Solomon had subdued and who obeyed +his commands. After Solomon's time it was kept +among the holy treasures of the temple, and became +one of the richest spoils of the Romans when they +captured and sacked Jerusalem. It afterwards became +the prize of a king of Spain, perhaps in the +way stated above.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus fancy has adorned the rich and beautiful +work of art which Don Roderic is said to have +found in the enchanted palace, and which he placed +as the noblest of the treasures of Spain in the splendid +church of Toledo, the Gothic capital. This city +fell into the hands of Tarik el Tuerto in his conquering +progress through the realm of Spain, and the +emerald table, whose fame had reached the shores +of Africa, was sought by him far and near.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It had disappeared from the church, perhaps carried +off by the bishop in his flight. But fast as the +fugitives fled, faster rode the Arab horsemen on their +track, one swift troop riding to Medina Celi, on the +high road to Saragossa. On this route they came +to a city named by them Medinatu-l-Mayidah (city +of the table), in which they found the famous talisman. +They brought it to Tarik as one of the choicest +spoils of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Its later history is as curious and much more authentic +than its earlier. Tarik, as we have told in<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the previous tale, had been sent to Andalusia by +Musa, the caliph's viceroy in Africa, simply that he +might gain a footing in the land, whose conquest +Musa reserved for himself. But the impetuous Tarik +was not to be restrained. No sooner was Roderic +slain and his army dispersed than the Arab cavaliers +spread far and wide through Spain, city after city +falling into their hands, until it seemed as if nothing +would be left for Musa to conquer.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This state of affairs was far from agreeable to the +jealous and ambitious viceroy. He sent messengers +to the caliph at Damascus, in which he claimed the +conquest of Spain as his own, and barely mentioned +the name of the real conqueror. He severely blamed +Tarik for presuming to conquer a kingdom without +direct orders, and, gathering an army, he crossed to +Spain, that he might rightfully claim a share in the +glory of the conquest.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tarik was not ignorant of what Musa had done. +He expected to be called sharply to account by his +jealous superior, and knew well that his brilliant +deeds had been overlooked in the viceroy's despatches +to Damascus, then the capital of the Arab +empire. The daring soldier was therefore full of joy +when the table of Solomon fell into his hands. He +hoped to win favor from Al-Walid, the caliph, by +presenting him this splendid prize. Yet how was +he to accomplish this? Would not Musa, who was +well aware of the existence and value of the table, +claim it as his own and send it to Al-Walid with the +false story that he had won it by the power of his +arms?</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To defeat this probable act Tarik devised a shrewd +stratagem. The table, as has been stated, was +abundantly provided with feet, but of these four +were larger than the rest. One of the latter Tarik +took off and concealed, to be used in the future if +what he feared should come to pass.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As it proved, he had not misjudged his jealous lord. +In due time Musa came to Toledo and rode in state +through the gate-way of that city, Tarik following +like a humble servitor in his train. As soon as he +reached the palace he haughtily demanded a strict +account of the spoils. These were at hand, and were +at once delivered up. Their number and value should +have satisfied his avarice, but the wonderful table of +Solomon, of which he had heard such marvellous +accounts, was not among them, and he demanded +that this, too, should be brought forward. As Tarik +had foreseen, he designed to send it to the caliph, as +an acceptable present and an evidence of his victorious +career.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The table was produced, and Musa gazed upon it +with eyes of delight. His quick glance, however, +soon discovered that one of the emerald feet was +missing.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It is imperfect," he said. "Where is the missing +foot?"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That I cannot tell you," replied Tarik; "you +have the table as it was brought to me."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Musa, accepting this answer without suspicion, +gave orders that the lost foot should be replaced with +one of gold. Then, after thanking the other leading +officers for their zeal and valor, he turned upon Tarik<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and accused him in severe tones of disobedience. +He ended by depriving him of his command and +putting him under arrest, while he sent the caliph a +report in which Tarik was sharply blamed and the +merit of his exploits made light of. He would have +gone farther and put him to death, but this he dared +not do without the caliph's orders.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As it proved, Al-Walid, the Commander of the +Faithful, knew something of the truth. Far distant +as Damascus was from Toledo, a report of Tarik's +exploits had reached his august ears, and Musa received +orders to replace him in his command, since +it would not do "to render useless one of the best +swords of Islam." Musa dared not disobey; and +thus, for the time being, Tarik triumphed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And now, for the end of the trouble between Musa +and Tarik, we must go forward in time. They were +left in Spain until they had completed the conquest +of that kingdom, then both were ordered to appear +before the caliph's judgment seat. This they did in +different methods. Tarik, who had no thirst for +spoil, made haste, with empty hands, to Damascus, +where, though he had no rich presents for the commander +of the faithful, he delighted him with the +story of his brilliant deeds. Musa came more slowly +and with more ostentation. Leaving his sons in +command in Spain and Africa, he journeyed slowly +to Syria, with all the display of a triumphal march. +With him were one hundred of his principal officers, +as many sons of the highest Berber chiefs, and the +kings of the Balearic Islands in all their barbaric +state. In his train rode four hundred captive nobles,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +each wearing a crown and girdle of gold, and thirty +thousand captives of lower rank. At intervals in +the train were camels and wagons, richly laden with +gold, jewels, and other spoils. He brought to the +East the novelties of the West, hawks, mules, and +Barbary horses, and the curious fruits of Africa and +Spain, "treasures," we are told, "the like of which +no hearer ever heard of before, and no beholder ever +saw before his eyes."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the proud conqueror came, by slow marches, +with frequent halts. He left Spain in August, 713. +It was February, 715, when he reached the vicinity +of Damascus, having spent a year and a half on the +way.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, changes had taken place in Syria. +Al-Walid, the caliph, was sick unto death, suffering +from a mortal disease, Soliman, his brother and +heir, wrote to Musa when at Tiberias, on the Sea of +Galilee, asking him to halt there, as his brother could +live but a few days. He, as the new caliph, would +receive him. Al-Walid in turn ordered him to hasten +his march. Musa was in a quandary. If Al-Walid +should live, delay might be fatal. If he should die, +haste might be fatal. He took what seemed to him +the safest course, hastened to Damascus, and met +with a brilliant reception. But a change soon came; +in forty days Al-Walid died; Soliman, whom he had +disobeyed, was caliph of the empire. Musa's sun +was near its setting.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was not long before the conqueror found himself +treated as a criminal. He was charged with +rapacity, injustice to Tarik, and the purpose of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +throwing all power into the hands of his sons. He +was even accused of "disobedience" for making a +triumphal entry into Damascus before the death of +Al-Walid. These and other charges were brought, +Soliman being bent on the ruin of the man who had +added Africa to the Arabian empire.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Musa was brought before the caliph for a +final hearing Tarik and many other soldiers from +Spain were present, and there stood before the monarch's +throne the splendid table of Solomon, one of +the presents which Musa had made to Al-Walid, declaring +it to be the most magnificent of all the prizes +of his valor.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Tell me," said the caliph to Tarik, "if you know +whence this table came."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It was found by me," answered Tarik. "If you +would have evidence of the truth of my words, O +caliph, have it examined and see if it be perfect."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soliman gave orders, the table was closely examined, +and it was soon discovered that one of its +emerald feet was gone and that a foot of gold occupied +its place.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Ask Musa," said Tarik, "if this was the condition +of the table when he found it."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Yes," answered Musa, "it was as you see it +now."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tarik answered by taking from under his mantle +the foot of emerald which he had removed, and +which just matched the others.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You may learn now," he said to the caliph, +"which of us is the truth-teller. Here is the lost +leg of the table. I found the table and kept this for<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +evidence. It is the same with most of the treasures +Musa has shown you. It was I who won them and +captured the cities in which they were found. Ask +any of these soldiers if I speak the truth or not."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These words were ruinous to Musa. The table +had revenged its finder. If Musa had lied in this +case, he had lied in all. So held the angry caliph, +who turned upon him with bitter abuse, calling him +thief and liar, and swearing by Allah that he would +crucify him. In the end he ordered the old man, +fourscore years of age, corpulent and asthmatic, to +be exposed to the fierce sun of Syria for a whole +summer's day, and bade his brother Omar to see that +the cruel sentence was executed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Until high noon had passed the old warrior stood +under the scorching solar rays, his blood at length +seeming to boil in his veins, while he sank suffocated +to the earth. Death would soon have ended his +suffering had not Omar, declaring "that he had +never passed a worse day in his life," prevailed upon +the caliph to abridge his punishment.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bent upon his utter ruin, the vindictive Soliman +laid upon him the enormous fine of four million and +thirty thousand dinars, equal to about ten million +dollars. His sons were left in power in Spain that +they might aid him in paying the fine. Great as +the sum was, Musa, by giving up his own fortune, +by the aid of his sons in Africa and Spain, and by +assistance from his friends, succeeded in obtaining +it. But even this did not satisfy the caliph, who +now banished him to his birthplace, that his early +friends might see and despise him in his ruin. He<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +even determined to destroy his sons, that the whole +family might be rooted out and none be left in whose +veins the blood of Musa ran.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ablest of these sons, Abdul-Aziz, had been left +in chief command over Spain. Thither the caliph +sent orders for his death. Much as the young ruler +was esteemed, wisely as he had ruled, no one thought +of questioning an order of the Commander of the +Faithful, the mighty autocrat of the great Arabian +empire, and the innocent Abdul was assassinated by +some who had been among his chief friends. His +head was then cut off, embalmed, and sent to Soliman, +before whom it was laid, enclosed in a casket +of precious wood.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sending for Musa, the vindictive caliph had the +casket opened in his presence, saying, as the death-like +features appeared, "Do you know whose head +that is?"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The answer of Musa was a pathetic one. Never +was there a Moslem, he said, who less deserved such +a fate; never a man of milder heart, braver soul, or +more pious and obedient disposition. In the end +the poor old man broke down, and he could only +murmur,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Grant me his head, O Commander of the Faithful, +that I may shut the lids of his eyes."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Thou mayest take it," was Soliman's reply.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And so Musa left the caliph's presence, heart-broken +and disconsolate. It is said that before he +died he was forced to beg his bread. Of Tarik we +hear no more. He had fully repaid Musa for his +injustice, but the caliph, who perhaps feared to let<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +any one become too great, failed to restore him to +his command, and he disappeared from history. +The cruel Soliman lived only a year after the death +of the victim of his rage. He died in 717, of remorse +for his injustice to Musa, say some, but the +record of history is that he was defeated before Constantinople +and died of grief.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ends our story of the table of Solomon. It +brought good to none who had to do with it, and +utter disaster to him who had made it an agent of +falsehood and avarice. Injustice cannot hope to +hide itself behind a talisman.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc12" id="toc12"></a> +<a name="pdf13" id="pdf13"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE STORY OF QUEEN EXILONA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Roderic overthrew the ancient dynasty of +Spain and made himself king, he had the defences +of the cities thrown down that they might not give +shelter to his enemies. Only the walls of the frontier +cities were left, and among these was the ancient +city of Denia, on the Mediterranean shores. Dread +of the Moorish pirates was felt in this stronghold, +and a strong castle was built on a high rock that +overlooked the sea. To the old alcaide who served +as governor of Denia word was brought, at the end +of a day of fierce tempest, that a Moorish ship was +approaching the shore. Instantly the bells were +rung to rouse the people, and signal fires were +kindled on the tower that they might flash from +peak to peak the news of an invasion by the Moors.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But as the ship came closer it was seen that alarm +had been taken too soon. The vessel was alone and +had evidently been in the grip of the tempest. It +was seen to be a bark rich in carving and gilding, +adorned with silken banderoles, and driven through +the water by banks of crimson oars; a vessel of state +and ceremony, not a ship of war. As it came nearer +it was perceived to have suffered severely in the +ruthless grasp of the storm. Broken were its masts +and shattered its oars, while there fluttered in the +wind the torn remnants of its banners and sails.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +When at length it grounded on the sands below the +castle the proud bark was little better than a shattered +wreck.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was with deep curiosity that the Spaniards saw +on the deck of the stranded bark a group of high-born +Moors, men and maidens dressed in robes of +silk rich with jewels, and their features bearing the +stamp of lofty rank. In their midst stood a young +lady of striking beauty, sumptuously attired, and evidently +of the highest station, for all paid her reverence, +and a guard of armed Moors stood around her, +scimitar in hand.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On landing, a venerable Moor approached the alcaide, +who had descended to meet the strangers, and +said, in such words of the Gothic language as he +could command,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Worthy sir, we beg your protection and compassion. +The princess under our care is the only +daughter of the king of Algiers, on her way to the +court of the king of Tunis, to whom she is betrothed. +The tempest has driven us to your shores. Be not, +we implore you, more cruel than the storm, which +has spared us and our precious charge."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The alcaide returned a courteous answer, offering +the princess and her train the shelter of the castle, +but saying that he had not the power to release them. +They must hold themselves the captives of Roderic, +the king of the Goths, to whom his duty required +him to send them. The fate of a royal captive, he +said, could be decided only by the royal voice.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some days afterwards Elyata, the Moorish princess, +entered Toledo in a procession more like that of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a triumphant heroine than of a captive. A band of +Christian horsemen preceded the train. The Moorish +guard, richly attired, followed. In the midst rode +the princess, surrounded by her maidens and dressed +in her bridal robes, which were resplendent with +pearls, diamonds, and other gems. Roderic advanced +in state from his palace to receive her, and +was so struck with her beauty and dignity of aspect +that at first sight warm emotions filled his heart.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Elyata was sadly downcast at her captivity, but +Roderic, though not releasing her, did all he could +to make her lot a pleasant one. A royal palace was +set aside for her residence, in whose spacious apartments +and charming groves and gardens the grief +of the princess gradually softened and passed away. +Roderic, moved by a growing passion, frequently +visited her, and in time soft sentiments woke in her +heart for the handsome and courteous king. When, +in the end, he begged her to become his bride her +blushes and soft looks spoke consent.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One thing was wanting. Roderic's bride should +be a Christian. Taught the doctrines of the new +faith by learned bishops, Elyata's consent to the +change of faith was easily won, and the princess was +baptized as a Christian maiden under the new name +of Exilona. The marriage was celebrated with the +greatest magnificence, and was followed by tourneys +and banquets and all the gayeties of the time. Some +of the companions of the princess accepted the new +faith and remained with her. Those who clung to +their old belief were sent back to Africa with rich +presents from the king, an embassy going with them<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to inform the monarch of Algiers of his daughter's +marriage, and to offer him the alliance and friendship +of Roderic the Gothic king.</p> + +<a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image02.png" width="640" height="369" alt="Illustration: TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR." title="TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Queen Exilona passed a happy life as the bride of +the Gothic monarch, but many were the vicissitudes +which lay before her, for the Arab conquest was +near at hand and its effects could not but bear heavily +upon her destiny. After the defeat and death of +Roderic a considerable number of noble Goths sought +shelter in the city of Merida, among them the +widowed queen. Thither came Musa with a large +army and besieged the city. It was strongly and +bravely defended, and the gallant garrison only +yielded when famine came to the aid of their foes.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A deputation from the city sought the Arab camp +and was conducted to the splendid pavilion of Musa, +whom the deputies found to be an old man with +long white beard and streaming white hair. He received +them kindly, praised them for their valor, +and offered them favorable terms. They returned +the next day to complete the conditions. On this +day the Mohammedan fast of Ramadhan ended, and +the Arabs, who had worn their meanest garb, were +now in their richest attire, and joy had everywhere +succeeded penitent gloom. As for Musa, he seemed +transformed. The meanly dressed and hoary ancient +of the previous visit now appeared a man in +the prime of life, his beard dark-red in hue, and his +robes rich with gold and jewels. The Goths, to +whom the art of dyeing the hair was unknown, +looked on the transformation as a miracle.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"We have seen," they said on their return, "their<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +king, who was an old man, become a young one. We +have to do with a nation of prophets who can change +their appearance at will and transform themselves +into any shape they like. Our advice is that we +should grant Musa his demands, for men like these +we cannot resist."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The stratagem of the Arab was successful, the +gates were opened, and Merida became a captive city. +The people were left their private wealth and were +free to come and go as they would, with the exception +of some of their noblest, who were to be held as +hostages. Among these was the widowed Queen +Exilona.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">She was still young and beautiful. By paying +tribute she was allowed to live unmolested, and in this +way she passed to the second phase of her romantic +career. Arab fancy has surrounded her history with +many surprising incidents, and Lope de Vega, the +Spanish dramatist, has made her the heroine of a +romantic play, but her actual history is so full of +interest that we need not draw contributions from +fable or invention.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Musa went to Syria at the command of the +caliph he left his son Abdul-Aziz as emir or governor +of Spain. The new emir was a young, handsome, +and gallant man. He had won fame in Africa, and +gained new repute for wisdom and courage in Spain. +The Moorish princess who had become a Gothic queen +was now a hostage in his hands, and her charms +moved his susceptible heart. His persuasive tongue +and attractive person were not without their effect +upon the fair captive, who a second time lost her<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +heart to her captor, and agreed once more to become +a bride. Her first husband had been the king of +Gothic Spain. Her second was the ruler of Moorish +Spain. She declined to yield her Christian creed, +but she became his wife and the queen of his heart, +called by him Ummi-Assam, a name of endearment +common in Arab households.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Exilona was ambitious, and sought to induce her +new husband to assume the style of a king. She +made him a crown of gold and precious stones which +her soft persuasion induced him to wear. She bowed +in his presence as if to a royal potentate, and to +oblige the nobles to do the same she induced him to +have the door-way of his audience chamber made so +low that no one could enter it without making an +involuntary bow. She even tried to convert him to +Christianity, and built a low door to her oratory, so +that any one entering would seem to bow to the +cross.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These arts of the queen proved fatal to the prince +whom she desired to exalt, for this and other stories +were told to the caliph, who was seeking some excuse +to proceed against the sons of Musa, whose ruin he +had sworn. It was told him that Abdul-Aziz was +seeking to make Spain independent and was bowing +before strange gods. Soliman asked no more, but +sent the order for his death.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was to friends of the emir that the fatal mandate +was sent. They loved the mild Abdul, but they +were true sons of Islam, and did not dare to question +the order of the Commander of the Faithful. The +emir was then at a villa near Seville, whither he was<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +accustomed to withdraw from the cares of state to +the society of his beloved wife. Near by he had +built a mosque, and here, on the morning of his +death, he entered and began to read the Koran.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A noise at the door disturbed him, and in a moment +a throng burst into the building. At their head was +Habib, his trusted friend, who rushed upon him and +struck him with a dagger. The emir was unhurt, +and sought to escape, but the others were quickly +upon him, and in a moment his body was rent with +dagger strokes and he had fallen dead. His head +was at once cut off, embalmed, and sent to the caliph. +The cruel use made of it we have told.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A wild commotion followed when the people +learned of this murder, but it was soon quelled. +The power of the caliph was yet too strong to be +questioned, even in far-off Spain. What became of +Exilona we do not know. Some say that she was +slain with her husband; some that she survived him +and died in privacy. However it be, her life was +one of singular romance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As for the kindly and unfortunate emir, his +memory was long fondly cherished in Spain, and +his name still exists in the title of a valley in the +suburbs of Antequera, which was named Abdelaxis +in his honor.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> +<a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">PELISTES, THE DEFENDER OF CORDOVA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No sooner had Tarik defeated the Christian army +on the fatal field of Sidonia than he sent out detachments +of horsemen in all directions, hoping to win +the leading cities of Spain before the people should +recover from their terror. One of these detachments, +composed of seven hundred horse, was sent +against Cordova, an ancient city which was to become +the capital of Moslem Spain. This force was +led by a brave soldier named Magued, a Roman or +Greek by birth, who had been taken prisoner when +a child and reared in the Arab faith. He now +ranked next to Tarik in the arts and stratagems of +war, and as a horseman and warrior was the model +and admiration of his followers.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Christian leaders who had fled from +the field of the Guadalete was an old and valiant +Gothic noble, Pelistes by name, who had fought in +the battle front until his son sank in death and most +of his followers had fallen around him. Then, with +the small band left him, he rode in all haste to Cordova, +which he hoped to hold as a stronghold of the +Goths. But he found himself almost alone in the +town, most of whose inhabitants had fled with their +valuables, so that, including the invalids and old<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +soldiers found there, he had but four hundred men +with whom to defend the city.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A river ran south of the city and formed one of +its defences. To its banks came Magued,—led, say +some of the chronicles, by the traitor, Count Julian,—and +encamped in a forest of pines. He sent heralds +to the town, demanding its surrender, and +threatening its defenders with death if they resisted. +But Pelistes defied him to do his worst.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What Magued might have found difficult to do by +force he accomplished by stratagem. A shepherd +whom he had captured told him of the weakness of +the garrison, and acquainted him with a method by +which the city might be entered. Forcing the rustic +to act as guide, Magued crossed the river on a stormy +night, swimming the stream with his horses, each +cavalier having a footman mounted behind him. +By the time they reached the opposite shore the +rain had changed to hail, whose loud pattering +drowned the noise of the horses' hoofs as the assailants +rode to a weak place in the wall of which the +shepherd had told them. Here the battlements were +broken and part of the wall had fallen, and near by +grew a fig-tree whose branches stretched towards +the breach. Up this climbed a nimble soldier, and +by hard effort reached the broken wall. He had +taken with him Magued's turban, whose long folds +of linen were unfolded and let down as a rope, by +whose aid others soon climbed to the summit. The +storm had caused the sentries to leave their posts, +and this part of the wall was left unguarded.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a short time a considerable number of the assailants<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +had gained the top of the wall. Leaping +from the parapet, they entered the city and ran to +the nearest gate, which they flung open to Magued +and his force. The city was theirs; the alarm was +taken too late, and all who resisted were cut down. +By day-dawn Cordova was lost to Spain with the +exception of the church of St. George, a large and +strong edifice, in which Pelistes had taken refuge +with the remnant of his men. Here he found an +ample supply of food and obtained water from some +secret source, so that he was enabled to hold out +against the enemy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For three long months the brave garrison defied +its foes, though Magued made every effort to take +the church. How they obtained water was what +most puzzled him, but he finally discovered the +secret through the aid of a negro whom the Christians +had captured and who escaped from their +hands. The prisoner had learned during his captivity +that the church communicated by an underground +channel with a spring somewhere without. +This was sought for with diligence and at length +found, whereupon the water supply of the garrison +was cut off at its source, and a new summons to surrender +was made.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are two stories of what afterwards took +place. One is that the garrison refused to surrender, +and that Magued, deeply exasperated, ordered +the church to be set on fire, most of its defenders +perishing in the flames. The other story is a far +more romantic one, and perhaps as likely to be true. +This tells us that Pelistes, weary of long waiting for<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +assistance from without, determined to leave the +church in search of aid, promising, in case of failure, +to return and die with his friends.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mounted on the good steed that he had kept alive +in the church, and armed with lance, sword, and +shield, the valiant warrior set forth before the dawn, +and rode through the silent streets, unseen by sentinel +or early wayfarer. The vision of a Christian +knight on horseback was not likely to attract much +attention, as there were many renegade Christians +with the Moors, brought thither in the train of +Count Julian. Therefore, when the armed warrior +presented himself at a gate of the city just as a foraging +party was entering, he rode forth unnoticed +in the confusion and galloped briskly away towards +the neighboring mountains.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having reached there he stopped to rest, but to +his alarm he noticed a horseman in hot pursuit upon +his trail. Spurring his steed onward, Pelistes now +made his way into the rough intricacies of the +mountain paths; but, unluckily, as he was passing +along the edge of a declivity, his horse stumbled and +rolled down into the ravine below, so bruising and +cutting him in the fall that, when he struggled to +his feet, his face was covered with blood.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While he was in this condition the pursuer rode +up. It proved to be Magued himself, who had seen +him leave the city and had followed in haste. To +his sharp summons for surrender the good knight +responded by drawing his sword, and, wounded and +bleeding as he was, put himself in posture for defence.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fight that followed was as fierce as some of +those told of King Arthur's knights. Long and +sturdily the two champions fought, foot to foot, +sword to scimitar, until their shields and armor were +rent and hacked and the ground was red with their +blood. Never had those hills seen so furious a fight +by so well-matched champions, and during their +breathing spells the two knights gazed upon each +other with wonder and admiration. Magued had +never met so able an antagonist before, nor Pelistes +encountered so skilfully wielded a blade.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the Gothic warrior had been hurt by his fall. +This gave Magued the advantage, and he sought to +take his noble adversary alive. Finally, weak from +loss of blood, the gallant Goth gave a last blow and +fell prostrate. In a moment Magued's point was at +his throat, and he was bidden to ask for his life or +die. No answer came. Unlacing the helmet of the +fallen knight, Magued found him insensible. As he +debated with himself how he would get the captive +of his sword to the city, a group of Moorish cavaliers +rode up and gazed with astonishment on the marks +of the terrible fight. The Christian knight was +placed by them on a spare horse and carried to Cordova's +streets.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the train passed the beleaguered church its +garrison, seeing their late leader a captive in Moorish +hands, sallied fiercely out to his rescue, and for +some minutes the street rang sharply with the +sounds of war. But numbers gathered to the defence, +the assailants were driven back, and the +church was entered by their foes, the clash of arms<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +resounding within its sacred precincts. In the end +most of the garrison were killed and the rest made +prisoners.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The wounded knight was tenderly cared for by +his captor, soon regaining his senses, and in time +recovering his health. Magued, who had come to +esteem him highly, celebrated his return to health +by a magnificent banquet, at which every honor was +done the noble knight. The Arabs knew well how +to reward valor, even in a foe.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the midst of the banquet Pelistes spoke of +a noble Christian knight he once had known, his +brother in arms and the cherished friend of his +heart, one whom he had most admired and loved of +all the Gothic host,—his old and dear comrade, Count +Julian.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"He is here!" cried some of the Arabs, enthusiastically, +pointing to a knight who had recently entered. +"Here is your old friend and comrade, Count +Julian."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"That Julian!" cried Pelistes, in tones of scorn; +"that traitor and renegade my friend and comrade! +No, no; this is not Julian, but a fiend from hell +who has entered his body to bring him dishonor and +ruin."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Turning scornfully away he strode proudly from +the room, leaving the traitor knight, overwhelmed +with shame and confusion, the centre of a circle of +scornful looks, for the Arabs loved not the traitor, +however they might have profited by his treason.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fate of Pelistes, as given in the Arab chronicles, +was a tragic one. Magued, who had never<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +before met his equal at sword play, proposed to send +him to Damascus, thinking that so brave a man +would be a fitting present to the caliph and a living +testimony to his own knightly prowess. But others +valued the prize of valor as well as Magued, Tarik +demanding that the valiant prisoner should be delivered +to him, and Musa afterwards claiming possession. +The controversy ended in a manner suitable +to the temper of the times, Magued slaying the captive +with his own hand rather than deliver to others +the prize of his sword and shield.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> +<a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE STRATAGEM OF THEODOMIR.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The defeat of the Guadalete seemed for the time +to have robbed the Goths of all their ancient courage. +East and west, north and south, rode the Arab horsemen, +and stronghold after stronghold fell almost +without resistance into their hands, until nearly the +whole of Spain had surrendered to the scimitar. +History has but a few stories to tell of valiant defence +by the Gothic warriors. One was that of Pelistes, +at Cordova, which we have just told. The +other was that of the wise and valorous Theodomir, +which we have next to relate.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Abdul-Aziz, Musa's noble son, whose sad fate we +have chronicled, had been given the control of Southern +Spain, with his head-quarters in Seville. Here, +after subduing the Comarca, he decided on an invasion +of far-off Murcia, the garden-land of the +south, a realm of tropic heat, yet richly fertile and +productive. There ruled a valiant Goth named Theodomir, +who had resisted Tarik on his landing, had +fought in the fatal battle in which Roderic fell, and +had afterwards, with a bare remnant of his followers, +sought his own territory, which after him was called +the land of Tadmir.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hither marched Abdul-Aziz, eager to meet in battle<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a warrior of such renown, and to add to his dominions +a country so famed for beauty and fertility. +He was to find Theodomir an adversary worthy of +his utmost powers. So small was the force of the +Gothic lord that he dared not meet the formidable +Arab horsemen in open contest, but he checked their +advance by all the arts known in war, occupying the +mountain defiles and gorges through which his +country must be reached, cutting off detachments, +and making the approach of the Arabs difficult and +dangerous.</p> + +<a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image03.png" width="640" height="385" alt="Illustration: A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS." title="A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His defence was not confined to the hills. At +times he would charge fiercely on detached parties +of Arabs in the valleys or plains, and be off again to +cover before the main force could come up. Long he +defeated every effort of the Arab leader to bring on +an open battle, but at length found himself cornered +at Lorca, in a small valley at a mountain's foot. +Here, though the Goths fought bravely, they found +themselves too greatly outnumbered, and in the end +were put to panic-flight, numbers of them being left +dead on the hotly contested field.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The handful of fugitives, sharply pursued by the +Moorish cavalry, rode in all haste to the fortified +town of Orihuela, a place of such strength that with +sufficient force they might have defied there the +powerful enemy. But such had been their losses in +battle and in flight that Theodomir found himself +far too weak to face the Moslem host, whose advance +cavalry had followed so keenly on his track as +to reach the outer walls by the time he had fairly +closed the gates.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Defence was impossible. He had not half enough +men to guard the walls and repel assaults. It would +have been folly to stand a siege, yet Theodomir did +not care to surrender except on favorable terms, and +therefore adopted a shrewd stratagem to deceive the +enemy in regard to his strength.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the surprise of the Arab leader the walls of the +town, which he had thought half garrisoned, seemed +to swarm with armed and bearded warriors, far too +great a force to be overcome by a sudden dash. In +the face of so warlike an array, caution awoke in +the hearts of the assailants. They had looked for +an easy victory, but against such numbers as these +assault might lead to severe bloodshed and eventual +defeat. They felt that it would be necessary to proceed +by the slow and deliberate methods of a regular +siege.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Abdul-Aziz was disposing his forces and +making heedful preparations for the task he saw +before him, he was surprised to see the principal +gate of the city thrown open and a single Gothic +horseman ride forth, bearing a flag of truce and +making signals for a parley. A safe-conduct was +given him, and he was led to the tent of the Moslem +chief.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Theodomir has sent me to negotiate with you," +he said, "and I have full power to conclude terms +of surrender. We are abundantly able to hold out, +as you may see by the forces on our walls, but as we +wish to avoid bloodshed we are willing to submit on +honorable terms. Otherwise we will defend ourselves +to the bitter end."</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The boldness and assurance with which he spoke +deeply impressed the Arab chief. This was not a +fearful foe seeking for mercy, but a daring antagonist +as ready to fight as to yield.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"What terms do you demand?" asked Abdul-Aziz.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"My lord," answered the herald, "will only surrender +on such conditions as a generous enemy +should grant and a valiant people receive. He demands +peace and security for the province and its +people and such authority for himself as the strength +of his walls and the numbers of his garrison justify +him in demanding."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The wise and clement Arab saw the strength of +the argument, and, glad to obtain so rich a province +without further loss of life, he assented to the terms +proposed, bidding the envoy to return and present +them to his chief. The Gothic knight replied that +there was no need of this, he having full power to +sign the treaty. The terms were therefore drawn +up and signed by the Arab general, after which the +envoy took the pen and, to the astonishment of the +victor, signed the name of Theodomir at the foot of +the document. It was the Gothic chief himself.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pleased alike with his confidence and his cleverness, +Abdul-Aziz treated the Gothic knight with the +highest honor and distinction. At the dawn of the +next day the gates of the city were thrown open for +surrender, and Abdul-Aziz entered at the head of a +suitable force. But when the garrison was drawn +up in the centre of the city for surrender, the surprise +of the Moslem became deep amazement. What +he saw before him was a mere handful of stalwart<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +soldiers, eked out with feeble old men and boys. +But the main body before him was composed of +women, whom the astute Goth had bidden to dress +like men and to tie their long hair under their chins +to represent beards; when, with casques on their +heads and spears in their hands, they had been ranged +along the walls, looking at a distance like a line of +sturdy warriors.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theodomir waited with some anxiety, not knowing +how the victor would regard this stratagem. Abdul +might well have viewed with anger the capitulation +of an army of women and dotards, but he had a +sense of humor and a generous heart, and the smile +of amusement on his face told the Gothic chief that +he was fully forgiven for his shrewd stratagem. +Admiration was stronger than mortification in the +Moslem's heart. He praised Theodomir for his witty +and successful expedient, and for the three days that +he remained at Orihuela banquets and fêtes marked +his stay, he occupying the position of a guest rather +than an enemy. No injury was done to people or +town, and the Arabs soon left the province to continue +their career of conquest, satisfied with the arrangements +for tribute which they had made.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By a strange chance the treaty of surrender of the +land of Tadmir still exists. It is drawn up in Latin +and in Arabic, and is of much interest as showing +the mode in which such things were managed at that +remote date. It stipulates that war shall not be +waged against Theodomir, son of the Goths, and his +people; that he shall not be deprived of his kingdom; +that the Christians shall not be separated from their<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +wives and children, or hindered in the services of +their religion; and that their temples shall not be +burned. Theodomir was left lord of seven cities,—Orihuela, +Valencia, Alicante, Mula, Biscaret, Aspis, +and Lorca,—in which he was to harbor no enemies +of the Arabs.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tribute demanded of him and his nobles was a +dinar (a gold coin) yearly from each, also four measures +each of wheat, barley, must, vinegar, honey, and +oil. Vassals and taxable people were to pay half +this amount.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These conditions were liberal in the extreme. The +tribute demanded was by no means heavy for a +country so fertile, in which light culture yields +abundant harvests; the delightful valley between +Orihuela and Murcia, in particular, being the garden +spot of Spain. The inhabitants for a long period +escaped the evils of war felt in other parts of the +conquered territory, their province being occupied +by only small garrisons of the enemy, while its distance +from the chief seat of war removed it from +danger.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the murder of Abdul-Aziz, Theodomir sent +an embassy to the Caliph Soliman, begging that the +treaty should be respected. The caliph in reply sent +orders that its stipulations should be faithfully observed. +In this the land of Tadmir almost stood +alone in that day, when treaties were usually made +only to be set at naught.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc20" id="toc20"></a> +<a name="pdf21" id="pdf21"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE CAVE OF COVADONGA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tarik landed in Spain in April, 711. So rapid +were the Arabs in conquest that in two years from +that date nearly the whole peninsula was in their +hands. Not quite all, or history might have another +story to relate. In a remote province of the once +proud kingdom—a rugged northwest corner—a few +of its fugitive sons remained in freedom, left alone +by the Arabs partly through scorn, partly on account +of the rude and difficult character of their +place of refuge. The conquerors despised them, yet +this slender group was to form the basis of the Spain +we know to-day, and to expand and spread until the +conquerors would be driven from Spanish soil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Goths had fled in all directions from their +conquerors, taking with them such of their valuables +as they could carry, some crossing the Pyrenees to +France, some hiding in the mountain valleys, some +seeking a place of refuge in the Asturias, a rough +hill country cut up in all directions by steep, scarped +rocks, narrow defiles, deep ravines, and tangled +thickets. Here the formidable Moslem cavalry could +not pursue them; here no army could deploy; here +ten men might defy a hundred. The place was far +from inviting to the conquerors, but in it was sown +the seed of modern Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A motley crew it was that gathered in this rugged<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +region, a medley of fugitives of all ranks and stations,—soldiers, +farmers, and artisans; nobles and +vassals; bishops and monks; men, women, and children,—brought +together by a terror that banished +all distinctions of rank and avocation. For a number +of years this small band of fugitive Christians, gathered +between the mountains and the sea in northwestern +Spain, remained quiet, desiring only to be +overlooked or disregarded by the conquerors. But +in the year 717 a leader came to them, and Spain +once more lifted her head in defiance of her invaders.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pelayo, the leader named, is a hero shrouded in +mist. Fable surrounds him; a circle of romantic +stories have budded from his name. He is to us +like his modern namesake, the one battle-ship of +Spain, which, during the recent war, wandered up +and down the Mediterranean with no object in view +that any foreigner could discover. Of the original +Pelayo, some who profess to know say that he was +of the highest rank,—young, handsome, and heroic, +one who had fought under Roderic at the Guadalete, +had been held by the Arabs as a hostage at +Cordova, and had escaped to his native hills, there +to infuse new life and hope into the hearts of the +fugitive group.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ibun Hayyan, an Arabian chronicler, gives the +following fanciful account of Pelayo and his feeble +band. "The commencement of the rebellion happened +thus: there remained no city, town, or village +in Galicia but what was in the hands of the Moslems +with the exception of a steep mountain, on which<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +this Pelayo took refuge with a handful of men. +There his followers went on dying through hunger +until he saw their numbers reduced to about thirty +men and ten women, having no other food for support +than the honey which they gathered in the +crevices of the rock, which they themselves inhabited +like so many bees. However, Pelayo and his +men fortified themselves by degrees in the passes +of the mountain until the Moslems were made acquainted +with their preparations; but, perceiving +how few they were, they heeded not the advice given +to them, but allowed them to gather strength, saying, +'What are thirty barbarians perched upon a +rock? They must inevitably die.'"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Die they did not, that feeble relic of Spain on the +mountain-side, though long their only care was for +shelter and safety. Here Pelayo cheered them, +doing his utmost to implant new courage in their +fearful hearts. At length the day came when Spain +could again assume a defiant attitude, and in the +mountain valley of Caggas de Onis Pelayo raised +the old Gothic standard and ordered the beating of +the drums. Beyond the sound of the long roll went +his messengers seeking warriors in valley and glen, +and soon his little band had grown to a thousand +stalwart men, filled with his spirit and breathing +defiance to the Moslem conquerors. That was an +eventful day for Spain, in which her crushed people +again lifted their heads.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a varied throng that gathered around Pelayo's +banner. Sons of the Goths and the Romans +were mingled with descendants of the more ancient<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Celts and Iberians. Representatives of all the races +that had overrun Spain were there gathered, speaking +a dozen dialects, yet instinct with a single spirit. +From them the modern Spaniard was to come, no +longer Gothic or Roman, but a descendant of all the +tribes and races that had peopled Spain. Some of +them carried the swords and shields they had wielded +in the battle of the Guadalete, others brought the +rude weapons of the mountaineers. But among +them were strong hands and stout hearts, summoned +by the drums of Pelayo to the reconquest of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Word soon came to Al Horr, the new emir of +Spain, that a handful of Christians were in arms in +the mountains of the northwest, and he took instant +steps to crush this presumptuous gathering, sending +his trusty general Al Kamah with a force that +seemed abundant to destroy Pelayo and his rebel +band.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Warning of the approach of the Moslem foe was +quickly brought to the Spanish leader, who at once +left his place of assembly for the cave of Covadonga, +a natural fortress in Eastern Asturia, some five miles +from Caggas de Onis, which he had selected as a +place strikingly adapted to a defensive stand. Here +rise three mountain-peaks to a height of nearly four +thousand feet, enclosing a small circular valley, +across which rushes the swift Diva, a stream issuing +from Mount Orandi. At the base of Mount Auseva, +the western peak, rises a detached rock, one hundred +and seventy feet high, projecting from the mountain +in the form of an arch. At a short distance above +its foot is visible the celebrated cave or grotto of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Covadonga, an opening forty feet wide, twelve feet +high, and extending twenty-five feet into the rock.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The river sweeps out through a narrow and rocky +defile, at whose narrowest part the banks rise in precipitous +walls. Down this ravine the stream rushes +in rapids and cascades, at one point forming a picturesque +waterfall seventy-five feet in height. Only +through this straitened path can the cave be reached, +and this narrow ravine and the valley within Pelayo +proposed to hold with his slender and ill-armed +force.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Proudly onward came the Moslem captain, full of +confidence in his powerful force and despising his +handful of opponents. Pelayo drew him on into +the narrow river passage by a clever stratagem. +He had posted a small force at the mouth of the +pass, bidding them to take to flight after a discharge +of arrows. His plan worked well, the seeming retreat +giving assurance to the Moslems, who rushed +forward in pursuit along the narrow ledge that borders +the Diva, and soon emerged into the broader +path that opens into the valley of Covadonga.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They had incautiously entered a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cul-de-sac</span></span>, in +which their numbers were of no avail, and where a +handful of men could hold an army at bay. A +small body of the best armed of the Spaniards occupied +the cave, the others being placed in ambush +among the chestnut-trees that covered the heights +above the Diva. All kept silent until the Moslem advance +had emerged into the valley. Then the battle +began, one of the most famous conflicts in the whole +history of Spain, famous not for the numbers engaged,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but for the issue involved. The future of +Spain dwelt in the hands of that group of patriots. +The fight in the valley was sharp, but one-sided. +The Moslem arrows rebounded harmlessly from the +rocky sides of the cave, whose entrance could be +reached only by a ladder, while the Christians, hurling +their missiles from their point of vantage into +the crowded mass below, punished them so severely +that the advance was forced back upon those that +crowded the defile in the rear. Al Kamah, finding +his army recoiling in dismay and confusion, and discovering +too late his error, ordered a retreat; but no +sooner had a reverse movement been instituted than +the ambushed Christians on the heights began their +deadly work, hurling huge stones and fallen trees +into the defile, killing the Moslems by hundreds, and +choking up the pass until flight became impossible.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The panic was complete. From every side the +Christians rushed upon the foe. Pelayo, bearing a +cross of oak and crying that the Lord was fighting +for his people, leaped downward from the cave, followed +by his men, who fell with irresistible fury +on the foe, forcing them backward under the brow +of Mount Auseva, where Al Kamah strove to make +a stand.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The elements now came to the aid of the Christians, +a furious storm arising whose thunders reverberated +among the rocks, while lightnings flashed luridly in +the eyes of the terrified troops. The rain poured +in blinding torrents, and soon the Diva, swollen with +the sudden fall, rose into a flood, and swept away +many of those who were crowded on its slippery<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +banks. The heavens seemed leagued with the +Christians against the Moslem host, whose destruction +was so thorough that, if we can credit the +chronicles, not a man of the proud army escaped.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is doubtless an exaggeration, but the victory +of Pelayo was complete and the first great step in +the reconquest of Spain was taken. The year was +717, six years after the landing of the Arabs and the +defeat of the Goths.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended perhaps the most decisive battle in +the history of Spain. With it new Spain began. The +cave of Covadonga is still a place of pilgrimage for +the Spanish patriot, a stairway of marble replacing +the ladder used by Pelayo and his men. We may +tell what followed in a few words. Their terrible +defeat cleared the territory of the Austurias of +Moslem soldiers. From every side fugitive Christians +left their mountain retreats to seek the standard +of Pelayo. Soon the patriotic and daring leader had +an army under his command, by whom he was chosen +king of Christian Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Moslems made no further attack. They were +discouraged by their defeat and were engaged in a +project for the invasion of Gaul that required their +utmost force. Pelayo slowly and cautiously extended +his dominions, descending from the mountains into +the plains and valleys, and organizing his new kingdom +in civil as well as in military affairs. All the +men under his control were taught to bear arms, +fortifications were built, the ground was planted, and +industry revived. Territory which the Moslems had +abandoned was occupied, and from a group of soldiers<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in a mountain cavern a new nation began to +emerge.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pelayo died at Caggas de Onis in the year 737, +twenty years after his great victory. After his +death the work he had begun was carried forward, +until by the year 800 the Spanish dominion had extended +over much of Old Castile,—so called from its +numerous castles. In a hundred years more it had +extended to the borders of New Castile. The work +of reconquest was slowly but surely under way.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image04.png" width="640" height="861" alt="Illustration: BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE." title="BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE.</div></div> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> +<a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE ADVENTURES OF A FUGITIVE PRINCE.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A new dynasty came to the throne of the caliphs +of Damascus in 750. The line of the Ommeyades, +who had held the throne since the days of the +Prophet Mohammed, was overthrown, and the line of +the Abbassides began. Abdullah, the new caliph, bent +on destroying every remnant of the old dynasty, invited +ninety of its principal adherents to a banquet, +where they were set upon and brutally murdered. +There followed a scene worthy of a savage. The +tables were removed, carpets were spread over the +bleeding corpses, and on these the viands were placed, +the guests eating their dinner to the dismal music of +the groans of the dying victims beneath.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The whole country was now scoured for all who +were connected with the fallen dynasty, and wherever +found they were brutally slain; yet despite the vigilance +of the murderers a scion of the family of the +Ommeyades escaped. Abdurrahman, the princely +youth in question, was fortunately absent from Damascus +when the order for his assassination was +given. Warned of his proposed fate, he gathered +what money and jewels he could and fled for his life, +following little-used paths until he reached the banks +of the Euphrates. But spies were on his track and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +descriptions of him had been sent to all provinces. +He was just twenty years old, and, unlike the Arabians +in general, had a fair complexion and blue eyes, +so that he could easily be recognized, and it seemed +impossible that he could escape.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His retreat on the Euphrates was quickly discovered, +and the agents of murder were so hot upon +his track that he was forced to spring into the river +and seek for safety by swimming. The pursuers +reached the banks when the fugitives were nearly +half-way across, Abdurrahman supporting his son, +four years of age, and Bedr, a servant, aiding his +thirteen-year-old brother. The agents of the caliph +called them back, saying that they would not harm +them, and the boy, whose strength was giving out, +turned back in spite of his brother's warning. When +Abdurrahman reached the opposite bank, it was +with a shudder of horror that he saw the murder +of the boy, whose head was at once cut off. That +gruesome spectacle decided the question of his +trusting himself to the mercy of the caliph or his +agents.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The life of the fugitive prince now became one +of unceasing adventure. He made his way by covert +paths towards Egypt, wandering through the desert +in company with bands of Bedouins, living on their +scanty fare, and constantly on the alert against surprise. +Light sleep and hasty flittings were the rule +with him and his few attendants as they made their +way slowly westward over the barren sands, finally +reaching Egypt. Here he was too near the caliph +for safety, and he kept on westward to Barca, where<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +he hoped for protection from the governor, who +owed his fortunes to the favor of the late caliph.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was mistaken. Ibn Habib, the governor of +Barca, put self-interest above gratitude, and made +vigorous efforts to seize the fugitive, whom he hoped +to send as a welcome gift to the cruel Abdullah. +The life of the fugitive was now one of hair-breadth +escapes. For five years he remained in Barca, disguised +and under a false name, yet in almost daily +peril of his life. On one occasion a band of pursuers +surrounded the tent in which he was and advanced +to search it. His life was saved by Tekfah, +the wife of the chief, who hid him under her clothes. +When, in later years, he came to power, he rewarded +the chief and his wife richly for their kindly +aid.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On another occasion a body of horse rode into the +village of tents in which he dwelt as a guest and +demanded that he should be given up. The handsome +aspect and gentle manner of the fugitive had +made the tribesmen suspect that they were the hosts +of a disguised prince; he had gained a sure place in +their hearts, and they set the pursuers on a false +scent. Such a person was with them, they said, but +he had gone with a number of young men on a lion +hunt in a neighboring mountain valley and would +not return until the next evening. The pursuers at +once set off for the place mentioned, and the fugitive, +who had been hidden in one of the tents, rode +away in the opposite direction with his slender +train.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leaving Barca, he journeyed farther westward<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +over the desert, which at that point comes down to +the Mediterranean. Finally Tahart was reached, a +town within the modern Algeria, the seat of the +Beni Rustam, a tribe which gave him the kindliest +welcome. To them, as to the Barcans, he seemed +a prince in disguise. Near by was a tribe of Arabs +named the Nefezah, to which his mother had belonged, +and from which he hoped for protection and +assistance. Reaching this, he told his rank and +name, and was welcomed almost as a king, the +tribesmen, his mother's kindred, paying him homage, +and offering their aid to the extent of their ability +in the ambitious scheme which he disclosed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was an invasion of Spain, which at that time +was a scene of confusion and turmoil, distracted by +rival leaders, the people exhausted by wars and +quarrels, many of their towns burned or ruined, and +the country ravaged by famine. What could be +better than for the heir of the illustrious house of +Ommeyades, flying from persecution by the Abbassides, +and miraculously preserved, to seek the throne +of Spain, bring peace to that distracted land, and +found an independent kingdom in that western section +of the vast Arabian empire?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His servant, Bedr, who had kept with him through +all his varied career and was now his chief officer, +was sent to Spain on a secret mission to the friends +of the late dynasty of caliphs, of whom there were +many in that land. Bedr was highly successful in +his mission. Yusuf, the Abbasside emir, was absent +from Cordova and ignorant of his danger, and all +promised well. Not waiting for the assistance<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +promised him in Africa, the prince put to sea almost +alone. As he was about to step on board his boat +a number of Berbers gathered round and showed +an intention to prevent his departure. They were +quieted by a handful of dinars and he hastened on +board,—none too soon, for another band, greedy for +gold, rushed to the beach, some of them wading out +and seizing the boat and the camel's-hair cable that +held it to the anchor. These fellows got blows instead +of dinars, one, who would not let go, having +his hand cut off by a sword stroke. The edge of a +scimitar cut the cable, the sail was set, and the +lonely exile set forth upon the sea to the conquest +of a kingdom. It was evening of a spring day of +the year 756 that the fugitive prince landed near +Malaga, in the land of Andalusia, where some prominent +chiefs were in waiting to receive him with the +homage due to a king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hundreds soon flocked to the standard of the adventurer, +whose manly and handsome presence, his +beaming blue eyes, sweet smile, and gracious manner +won him the friendship of all whom he met. With +steadily growing forces he marched to Seville. Here +were many of his partisans, and the people flung +open the gates with wild shouts of welcome. It was +in the month of May that the fortunes of Abdurrahman +were put to the test, Yusuf having hastily gathered +a powerful force and advanced to the plain of +Musarah, near Cordova, on which field the fate of +the kingdom was to be decided.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was under a strange banner that Abdurrahman +advanced to meet the army of the emir,—a turban<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +attached to a lance-head. This standard afterwards +became sacred, the turban, as it grew ragged, being +covered by a new one. At length the hallowed old +rags were removed by an irreverent hand, "and +from that time the empire of the Beni Ummeyah +began to decline."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may briefly conclude our tale. The battle +was fierce, but Abdurrahman's boldness and courage +prevailed, and the army of Yusuf in the end gave +way, Cordova becoming the victor's prize. The +generous conqueror gave liberty and distinction to +the defeated emir, and was repaid in two years by +a rebellion in which he had an army of twenty thousand +men to meet. Yusuf was again defeated, and +now lost his life.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it was that the fugitive prince, who had +saved his life by swimming the Euphrates under the +eyes of an assassin band, became the Caliph of the +West, for under him Spain was cut loose from the +dominion of the Abbassides and made an independent +kingdom, its conqueror becoming its first monarch +under the title of Abdurrahman I.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Almansur, then the Caliph of the East, sought to +recover the lost domain, sending a large army from +Africa; but this was defeated with terrible slaughter +by the impetuous young prince, who revenged himself +by sending the heads of the general and many +of his officers to the caliph in bags borne by merchants, +which were deposited at the door of Almansur's +tent during the darkness of the night. The +finder was cautioned to be careful, as the bags contained +treasure. So they were brought in to the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +caliph, who opened them with his own hand. Great +was his fury and chagrin when he saw what a +ghastly treasure they contained. "This man is the +foul fiend in human form," he exclaimed. "Praised +be Allah that he has placed a sea between him and +me."</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> +<a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">BERNARDO DEL CARPIO.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Spain, like France, had its hero of legend. The +great French hero was Roland, whose mighty deeds +in the pass of Roncesvalles have been widely commemorated +in song and story. In Spanish legend +the gallant opponent of the champion of France was +Bernardo del Carpio, a hero who perhaps never +lived, except on paper, but about whose name a +stirring cycle of story has grown. The tale of his +life is a tragedy, as that of heroes is apt to be. It +may be briefly told.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Charlemagne was on the throne of France +Alfonso II. was king of Christian Spain. A hundred +years had passed since all that was left to Spain was +the cave of Covadonga, and in that time a small +kingdom had grown up with Oviedo for its capital +city. This kingdom had spread from the Asturias +over Leon, which gave its name to the new realm, +and the slow work of driving back the Moslem conquerors +had well begun.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alfonso never married and had no children. +People called him Alfonso the Chaste. He went so +far as to forbid any of his family to marry, so that +the love affairs of his sister, the fair infanta Ximena, +ran far from smooth. The beautiful princess loved +and was loved again by the noble Sancho Diaz, Count +of Saldaña, but the king would not listen to their<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +union. The natural result followed; as they dared +not marry in public they did so in private, and for +a year or two lived happily together, none knowing +of their marriage, and least of all the king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But when a son was born to them the truth came +out. It threw the tyrannical king into a violent +rage. His sister was seized by his orders and shut +up in a convent, and her husband was thrown into +prison for life, some accounts saying that his eyes +were put out by order of the cruel king. As for +their infant son, he was sent into the mountains of +the Asturias, to be brought up among peasants and +mountaineers.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was known that he had been sent there by Alfonso, +and the people believed him to be the king's +son and treated him as a prince. In the healthy +out-door life of the hills he grew strong and handsome, +while his native courage was shown in hunting +adventures and the perils of mountain life. +When old enough he learned the use of arms, and +soon left his humble friends for the army, in which +his boldness and bravery were shown in many encounters +with the French and the Arabs. Those +about him still supposed him to be the son of the +king, though Alfonso, while furnishing him with all +knightly arms and needs, neither acknowledged nor +treated him as his son. But if not a king's son, he +was a very valiant knight, and became the terror of +all the foes of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All this time his unfortunate father languished in +prison, where from time to time he was told by his +keepers of the mighty deeds of the young prince<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Bernardo del Carpio, by which name the youthful +warrior was known. Count Sancho knew well that +this was his son, and complained bitterly of the +ingratitude of the youth who could leave his father +perishing in a prison cell while he rode freely and +joyously in the open air, engaged in battle and banquet, +and was everywhere admired and praised. He +knew not that the young warrior had been kept in +ignorance of his birth.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During this period came that great event in the +early history of Spain in which Charlemagne crossed +the Pyrenees with a great army and marched upon +the city of Saragossa. It was in the return from +this expedition that the dreadful attack took place +in which Roland and the rear guard of the army +were slain in the pass of Roncesvalles. In Spanish +story it was Bernardo del Carpio who led the victorious +hosts, and to whose prowess was due the signal +success.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This fierce fight in a mountain-pass, in which a +valiant band of mountaineers overwhelmed and destroyed +the flower of the French army, has been exalted +by poetic legend into one of the most stupendous +and romantic of events. Ponderous epic poems +have made Roland their theme, numbers of ballads +and romances tell of his exploits, and the far-off +echoes of his ivory horn still sound through the centuries. +One account tells that he blew his horn so +loud and long that the veins of his neck burst in the +strain. Others tell that he split a mountain in twain +by a mighty stroke of his sword Durandal. The +print of his horse's hoofs are shown on a mountain-peak<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +where only a flying horse could ever have +stood. In truth, Roland, whose name is barely mentioned +in history, rose to be the greatest hero of +romance, the choicest and best of the twelve paladins +of Charlemagne.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bernardo del Carpio was similarly celebrated in +Spanish song, though he attained no such worldwide +fame. History does not name him at all, but +the ballads of Spain say much of his warlike deeds. +It must suffice here to say that this doughty champion +marched upon Roland and his men while they were +winding through the narrow mountain-pass, and as +they advanced the mountaineers swelled their ranks.</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">"As through the glen his spears did gleam, the soldiers from the hills,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">They swelled his host, as mountain-stream receives the roaring rills;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">They round his banner flocked in scorn of haughty Charlemagne,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">And thus upon their swords are sworn the faithful sons of Spain."</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Roland and his force lay silent in death when the +valiant prince led back his army, flushed with victory, +and hailed with the plaudits of all the people +of the land. At this moment of his highest triumph +the tragedy of his life began. His old nurse, who +had feared before to tell the tale, now made him acquainted +with the true story of his birth, telling him +that he was the nephew, not the son, of the king; that +his mother, whom he thought long dead, still lived, +shut up for life in a convent; and that his father lay +languishing in a dungeon cell, blind and in chains.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As may well be imagined, this story filled the soul +of the young hero with righteous wrath. He strode +into the presence of the king and asked, with little +reverence, if the story were true. Alfonso surlily +admitted it. Bernardo then demanded his father's +freedom. This the king refused. Burning with +anger, the valiant youth shut himself up in his castle, +refusing to take part in the rejoicings that followed +the victory, and still sternly demanding the +release of his father.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Is it well that I should be abroad fighting thy +battles," he asked the king, "while my father lies +fettered in thy dungeons? Set him free and I shall +ask no further reward."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alfonso, who was obstinate in his cruelty, refused, +and the indignant prince took arms against him, +joining the Moors, whom he aided to harry the +king's dominions. Fortifying his castle, and gathering +a bold and daring band from his late followers, +he made incursions deep into the country of the +king, plundering hamlet and city and fighting in the +ranks of the Moslems.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This method of argument was too forcible even +for the obstinacy of Alfonso. His counsellors, finding +the kingdom itself in danger, urged him to grant +Bernardo's request, and to yield him his father in +return for his castle. The king at length consented, +and Bernardo, as generous and trusting as he was +brave, immediately accepted the proposed exchange, +sought the king, handed him the keys of his castle, +and asked him to fulfil his share of the contract.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alfonso agreed to do so, and in a short time the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +king and his nephew rode forth, Bernardo's heart +full of joy at the thought of meeting the parent +whom he had never yet seen. As they rode forward +a train came from the opposite direction to meet +them, in the midst a tall figure, clad in splendid +attire and mounted on horseback. But there was +something in his aspect that struck Bernardo's heart +deep with dread.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"God help me!" he exclaimed, "is that sightless +and corpse-like figure the noble Count of Saldaña, +my father?"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You wished to see him," coldly answered the +king. "He is before you. Go and greet him."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bernardo did so, and reverently took the cold +hand of his father to kiss it. As he did so the body +fell forward on the neck of the horse. It was only +a corpse. Alfonso had killed the father before delivering +him to his son.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Only his guards saved the ruthless tyrant at that +moment from death. The infuriated knight swore +a fearful oath of vengeance upon the king, and rode +away, taking the revered corpse with him. Unfortunately, +the story of Bernardo ends here. None +of the ballads tell what he did for revenge. We +may imagine that he joined his power to the Moors +and harried the land of Leon during his after life, +at length reaching Alfonso's heart with his vengeful +blade. But of this neither ballad nor legend tells, +and with the pathetic scene of the dead father's release +our story ends.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> +<a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">RUY DIAZ, THE CID CAMPEADOR.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bernardo del Carpio is not the chief Spanish +hero of romance. To find the mate of Roland the +paladin we must seek the incomparable Cid, the +campeador or champion of Spain, the noblest figure +in Spanish story or romance. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El Mio Cid</span></span>, "My Cid," +as he is called, with his matchless horse Bavieca and +his trenchant sword Tisona, towers in Spanish tale +far above Christian king and Moslem caliph, as the +pink of chivalry, the pearl of knighthood, the noblest +and worthiest figure in all that stirring age.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cid is an Arabic word, meaning "lord" or "chief." +The man to whom it was applied was a real personage, +not a figment of fancy, though it is to poetry +and romance that he owes his fame, his story having +been expanded and embellished in chronicles, epic +poems, and ballads until it bears little semblance to +actual history. Yet the deeds of the man himself +probably lie at the basis of all the splendid fictions +of romance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great poem in which his exploits were first +celebrated, the famous "Poema del Cid," is thought +to be the oldest, as it is one of the noblest in the +Spanish language. Written probably not later than +the year 1200, it is of about three thousand lines in +length, and of such merit that its unknown author +has been designated the "Homer of Spain." As it<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was written soon after the death of the Cid, it could +not have deviated far from historic truth. Chief +among the prose works is the "Chronicle of the +Cid,"—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chronica del famoso Cavallero Cid Ruy Diez</span></span>,—which, +with additions from the poem, was charmingly +rendered in English by the poet Southey, whose +production is a prose poem in itself. Such are the +chief sources of our knowledge of the Cid, an active, +stirring figure, full of the spirit of mediævalism, +whose story seems to bring back to us the living +features of the age in which he flourished. A brave +and daring knight, rousing the jealousy of nobles +and kings by his valiant deeds, now banished and +now recalled, now fighting against the Moslems, now +with them, now for his own hand, and in the end +winning himself a realm and dying a king without +the name,—such is the man whose story we propose +to tell.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This hero of romance was born about the year +1040 at Bivar, a little village near Burgos, his father +being Diego Lainez, a man of gentle birth, his +mother Teresa Rodriguez, daughter of the governor +of the Asturias. He is often called Rodrigo de Bivar, +from his birthplace, but usually Rodrigo Diaz, or +Ruy Diez, as his name is given in the chronicle.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While still a boy the future prowess of the Cid was +indicated. He was keen of intellect, active of frame, +and showed such wonderful dexterity in manly exercises +as to become unrivalled in the use of arms. +Those were days of almost constant war. The kingdom +of the Moors was beginning to fall to pieces; +that of the Christians was growing steadily stronger;<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +not only did war rage between the two races, but +Moor fought with Moor, Christian with Christian, +and there was abundant work ready for the strong +hand and sharp sword. This state of affairs was to +the taste of the youthful Rodrigo, whose ambition +was to become a hero of knighthood.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While gentle in manner and magnanimous in disposition, +the young soldier had an exalted sense of +honor and was sternly devoted to duty. While he +was still a boy his father was bitterly insulted by +Count Gomez, who struck him in the face. The old +man brooded over his humiliation until he lost sleep +and appetite, and withdrew from society into disconsolate +seclusion.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Rodrigo, deeply moved by his father's grief, sought +and killed the insulter, and brought the old man the +bleeding head of his foe. At this the disconsolate +Diego rose and embraced his son, and bade him sit +above him at table, saying that "he who brought +home that head should be the head of the house of +Layn Calvo."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From that day on the fame of the young knight +rapidly grew, until at length he defeated and captured +five Moorish kings who had invaded Castile. +This exploit won him the love of Ximena, the fair +daughter of Count Gomez, whom he had slain. +Foreseeing that he would become the greatest man +in Spain, the damsel waited not to be wooed, but +offered him her hand in marriage, an offer which +he was glad to accept. And ever after, says the +chronicle, she was his loving wife.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The young champion is said to have gained the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +good-will of St. Lazarus and the Holy Virgin by +sleeping with a leper who had been shunned by his +knights. No evil consequences came from this example +of Christian philanthropy, while it added to +the knight's high repute.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fernando I., who had gathered a large Christian +kingdom under his crown, died when Rodrigo was +but fifteen years of age, and in his will foolishly cut +up his kingdom between his three sons and two +daughters, greatly weakening the Christian power, +and quickly bringing his sons to sword's point. By +the will Sancho was placed over Castile, Alfonso became +king of Leon, Garcia ruled in Galicia; Urraca, +one of the daughters, received the city of Toro, and +Elvira was given that of Zamora.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sancho was not satisfied with this division. Being +the oldest, he thought he should have all, and prepared +to seize the shares of his brothers and sisters. +Looking for aid in this design, he was attracted by +the growing fame of young Rodrigo, and gained his +aid in the restoration of Zamora, which the Moors +had destroyed. While thus engaged there came to +Rodrigo messengers with tribute from the five Moorish +kings whom he had captured and released. They +hailed the young warrior as Sid, or Cid, and the +king, struck by the title, said that Ruy Diaz should +thenceforth bear it; also that he should be known +as campeador or champion.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">King Sancho now knighted the young warrior +with his own hand, and soon after made him <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">alferez</span></span>, +or commander of his troops. As such he was despatched +against Alfonso, who was soon driven from<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his kingdom of Leon and sought shelter in the Moorish +city of Toledo. Leon being occupied, the Cid +marched against Galicia, and drove out Garcia as he +had done Alfonso. Then he deprived Urraca and +Elvira of the cities left them by their father, and +the whole kingdom was once more placed under a +single ruler.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It did not long remain so. Sancho died in 1072, +and at once Alfonso and Garcia hurried back from +exile to recover their lost realms. But Alfonso's +ambition equalled that of Sancho. All or none was +his motto. Invading the kingdom of Galicia, he +robbed Garcia of it and held him prisoner. Then +he prepared to invade Castile, and offered the command +of the army for this enterprise to the Cid.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The latter was ready for fighting in any form, so +that he could fight with honor. But there was +doubt in his mind if service under Alfonso was consistent +with the honor of a knight. King Sancho +had been assassinated while hunting, and it was +whispered that Alfonso had some share in the murder. +The high-minded Cid would not draw sword +for him unless he swore that he had no lot or part +in his brother's death. Twice the Cid gave him the +oath, whereupon, says the chronicle, "My Cid repeated +the oath to him a third time, and the king +and the knights said 'Amen.' But the wrath of the +king was exceeding great; and he said to the Cid, +'Ruy Diaz, why dost thou press me so, man?' From +that day forward there was no love towards My Cid +in the heart of the king."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the king had sworn, and the Cid entered his<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +service and soon conquered Castile, so that Alfonso +became monarch of Castile, Leon, Galicia, and Portugal, +and took the title of Emperor of Spain. As +adelantado, or lord of the marches, Ruy Diaz now +occupied himself with the Moors,—fighting where +hostility reigned, taking tribute for the king from +Seville and other cities, and settling with the sword +the disputes of the chiefs, or aiding them in their +quarrels. Thus he took part with Seville in a war +with Cordova, and was rewarded with so rich a +present by the grateful king that Alfonso, inspired +by his secret hatred for the Cid, grew jealous and +envious.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During these events years passed on, and the Cid's +two fair daughters grew to womanhood and were +married, at the command of the king, to the two +counts of Carrion. The Cid liked not his sons-in-law, +and good reason he had, for they were a pair +of base hounds despite their lordly title. The brides +were shamefully treated by them, being stripped and +beaten nearly to death on their wedding-journey.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When word of this outrage came to the Cid his +wrath overflowed. Stalking with little reverence +into the king's hall, he sternly demanded redress for +the brutal act. He could not appeal to the law. +The husband in those days was supreme lord and +master of his wife. But there was an unwritten +law, that of the sword, and the incensed father demanded +that the brutal youths should appear in the +lists and prove their honor, if they could, against his +champion.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They dared not refuse. In those days, when the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sword was the measure of honor and justice, to refuse +would have been to be disgraced. They came +into the lists, where they were beaten like the +hounds that they had shown themselves, and the +noble girls were set free from their bonds. Better +husbands soon sought the Cid's daughters, and they +were happily married in the end.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The exploits of the Cid were far too many for us +to tell. Wherever he went victory attended his +sword. On one occasion the king marched to the +aid of one of his Moorish allies, leaving the Cid behind +him too sick to ride. Here was an opportunity +for the Moors, a party of whom broke into Castile +and by a rapid march made themselves masters of +the fortress of Gomez. Up from his bed of sickness +rose the Cid, mounted his steed (though he could +barely sit in the saddle), charged and scattered the +invaders, pursued them into the kingdom of Toledo, +and returned with seven thousand prisoners and all +the Moorish spoil.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This brilliant defence of the kingdom was the +turning point in his career. The king of Toledo +complained to Alfonso that his neutral territory had +been invaded by the Cid and his troops, and King +Alfonso, seeking revenge for the three oaths he had +been compelled to take, banished the Cid from his +dominions, on the charge of invading the territory +of his allies.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the champion went forth as a knight-errant, +with few followers, but a great name. Tears came +into his eyes as he looked back upon his home, its +doors open, its hall deserted, no hawks upon the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +perches, no horses in the stalls. "My enemies have +done this," he said. "God be praised for all things." +He went to Burgos, but there the people would not +receive him, having had strict orders from the king. +Their houses were closed, the inn-keepers barred +their doors, only a bold little maiden dared venture +out to tell him of the decree. As there was no +shelter for him there, he was forced to seek lodging +in the sands near the town.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Needing money, he obtained it by a trick that was +not very honorable, though in full accord with the +ethics of those times. He pawned to the Jews two +chests which he said were treasure chests, filled with +gold. Six hundred marks were received, and when +the chests were afterwards opened they proved to be +filled with sand. This was merely a good joke to +poet and chronicler. The Jews lay outside the pale +of justice and fair-dealing.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Onward went the Cid, his followers growing in +number as he marched. First to Barcelona, then to +Saragossa, he went, seeking knightly adventures +everywhere. In Saragossa he entered the service +of the Moorish king, and for several years fought +well and sturdily for his old enemies. But time +brought a change. In 1081 Alfonso captured Toledo +and made that city his capital, from which he prepared +to push his way still deeper into the Moorish +dominions. He now needed the Cid, whom he had +banished five years before.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was easier to ask than to get. The Cid had +grown too great to be at any king's beck and call. +He would fight for Alfonso, but in his own way,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +holding himself free to attack whom he pleased and +when he pleased, and to capture the cities of the +Moslems and rule them as their lord. He had become +a free lance, fighting for his own hand, while +armies sprang, as it were, from the ground at his call +to arms.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In those days of turmoil valor rarely had long to +wait for opportunity. Ramon Berenguer, lord of +Barcelona, had laid siege to Valencia, an important +city on the Mediterranean coast. Thither marched +the Cid with all speed, seven thousand men in his +train, and forced Ramon to raise the siege. The Cid +became governor of Valencia, under tribute to King +Alfonso, and under honor to hold it against the +Moors.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The famous champion was not done with his +troubles with Alfonso. In the years that followed +he was once more banished by the faithless king, and +his wife and children were seized and imprisoned. +At a later date he came to the king's aid in his wars, +but found him again false to his word, and was obliged +to flee for safety from the camp.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Valencia had passed from his control and had more +than once since changed hands. At length the +Moorish power grew so strong that the city refused +to pay tribute to Spain and declared its independence. +Here was work for the Cid—not for the benefit of +Alfonso, but for his own honor and profit. He was +weary of being made the foot-ball of a jealous and +faithless monarch, and craved a kingdom of his own. +Against Valencia he marched with an army of free +swords at his back. He was fighting now for the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Cid, not for Moorish emir or Spanish monarch. For +twenty months he beseiged the fair city, until starvation +came to the aid of his sword. No relief +reached the Moors; the elements fought against +them, floods of rain destroying the roads and washing +away the bridges; on June 15, 1094, the Cid +Campeador marched into the city thenceforth to be +associated with his name.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ascending its highest tower, he gazed with joy +upon the fair possession which he had won with his +own good sword without aid from Spanish king or +Moorish ally, and which he proposed to hold for his +own while life remained. His city it was, and today +it bears his name, being known as Valencia del Cid. +But he had to hold it with the good sword by which +he won it, for the Moors, who had failed to aid the +beleaguered city, sought with all their strength to +win it back.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During the next year thirty thousand of them +came and encamped about the walls of the city. +But fighting behind walls was not to the taste of +the Cid Campeador. Out from the gates he sallied +and drove them like sheep from their camp, killing +fifteen thousand of them in the fight.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Be it known," the chronicle tells us, "that this +was a profitable day's work. Every foot-soldier +shared a hundred marks of silver that day, and the +Cid returned full honorably to Valencia. Great was +the joy of the Christians in the Cid Ruy Diaz, who +was born in a happy hour. His beard was grown, +and continued to grow, a great length. My Cid said +of his chin, 'For the love of King Don Alfonso,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +who hath banished me from his land, no scissors +shall come upon it, nor shall a hair be cut away, and +Moors and Christians shall talk of it.'" And until +he died his great beard grew on untouched.</p> + +<a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image05.png" width="640" height="346" alt="Illustration: VALENCIA DEL CID." title="VALENCIA DEL CID." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">VALENCIA DEL CID.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not many were the men with whom he had done +his work, but they were soldiers of tried temper and +daring hearts. "There were one thousand knights +of lineage and five hundred and fifty other horsemen. +There were four thousand foot-soldiers, besides boys +and others. Thus many were the people of My Cid, +him of Bivar. And his heart rejoiced, and he smiled +and said, 'Thanks be to God and to Holy Mother +Mary! We had a smaller company when we left +the house of Bivar.'"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next year King Yussef, leader of the Moors, +came again to the siege of Valencia, this time with +fifty thousand men. Small as was the force of the +Cid as compared with this great army, he had no idea +of fighting cooped up like a rat in a cage. Out once +more he sallied, with but four thousand men at his +back. His bishop, Hieronymo, absolved them, saying, +"He who shall die, fighting full forward, I +will take as mine his sins, and God shall have his +soul."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A learned and wise man was the good bishop, but +a valorous one as well, mighty in arms alike on +horseback and on foot. "A boon, Cid don Rodrigo," +he cried. "I have sung mass to you this morning. +Let me have the giving of the first wounds in this +battle."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In God's name, do as you will," answered the Cid.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That day the bishop had his will of the foe, fighting<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with both hands until no man knew how many +of the infidels he slew. Indeed, they were all too +busy to heed the bishop's blows, for, so the chronicle +says, only fifteen thousand of the Moslems escaped. +Yussef, sorely wounded, left to the Cid his famous +sword Tisona, and barely escaped from the field with +his life.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bucar, the brother of Yussef, came to revenge +him, but he knew not with whom he had to deal. +Bishop Hieronymo led the right wing, and made +havoc in the ranks of the foe. "The bishop pricked +forward," we are told. "Two Moors he slew with +the first two thrusts of his lance; the haft broke +and he laid hold on his sword. God! how well the +bishop fought. He slew two with the lance and five +with the sword. The Moors fled."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Turn this way, Bucar," cried the Cid, who rode +close on the heels of the Moorish chief; "you who +came from behind sea to see the Cid with the long +beard. We must greet each other and cut out a +friendship."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"God confound such friendships," cried Bucar, +following his flying troops with nimble speed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hard behind him rode the Cid, but his horse Bavieca +was weary with the day's hard work, and +Bucar rode a fresh and swift steed. And thus they +went, fugitive and pursuer, until the ships of the +Moors were at hand, when the Cid, finding that he +could not reach the Moorish king with his sword, +flung the weapon fiercely at him, striking him between +the shoulders. Bucar, with the mark of battle +thus upon him, rode into the sea and was taken<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +into a boat, while the Cid picked up his sword from +the ground and sought his men again.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Moorish host did not escape so well. Set +upon fiercely by the Spaniards, they ran in a panic +into the sea, where twice as many were drowned as +were slain in the battle; and of these, seventeen +thousand and more had fallen, while a vast host remained +as prisoners. Of the twenty-nine kings who +came with Bucar, seventeen were left dead upon the +field.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The chronicler uses numbers with freedom. The +Cid is his hero, and it is his task to exalt him. But +the efforts of the Moors to regain Valencia and their +failure to do so may be accepted as history. In due +time, however, age began to tell upon the Cid, and +death came to him as it does to all. He died in +1099, from grief, as the story goes, that his colleague, +Alvar Fañez, had suffered a defeat. Whether from +grief or age, at any rate he died, and his wife, +Ximena, was left to hold the city, which for two +years she gallantly did, against all the power of the +Moors. Then Alfonso entered it, and, finding that +he could not hold it, burned the principal buildings +and left it to the Moors. A century and a quarter +passed before the Christians won it again.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Alfonso left the city of the Cid he brought +with him the body of the campeador, mounted upon +his steed Bavieca, and solemnly and slowly the train +wound on until the corpse of the mighty dead was +brought to the cloister of the monastery of Cardeña. +Here the dead hero was seated on a throne, with his +sword Tisona in his hand; and, the story goes, a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +caitiff Jew, perhaps wishing to revenge his brethren +who had been given sand for gold, plucked the flowing +beard of the Cid. At this insult the hand of the +corpse struck out and the insulter was hurled to the +floor.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Cid Campeador is a true hero of romance, +and well are the Spaniards proud of him. Honor +was the moving spring of his career. As a devoted +son, he revenged the insult to his father; as a loving +husband, he made Ximena the partner of his fame; +as a tender father, he redressed his daughters' +wrongs; as a loyal subject, he would not serve a +king on whom doubt of treachery rested. In spite +of the injustice of the king, he was true to his country, +and came again and again to its aid. Though +forced into the field as a free lance, he was throughout +a Christian cavalier. And, though he cheated +the Jews, the story goes that he repaid them their +gold. Courage, courtesy, and honor were the jewels +of his fame, and romance holds no nobler hero.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will not be amiss to close our tale of the Cid +with a quotation from the famous poem in which it +is shown how even a lion quailed before his majesty:</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">"Peter Bermuez arose; somewhat he had to say;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">The words were strangled in his throat, they could not find their way;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Till forth they came at once, without a stop or stay:</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">'Cid, I'll tell you what, this always is your way;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">You have always served me thus, whenever you have come</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">To meet here in the Cortes, you call me Peter the Dumb.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">I cannot help my nature; I never talk nor rail;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">But when a thing is to be done, you know I never fail.</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Fernando, you have lied, you have lied in every word;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">You have been honored by the Cid and favored and preferred.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">I know of all your tricks, and can tell them to your face:</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Do you remember in Valencia the skirmish and the chase?</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">You asked leave of the Cid to make the first attack,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">You went to meet a Moor, but you soon came running back.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">I met the Moor and killed him, or he would have killed you;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">I gave you up his arms, and all that was my due.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Up to this very hour, I never said a word;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">You praised yourself before the Cid and I stood by and heard</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">How you had killed the Moor, and done a valiant act;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">And they believed you all, but they never knew the fact.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">You are tall enough and handsome, but cowardly and weak,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Thou tongue without a hand, how can you dare to speak?</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">There's the story of the lions should never be forgot;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Now let us hear, Fernando, what answer you have got?</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">The Cid was sleeping in his chair, with all his knights around;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">The cry went forth along the hall that the lion was unbound.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">What did you do, Fernando? Like a coward as you were,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">You shrunk behind the Cid, and crouched beneath his chair.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">We pressed around the throne to shield our loved from harm.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Till the good Cid awoke. He rose without alarm.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">He went to meet the lion with his mantle on his arm.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">The lion was abashed the noble Cid to meet;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">He bowed his mane to the earth, his muzzle at his feet.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">The Cid by the neck and the mane drew him to his den,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">He thrust him in at the hatch, and came to the hall again.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">He found his knights, his vassals, and all his valiant men.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">He asked for his sons-in-law, they were neither of them there</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">I defy you for a coward and a traitor as you are.'"</div> +</div> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc30" id="toc30"></a> +<a name="pdf31" id="pdf31"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 16th of July, 1212, was fought the great +battle which broke the Moorish power in Spain. +During the two centuries before fresh streams of invasion +had flowed in from Africa to yield new life +to the Moslem power. From time to time in the +Mohammedan world reforms have sprung up, and +been carried far and wide by fanaticism and the +sword. One such body of reformers, the Almoravides, +invaded Spain in the eleventh century and +carried all before it. It was with these that the +Cid Campeador had to deal. A century later a new +reformer, calling himself El Mahdi, appeared in +Africa, and set going a movement which overflowed +the African states and made its way into Spain, +where it subdued the Moslem kingdoms and threatened +the Christian states. These invaders were +known as the Almohades. They were pure Moors. +The Arab movement had lost its strength, and from +that time forward the Moslem dominions in Spain +were peopled chiefly by Moors.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Spain was threatened now as France had been +threatened centuries before when Charles Martel +crushed the Arab hordes on the plains of Tours. All +Christendom felt the danger and Pope Innocent III. +preached a crusade for the defence of Spain against +the infidel. In response, thousands of armed crusaders<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +flocked into Spain, coming in corps, in bands, +and as individuals, and gathered about Toledo, the +capital of Alfonso VIII., King of Castile. From all +the surrounding nations they came, and camped in +the rich country about the capital, a host which +Alfonso had much ado to feed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mohammed An-Nassir, the emperor of the Almohades, +responded to the effort of the Pope by organizing +a crusade in Moslem Africa. He proclaimed an +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Algihed</span></span>, or Holy War, ordered a massacre of all the +Christians in his dominions, and then led the fanatical +murderers to Spain to join the forces there in +arms. Christian Europe was pitted against Moslem +Africa in a holy war, Spain the prize of victory, and +the plains of Andalusia the arena of the coming desperate +strife.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The decisive moment was at hand. Mohammed +left Morocco and reached Seville in June. His new +levies were pouring into Spain in hosts. On the 21st +of June Alfonso began his advance, leading southward +a splendid array. Archbishops and bishops headed +the army. In the van marched a mighty force of +fifty thousand men under Don Diego Lopez de Haro, +ten thousand of them being cavalry. After them +came the troops of the kings of Aragon and Castile, +each a distinct army. Next came the knights of +St. John of Calatrava and the knights of Santiago, +their grand-masters leading, and after them many +other bodies, including troops from Italy and Germany. +Such a gallant host Spain had rarely seen. +It was needed, for the peril was great. While one +hundred thousand marched under the Christian banners,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the green standard of the prophet, if we may +credit the historians, rose before an army nearly four +times as large.</p> + +<a name="fig32" id="fig32"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image06.png" width="640" height="385" alt="Illustration: ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE." title="ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Without dwelling on the events of the march, we +may hasten forward to the 12th of July, when the +host of Alfonso reached the vicinity of the Moorish +army, and the Navas de Tolosa, the destined field of +battle, lay near at hand. The word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">navas</span></span> means +"plains." Here, on a sloping spur of the Sierra +Morena, in the upper valley of the Guadalquiver, +about seventy miles east of Cordova, lies an extended +table-land, a grand plateau whose somewhat sloping +surface gave ample space for the vast hosts which +met there on that far-off July day.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To reach the plateau was the problem before Alfonso. +The Moslems held the ground, and occupied +in force the pass of Losa, Nature's highway to the +plain. What was to be done? The pass could be +won, if at all, only at great cost in life. No other +pass was known. To retire would be to inspirit the +enemy and dispirit the Christian host. No easy way +out of the quandary at first appeared, but a way +was found,—by miracle, the writers of that time say; +but it hardly seems a miracle that a shepherd of the +region knew of another mountain-pass. This man, +Martin Halaja, had grazed his flocks in that vicinity +for years. He told the king of a pass unknown to +the enemy, by which the army might reach the +table-land, and to prove his words led Lopez de +Haro and another through this little-known mountain +by-way. It was difficult but passable, the army was +put in motion and traversed it all night long, and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +on the morning of the 14th of July the astonished +eyes of the Mohammedans gazed on the Christian +host, holding in force the borders of the plateau, +and momentarily increasing in numbers and strength. +Ten miles before the eyes of Alfonso and his men +stretched the plain, level in the centre, in the distance +rising in gentle slopes to its border of hills, like a vast +natural amphitheatre. The soldiers, filled with hope +and enthusiasm, spread through their ranks the story +that the shepherd who had led them was an angel, +sent by the Almighty to lead his people to victory +over the infidel.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mohammed and his men had been told on the previous +day by their scouts that the camp of the Christians +was breaking up, and rejoiced in what seemed +a victory without a blow. But when they saw these +same Christians defiling in thousands before them +on the plain, ranged in battle array under their various +standards, their joy was changed to rage and +consternation. Against the embattled front their +wild riders rode, threatening the steady troops with +brandished lances and taunting them with cowardice. +But Alfonso held his mail-clad battalions firm, +and the light-armed Moorish horsemen hesitated to +attack. Word was brought to Mohammed that the +Christians would not fight, and in hasty gratulation +he sent off letters to cities in the rear to that +effect. He little dreamed that he was soon to follow +his messengers in swifter speed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a splendid array upon which the Christians +gazed,—one well calculated to make them tremble for +the result,—for the hosts of Mohammed covered the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hill-sides and plain like "countless swarms of locusts." +On an eminence which gave an outlook over +the whole broad space stood the emperor's tent, of +three-ply crimson velvet flecked with gold, strings +of pearls depending from its purple fringes. To +guard it from assault rows of iron chains were +stretched, before which stood three thousand camels +in line. In front of these ten thousand negroes +formed a living wall, their front bristling with the +steel of their lances, whose butts were planted firmly +in the sand. In the centre of this powerful guard +stood the emperor, wearing the green dress and turban +of his ancestral line. Grasping in one hand his +scimitar, in the other he held a Koran, from which +he read those passages of inspiration to the Moslems +which promised the delights of Paradise to those +who should fall in a holy war and the torments of +hell to the coward who should desert his ranks.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next day was Sunday. The Moslems, eager +for battle, stood all day in line, but the Christians +declined to fight, occupying themselves in arranging +their different corps. Night descended without a +skirmish. But this could not continue with the two +armies so closely face to face. One side or the other +must surely attack on the following day. At midnight +heralds called the Christians to mass and +prayer. Everywhere priests were busy confessing +and shriving the soldiers. The sound of the furbishing +of arms mingled with the strains of religious +service. At the dawn of the next day both hosts +were drawn up in battle array. The great struggle +was about to begin.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The army of the Moors, said to contain three hundred +thousand regular troops and seventy-five thousand +irregulars, was drawn up in crescent shape in +front of the imperial tent,—in the centre the vast +host of the Almohades, the tribes of the desert on +the wings, in advance the light-armed troops. The +Christian host was formed in four legions, King +Alfonso occupying the centre, his banner bearing an +effigy of the Virgin. With him were Rodrigo Ximenes, +the archbishop of Toledo, and many other prelates. +The force was less than one hundred thousand +strong, some of the crusaders having left it in the +march.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sun was not high when the loud sound of the +Christian trumpets and the Moorish <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">atabals</span></span> gave +signal for the fray, and the two hosts surged forward +to meet in fierce assault. Sternly and fiercely the +battle went on, the struggling multitudes swaying +in the ardor of the fight,—now the Christians, now +the Moslems surging forward or driven back. With +difficulty the thin ranks of the Christians bore the +onsets of their densely grouped foes, and at length +King Alfonso, in fear for the result, turned to the +prelate Rodrigo and exclaimed,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Archbishop, you and I must die here."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Not so," cried the bold churchman. "Here we +must triumph over our enemies."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Then let us to the van, where we are sorely +needed, for, indeed, our lines are being bitterly +pressed."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nothing backward, the archbishop followed the +king. Fernan Garcia, one of the king's cavaliers,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +urged him to wait for aid, but Alfonso, commending +himself to God and the Virgin, spurred forward and +plunged into the thick of the fight. And ever as he +rode, by his side rode the archbishop, wearing his +chasuble and bearing aloft the cross. The Moorish +troops, who had been jeering at the king and the +cross-bearing prelate, drew back before this impetuous +assault, which was given force by the troops +who crowded in to the rescue of the king. The +Moors soon yielded to the desperate onset, and were +driven back in wild disarray.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the beginning of the end. Treason in +the Moorish ranks came to the Christian aid. Some +of Mohammed's force, who hated him for having +cruelly slain their chief, turned and fled. The breaking +of their centre opened a way for the Spaniards +to the living fortress which guarded the imperial +tent, and on this dense line of sable lancers the +Christian cavalry madly charged.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In vain they sought to break that serried line of +steel. Some even turned their horses and tried to +back them in, but without avail. Many fell in the +attempt. The Moslem ranks seemed impervious. +In the end one man did what a host had failed to +perform. A single cavalier, Alvar Nuñez de Lara, +stole in between the negroes and the camels, in some +way passed the chains, and with a cheer of triumph +raised his banner in the interior of the line. A +second and a third followed in his track. The gap +between the camels and the guard widened. Dozens, +hundreds rushed to join their daring leader. The +camels were loosened and dispersed; the negroes,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +attacked front and rear, perished or fled; the living +wall that guarded the emperor was gone, and his +sacred person was in peril.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mohammed was dazed. His lips still repeated +from the Koran, "God alone is true, and Satan is a +betrayer," but terror was beginning to stir the roots +of his hair. An Arab rode up on a swift mare, and, +springing to the ground, cried,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Mount and flee, O king. Not thy steed but my +mare. She comes of the noblest breed, and knows +not how to fail her rider in his need. All is lost! +Mount and flee!"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All was lost, indeed. Mohammed scrambled up +and set off at the best speed of the Arabian steed, +followed by his troops in a panic of terror. The +rout was complete. While day continued the Christian +horsemen followed and struck, until the bodies +of slain Moors lay so thick upon the plain that there +was scarce room for man or horse to pass. Then +Archbishop Rodrigo, who had done so much towards +the victory, stood before Mohammed's tent and in a +loud voice intoned the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Te Deum laudamus</span></span>, the soldiers +uniting in the sacred chant of victory.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The archbishop, who became the historian of this +decisive battle, speaks of two hundred thousand +Moslem slain. We cannot believe it so many, despite +the historian's statement. Twenty-five Christians +alone fell. This is as much too small as the +other estimate is too large. But, whatever the losses, +it was a great and glorious victory, and the spoils +of war that fell to the victors were immense. Gold +and silver were there in abundance; horses, camels,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and wagons in profusion; arms of all kinds, commissary +stores in quantities. So vast was the number +of lances strewn on the ground that the conquering +army used only these for firewood in their +camp, and did not burn the half of them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">King Alfonso, with a wise and prudent liberality, +divided the spoil among his troops and allies, keeping +only the glory of the victory for himself. Mohammed's +splendid tent was taken to Rome to adorn St. +Peter's, and the captured banners were sent to the +cities of Spain as evidences of the great victory. +For himself, the king reserved a fine emerald, which +he placed in the centre of his shield. Ever since +that brilliant day in Spanish annals, the sixteenth +of July has been kept as a holy festival, in which +the captured banners are carried in grand procession, +to celebrate the "Triumph of the Cross."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The supposed miracle of the shepherd was not +the only one which the monastic writers saw in the +victorious event. It was said that a red cross, like +that of Calatrava, appeared in the sky, inspiriting +the Christians and dismaying their foes; and that +the sight of the Virgin banner borne by the king's +standard-bearer struck the Moslems with terror. +It was a credulous age, one in which reputed miracles +could be woven out of the most homely and +every-day material.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Death soon came to the leaders in the war. Mohammed, +sullen with defeat, hurried to Morocco, +where he shut himself up in gloomy seclusion, and +died—or was poisoned—before the year's end. Alfonso +died two years later. The Christians did not<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +follow up their victory with much energy, and the +Moslems still held a large section of Spain, but their +power had culminated and with this signal defeat +began its decline. Step by step they yielded before +the Christian advance, though nearly three centuries +more passed before they lost their final hold +on Spain.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> +<a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE KEY OF GRANADA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nearly eight hundred years had passed away +after the landing of Tarik, the Arab, in Spain and +the defeat and death of Don Roderic, the last king +of the Goths. During those centuries the handful +of warriors which in the mountains of the north +had made a final stand against the invading hordes +had grown and spread, pushing back the Arabs and +Moors, until now the Christians held again nearly +all the land, the sole remnant of Moslem dominion +being the kingdom of Granada in the south. The +map of Spain shows the present province of Granada +as a narrow district bordering on the Mediterranean +Sea, but the Moorish kingdom covered a wider space, +spreading over the present provinces of Malaga and +Almeria, and occupying one of the richest sections +of Spain. It was a rock-bound region. In every +direction ran sierras, or rugged mountain-chains, so +rocky and steep as to make the kingdom almost +impregnable. Yet within their sterile confines lay +numbers of deep and rich valleys, prodigal in their +fertility.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the centre of the kingdom arose its famous +capital, the populous and beautiful city of Granada, +standing in the midst of a great vega or plain, one +hundred miles and more in circumference and encompassed +by the snowy mountains of the Sierra<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Nevada. The seventy thousand houses of the city +spread over two lofty hills and occupied the valley +between them, through which ran the waters of the +Douro. On one of these hills stood the Alcazaba, a +strong fortress; on the other rose the famous Alhambra, +a royal palace and castle, with space within +its confines for forty thousand men, and so rare and +charming in its halls and courts, its gardens and +fountains, that it remains to-day a place of pilgrimage +to the world for lovers of the beautiful in architecture. +And from these hills the city between +showed no less attractive, with its groves of citron, +orange, and pomegranate trees, its leaping fountains, +its airy minarets, its mingled aspect of crowded +dwellings and verdant gardens.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">High walls, three leagues in circuit, with twelve +gates and a thousand and thirty towers, girded it +round, beyond which extended the vega, a vast garden +of delight, to be compared only with the famous +plain of Damascus. Through it the Xenil wound in +silvery curves, its waters spread over the plain in +thousands of irrigating streams and rills. Blooming +gardens and fields of waving grain lent beauty to +the plain; orchards and vineyards clothed the slopes +of the hills; in the orange and citron groves the +voice of the nightingale made the nights musical. +In short, all was so beautiful below and so soft and +serene above that the Moors seemed not without +warrant for their fond belief that Paradise lay in +the skies overhanging this happy plain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, alas for Granada! war hung round its borders, +and the blare of the trumpet and clash of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sword were ever familiar sounds within its confines. +Christian kingdoms surrounded it, whose people envied +the Moslems this final abiding-place on the soil +of Spain. Hostilities were ceaseless on the borders; +plundering forays were the delight of the Castilian +cavaliers and the Moorish horsemen. Every town +was a fortress, and on every peak stood a watch-tower, +ready to give warning with a signal fire by +night or a cloud of smoke by day of any movement +of invasion. For many years such a state of affairs +continued between Granada and its principal antagonist, +the united kingdoms of Castile and Leon. +Even when, in 1457, a Moorish king, disheartened +by a foray into the vega itself, made a truce with +Henry IV., king of Castile and Leon, and agreed to +pay him an annual tribute, the right of warlike raids +was kept open. It was only required that they must +be conducted secretly, without sound of trumpet or +show of banners, and must not continue more than +three days. Such a state of affairs was desired alike +by the Castilian and Moorish chivalry, who loved +these displays of daring and gallantry, and enjoyed +nothing more than a crossing of swords with their +foes. In 1465 a Moorish prince, Muley Abul Hassan, a +man who enjoyed war and hated the Christians, came +to the throne, and at once the tribute ceased to be +paid. For some years still the truce continued, for +Ferdinand and Isabella, the new monarchs of Spain, +had troubles at home to keep them engaged. But in +1481 the war reopened with more than its old fury, +and was continued until Granada fell in 1492, the +year in which the wise Isabella gave aid to Columbus<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for the discovery of an unknown world beyond the +seas.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The war for the conquest of Granada was one full +of stirring adventure and hair-breadth escapes, of +forays and sieges, of the clash of swords and the +brandishing of spears. It was no longer fought by +Spain on the principle of the raid,—to dash in, kill, +plunder, and speed away with clatter of hoofs and +rattle of spurs. It was Ferdinand's policy to take +and hold, capturing stronghold after stronghold until +all Granada was his. In a memorable pun on the +name of Granada, which signifies a pomegranate, he +said, "I will pick out the seeds of this pomegranate +one by one."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Muley Abul Hassan, the new Moorish king, began +the work, foolishly breaking the truce which Ferdinand +wished a pretext to bring to an end. On a +dark night in 1481 he fell suddenly on Zahara, a +mountain town on the Christian frontier, so strong +in itself that it was carelessly guarded. It was +taken by surprise, its inhabitants were carried off +as slaves, and a strong Moorish garrison was left to +hold it.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Moors paid dearly for their daring assault. +The Christians retaliated by an attack on the strong +and rich city of Alhama, a stronghold within the +centre of the kingdom, only a few leagues distant +from the capital itself. Strongly situated on a rocky +height, with a river nearly surrounding it and a +fortress seated on a steep crag above it, and far +within the border, no dream of danger to Alhama +came to the mind of the Moors, who contented<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +themselves with a small garrison and a negligent +guard.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the loss of Zahara had exasperated Ferdinand. +His wars at home were over and he had time to attend +to the Moors, and scouts had brought word of +the careless security of the guard of Alhama. It +could be reached by a difficult and little-travelled +route through the defiles of the mountains, and there +were possibilities that a secret and rapid march +might lead to its surprise.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the head of the enterprise was Don Rodrigo +Ponce de Leon, Marquis of Cadiz, the most distinguished +champion in the war that followed. With +a select force of three thousand light cavalry and +four thousand infantry, adherents of several nobles +who attended the expedition, the mountains were +traversed with the greatest secrecy and celerity, the +marches being made mainly by night and the troops +remaining quiet and concealed during the day. No +fires were made and no noise was permitted, and +midnight of the third day found the invaders in a +small, deep valley not far from the fated town. Only +now were the troops told what was in view. They +had supposed that they were on an ordinary foray. +The inspiring tidings filled them with ardor, and +they demanded to be led at once to the assault.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two hours before daybreak the army was placed +in ambush close to Alhama, and a body of three +hundred picked men set out on the difficult task of +scaling the walls of the castle and surprising its garrison. +The ascent was steep and very difficult, but +they were guided by one who had carefully studied<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the situation on a previous secret visit and knew +what paths to take. Following him they reached +the foot of the castle walls without discovery.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here, under the dark shadow of the towers, they +halted and listened. There was not a sound to be +heard, not a light to be seen; sleep seemed to brood +over castle and town. The ladders were placed and +the men noiselessly ascended, Ortega, the guide, +going first. The parapet reached, they moved +stealthily along its summit until they came upon a +sleepy sentinel. Seizing him by the throat, Ortega +flourished a dagger before his eyes and bade him +point the way to the guard-room. The frightened +Moor obeyed, and a dagger thrust ended all danger +of his giving an alarm. In a minute more the small +scaling party was in the guard-room, massacring +the sleeping garrison, while the remainder of the +three hundred were rapidly ascending to the battlements.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some of the awakened Moors fought desperately +for their lives, the clash of arms and cries of the +combatants came loudly from the castle, and the +ambushed army, finding that the surprise had been +effective, rushed from their lurking-place with shouts +and the sound of trumpets and drums, hoping thereby +to increase the dismay of the garrison. Ortega +at length fought his way to a postern, which he +threw open, admitting the Marquis of Cadiz and a +strong following, who quickly overcame all opposition, +the citadel being soon in full possession of the +Christians.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While this went on the town took the alarm. The<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +garrison had been destroyed in the citadel, but all +the Moors, citizens and soldiers alike, were accustomed +to weapons and warlike in spirit, and, looking +for speedy aid from Granada, eight leagues away, the +tradesmen manned the battlements and discharged +showers of stones and arrows upon the Christians +wherever visible. The streets leading to the citadel +were barricaded, and a steady fire was maintained +upon its gate, all who attempted to sally into the +city being shot down.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It began to appear as if the Spaniards had taken +too great a risk. Their peril was great. Unless +they gained the town they must soon be starved out +of the castle. Some of them declared that they +could not hope to hold the town even if they took +it, and proposed to sack and burn the castle and +make good their retreat before the king of Granada +could reach them with his forces.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This weak-hearted counsel was not to the taste +of the valiant Ponce de Leon. "God has given us +the castle," he said, "and He will aid us in holding +it. We won it with bloodshed; it would be a stain +upon our honor to abandon it through fear. We +knew our peril before we came; let us face it boldly."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His words prevailed, and the army was led to the +assault, planting their scaling-ladders against the +walls and swarming up to attack the Moors upon +the ramparts. The Marquis of Cadiz, finding that +the gate of the castle was commanded by the artillery +of the town, ordered a breach to be made in the +wall; and through this, sword in hand, he led a body +of troops into the town. At the same time an assault<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was made from every point, and the battle +raged with the greatest fury at the ramparts and in +the streets.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Moors, who fought for life, liberty, and property, +defended themselves with desperation, fighting +in the streets and from the windows and roofs of +their houses. From morning until night the contest +continued; then, overpowered, the townsmen sought +shelter in a large mosque near the walls, whence +they kept up so hot a flight of arrows and lances +that the assailants dared not approach. Finally, +protected by bucklers and wooden shields, some of +the soldiers succeeded in setting fire to the door of +the mosque. As the flames rolled upward the Moors, +deeming that all was lost, rushed desperately out. +Many of them were killed in this final fight; the +rest surrendered as prisoners.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The struggle was at an end; the town lay at the +mercy of the Spaniards; it was given up to plunder, +and immense was the booty taken. Gold and silver, +rare jewels, rich silks, and costly goods were found in +abundance; horses and cattle, grain, oil, and honey, all +the productions of the kingdom, in fact, were there +in quantities; for Alhama was the richest town in +the Moorish territory, and from its strength and +situation was called the Key of Granada. The soldiers +were not content with plunder. Thinking that +they could not hold the place, they destroyed all +they could not carry away. Huge jars of oil were +shattered, costly furniture was demolished, much material +of the greatest value was destroyed. In the +dungeons were found many of the Christian captives<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +who had been taken at Zahara, and who gladly +gained their freedom again.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The loss of Alhama was a terrible blow to the +kingdom of Granada. Terror filled the citizens of +the capital when the news reached that city. Sighs +and lamentations came from all sides, the mournful +ejaculation, "Woe is me, Alhama!" was in every +mouth, and this afterwards became the burden of a +plaintive ballad, "<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ay de mi, Alhama</span></span>," which remains +among the gems of Spanish poetry.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Abul Hassan, full of wrath at the daring presumption +of his foes, hastened at the head of more +than fifty thousand men against the city, driving +back a force that was marching to the aid of the +Christians, attacking the walls with the fiercest +fury, and cutting off the stream upon which the +city depended for water, thus threatening the defenders +with death by thirst. Yet, though in torments, +they fought with unyielding desperation, and +held their own until the duke of Medina Sidonia, a +bitter enemy of the Marquis of Cadiz in peace, but +his comrade in war, came with a large army to his +aid. King Ferdinand was hastening thither with +all speed, and the Moorish monarch, after a last +fierce assault upon the city, broke up his camp and +retreated in despair. From that time to the end of +the contest the Christians held the "Key of Granada," +a threatening stronghold in the heart of the +land, from which they raided the vega at will, and +exhausted the resources of the kingdom. "<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ay de +mi, Alhama!</span></span>"</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> +<a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">KING ABUL HASSAN AND THE ALCAIDE OF GIBRALTAR.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Muley Abul Hassan, the warlike king of Granada, +weary of having his lands raided and his +towns taken, resolved to repay the Christians in +kind. The Duke of Medina Sidonia had driven him +from captured Alhama. He owed this mighty noble +a grudge, and the opportunity to repay it seemed at +hand. The duke had led his forces to the aid of King +Ferdinand, who was making a foray into Moorish +territory. He had left almost unguarded his far-spreading +lands, wide pasture plains covered thickly +with flocks and herds and offering a rare opportunity +for a hasty foray.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I will give this cavalier a lesson that will cure +him of his love for campaigning," said the fierce old +king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leaving his port of Malaga at the head of fifteen +hundred horse and six thousand foot, the Moorish +monarch followed the sea-shore route to the border +of his dominions, entering Christian territory between +Gibraltar and Castellar. There was only one +man in this quarter of whom he had any fear. +This was Pedro de Vargas, governor of Gibraltar, a +shrewd and vigilant old soldier, whose daring Abul +Hassan well knew, but knew also that his garrison +was too small to serve for a successful sally.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The alert Moor, however, advanced with great +caution, sending out parties to explore every pass +where an ambush might await him, since, despite his +secrecy, the news of his coming might have gone +before. At length the broken country of Castellar +was traversed and the plains were reached. Encamping +on the banks of the Celemin, he sent four hundred +lancers to the vicinity of Algeciras to keep a +close watch upon Gibraltar across the bay, to attack +Pedro if he sallied out, and to send word to the camp +if any movement took place. This force was four +times that said to be in Gibraltar. Remaining on +the Celemin with his main body of troops, King +Hassan sent two hundred horsemen to scour the +plain of Tarifa, and as many more to the lands of +Medina Sidonia, the whole district being a rich +pasture land upon which thousands of animals +grazed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All went well. The parties of foragers came in, +driving vast flocks and herds, enough to replace +those which had been swept from the vega of Granada +by the foragers of Spain. The troops on watch +at Algeciras sent word that all was quiet at Gibraltar. +Satisfied that for once Pedro de Vargas had been +foiled, the old king called in his detachments and +started back in triumph with his spoils.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was mistaken. The vigilant governor had +been advised of his movements, but was too weak +in men to leave his post. Fortunately for him, a +squadron of the armed galleys in the strait put into +port, and, their commander agreeing to take charge +of Gibraltar in his absence, Pedro sallied out at<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +midnight with seventy of his men, bent upon giving +the Moors what trouble he could.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sending men to the mountain-tops, he had alarm +fires kindled as a signal to the peasants that the +Moors were out and their herds in peril. Couriers +were also despatched at speed to rouse the country +and bid all capable of bearing arms to rendezvous at +Castellar, a stronghold which Abul Hassan would +have to pass on his return. The Moorish king saw +the fire signals and knew well what they meant. +Striking his tents, he began as hasty a retreat as his +slow-moving multitude of animals would permit. +In advance rode two hundred and fifty of his bravest +men. Then came the great drove of cattle. In the +rear marched the main army, with Abul Hassan at +its head. And thus they moved across the broken +country towards Castellar.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Near that place De Vargas was on the watch, a +thick and lofty cloud of dust revealing to him the +position of the Moors. A half-league of hills and +declivities separated the van and the rear of the +raiding column, a long, dense forest rising between. +De Vargas saw that they were in no position to aid +each other quickly, and that something might come +of a sudden and sharp attack. Selecting the best +fifty of his small force, he made a circuit towards a +place which he knew to be suitable for ambush. +Here a narrow glen opened into a defile with high, +steep sides. It was the only route open to the Moors, +and he proposed to let the vanguard and the herds +pass and fall upon the rear.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Moors, however, were on the alert. While the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Spaniards lay hidden, six mounted scouts entered +the defile and rode into the mouth of the glen, keenly +looking to right and left for a concealed enemy. +They came so near that a minute or two more must +reveal to them the ambush.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Let us kill these men and retreat to Gibraltar," +said one of the Spaniards; "the infidels are far too +many for us."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I have come for larger game than this," answered +De Vargas, "and, by the aid of God and +Santiago, I will not go back without making my +mark. I know these Moors, and will show you how +they stand a sudden charge."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The scouts were riding deeper into the glen. The +ambush could no longer be concealed. At a quick +order from De Vargas ten horsemen rushed so suddenly +upon them that four of their number were in +an instant hurled to the ground. The other two +wheeled and rode back at full speed, hotly pursued +by the ten men. Their dashing pace soon brought +them in sight of the vanguard of the Moors, from +which about eighty horsemen rode out to the aid of +their friends. The Spaniards turned and clattered +back, with this force in sharp pursuit. In a minute +or two both parties came at a furious rush into the +glen.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was what De Vargas had foreseen. Bidding +his trumpeter to sound, he dashed from his concealment +at the head of his men, drawn up in close +array. They were upon the Moors almost before +they were seen, their weapons making havoc in the +disordered ranks. The skirmish was short and sharp.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +The Moors, taken by surprise, and thrown into confusion, +fell rapidly, their ranks being soon so thinned +that scarce half of them turned in the retreat.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"After them!" cried De Vargas. "We will have a +brush with the vanguard before the rear can come +up."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Onward after the flying Moors rode the gallant +fifty, coming with such force and fury on the advance-guard +that many were overturned in the first +shock. Those behind held their own with some +firmness, but their leaders, the alcaides of Marabella +and Casares, being slain, the line gave way and fled +towards the rear-guard, passing through the droves +of cattle, which they threw into utter confusion.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nothing further could be done. The trampling +cattle had filled the air with a blinding cloud of +dust. De Vargas was badly wounded. A few minutes +might bring up the Moorish king with an overwhelming +force. Despoiling the slain, and taking +with them some thirty horses, the victorious Spaniards +rode in triumph back to Castellar.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Moorish king, hearing the exaggerated report +of the fugitives, feared that all Xeres was up and in +arms.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Our road is blocked," cried some of his officers. +"We had better abandon the animals and seek +another route for our return."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Not so," cried the old king; "no true soldier +gives up his booty without a blow. Follow me; +we will have a brush with these dogs of Christians."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In hot haste he galloped onward, right through +the centre of the herd, driving the cattle to right<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and left. On reaching the field of battle he found +no Spaniard in sight, but dozens of his own men lay +dead and despoiled, among them the two alcaides. +The sight filled the warlike old king with rage. +Confident that his foes had taken refuge in Castellar, +he rode on to that place, set fire to two houses +near its walls, and sent a shower of arrows into its +streets. Pedro de Vargas was past taking to horse, +but he ordered his men to make a sally, and a sharp +skirmish took place under the walls. In the end the +king drew off to the scene of the fight, buried the +dead except the alcaides, whose bodies were laid on +mules to be interred at Malaga, and, gathering the +scattered herds, drove them past the walls of Castellar +by way of taunting the Christian foe.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet the stern old Moorish warrior could thoroughly +appreciate valor and daring even in an enemy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"What are the revenues of the alcaide of Gibraltar?" +he asked of two Christian captives he had +taken.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"We know not," they replied, "except that he is +entitled to one animal out of every drove of cattle +that passes his bounds."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Then Allah forbid that so brave a cavalier should +be defrauded of his dues."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He gave orders to select twelve of the finest cattle +from the twelve droves that formed the herd of spoil, +and directed that they should be delivered to Pedro +de Vargas.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Tell him," said the king, "that I beg his pardon +for not sending these cattle sooner, but have just +learned they are his dues, and hasten to satisfy<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +them in courtesy to so worthy a cavalier. Tell +him, at the same time, that I did not know the +alcaide of Gibraltar was so vigilant in collecting his +tolls."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The soldierly pleasantry of the old king was much +to the taste of the brave De Vargas, and called for +a worthy return. He bade his men deliver a rich +silken vest and a scarlet mantle to the messenger, +to be presented to the Moorish king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Tell his majesty," he said, "that I kiss his hands +for the honor he has done me, and regret that my +scanty force was not fitted to give him a more signal +reception. Had three hundred horsemen, whom I +have been promised from Xeres, arrived in time, I +might have served him up an entertainment more +befitting his station. They may arrive during the +night, in which case his majesty, the king, may look +for a royal service in the morning."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Allah preserve us," cried the king, on receiving +this message, "from a brush with these hard riders +of Xeres! A handful of troops familiar with these +wild mountain-passes may destroy an army encumbered +like ours with booty."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a relief to the king to find that De Vargas +was too sorely wounded to take the field in person. +A man like him at the head of an adequate force might +have given no end of trouble. During the day the +retreat was pushed with all speed, the herds being +driven with such haste that they were frequently +broken and scattered among the mountain defiles, +the result being that more than five thousand cattle +were lost, being gathered up again by the Christians.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The king returned triumphantly to Malaga with the +remainder, rejoicing in his triumph over the Duke +of Medina Sidonia, and having taught King Ferdinand +that the game of ravaging an enemy's country +was one at which two could play.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a> +<a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE RIVAL KINGS OF GRANADA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"In the hand of God is the destiny of princes. +He alone giveth empire," piously says an old Arabian +chronicler, and goes on with the following story: +A Moorish horseman, mounted on a fleet Arabian +steed, was one day traversing the mountains which +extend between Granada and the frontier of Murcia. +He galloped swiftly through the valleys, but paused +and gazed cautiously from the summit of every +height. A squadron of cavaliers followed warily at +a distance. There were fifty lances. The richness +of their armor and attire showed them to be warriors +of noble rank, and their leader had a lofty and +prince-like demeanor.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For two nights and a day the cavalcade made its +way through that rugged country, avoiding settled +places and choosing the most solitary passes of the +mountains. Their hardships were severe, but campaigning +was their trade and their horses were of +generous spirit. It was midnight when they left +the hills and rode through darkness and silence to +the city of Granada, under the shadows of whose +high walls they passed to the gate of the Albaycin. +Here the leader ordered his followers to halt and +remain concealed. Taking four or five with him, +he advanced to the gate and struck upon it with the +handle of his scimitar.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Who is it knocks at this unseasonable hour of +the night?" demanded the warder within.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Your king," was the answer. "Open and admit +him."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Opening a wicket, the warder held forth a light +and looked at the man without. Recognizing him +at a glance, he opened the gate, and the cavalier, +who had feared a less favorable reception, rode in +with his followers and galloped in haste to the hill +of the Albaycin, where the new-comers knocked +loudly at the doors of the principal dwellings, bidding +their tenants to rise and take arms for their +lawful sovereign. The summons was obeyed. Trumpets +soon resounded in the streets; the gleam of +torches lit the dark avenues and flashed upon naked +steel. From right and left the Moors came hurrying +to the rendezvous. By daybreak the whole force +of the Albaycin was under arms, ready to meet in +battle the hostile array on the opposite height of +the Alhambra.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To tell what this midnight movement meant we +must go back a space in history. The conquest of +Granada was not due to Ferdinand and the Spaniards +alone. It was greatly aided by the dissensions +of the Moors, who were divided into two parties and +fought bitterly with each other during their intervals +of truce with the Christians. Ferdinand won +in the game largely by a shrewd playing off of one +of these factions against the other and by taking +advantage of the weakness and vacillation of the +young king, whose clandestine entrance to the city +we have just seen.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Boabdil el Chico, or Boabdil the Young, as he was +called, was the son of Muley Abul Hassan, against +whom he had rebelled, and with such effect that, +after a bloody battle in the streets of the city, the +old king was driven without its walls. His tyranny +had caused the people to gather round his son.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From that time forward there was dissension and +civil war in Granada, and the quarrels of its kings +paved the way for the downfall of the state. The +country was divided into the two factions of the +young and the old kings. In the city the hill of the +Albaycin, with its fortress of the Alcazaba, was the +stronghold of Boabdil, while the partisans of Abul +Hassan dwelt on the height of the Alhambra, the +lower town between being the battle-ground of the +rival factions.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The succeeding events were many, but must be +told in few words. King Boabdil, to show his prowess +to the people, marched over the border to attack +the city of Lucena. As a result he was himself assailed, +his army put to the rout, and himself taken +prisoner by the forces of Ferdinand of Aragon. To +regain his liberty he acknowledged himself a vassal +of the Spanish monarch, to whom he agreed to pay +tribute. On his release he made his way to the city +of Granada, but his adherents were so violently assailed +by those of his father that the streets of the +city ran blood, and Boabdil the Unlucky, as he was +now called, found it advisable to leave the capital +and fix his residence in Almeria, a large and splendid +city whose people were devoted to him.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the years went on Muley Abul Hassan became<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sadly stricken with age. He grew nearly blind and +was bed-ridden with paralysis. His brother Abdallah, +known as El Zagal, or "The Valiant," commander-in-chief +of the Moorish armies, assumed his duties +as a sovereign, and zealously took up the quarrel +with his son. He attempted to surprise the young +king at Almeria, drove him out as a fugitive, and +took possession of that city. At a later date he +endeavored to remove him by poison. It was this +attempt that spurred Boabdil to the enterprise we +have just described. El Zagal was now full king in +Granada, holding the Alhambra as his palace, and +his nephew, who had been a wanderer since his flight +from Almeria, was instigated to make a bold stroke +for the throne.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the day after the secret return of Boabdil +battle raged in the streets of Granada, a fierce encounter +taking place between the two kings in the +square before the principal mosque. Hand to hand +they fought with the greatest fury till separated by +the charges of their followers.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For days the conflict went on, death and turmoil +ruling in Granada, such hatred existing between the +two factions that neither side gave quarter. Boabdil +was the weaker in men. Fearing defeat in consequence, +he sent a messenger to Don Fadrique de +Toledo, the Christian commander on the border, asking +for assistance. Don Fadrique had been instructed +by Ferdinand to give what aid he could to +the young king, the vassal of Spain, and responded +to Boabdil's request by marching with a body of +troops to the vicinity of Granada. No sooner had<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Boabdil seen their advancing banners than he sallied +forth with a squadron to meet them. El Zagal, who +was equally on the alert, sallied forth at the same +time, and drew up his troops in battle array.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The wary Don Fadrique, in doubt as to the meaning +of this double movement, and fearing treachery, +halted at a safe distance, and drew off for the night +to a secure situation. Early the next morning a +Moorish cavalier approached the sentinels and asked +for an audience with Don Fadrique, as an envoy from +El Zagal. The Christian troops, he said on behalf +of the old king, had come to aid his nephew, but he +was ready to offer them an alliance on better terms +than those of Boabdil. Don Fadrique listened courteously +to the envoy, but for better assurance, determined +to send a representative to El Zagal himself, +under protection of a flag. For this purpose he +selected Don Juan de Vera, one of the most intrepid +and discreet of his cavaliers, who had in years before +been sent by King Ferdinand on a mission to the +Alhambra.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Don Juan, on reaching the palace, was well received +by the old king, holding an interview with +him which extended so far into the night that it +was too late to return to camp, and he was lodged +in a sumptuous apartment of the Alhambra. In the +morning he was approached by one of the Moorish +courtiers, a man given to jest and satire, who invited +him to take part in a ceremony in the palace mosque. +This invitation, given in jest, was received by the +punctilious Catholic knight in earnest, and he replied, +with stern displeasure,—</p> + +<a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image07.png" width="640" height="1089" alt="Illustration: KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA." title="KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The servants of Queen Isabella of Castile, who +bear on their armor the cross of St. Iago, never +enter the temples of Mohammed, except to level them +to the earth and trample on them."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This discourteous reply was repeated by the courtier +to a renegade, who, having newly adopted the +Moorish faith, was eager to show his devotion to the +Moslem creed, and proposed to engage the hot-tempered +Catholic knight in argument. Seeking Don +Juan, they found him playing chess with the alcaide +of the palace, and the renegade at once began to +comment on the Christian religion in uncomplimentary +terms. Don Juan was quick to anger, but +he restrained himself, and replied, with grave severity,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You would do well to cease talking about what +you do not understand."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The renegade and his jesting companion replied +in a series of remarks intended as wit, though full +of insolence, Don Juan fuming inwardly as he continued +to play. In the end they went too far, the +courtier making an obscene comparison between the +Virgin Mary and Amina, the mother of Mohammed. +In an instant the old knight sprang up, white with +rage, and dashing aside chess-board and chessmen. +Drawing his sword, he dealt such a "<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hermosa cuchillada</span></span>" +("handsome slash") across the head of the +offending Moor as to stretch him bleeding on the +floor. The renegade fled in terror, rousing the +echoes of the palace with his outcries and stirring +up guards and attendants, who rushed into the room +where the irate Christian stood sword in hand defying<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Mohammed and his hosts. The alarm quickly +reached the ears of the king, who hurried to the +scene, his appearance at once restoring order. On +hearing from the alcaide the cause of the affray, he +acted with becoming dignity, ordering the guards +from the room and directing that the renegade +should be severely punished for daring to infringe +the hospitality of the palace and insult an embassador.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Don Juan, his quick fury evaporated, sheathed his +sword, thanked the king for his courtesy, and proposed +a return to the camp. But this was not easy +of accomplishment. A garbled report of the tumult +in the palace had spread to the streets, where it was +rumored that Christian spies had been introduced into +the palace with treasonable intent. In a brief time +hundreds of the populace were in arms and thronging +about the gate of Justice of the Alhambra, +where they loudly demanded the death of all Christians +in the palace and of all who had introduced +them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was impossible for Don Juan to leave the palace +by the route he had followed on his arrival. The +infuriated mob would have torn him to pieces. But +it was important that he should depart at once. All +that El Zagal could do was to furnish him with a +disguise, a swift horse, and an escort, and to let him +out of the Alhambra by a private gate. This secret +mode of departure was not relished by the proud +Spaniard, but life was just then of more value than +dignity, as he appreciated when, in Moorish dress, +he passed through crowds who were thirsting for<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his blood. A gate of the city was at length reached, +and Don Juan and his escort rode quietly out. But +he was no sooner on the open plain than he spurred +his horse to its speed, and did not draw rein until +the banners of Don Fadrique waved above his head.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Don Fadrique heard with much approval of the +boldness of his envoy. His opinion of Don Juan's +discretion he kept to himself. He rewarded him +with a valuable horse, and wrote a letter of thanks +to El Zagal for his protection to his emissary. Queen +Isabella, on learning how stoutly the knight had +stood up for the chastity of the Blessed Virgin, +was highly delighted, and conferred several distinctions +of honor upon the cavalier besides presenting +him with three hundred thousand maravedis.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The outcome of the advances of the two kings was +that Don Fadrique chose Boabdil as his ally, and +sent him a reinforcement of foot-soldiers and arquebusiers. +This introduction of Christians into the +city rekindled the flames of war, and it continued to +rage in the streets for the space of fifty days.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result of the struggle between the two kings +may be briefly told. While they contended for supremacy +Ferdinand of Aragon invaded their kingdom +with a large army and marched upon the great +seaport of Malaga. El Zagal sought an accommodation +with Boabdil, that they might unite their +forces against the common foe, but the short-sighted +young man spurned his overtures with disdain. El +Zagal then, the better patriot of the two, marched +himself against the Christian host, hoping to surprise +them in the passes of the mountains and perhaps<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +capture King Ferdinand himself. Unluckily +for him, his well-laid plan was discovered by the +Christians, who attacked and defeated him, his +troops flying in uncontrollable disorder.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The news of this disaster reached Granada before +him and infuriated the people, who closed their gates +and threatened the defeated king from the walls. +Nothing remained to El Zagal but to march to Almeria +and establish his court in that city in which +Boabdil had formerly reigned. Thus the positions +of the rival kings became reversed. From that time +forward the kingdom of Granada was divided into +two, and the work of conquest by the Christians +was correspondingly reduced.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc40" id="toc40"></a> +<a name="pdf41" id="pdf41"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE KNIGHT OF THE EXPLOITS.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The dull monotony of sieges, of which there were +many during the war with Granada, was little to +the taste of the valorous Spanish cavaliers. They +burned for adventure, and were ever ready for daring +exploits, the more welcome the more dangerous they +promised to be. One day during the siege of Baza, +a strong city in El Zagal's dominions, two of these +spirited young cavaliers, Francisco de Bazan and +Antonio de Cueva, were seated on the ramparts of +the siege works, bewailing the dull life to which +they were confined. They were overheard by a +veteran scout, who was familiar with the surrounding +country.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Señors," he said, "if you pine for peril and profit +and are eager to pluck the beard of the fiery old +Moorish king, I can lead you where you will have a +fine opportunity to prove your valor. There are +certain hamlets not far from the walls of El Zagal's +city of Guadix where rich booty awaits the daring +raider. I can lead you there by a way that will +enable you to take them by surprise; and if you are +as cool in the head as you are hot in the spur you +may bear off spoils from under the very eyes of the +king of the Moors."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He had struck the right vein. The youths were +at once hot for the enterprise. To win booty from<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the very gates of Guadix was a stirring scheme, and +they quickly found others of their age as eager as +themselves for the daring adventure. In a short +time they had enrolled a body of nearly three hundred +horse and two hundred foot, well armed and +equipped, and every man of them ready for the road.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The force obtained, the raiders left the camp early +one evening, keeping their destination secret, and +made their way by starlight through the mountain +passes, led by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">adalid</span></span>, or guide. Pressing rapidly +onward by day and night, they reached the hamlets +one morning just before daybreak, and fell on them +suddenly, making prisoners of the inhabitants, sacking +the houses, and sweeping the fields of their +grazing herds. Then, without taking a moment to +rest, they set out with all speed for the mountains, +which they hoped to reach before the country could +be roused.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Several of the herdsmen had escaped and fled to +Guadix, where they told El Zagal of the daring ravage. +Wild with rage at the insult, the old king at +once sent out six hundred of his choicest horse and +foot, with orders for swift pursuit, bidding them to +recover the booty and bring him as prisoners the +insolent marauders. The Christians, weary with +their two days and nights of hard marching, were +driving the captured cattle and sheep up a mountainside, +when, looking back, they saw a great cloud of +dust upon their trail. Soon they discerned the turbaned +host, evidently superior to them in number, +and man and horse in fresh condition.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"They are too much for us," cried some of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +horsemen. "It would be madness in our worn-out +state to face a fresh force of that number. We shall +have to let the cattle go and seek safety in flight."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"What!" cried Antonio and Francisco, their +leaders; "abandon our prey without a blow? Desert +our foot-soldiers and leave them to the enemy? +Did any of you think El Zagal would let us off without +a brush? You do not give good Spanish counsel, +for every soldier knows that there is less danger +in presenting our faces than our backs to the foe, +and fewer men are killed in a brave advance than in +a cowardly retreat."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some of the cavaliers were affected by these words, +but the mass of the party were chance volunteers, +who received no pay and had nothing to gain by +risking their lives. Consequently, as the enemy came +near, the diversity of opinions grew into a tumult, +and confusion reigned. The captains ordered the +standard-bearer to advance against the Moors, confident +that any true soldiers would follow his banner. +He hesitated to obey; the turmoil increased; in a +moment more the horsemen might be in full flight.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this critical juncture a horseman of the royal +guards rode forward,—the good knight Hernan Perez +del Pulgar, governor of the fortress of Salar. Taking +off the handkerchief which, in the Andalusian fashion, +he wore round his head, he tied it to a lance and +raised it in the air.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Comrades," he cried, "why do you load yourself +with arms if you trust for safety to your feet? We +shall see who among you are the brave men and who +are the cowards. If it is a standard you want, here<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is mine. Let the man who has the heart to fight +follow this handkerchief."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Waving his improvised banner, he spurred against +the Moors. Many followed him. Those who at first +held back soon joined the advance. With one accord +the whole body rushed with shouts upon the enemy. +The Moors, who were now close at hand, were seized +with surprise and alarm at this sudden charge. The +foremost files turned and fled in panic, followed by +the others, and pursued by the Christians, who cut +them down without a blow in return. Soon the +whole body was in full flight. Several hundred of +the Moors were killed and their bodies despoiled, +many were taken prisoners, and the Christians returned +in triumph to the army, driving their long +array of cattle and sheep and of mules laden with +booty, and bearing in their front the standard under +which they had fought.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">King Ferdinand was so delighted with this exploit, +and in particular with the gallant action of +Perez del Pulgar, that he conferred knighthood upon +the latter with much ceremony, and authorized him +to bear upon his escutcheon a golden lion in an azure +field, showing a lance with a handkerchief at its +point. Round its border were to be depicted the +eleven alcaides defeated in the battle. This heroic +deed was followed by so many others during the wars +with the Moors that Perez del Pulgar became in time +known by the flattering appellation of "He of the +exploits."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most famous exploit of this daring knight +took place during the siege of Granada,—the final<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +operation of the long war. Here single combats and +minor skirmishes between Christian and Moorish +cavaliers were of almost daily occurrence, until Ferdinand +strictly forbade all such tilts, as he saw that +they gave zeal and courage to the Moors, and were +attended with considerable loss of life among his +bravest followers.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This edict of the king was very distasteful to the +fiery Moorish knights, who declared that the crafty +Christian wished to destroy chivalry and put an end +to heroic valor. They did their best to provoke the +Spanish knights to combat, galloping on their fleet +steeds close to the borders of the camp and hurling +their lances over the barriers, each lance bearing the +name of its owner with some defiant message. But +despite the irritation caused by these insults to the +Spanish knights, none of them ventured to disobey +the mandate of the king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Chief among these Moorish cavaliers was one +named Tarfe, a man of fierce and daring spirit and +a giant in size, who sought to surpass his fellows in +acts of audacity. In one of his sallies towards the +Christian camp this bold cavalier leaped his steed +over the barrier, galloped inward close to the royal +quarters, and launched his spear with such strength +that it quivered in the earth close to the tents of +the sovereigns. The royal guards rushed out, but +Tarfe was already far away, scouring the plain on his +swift Barbary steed. On examining the lance it was +found to bear a label indicating that it was intended +for the queen, who was present in the camp.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This bravado and the insult offered Queen Isabella<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +excited the highest indignation among the Christian +warriors. "Shall we let this insolent fellow outdo +us?" said Perez del Pulgar, who was present. "I +propose to teach these insolent Moors a lesson. Who +will stand by me in an enterprise of desperate peril?" +The warriors knew Pulgar well enough to be sure +that his promise of peril was likely to be kept, yet +all who heard him were ready to volunteer. Out +of them he chose fifteen,—men whom he knew he +could trust for strength of arm and valor of heart.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His proposed enterprise was indeed a perilous one. +A Moorish renegade had agreed to guide him into +the city by a secret pass. Once within, they were +to set fire to the Alcaiceria and others of the principal +buildings, and then escape as best they could.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At dead of night they set out, provided with the +necessary combustibles. Their guide led them up a +channel of the river Darro, until they halted under +a bridge near the royal gate. Here Pulgar stationed +six of his followers on guard, bidding them to keep +silent and motionless. With the others he made his +way up a drain of the stream which passed under a +part of the city and opened into the streets. All +was dark and silent. Not a soul moved. The renegade, +at the command of Pulgar, led the adventurers +to the principal mosque. Here the pious cavalier +drew from under his cloak a parchment inscribed in +large letters with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Ave Maria</span></span>, and nailed this to the +door of the mosque, thus dedicating the heathen +temple to the Virgin Mary.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They now hurried to the Alcaiceria, where the +combustibles were placed ready to fire. Not until<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +this moment was it discovered that the torch-bearer +had carelessly left his torch at the door of the +mosque. It was too late to return. Pulgar sought +to strike fire with flint and steel, but while doing so +the Moorish guard came upon them in its rounds. +Drawing his sword and followed by his comrades, +the bold Spaniard made a fierce assault upon the +astonished Moors, quickly putting them to flight. +But the enterprise was at an end. The alarm was +given and soldiers were soon hurrying in every direction +through the streets. Guided by the renegade, +Pulgar and his companions hastened to the +drain by which they had entered, plunged into it, +and reached their companions under the bridge. +Here mounting their horses, they rode back to the +camp.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Moors were at a loss to imagine the purpose +of this apparently fruitless enterprise, but wild was +their exasperation the next morning when they +found the "Ave Maria" on the door of a mosque in +the centre of their city. The mosque thus sanctified +by Perez del Pulgar was actually converted into a +Christian cathedral after the capture of the city.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have yet to describe the sequel of this exploit. +On the succeeding day a powerful train left +the Christian camp and advanced towards the city +walls. In its centre were the king and queen, the +prince and princesses, and the ladies of the court, +surrounded by the royal body-guard,—a richly +dressed troop, composed of the sons of the most +illustrious families of Spain. The Moors gazed with +wonder upon this rare pageant, which moved in<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +glittering array across the vega to the sound of +martial music; a host brilliant with banners and +plumes, shining arms and shimmering silks, for the +court and the army moved there hand in hand. +Queen Isabella had expressed a wish to see, nearer +at hand, a city whose beauty was of world-wide renown, +and the Marquis of Cadiz had drawn out this +powerful escort that she might be gratified in her +desire. The queen had her wish, but hundreds of +men died that she might be pleased.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the royal dame and her ladies were gazing +with delight on the red towers of the Alhambra, +rising in rich contrast through the green verdure of +their groves, a large force of Moorish cavalry poured +from the city gates, ready to accept the gage of +battle which the Christians seemed to offer. The +first to come were a host of richly armed and gayly +attired light cavalry, mounted on fleet and fiery +Barbary steeds. Heavily armed cavalry followed, +and then a strong force of foot-soldiers, until an +army was drawn up on the plain. Queen Isabella +saw this display with disquiet, and forbade an attack +upon the enemy, or even a skirmish, as it would +pain her if a single warrior should lose his life +through the indulgence of her curiosity.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a result, though the daring Moorish horsemen +rode fleetly along the Christian front, brandishing +their lances, and defying the cavaliers to mortal +combat, not a Spaniard stirred. The cavaliers were +under the eyes of Ferdinand, by whom such duels +had been strictly forbidden. At length, however, +they were incensed beyond their powers of resistance.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Forth from the city rode a stalwart Moorish +horseman, clad in steel armor, and bearing a huge +buckler and a ponderous lance. His device showed +him to be the giant warrior Tarfe, the daring infidel +who had flung his lance at the queen's tent. As he +rode out he was followed by the shouts and laughter +of a mob, and when he came within full view of the +Spanish army the cavaliers saw, with indignant +horror, tied to his horse's tail and dragging in the +dust, the parchment with its inscription of "Ave +Maria" which Hernan Perez del Pulgar had nailed +to the door of the mosque.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This insult was more than Castilian flesh and +blood could bear. Hernan was not present to maintain +his deed, but Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the +young companions of his exploit, galloped to the +king and earnestly begged permission to avenge the +degrading insult to their holy faith. The king, who +was as indignant as the knight, gave the desired +permission, and Garcilasso, closing his visor and +grasping his spear, rode out before the ranks and +defied the Moor to combat to the death.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tarfe asked nothing better, and an exciting passage +at arms took place on the plain with the two +armies as witnesses. Tarfe was the stronger of the +two, and the more completely armed. He was skilled +in the use of his weapons and dexterous in managing +his horse, and the Christians trembled for their +champion.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The warriors met in mid career with a furious +shock. Their lances were shivered, and Garcilasso +was borne back in his saddle. But his horse wheeled<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +away and he was quickly firm in his seat again, +sword in hand. Sword against scimitar, the combatants +returned to the encounter. The Moor rode +a trained horse, that obeyed his every signal. Round +the Christian he circled, seeking some opening for a +blow. But the smaller size of Garcilasso was made +equal by greater agility. Now he parried a blow +with his sword, now he received a furious stroke on +his shield. Each of the combatants before many +minutes felt the edge of the steel, and their blood +began to flow.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length the Moor, thinking his antagonist exhausted, +rushed in and grappled with him, using all +his force to fling him from his horse. Garcilasso +grasped him in return with all his strength, and +they fell together to the earth, the Moor uppermost. +Placing his knee on the breast of the Spaniard, +Tarfe drew his dagger and brandished it above his +throat. Terror filled the Christian ranks; a shout of +triumph rose from those of the Moors. But suddenly +Tarfe was seen to loosen his grasp and roll over in +the dust. Garcilasso had shortened his sword and, +as Tarfe raised his arm, had struck him to the heart.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rules of chivalry were rigidly observed. No +one interfered on either side. Garcilasso despoiled +his victim, raised the inscription "Ave Maria" on +the point of his sword, and bore it triumphantly +back, amid shouts of triumph from the Christian +army.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By this time the passions of the Moors were so +excited that they could not be restrained. They +made a furious charge upon the Spanish host, driving<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in its advanced ranks. The word to attack was +given the Spaniards in return, the war-cry "Santiago!" +rang along the line, and in a short time both +armies were locked in furious combat. The affair +ended in a repulse of the Moors, the foot-soldiers +taking to flight, and the cavalry vainly endeavoring +to rally them. They were pursued to the gates of the +city, more than two thousand of them being killed, +wounded, or taken prisoners in "the queen's skirmish," +as the affair came to be called.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc42" id="toc42"></a> +<a name="pdf43" id="pdf43"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1492, nearly eight centuries after the conquest +of Spain by the Arabs, their dominion ended in the +surrender of the city of Granada by King Boabdil +to the army of Ferdinand and Isabella. The empire +of the Arab Moors had shrunk, year by year and century +by century, before the steady advance of the +Christians, until only the small kingdom of Granada +remained. This, distracted by anarchy within and +assailed by King Ferdinand with all the arts of +statecraft and all the strength of arms, gradually +decreased in dimensions, city after city, district after +district, being lost, until only the single city of +Granada remained.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This populous and powerful city would have +proved very difficult to take by the ordinary methods +of war, and could only have been subdued with +great loss of life and expenditure of treasure. Ferdinand +assailed it by a less costly and more exasperating +method. Granada subsisted on the broad and +fertile vega or plain surrounding it, a region marvellously +productive in grain and fruits and rich in +cattle and sheep. It was a cold-blooded and cruel +system adopted by the Spanish monarch. He assailed +the city through the vega. Disregarding the +city, he marched his army into the plain at the time +of harvest and so thoroughly destroyed its growing<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +crops that the smiling and verdant expanse was left +a scene of frightful desolation. This was not accomplished +without sharp reprisals by the Moors, but the +Spaniard persisted until he had converted the fruitful +paradise into a hopeless desert, and then marched +away, leaving the citizens to a winter of despair.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next year he came again, encamped his army +near the city, destroyed what little verdure remained +near its walls, and waited calmly until famine and +anarchy should force the citizens to yield. He attempted +no siege. It was not necessary. He could +safely trust to his terrible allies. The crowded city +held out desperately while the summer passed and +autumn moved on to winter's verge, and then, with +famine stalking through their streets and invading +their homes, but one resource remained to the citizens,—surrender.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ferdinand did not wish to distress too deeply the +unhappy people. To obtain possession of the city +on any terms was the one thought then in his mind. +Harshness could come later, if necessary. Therefore, +on the 25th of November, 1492, articles of capitulation +were signed, under which the Moors of +Granada were to retain all their possessions, be protected +in their religious exercises, and governed by +their own laws, which were to be administered by +their own officials; the one unwelcome proviso being +that they should become subjects of Spain. To +Boabdil were secured all his rich estates and the patrimony +of the crown, while he was to receive in addition +thirty thousand castellanos in gold. Excellent +terms, one would say, in view of the fact that Granada<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was at the mercy of Ferdinand, and might soon +have been obliged to surrender unconditionally.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the night preceding the surrender doleful +lamentations filled the halls of the Alhambra, for +the household of Boabdil were bidding a last farewell +to that delightful abode. The most precious +effects were hastily packed upon mules, and with +tears and wailings the rich hangings and ornaments +of the beautiful apartments were removed. Day had +not yet dawned when a sorrowful cavalcade moved +through an obscure postern gate of the palace and +wound through a retired quarter of the city. It +was the family of the deposed monarch, which he +had sent off thus early to save them from possible +scoffs and insults.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sun had barely risen when three signal-guns +boomed from the heights of the Alhambra, and the +Christian army began its march across the vega. +To spare the feelings of the citizens it was decided +that the city should not be entered by its usual +gates, and a special road had been opened leading to +the Alhambra.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the head of the procession moved the king and +queen, with the prince and princesses and the dignitaries +and ladies of the court, attended by the +royal guards in their rich array. This cortege halted +at the village of Armilla, a league and a half from +the city. Meanwhile, Don Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, +Grand Cardinal of Spain, with an escort of +three thousand foot and a troop of cavalry, proceeded +towards the Alhambra to take possession of +that noblest work of the Moors. At their approach<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Boabdil left the palace by a postern gate attended +by fifty cavaliers, and advanced to meet the grand +cardinal, whom, in words of mournful renunciation, +he bade to take possession of the royal fortress of +the Moors. Then he passed sadly onward to meet +the sovereigns of Spain, who had halted awaiting +his approach, while the army stood drawn up on the +broad plain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the Spaniards waited in anxious hope, all eyes +fixed on the Alhambra heights, they saw the silver +cross, the great standard of this crusade, rise upon +the great watch-tower, where it sparkled in the sunbeams, +while beside it floated the pennon of St. +James, at sight of which a great shout of "Santiago! +Santiago!" rose from the awaiting host. Next rose +the royal standard, amid resounding cries of "Castile! +Castile! For King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella." +The sovereigns sank upon their knees, giving +thanks to God for their great victory, the whole +army followed their example, and the choristers of +the royal chapel broke forth into the solemn anthem +of "<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Te Deum laudamus</span></span>."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ferdinand now advanced to a point near the banks +of the Xenil, where he was met by the unfortunate +Boabdil. As the Moorish king approached he made +a movement to dismount, which Ferdinand prevented. +He then offered to kiss the king's hand. +This homage also, as previously arranged, was declined, +whereupon Boabdil leaned forward and kissed +the king's right arm. He then with a resigned mien +delivered the keys of the city.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"These keys," he said, "are the last relics of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Arabian empire in Spain. Thine, O king, are our +trophies, our kingdom, and our person. Such is the +will of God! Receive them with the clemency thou +hast promised, and which we look for at thy hands."</p> + +<a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image08.png" width="640" height="385" alt="Illustration: MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE." title="MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Doubt not our promises," said Ferdinand, kindly, +"nor that thou shalt regain from our friendship the +prosperity of which the fortune of war has deprived +thee."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then drawing from his finger a gold ring set with +a precious stone, Boabdil presented it to the Count +of Tendilla, who, he was informed, was to be governor +of the city, saying,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"With this ring Granada has been governed. Take +it and govern with it, and God make you more fortunate +than I."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He then proceeded to the village of Armilla, where +Queen Isabella remained. She received him with +the utmost courtesy and graciousness, and delivered +to him his son, who had been held as a hostage for +the fulfilment of the capitulation. Boabdil pressed +the child tenderly to his bosom, and moved on until +he had joined his family, from whom and their attendants +the shouts and strains of music of the victorious +army drew tears and moans.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length the weeping train reached the summit +of an eminence about two leagues distant which +commanded the last view of Granada. Here they +paused for a look of farewell at the beautiful and +beloved city, whose towers and minarets gleamed +brightly before them in the sunshine. While they +still gazed a peal of artillery, faint with distance, +told them that the city was taken possession of and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was lost to the Moorish kings forever. Boabdil +could no longer contain himself.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Allah achbar! God is great!" he murmured, +tears accompanying his words of resignation.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His mother, a woman of intrepid soul, was indignant +at this display of weakness.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You do well," she cried, "to weep like a woman +for what you failed to defend like a man."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Others strove to console the king, but his tears +were not to be restrained.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Allah achbar!" he exclaimed again; "when did +misfortunes ever equal mine?"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hill where this took place afterwards became +known as Feg Allah Achbar; but the point of view +where Boabdil obtained the last prospect of Granada +is called by the Spaniards "<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El ultimo suspiro del +Moro</span></span>" or "The last sigh of the Moor."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As Boabdil thus took his last look at beautiful +Granada, it behooves us to take a final backward +glance at Arabian Spain, from whose history we +have drawn so much of interest and romance. In +this hospitable realm civilization dwelt when few +traces of it existed elsewhere. Here luxury reigned +while barbarism prevailed widely in Europe. We +are told that in Cordova a man might walk ten +miles by the light of the public lamps, while centuries +afterwards there was not a single public lamp +in London streets. Its avenues were solidly paved, +while centuries afterwards the people of Paris, on +rainy days, stepped from their door-sills into mud +ankle-deep. The dwellings were marked by beauty +and luxury, while the people of Europe, as a rule<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in that semi-barbaric period, dwelt in miserable huts, +dressed in leather, and lived on the rudest and least +nutritive food.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rulers of France, England, and Germany +lived in rude buildings without chimneys or windows, +with a hole in the roof for the smoke to escape, +at a time when the royal halls of Arabian Spain +were visions of grace and beauty. The residences +of the Arabs had marble balconies overhanging +orange-gardens; their floors and walls were frequently +of rich and graceful mosaic; fountains +gushed in their courts, quicksilver often taking the +place of water, and falling in a glistening spray. In +summer cool air was drawn into the apartments +through ventilating towers; in winter warm and +perfumed air was discharged through hidden passages. +From the ceilings, corniced with fretted gold, +great chandeliers hung. Here were clusters of frail +marble columns, which, in the boudoirs of the sultanas, +gave way to verd-antique incrusted with lapis +lazuli. The furniture was of sandal- or citron-wood, +richly inlaid with gold, silver, or precious minerals. +Tapestry hid the walls, Persian carpets covered the +floors, pillows and couches of elegant forms were +spread about the rooms. Great care was given to +bathing and personal cleanliness at a time when such +a thought had not dawned upon Christian Europe. +Their pleasure-gardens were of unequalled beauty, +and were rich with flowers and fruits. In short, in +this brief space it is impossible to give more than a +bare outline of the marvellous luxury which surrounded +this people, recently come from the deserts<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Arabia, at a time when most of the remainder of +Europe was plunged into the rudest barbarism.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Much might be said of their libraries, their universities, +their scholars and scientists, and the magnificence +of their architecture, of which abundant +examples still remain in the cities of Spain, the Alhambra +of Granada, the palace which Boabdil so +reluctantly left, being almost without an equal for +lightness, grace, and architectural beauty in the +cities of the world. Well might the dethroned monarch +look back with bitter regret upon this rarest +monument of the Arabian civilization and give vent, +in farewell to its far-seen towers, to "The last sigh +of the Moor."</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a> +<a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the spring succeeding the fall of Granada there +came to Spain a glory and renown that made her +the envy of all the nations of Europe. During the +year before an Italian mariner, Christopher Columbus +by name, after long haunting the camp and +court of Ferdinand and Isabella, had been sent out +with a meagre expedition in the forlorn hope of discovering +new lands beyond the seas. In March, +1493, extraordinary tidings spread through the kingdom +and reached the ears of the monarchs at their +court in Barcelona. The tidings were that the poor +and despised mariner had returned to Palos with +wonderful tales of the discovery of a vast, rich realm +beyond the seas,—a mighty new empire for Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The marvellous news set the whole kingdom wild +with joy. The ringing of bells and solemn thanksgivings +welcomed Columbus at the port from which +he had set sail. On his journey to the king's court +his progress was impeded by the multitudes who +thronged to see the suddenly famous man,—the humble +mariner who had discovered for Spain what every +one already spoke of as a "New World." With him +he brought several of the bronze-hued natives of +that far land, dressed in their simple island costume, +and decorated, as they passed through the principal +cities, with collars, bracelets, and other ornaments<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of gold. He exhibited, also, gold in dust and in +shapeless masses, many new plants, some of them +of high medicinal value, several animals never before +seen in Europe, and birds whose brilliant plumage +attracted glances of delight from all eyes.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was mid-April when Columbus reached Barcelona. +The nobility and knights of the court met him +in splendid array and escorted him to the royal presence +through the admiring throngs that filled the +streets. Ferdinand and Isabella, with their son, +Prince John, awaited his arrival seated under a superb +canopy of state. On the approach of the discoverer +they rose and extended their hands to him +to kiss, not suffering him to kneel in homage. Instead, +they bade him seat himself before them,—a +mark of condescension to a person of his rank unknown +before in the haughty court of Castile. He +was, at that moment, "the man whom the king delighted +to honor," and it was the proudest period in +his life when, having proved triumphantly all for +which he had so long contended, he was honored as +the equal of the proud monarchs of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the request of the sovereigns Columbus gave +them a brief account of his adventures, in a dignified +tone, that warmed with enthusiasm as he proceeded. +He described the various tropical islands he had +landed upon, spoke with favor of their delightful +climate and the fertility of their soil, and exhibited +the specimens he had brought as examples of their +fruitfulness. He dwelt still more fully upon their +wealth in the precious metals, of which he had been +assured by the natives, and offered the gold he<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +brought with him as evidence. Lastly, he expatiated +on the opportunity offered for the extension +of the Christian religion through lands populous +with pagans,—a suggestion which appealed strongly +to the Spanish heart. When he ceased the king and +queen, with all present, threw themselves on their +knees and gave thanks to God, while the solemn +strains of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Te Deum</span></span> were poured forth by the +choir of the royal chapel.</p> + +<a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image09.png" width="640" height="436" alt="Illustration: RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA." title="RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Throughout his residence in Barcelona Columbus +continued to receive the most honorable distinction +from the Spanish sovereigns. When Ferdinand rode +abroad the admiral rode by his side. Isabella, the +true promoter of his expedition, treated him with +the most gracious consideration. The courtiers, +emulating their sovereigns, gave frequent entertainments +in his honor, treating him with the punctilious +deference usually shown only to a noble of the highest +rank. It cannot be said, however, that envy at +the high distinction shown this lately obscure and +penniless adventurer was quite concealed, and at one +of these entertainments is said to have taken place +the famous episode of the egg.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A courtier of shallow wit, with the purpose of +throwing discredit on the achievement of Columbus, +intimated that it was not so great an exploit after +all; all that was necessary was to sail west a certain +number of days; the lands lay there waiting to be +discovered. Were there not other men in Spain, +he asked, capable of this?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The response of Columbus was to take an egg and +ask those present to make it stand upright on its<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +end. After they had tried and failed he struck the +egg on the table, cracking the shell and giving it a +base on which to stand.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"But anybody could do that!" cried the critic.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Yes; and anybody can become a discoverer when +once he has been shown the way," retorted Columbus. +"It is easy to follow in a known track."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By this time all Europe had heard of the brilliant +discovery of the Genoese mariner, and everywhere +admiration at his achievement and interest in its results +were manifested. Europe had never been so +excited by any single event. The world was found +to be larger than had been dreamed of, and it was +evident that hundreds of new things remained to +be known. Word came to Barcelona that King +John of Portugal was equipping a large armament +to obtain a share of the new realms in the west, and +all haste was made to anticipate this dangerous rival +by sending Columbus again to the New World.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 25th of September, 1493, he set sail with a +gallant armament, which quite threw into the shade +his three humble caravels of the year before. It consisted +of seventeen vessels, some of them of large +size for that day, and fifteen hundred souls, including +several persons of rank, and members of the royal +household. Many of those that had taken part in +the Moorish war, stimulated by the love of adventure, +were to win fame in the coming years in the +conquest of the alluring realms of the West, and the +earliest of these sailed now under the banner of the +Great Admiral.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of Columbus is too familiar to readers<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for more to be said of it here. It was one in which +the boasted honor of the Spanish court was replaced +by injustice and lack of good faith. Envy and +malice surrounded the discoverer, and in 1500 he +was sent home in chains by an infamous governor. +The king, roused by a strong display of public indignation, +disavowed the base act of his agent, and +received Columbus again with a show of favor, but +failed to reinstate him in the office of which he had +been unjustly deprived. The discoverer of America +died at Valladolid in 1506, giving directions that the +fetters which he had once worn, and which he had +kept as evidence of Spanish ingratitude, should be +buried with him.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc48" id="toc48"></a> +<a name="pdf49" id="pdf49"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">PETER THE CRUEL AND THE FREE COMPANIES.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">About the middle of the year 1365 a formidable +expedition set out from France for the invasion of +Castile. It consisted of the celebrated Free Companies, +marauding bands of French and English +knights and archers whose allegiance was to the +sword, and who, having laid waste France, now +sought fresh prey in Spain. Valiant and daring +were these reckless freebooters, bred to war, living +on rapine, battle their delight, revel their relaxation. +For years the French and English Free +Companies had been enemies. Now a truce existed +between their princes, and they had joined hands +under the leadership of the renowned knight Bertrand +du Guesclin, at that time the most famous +soldier of France. Sir Hugh de Calverley headed the +English bands, known as the White Company, and +made up largely of men-at-arms, that is, of heavy +armed horsemen; but with a strong contingent of +the formidable English archers. The total force +comprised more than twelve thousand men.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You lead the life of robbers," said Du Guesclin +to them. "Every day you risk your lives in forays, +which yield you more blows than booty. I come to +propose an enterprise worthy of gallant knights and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to open to you a new field of action. In Spain both +glory and profit await you. You will there find a +rich and avaricious king who possesses great treasures, +and is the ally of the Saracens; in fact, is half a +pagan himself. We propose to conquer his kingdom +and to bestow it on the Count of Trastamara, an old +comrade of yours, a good lance, as you all know, and +a gentle and generous knight, who will share with +you his land when you win it for him from the Jews +and Moslems of that wicked king, Don Pedro. Come, +comrades, let us honor God and shame the devil."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Free Companies were ready at a word to follow +his banner. Among them were many knights +of noble birth who valued glory above booty, and +looked upon it as a worthy enterprise to dethrone a +cruel and wicked king, the murderer of his queen. +As for the soldiers, they cared not against whom +they fought, if booty was to be had.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Messire Bertrand," they said, "gives all that he +wins to his men-at-arms. He is the father of the +soldier. Let us march with him."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And so the bargain was made and the Free Companies +marched away, light of heart and strong of +hand, with a promising goal before them, and a +chance of abundance of fighting before they would +see their homes again.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Peter the Cruel, King of Castile and Leon, amply +deserved to be dethroned. His reign had been one +of massacre. All whom he suspected died by the +dagger of the assassin. He bitterly hated his two +half-brothers, Fadrique and Henry. Fadrique he +enticed to his court by a show of friendship, and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +then had him brutally murdered at the gate of his +palace, the Alcazar of Seville. But his treatment of +his queen was what made him specially odious to +his people. He married a French princess, Blanche +of Bourbon, but deserted her after two days to return +to his mistress, Maria de Pedilla. Blanche +was taken to Toledo, where she was so closely confined +that the people rose and rescued her from the +king's guards. Peter marched in anger against the +city, but its people defied him and kept the queen. +Then the crafty villain pretended sorrow and asked +for a reconciliation. The queen consented, went +back to him, and was quickly imprisoned in a strong +fortress, where she was murdered by his orders in +1361.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was this shameful act and the murder of his +brother Fadrique that roused the people to insurrection. +Henry of Trastamara, the remaining brother, +headed a revolt against the tyrant and invited the +Free Companies to his aid. These were the circumstances +that gave rise to the march of Du Guesclin +and Calverley and their battle-loving bands.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The adventurers wore crosses on their vests and +banners, as though they were a company of crusaders +raised in the service of the church. But in +truth they were under the ban of excommunication, +for they had no more spared the church than the +castle or the cottage. Du Guesclin, determined to +relieve them from this ban and force the Pope to +grant them absolution, directed his march upon +Avignon, the papal residence in France. It was not +only absolution he wanted. The papal coffers were<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +full; his military chest was empty; his soldiers +would not remain tractable unless well paid; the +church should have the privilege of aiding the army.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was with dismay that the people of Avignon +beheld the White Company encamp before their ramparts, +late in the year 1365. An envoy from the +Pope was sent in haste to their camp, with a promise +from the Holy Father that he would remove the ban +of excommunication if they would evacuate the territory +of the Church. The envoy's mission was a +dangerous one, for the fierce Free Companions had no +reverence for priest or pope. He had hardly crossed +the Rhone before he was confronted by a turbulent +band of English archers, who demanded if he had +brought money.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Money?" he asked, in faltering tones.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Ay, money!" they insolently cried, impeding his +passage.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On reaching Du Guesclin's tent he was treated +with more politeness, but was met with the same +demand.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"We cannot control our troops," said some of the +chiefs; "and, as they are ready to hazard their lives +for the greater glory of the faith, they well deserve +the aid of the Church."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The Holy Father will incur much danger if he +refuses the demand of our men," said Du Guesclin, +in smooth but menacing tones. "They have become +good Catholics in spite of themselves, and would +very readily return to their old trade."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Imminent as the danger was, the Pope resisted, +and tried to scare off that flock of reckless war-hawks<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by the thunders of papal condemnation. But +he soon learned that appeals and threats alike were +wasted on the Free Companies. From the windows +of his palace he could see groups of his unruly visitors +at work plundering farms and country houses. +Fires were here and there kindled. The rich lands +of Avignon were in danger of a general ravage.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"What can I do?" said Du Guesclin to the complaints +of the people. "My soldiers are excommunicated. +The devil is in them, and we are no longer +their masters."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Evidently there was but one way to get rid of this +irreligious crew. The chiefs agreed to be satisfied +with five thousand golden florins. This sum was +paid, and the knights companions, laden with plunder +and absolved from their sins, set out in the highest +spirits, singing the praises of their captain and +the joys of war. Such was their farewell to France.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Onward they marched, across the Pyrenees and +into Aragon, whose king had joined with Henry of +Trastamara in requesting their presence. They were +far from welcome to the people of this region of +Spain. Pedro IV. of Aragon had agreed to pay +them one hundred thousand golden florins on condition +that they should pass through his dominions +without disorder; but the adventurers, imagining +that they were already in the enemy's country, began +their usual service of fire and sword. In Barbastro +they pillaged the houses, killed the burghers +or tortured them to extort ransom, and set fire to a +church in which some had taken refuge, burning +alive more than two hundred persons.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If such was the course of these freebooting bands +in the country of their friends, what would it be in +that of their foes? Every effort was made to get +them out of the country as soon as possible. Immediate +action was needed, for the warlike mountaineers +were beginning to revenge the robberies of +the adventurers by waylaying their convoys and +killing their stragglers. In early March, 1366, the +frontier was passed, Sir Hugh de Calverley leading +his men against Borja, a town of Aragon which was +occupied by soldiers of Castile.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The garrison fled on their approach, and soon the +army entered Castile and marched upon Calahorra, +a town friendly to Prince Henry, and which opened +its gates at sight of their banners. Here an interesting +ceremony took place. Du Guesclin and the +other leaders of the Free Companies, with as much +assurance as if they had already conquered Castile, +offered Henry the throne.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Take the crown," said the burly leader. "You +owe this honor to the many noble knights who have +elected you their leader in this campaign. Don +Pedro, your enemy, has refused to meet you in the +battle-field, and thus acknowledges that the throne +of Castile is vacant."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Henry held back. He felt that these foreigners +had not the crown of Castile in their gift. But +when the Castilians present joined in the demand he +yielded, and permitted them to place the crown upon +his head. His chief captain at once unfurled the +royal standard, and passed through the camp, crying, +"Castile for King Henry! Long live King<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Henry!" Then, amid loud acclamations, he planted +the banner on the crest of a hill on the road to +Burgos.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We need not delay on the events of this campaign. +Everywhere the people of Castile fell away from +their cruel king, and Henry's advance was almost +unopposed. Soon he was in Burgos, and Don Pedro +had become a fugitive without an army and almost +without a friend. Henry was now again crowned +king, many of the Castilian nobles taking part in +the imposing ceremony.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first acts of the new king were to recompense +the men who had raised him to that high office. +The money which he found in the treasury served +as a rich reward to the followers of Du Guesclin. +He gave titles of nobility and grants of land with a +free hand to the chiefs of the Free Companies and +his other companions in arms. On Du Guesclin he +conferred his own countship of Trastamara, and +added to it the lordship of Molino, with the domains +appertaining to both. Calverley was made Count +of Carrion, and received the domains which had +formerly been held by the sons-in-law of the Cid. +Lesser rewards were given to lesser chiefs, and none +had reason to accuse Henry of Castile of want of +generosity.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the Free Companions soon became a sword in +the side of the new king. As there was no more +fighting to be done, they resumed their old occupation +of pillaging, and from every side complaints +rained in upon the throne. Henry felt it necessary +to get rid of his unruly friends with all despatch.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Retaining Du Guesclin and Calverley in his service, +with fifteen hundred lances, mainly French and +Breton, he dismissed the remainder, placating them +with rich presents and warm thanks. Nothing loath, +and gratified that they had avenged the murdered +Queen Blanche, they took their way back, finding +abundant chance for fighting on their return. The +Castilians, the Navarrese, and the Aragonese all +rose against them, and everywhere they had to force +a passage with their swords. But nothing could +stop them. Spain, accustomed to fight with Arabs +and Moors, had no warriors fit to face these intrepid +and heavily armed veterans. Through the Pyrenees +they made their way, and here cut a road with their +swords through the main body of a French army +which had gathered to oppose their march. Once +more they were upon the soil of France.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the English and Gascon bands that were +principally opposed. It was known that the Black +Prince was preparing to invade Spain, and an effort +was made to cut off the free lances who might enlist +under his banners. This famous knight, son of +Edward III. of England, and victor at the battle +of Poitiers, where he had taken prisoner the king +of France, was a cousin of the fugitive king of +Castile, who sought him at Cape Breton, and begged +his aid to recover his dominions. The chivalrous +prince of Wales knew little of the dastardly deeds of +the suppliant. Don Pedro had brought with him his +three young maiden daughters, whose helpless state +appealed warmly to the generous knight. National +policy accorded with the inclination of the prince,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for the Castilian revolution had been promoted by +France, and the usurper had been in the pay of the +French king. These inducements were enough to +win for Don Pedro the support of Edward III., and +the aid of the Black Prince, who entered upon the +enterprise with the passionate enthusiasm which +was a part of his nature.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soon again two armies were in the field, that of +King Henry, raised to defend his new dominions, +and that of the Prince of Wales, gathered to replace +the fugitive Don Pedro upon the throne. With the +latter was the White Company, which had aided to +drive Pedro from his seat and was now equally ready +to replace him there. These bold lancers and archers +fought for their own hands, with little care whose +cause they backed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was through the valley of Roncesvalles, that +celebrated pass which was associated with the name +of the famous Roland, the chief knight of French +romance, that the army of the Black Prince made +its way into Spain. Calverley, who was not willing +to fight against his liege lord, joined him with his +lances, King Henry generously consenting. Du +Guesclin, a veteran in the art of war, advised the +Castilian king to employ a Fabian policy, harassing +the invaders by skirmishes, drawing them deep into +the country, and wearing them out with fatigue and +hunger. He frankly told him that his men could +not face in a pitched battle the English veterans, led +by such a soldier as the Black Prince. But the policy +suggested would have been hazardous in Castile, divided +as it was between two parties. Henry remembered<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that his rival had lost the kingdom through +not daring to risk a battle, and he determined to +fight for his throne, trusting his cause to Providence +and the strength of his arms.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was in the month of April, 1367, that the two +armies came face to face on a broad plain. They +were fairly matched in numbers, and as day broke +both marched resolutely to the encounter, amid +opposing shouts of "King Henry for Castile" and +"St. George and Guyenne." It was a hard, fierce, +bitter struggle that followed, in which the onset of +Du Guesclin was so impetuous as for a moment to +break the English line. But the end was at hand +when the Castilian cavalry broke in panic before the +charge of an English squadron, which turned Du +Guesclin's battalion and took it in flank. The Captal +de Buch at the same time fell on the flank of the +Castilian vanguard. Thus beset and surrounded, the +French and Spanish men-at-arms desperately sought +to hold their own against much superior numbers. +King Henry fought valiantly, and called on all to +rally round his standard. But at length the banner +fell, the disorder grew general, the ranks broke, and +knights and foot-soldiers joined in a tumultuous +retreat.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Their only hope now was the bridge of Najera, +over the Najerilla, which stream lay behind their +line. Some rushed for the bridge, others leaped into +the river, which became instantly red with blood, +for the arrows of the archers were poured into the +crowded stream. Only the approach of night, the +fatigue of the victors, and the temptation to plunder<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the town and the camp saved the wreck of the Castilian +army, which had lost seven thousand foot-soldiers +and some six hundred men-at-arms. Du +Guesclin's battalion, which alone had made a gallant +stand, was half slain. A large number of prisoners +were taken, among them the valorous Du Guesclin +himself.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Edward the Black Prince now first learned the +character of the man whom he had come to aid. +Don Pedro galloped excitedly over the plain seeking +his rival, and, chancing to meet Lopez de Orozco, +one of his former friends, now the prisoner of a +Gascon knight, he stabbed him to the heart, despite +the efforts of the Gascon in his defence. The report +of this murder filled the Black Prince with indignation, +which was heightened when Don Pedro offered +to ransom all the Castilian prisoners, plainly indicating +that he intended to murder them. Prince +Edward sternly refused, only consenting to deliver +up certain nobles who had been declared traitors +before the revolution. These Don Pedro immediately +had beheaded before his tent.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The breach between the allies rapidly widened, +Don Pedro, as soon as he fairly got possession of the +throne, breaking all his engagements with the Black +Prince, while he was unable, from the empty state +of his treasury, to pay the allied troops. Four +months Prince Edward waited, with growing indignation, +for redress, while disease was rapidly carrying +off his men, and then marched in anger from +Spain with scarcely a fifth of the proud array with +which he had won the battle of Najera.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The restored king soon justified his title of Peter +the Cruel by a series of sanguinary executions, murdering +all of the adherents of his rival on whom he +could lay his hands. In this thirst for revenge not +even women escaped, and at length he committed an +act which aroused the indignation of the whole kingdom. +Don Alfonso de Guzman had refused to follow +the king into exile. He now kept out of his reach, +but his mother, Doña Urraca de Osorio, fell into the +hands of the monster, and was punished for being +the mother of a rebel by being burned alive on the +ramparts of Seville.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These excesses of cruelty roused a rebellious sentiment +throughout Castile, of which Henry, who +had escaped to Aragon from the field of Najera, took +advantage. Supplied with money by the king of +France, he purchased arms and recruited soldiers, +many of the French and Castilians who had been +taken prisoners at Najera and been released on parole +joining him in hopes of winning the means of paying +their ransoms. Crossing the Ebro, he marched upon +Calahorra, in which the year before he had been +proclaimed king. Here numerous volunteers joined +him, and at the head of a considerable force he +marched upon Burgos, which surrendered after a +faint show of resistance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During the winter the campaign continued, Leon, +Madrid, and other towns being captured, and in the +spring of 1368 all northern Castile was in Henry's +hands. Don Pedro, whose army was small, had +entered into alliance with the Moorish king of +Granada, who sent him an army of thirty-five thousand<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +men, with which force a vigorous attack was +made on the city of Cordova,—a holy city in the +eyes of the Moors. Among its defenders was Don +Alfonso de Guzman, whose mother had been burned +to death. The defence was obstinate, but the Moors +at length made breaches in the walls. They were +about to pour into the city when the women, mad +with fear, rushed into the streets with cries and +moans, now reproaching the men-at-arms with cowardice, +now begging them with sobs and tears to +make a last effort to save the city from the brutal +infidels.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This appeal gave new courage to the Christians. +They rushed on the Moors with the fury of despair, +drove them from the posts they had taken, hurled +them from the ramparts, tore down the black flags +which already waved on the towers, and finally expelled +them from the breaches and the walls in a +panic. The breaches were repaired and the city was +saved. In a few days the Moors, thoroughly disheartened +by their repulse, dispersed, and Don Pedro +lost his allies.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, Henry was engaged in the siege of +Toledo, the strongest place in the kingdom, and before +which he persistently lay for months, despite +all allurements to use his forces in other directions. +Here Bertrand du Guesclin, who had been ransomed +by the Black Prince, joined him with a force of +some six hundred men-at-arms, all picked men; and +hither, in March, 1369, Don Pedro marched to the +city's relief at the head of a strong army.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Henry, on learning of this movement, at once<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +gathered all the forces he could spare from the siege, +three thousand men-at-arms in all, and hastened to +intercept his rival on the march. Not dreaming of +such a movement, Don Pedro had halted at Montiel, +where his men lay dispersed, in search of food and +forage, over a space of several leagues. They were +attacked at daybreak, their surprise being so complete +that the main body was at once put to flight, +while each division was routed as soon as it appeared. +Henry's forces suffered almost no loss, and within an +hour's time his rival's kingdom was reduced to the +castle of Montiel, in which he had taken refuge with +a few of his followers.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leaving the defeated army to take care of itself, +Henry devoted himself to the siege of the castle, +within whose poorly fortified walls lay the prize for +which he fought. Escape was impossible, and the +small supply of provisions would soon be exhausted. +Don Pedro's only hope was to bribe some of his foes. +He sent an agent to Du Guesclin, offering him a rich +reward in gold and lands if he would aid in his escape. +Du Guesclin asked for time to consider, and +immediately informed Henry of the whole transaction. +He was at once offered a richer reward than +Pedro had promised if he would entice the king out +of the castle, and after some hesitation and much +persuasion he consented.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the night of March 23, ten days after the +battle, Don Pedro, accompanied by several of his +knights, secretly left the fortress, the feet of their +horses being bound with cloth to deaden the sound +of hoofs. The sentinels, who had been instructed<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in advance, allowed them to pass, and they approached +the camp of the French adventurers, where +Du Guesclin was waiting to receive them.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"To horse, Messire Bertrand," said the king, in a +low voice; "it is time to set out."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No answer was returned. This silence frightened +Don Pedro. He attempted to spring into his saddle, +but he was surrounded, and a man-at-arms held the +bridle of his horse. An officer asked him to wait in +a neighboring tent. Resistance was impossible, and +he silently obeyed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here he found himself encompassed by a voiceless +group, through whose lines, after a few minutes of +dread suspense, a man in full armor advanced. It +was Henry of Trastamara, who now faced his brother +for the first time in fifteen years. He gazed +with searching eyes upon Don Pedro and his followers.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Where is this bastard," he harshly asked, "this +Jew who calls himself King of Castile?"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"There stands your enemy," said a French esquire, +pointing to Don Pedro.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Henry gazed at him fixedly. So many years had +elapsed that he failed to recognize him easily.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Yes, it is I," exclaimed Don Pedro, "I, the King +of Castile. All the world knows that I am the legitimate +son of good King Alfonso. It is thou that +art the bastard."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this insult Henry drew his dagger and struck +the speaker a light blow in the face. They were in +too close a circle to draw their swords, and in mortal +fury they seized each other by the waist and struggled +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +furiously, the men around drawing back and no +one attempting to interfere.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After a brief period the wrestling brothers fell on +a camp bed in a corner of the tent, Don Pedro, who +was the stronger, being uppermost. While he felt +desperately for a weapon with which to pierce his +antagonist, one of those present seized him by the +foot and threw him on one side, so that Henry found +himself uppermost. Popular tradition says that it +was Du Guesclin's hand that did this act, and that +he cried, "I neither make nor unmake kings, but I +serve my lord;" but some writers say it was the +Viscount de Rocaberti, of Aragon.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However that be, Henry at once took advantage +of the opportunity, picked up his dagger, lifted +the king's coat of mail, and plunged the weapon +again and again into his side. Only two of Don +Pedro's companions sought to defend him, and they +were killed on the spot. Henry had his brother's +head at once cut off, and despatched the gruesome +relic to Seville.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus perished, by an uncalled-for act of treachery +on the part of Du Guesclin, for the castle must soon +have surrendered, one of the most bloodthirsty kings +who ever sat upon a throne. Don Fadrique, his +brother, and Blanche of Bourbon, his wife, both of +whom he had basely murdered, were at length +avenged. Henry ascended the throne as Henry II., +and for years reigned over Castile with a mild and +just rule that threw still deeper horror upon the +bloody career of him who is known in history as +Peter the Cruel.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc50" id="toc50"></a> +<a name="pdf51" id="pdf51"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE GREAT CAPTAIN.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The long and bitter war for the conquest of Granada +filled Spain with trained soldiers and skilful +leaders, men who had seen service on a hundred +fields, grim, daring veterans, without their equals in +Europe. The Spanish foot-soldiers of that day were +inflexibly resolute, the cavalry were skilled in the +brilliant tactics of the Moors, and the leaders were +men experienced in all the arts of war. These were +the soldiers who in the New World overthrew empires +with a handful of adventurers, and within a fraction +of a century conquered a continent for Spain. In +Europe they were kept actively employed. Charles +VIII. of France, moved by ambition and thirst for +glory, led an army of invasion into Italy. He was +followed in this career of foreign conquest by his +successor, Louis XII. The armies of France were +opposed by those of Spain, led by the greatest soldier +of the age, Gonsalvo de Cordova, a man who +had learned the art of war in Granada, but in Italy +showed such brilliant and remarkable powers that +he gained the distinguishing title of the Great Captain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These wars were stretched out over years, and the +most we can do is to give some of their interesting +incidents. In 1502 the Great Captain lay in the +far south of Italy, faced by a more powerful French<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +army under the Duke of Nemours, a young nobleman +not wanting in courage, but quite unfit to cope +with the experienced veteran before him. Gonsalvo, +however, was in no condition to try conclusions with +his well-appointed enemy. His little corps was destitute +of proper supplies, the men had been so long +unpaid that they were mutinous, he had pleaded for +reinforcements in vain, and the most he could do was +to concentrate his small force in the seaport of Barleta +and the neighboring strongholds, and make the +best show he could in the face of his powerful foe.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The war now declined into foraging inroads on +the part of the French, in which they swept the +flocks and herds from the fertile pastures, and into +guerilla operations on the part of the Spanish, who +ambushed and sought to cut off the detached troops +of the enemy. But more romantic encounters occasionally +took place. The knights on both sides, +full of the spirit of chivalry, and eager to prove their +prowess, defied one another to jousts and tourneys, +and for the time being brought back a state of warfare +then fast passing away.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most striking of these meetings arose from +the contempt with which the French knights spoke +of the cavalry of their enemy, which they declared to +be far inferior to their own. This insult, when told +to the proud knights of Gonsalvo's army, brought +from them a challenge to the knights of France, +and a warlike meeting between eleven Spanish and +as many French warriors was arranged. A fair +field was offered the combatants in the neutral territory +under the walls of the Venetian city of Trani,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and on the appointed day a gallant array of well-armed +knights of both parties appeared to guard the +lists and maintain the honor of the tournament.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Spectators crowded the roofs and battlements of +Trani, while the lists were thronged with French and +Spanish cavaliers, who for the time laid aside their +enmity in favor of national honor and a fair fight. +At the fixed hour the champions rode into the lists, +armed at all points, and their horses richly caparisoned +and covered with steel panoply. Among those +on the Castilian side were Diego de Paredes and +Diego de Vera, men who had won renown in the +Moorish wars. Most conspicuous on the other side +was the good knight Pierre de Bayard, the chevalier +"<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sans peur et sans reproche</span></span>," who was then entering +upon his famous career.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the sound of the signal trumpets the hostile +parties rushed to the encounter, meeting in the +centre of the lists with a shock that hurled three of +the Spaniards from their saddle, while four of their +antagonists' horses were slain. The fight, which +began at ten in the morning, and was to end at sunset, +if not concluded before, was prosecuted with +great fury and varied success. Long before the +hour of closing all the French were dismounted except +the Chevalier Bayard and one of his companions, +their horses, at which the Spaniards had +specially aimed, being disabled or slain. Seven of +the Spaniards were still on horseback, and pressed +so hard upon their antagonists that the victory +seemed safely theirs.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Bayard and his comrade bravely held their<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +own, while the others, intrenched behind their dead +horses, defended themselves vigorously with sword +and shield, the Spaniards vainly attempting to spur +their terrified horses over the barrier. The fight +went on in this way until the sun sank below the +horizon, when, both parties still holding the field, +neither was given the palm of victory, all the combatants +being declared to have proved themselves +good and valiant knights.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Both parties now met in the centre of the lists, +where the combatants embraced as true companions +in chivalry, "making good cheer together" before +they separated. But the Great Captain did not receive +the report of the result with favor.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"We have," said one of his knights, "disproved +the taunts of the Frenchmen, and shown ourselves +as good horsemen as they."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I sent you for better," Gonsalvo coldly replied.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A second combat in which the Chevalier Bayard +was concerned met with a more tragic termination. +A Spanish cavalier, Alonzo de Sotomayor, complained +that Bayard had treated him uncourteously +while holding him prisoner. Bayard denied the +charge, and defied the Spaniard to prove it by force +of arms, on horse or on foot, as he preferred. Sotomayor, +well knowing Bayard's skill as a horseman, +challenged him to a battle on foot <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à l'outrance</span></span>, or "to +the death."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the appointed time the two combatants entered +the lists, armed with sword and dagger and in complete +armor, though wearing their visors up. For<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a few minutes both knelt in silent prayer. They +then rose, crossed themselves, and advanced to the +combat, "the good knight Bayard," we are told, +"moving as light of step as if he were going to lead +some fair lady down the dance."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bayard was the smaller man of the two, and still +felt weakness from a fever which had recently prostrated +him. The Spaniard, taking advantage of this, +sought to crush him by the weight of his blows, or +to close with him and bring him to the ground by +dint of his superior strength. But the lightness and +agility of the French knight enabled him to avoid +the Spaniard's grasp, while, by skill with the sword, +he parried his enemy's strokes, and dealt him an +occasional one in return.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length, the Spaniard having exposed himself +to attack by an ill-directed blow, Bayard got in so +sharp a thrust on the gorget that it gave way, and +the point of the blade entered his throat. Maddened +by the pain of the wound, Sotomayor leaped furiously +on his antagonist and grasped him in his arms, +both rolling on the ground together. While thus +clasped in fierce struggle Bayard, who had kept his +poniard in his left hand throughout the fight, while +his enemy had left his in his belt, drove the steel +home under his eye with such force that it pierced +through his brain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the victor sprang to his feet, the judges awarded +him the honors of the day, and the minstrels began +to pour forth triumphant strains in his honor. The +good knight, however, bade them desist, as it was +no time for gratulation when a good knight lay dead,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and, first kneeling and returning grateful thanks for +his victory, he walked slowly from the lists, saying +that he was sorry for the result of the combat, and +wished, since his honor was saved, that his antagonist +had lived.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these passages at arms we discern the fading +gleam of the spirit of mediæval chivalry, soon to +vanish before the new art of war. Rough and violent +as were these displays as compared with the +pastimes of later days, the magnificence with which +they were conducted, and the manifestations of +knightly honor and courtesy which attended them, +threw something of grace and softness over an age +in which ferocity was the ruling spirit.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, the position of the little garrison of +Barleta grew daily worse. No help came, the +French gradually occupied the strongholds of the +neighboring country, and a French fleet in the Adriatic +stood seriously in the way of the arrival of stores +and reinforcements. But the Great Captain maintained +his cheerfulness through all discouragement, +and sought to infuse his spirit into the hearts of his +followers. His condition would have been desperate +with an able opponent, but he perfectly understood +the character of the French commander and patiently +bided his time.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The opportunity came. The French, weary of the +slow game of blockade, marched from their quarters +and appeared before the walls of Barleta, bent on +drawing the garrison from the "old den" and deciding +the affair in a pitched battle. The Duke of +Nemours sent a trumpet into the town to defy the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Great Captain to the encounter, but the latter coolly +sent back word,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It is my custom to choose my own time and +place for fighting, and I would thank the Duc de +Nemours to wait till my men have time to shoe their +horses and burnish up their arms."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The duke waited a few days, then, finding that he +could not decoy his wily foe from the walls, broke +camp and marched back, proud of having flaunted +a challenge in the face of the enemy. He knew not +Gonsalvo. The French had not gone far before the +latter opened the gates and sent out his whole force +of cavalry, under Diego de Mendoza, with two corps +of infantry, in rapid pursuit. Mendoza was so eager +that he left the infantry in the rear, and fell on the +French before they had got many miles away.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A lively skirmish followed, though of short duration, +Mendoza quickly retiring, pursued by the +French rear-guard, whose straggling march had detached +it from the main body of the army. Mendoza's +feigned retreat soon brought him back to the +infantry columns, which closed in on the enemy's +flanks, while the flying cavalry wheeled in the rapid +Moorish style and charged their pursuers boldly in +front. All was now confusion in the French ranks. +Some resisted, but the greater part, finding themselves +entrapped, sought to escape. In the end, +nearly all who did not fall on the field were carried +prisoners to Barleta, under whose walls Gonsalvo +had drawn up his whole army, in readiness to support +Mendoza if necessary. The whole affair had +passed so quickly that Nemours knew nothing of it<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +until the bulk of his rear-guard were safely lodged +within the walls of the Spanish stronghold.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This brilliant success proved the turning-point in +the tide of the war. A convoy of transports soon +after reached Barleta, bringing in an abundance of +provisions, and the Spaniards, restored in health +and spirits, looked eagerly for some new enterprise. +Nemours having incautiously set out on a distant +expedition, Gonsalvo at once fell on the town of +Ruvo and took it by storm, in spite of a most obstinate +defence. On April 28, 1503, Gonsalvo, strengthened +by reinforcements, finally left the stronghold +of Barleta, where he and his followers had suffered +so severely and shown such indomitable constancy. +Reaching Cerignola, about sixteen miles from Barleta, +he awaited the advancing army of the French, +rapidly intrenching the ground, which was well +suited for defence. Before these works were completed, +Nemours and his army appeared, and, though +it was near nightfall, made an immediate attack. +The commander was incited to this by taunts on +his courage from some hot-headed subordinates, to +whom he weakly gave way, saying, "We will fight +to-night, then; and perhaps those who vaunt the +loudest will be found to trust more to their spurs +than to their swords,"—a prediction which was to +prove true.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the battle, it must suffice to say that the +trenches dug by the Spaniards fatally checked the +French advance, and in the effort to find a passage +Nemours fell mortally wounded. Soon the French +lines were in confusion, the Spanish arquebusiers<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pouring a galling fire into their dense masses. Perceiving +the situation, Gonsalvo ordered a general +advance, and, leaping their intrenchments, the Spaniards +rushed in fury on their foes, most of whose +leaders had fallen. Panic succeeded, and the flying +French were cut down almost without resistance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next morning the Great Captain passed over +the field of battle, where lay more than three thousand +of the French, half their entire force. The +loss of the Spaniards was very small, and all the artillery, +the baggage, and most of the colors of the +enemy were in their hands. Rarely had so complete +a victory been gained in so brief a time, the battle +being hardly more than one hour in duration. The +body of the unfortunate Duke of Nemours was found +under a heap of the slain, much disfigured and bearing +the marks of three wounds. Gonsalvo was affected +to tears at the sight of the mutilated body of +his young and gallant adversary, who, though unfitted +to head an army, had always proved himself a +valiant knight. During the following month Gonsalvo +entered Naples, the main prize of the war, +where he was received with acclamations of joy and +given the triumph which his brilliant exploits so +richly deserved.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The work of the Great Captain was not yet at an +end. Finding that his forces were being defeated in +every encounter and the cities held by them captured, +Louis XII. sent a large army to their relief, and late +in the year 1503 the hostile forces came face to face +again, Gonsalvo being forced by the exigencies of +the campaign to encamp in a deplorable situation, a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +region of swamp, which had been converted by the +incessant rains into a mere quagmire. The French +occupied higher ground and were much more comfortably +situated. But Gonsalvo refused to move. +He was playing his old waiting game, knowing that +the French dared not attack his intrenched camp, +and that time would work steadily in his favor.</p> + +<a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image10.png" width="640" height="408" alt="Illustration: GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS." title="GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It is indispensable to the public service to maintain +our present position," he said to the officers who +appealed to him to move; "and be assured, I would +sooner march forward two steps, though it would +bring me to my grave, than fall back one, to gain a +hundred years of life."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After that there were no more appeals. Gonsalvo's +usual cheerfulness was maintained, infusing spirit +into his men in all the inconveniences of their situation. +He had a well-planned object in view. The +hardy Spaniards, long used to rough campaigning, +bore their trying position with unyielding resolution. +The French, on the contrary, largely new recruits, +grew weary and mutinous, while sickness broke out +in their ranks and increased with alarming rapidity.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At length Gonsalvo's day came. His opponent, +not dreaming of an attack, had extended his men +over a wide space. On the night of December 28, +in darkness and storm, the Spanish army broke +camp, marched to the river that divided the forces, +silently threw a bridge across the stream, and were +soon on its opposite side. Here they fell like a +thunderbolt on the unsuspecting and unprepared +French, who were soon in disordered retreat, hotly +pursued by their foes, their knights vainly attempting<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to check the enemy. Bayard had three horses killed +under him, and was barely rescued from death by a +friend. So utterly were the French beaten that +their discouraged garrisons gave up town after town +without a blow, and that brilliant night's work not +only ended the control of France over the kingdom +of Naples, but filled Louis XII. with apprehension +of losing all his possessions in Italy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such were the most brilliant exploits of the man +who well earned the proud title of the Great Captain. +He was as generous in victory as vigorous in battle, +and as courteous and genial with all he met as if he +had been a courtier instead of a soldier. In the end, +his striking and unbroken success in war aroused the +envy and jealousy of King Ferdinand, and after the +return of Gonsalvo to Spain the unjust monarch +kept him in retirement till his death, putting smaller +men at the head of his armies rather than permit the +greatest soldier of the century to throw his own +exploits more deeply into the shade.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc53" id="toc53"></a> +<a name="pdf54" id="pdf54"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A KING IN CAPTIVITY.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two great rivals were on the thrones of France +and Spain,—Francis I., who came to power in France +in 1515, and Charles I., who became king of Spain in +1516. In 1519 they were rivals for the imperial +power in Germany. Charles gained the German +throne, being afterwards known as the emperor +Charles V., and during the remainder of their reigns +these rival monarchs were frequently at war. A +league was formed against the French king by +Charles V., Henry VIII. of England, and Pope Leo +X., as a result of which the French were driven from +the territory of Milan, in Italy. In 1524 they were +defeated at the battle of Sesia, the famous Chevalier +Bayard here falling with a mortal wound; and in +1525 they met with a more disastrous defeat at the +battle of Pavia, whose result is said to have +caused Francis to write to his mother, "<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Madame, +tout est perdu fors l'honneur</span></span>" ("All is lost but honor").</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reason for these words may be briefly given. +Francis was besieging Pavia, with hopes of a speedy +surrender, when the forces of Charles marched to +its relief. The most experienced French generals +advised the king to retire, but he refused. He had +said he would take Pavia or perish in the attempt, +and a romantic notion of honor held him fast. The +result was ruinous, as may be expected where sentiment<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +outweighs prudence. Strongly as the French +were intrenched, they were broken and put to rout, +and soon there was no resistance except where the +king obstinately continued to fight.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Wounded in several places, and thrown from his +horse, which was killed under him, Francis defended +himself on foot with heroic valor, while the group +of brave officers who sought to save his life, one +after another, lost their own. At length, exhausted +with his efforts, and barely able to wield his sword, +the king was left almost alone, exposed to the fierce +assault of some Spanish soldiers, who were enraged +by his obstinacy and ignorant of his rank.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this moment a French gentleman named Pomperant, +who had entered the service of Spain, recognized +the struggling king and hurried to his aid, +helping to keep off the assailants, and begging him +to surrender to the Duke of Bourbon, who was close +at hand. Great as was the peril, Francis indignantly +refused to surrender to a rebel and traitor, as he +held Bourbon to be, and calling to Lannoy, a general +in the imperial army who was also near by, he gave +up his sword to him. Lannoy, recognizing his prisoner, +received the sword with a show of the deepest +respect, and handed the king his own in return, +saying,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It does not become so great a monarch to remain +disarmed in the presence of one of the emperor's +subjects."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The lack of prudence in Francis had proved serious +not only to himself, but to his troops, ten +thousand of whom fell, among them many distinguished<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +nobles who preferred death to dishonor. +Numbers of high rank were taken prisoners, among +them the king of Navarre. In two weeks not a +Frenchman remained in Italy. The gains from +years of war had vanished in a single battle.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tidings of the captivity of the French king +filled France with consternation and Spain with delight, +while to all Europe it was an event of the +deepest concern, for all the nations felt the danger +that might arise from the ambition of the powerful +emperor of Spain and Germany. Henry VIII. requested +that Francis should be delivered to him, as +an ally of Spain, though knowing well that such a +demand would not gain a moment's consideration. +As for Italy, it was in terror lest it should be overrun +by the imperial armies.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Francis, whom Lannoy held with great respect, +but with the utmost care to prevent an escape, +hoped much from the generosity of Charles, whose +disposition he judged from his own. But Charles +proposed to weaken his enemy and refused to set him +free unless he would renounce all claims upon Italy, +yield the provinces of Provence and Dauphiné to +form a kingdom for the Constable Bourbon, and give +up Burgundy to Germany. On hearing these severe +conditions, Francis, in a transport of rage, drew his +dagger, exclaiming,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It were better that a king should die thus!"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A by-stander arrested the thrust; but, though +Francis soon regained his composure, he declared +that he would remain a prisoner for life rather than +purchase liberty at such a price to his country.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thinking that these conditions came from the +Spanish council, and not from Charles himself, +Francis now became anxious to visit the emperor in +Spain, hoping to soften him in a personal interview. +He even furnished the galleys for that purpose, +Charles at that time being too poor to fit out a +squadron, and soon the spectacle was seen of a captive +monarch sailing in his own ships past his own +dominions, of which he had a distant and sorrowful +view, to a land in which he was to suffer the indignities +of prison life.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Landing at Barcelona, Francis was taken to +Madrid and lodged in the alcazar, under the most +vigilant guard. He soon found that he had been far +too hasty in trusting to the generosity of his captor. +Charles, on learning of his captivity, had made +a politic show of sympathy and feeling, but on getting +his rival fully into his hands manifested a plain +intention of forcing upon him the hardest bargain +possible. Instead of treating his prisoner with the +courtesy due from one monarch to another, he +seemed to seek by rigorous usage to force from him +a great ransom.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The captive king was confined in an old castle, +under a keeper of such formal austerity of manners +as added to the disgust of the high-spirited French +monarch. The only exercise allowed him was to +ride on a mule, surrounded by armed guards on +horseback. Though Francis pressingly solicited an +interview, Charles suffered several weeks to pass +before going near him. These indignities made so +deep an impression on the prisoner that his natural<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lightness of temper deserted him, and after a period +of deep depression he fell into a dangerous fever, in +which he bitterly complained of the harshness with +which he had been treated, and said that the emperor +would now have the satisfaction of having his +captive die on his hands.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The physicians at length despaired of his life, and +informed Charles that they saw no hope of his recovery +unless he was granted the interview he so +deeply desired. This news put the emperor into a +quandary. If Francis should die, all the advantage +gained from the battle of Pavia would be lost. And +there were clouds in the sky elsewhere. Henry +VIII. had concluded a treaty of alliance with Queen +Louise, regent of France, and engaged to use all his +efforts for the release of the king. In Italy a dangerous +conspiracy had been detected. There was +danger of a general European confederacy against +him unless he should come to some speedy agreement +with the captive king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Charles, moved by these various considerations, at +length visited Francis, and, with a show of respect +and affection, gave him such promises of speedy release +and princely treatment as greatly cheered the +sad heart of the captive. The interview was short; +Francis was too ill to bear a long one; but its effect +was excellent, and the sick man at once began to +recover, soon regaining his former health. Hope +had proved a medicine far superior to all the drugs +of the doctors.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the obdurate captor had said more than he +meant. Francis was kept as closely confined as ever.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +And insult was added to indignity by the emperor's +reception of the Constable Bourbon, a traitorous subject +of France, whom Charles received with the +highest honors which a monarch could show his +noblest visitor, and whom he made his general-in-chief +in Italy. This act had a most serious result, +which may here be briefly described. In 1527 Bourbon +made an assault on Rome, with an army largely +composed of Lutherans from Germany, and took it +by assault, he being killed on the walls. There followed +a sack of the great city which had not been +surpassed in brutality by the Vandals themselves, +and for months Rome lay in the hands of a barbarous +soldiery, who plundered and destroyed without stint +or mercy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What Charles mainly insisted upon and Francis +most indignantly refused was the cession of Burgundy +to the German empire. He was willing to +yield on all other points, but bitterly refused to dismember +his kingdom. He would yield all claim to +territory in Italy and the Netherlands, would pay a +large sum in ransom, and would make other concessions, +but Burgundy was part of France, and Burgundy +he would not give up.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end Francis, in deep despair, took steps towards +resigning his crown to his son, the dauphin. +A plot for his escape was also formed, which filled +Charles with the fear that a second effort might succeed. +In dread that, through seeking too much, he +might lose all, he finally agreed upon a compromise +in regard to Burgundy, Francis consenting to yield +it, but not until after he was set at liberty. The<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +treaty included many other articles, most of them +severe and rigorous, while Francis agreed to leave +his sons, the dauphin and the Duke of Orleans, in the +emperor's hands as hostages for the fulfilment of the +treaty. This treaty was signed at Madrid, January +14, 1526. By it Charles believed that he had effectually +humbled his rival, and weakened him so that +he could never regain any great power. In this the +statesmen of the day did not agree with him, as they +were not ready to believe that the king of France +would live up to conditions of such severity, forced +from him under constraint.</p> + +<a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image11.png" width="640" height="368" alt="Illustration: FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR." title="FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The treaty signed, the two monarchs seemed to +become at once the best of friends. They often appeared +together in public; they had long conferences +in private; they travelled in the same litter +and joined in the same amusements; the highest +confidence and affection seemed to exist between +them. Yet this love was all a false show,—Francis +still distrusted the emperor, and Charles still had +him watched like a prisoner.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In about a month the ratification of the treaty +was brought from France, and Francis set out from +Madrid with the first true emotions of joy which he +had felt for a year. He was escorted by a body of +horse under Alarcon, who, when the frontiers of +France were reached, guarded him as scrupulously +as ever. On arriving at the banks of the Andaye +River, which there separated the two kingdoms, +Lautrec appeared on the opposite bank, with a guard +of horse equal to that of Alarcon. An empty bark +was moored in mid-stream. The cavalry drew up<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in order on each bank. Lannoy, with eight gentlemen +and the king, put off in a boat from the Spanish +side of the stream. Lautrec did the same from the +French side, bringing with him the dauphin and the +Duke of Orleans. The two parties met in the empty +vessel, where in a moment the exchange was made, +Francis embracing his sons and then handing them +over as hostages. Leaping into Lautrec's boat, he +was quickly on the soil of France.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mounting a Barbary horse which awaited him, +the freed captive waved his hand triumphantly over +his head, shouted joyfully several times, "I am yet +a king!" and galloped away at full speed for Bayonne. +He had been held in captivity for a year +and twenty-two days.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our tale of the captivity of the king ends here, +but the consequences of that captivity must be told. +A league was immediately afterwards formed against +Charles, named the Holy League, from the Pope being +at its head. The nobles of Burgundy refused +to be handed over to the imperial realm, and an +assembly called by Francis absolved him from +his oath to keep the treaty of Madrid. Francis, bewailing +his lack of power to do what he had promised +in regard to Burgundy, offered to pay the emperor +two millions of crowns instead. In short, Charles +had overreached himself through his stringency to a +captive rival, and lost all through his eagerness to +obtain too much.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ten years afterwards the relations between the +two monarchs were in a measure reversed. A rebellion +had broken out in Flanders which needed<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the immediate presence of Charles, and, for reasons +satisfactory to himself, he wished to go through +France. His counsellors at Madrid looked upon such +a movement as fatally rash; but Charles persisted, +feeling that he knew the character of Francis better +than they. The French king was ready enough to +grant the permission asked, and looked upon the +occasion as an opportunity to show his rival how +kings should deal with their royal neighbors.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Charles was received with an ostentatious welcome, +each town entertaining him with all the magnificence +it could display. He was presented with +the keys of the gates, the prisoners were set at +liberty, and he was shown all the honor due to the +sovereign of the country itself. The emperor, though +impatient to continue his journey, remained six days +in Paris, where all things possible were done to render +his visit a pleasant one. Had Francis listened +to the advice of some of his ministers, he would +have seized and held prisoner the incautious monarch +who had so long kept him in captivity. But the +confidence of the emperor was not misplaced; no +consideration could induce the high-minded French +king to violate his plighted word, or make him believe +that Charles would fail to carry out certain +promises he had made. He forgot for the time how +he had dealt with his own compacts, but Charles remembered, +and was no sooner out of France than all +his promises faded from his mind, and Francis learned +that he was not the only king who could enter into +engagements which he had no intention to fulfil.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc56" id="toc56"></a> +<a name="pdf57" id="pdf57"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE INVASION OF AFRICA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As Italy was invaded by Gonsalvo de Cordova, +the Great Captain, so Africa was invaded by Cardinal +Ximenes, the Great Churchman, one of the ablest +men who ever appeared in Spain, despite the fact +that he made a dreadful bonfire of thousands of +Arabian manuscripts in the great square of Granada. +The greater part of these were copies of the +Koran, but many of them were of high scientific +and literary value, and impossible to replace. Yet, +while thus engaged in a work fitted for an unlettered +barbarian, Ximenes was using his large +revenues to found the University of Alcala, the +greatest educational institution in Spain, and was +preparing his famous polyglot Bible, for which the +rarest manuscripts were purchased, without regard +to cost, that the Scriptures might be shown at one +view in their various ancient languages. To indicate +the cost of this work, it is said that he paid four +thousand golden crowns for seven manuscripts, which +came too late to be of use in the work. It is strange, +under these circumstances, that he failed to preserve +the valuable part of the Arabian manuscripts.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The vast labors undertaken by Ximenes at home +did not keep him from enterprises abroad. He was +filled with a burning zeal for the propagation of the +Catholic faith, formed plans for a crusade to the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Holy Land, and organized a remarkably successful +expedition against the Moslems of Africa. It is of +the latter that we desire to speak.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soon after the death of Isabella, Mazalquivir, a +nest of pirates on the Barbary coast, had been captured +by an expedition organized by the energetic +Ximenes. He quickly set in train a more difficult +enterprise, one directed against Oran, a Moorish city +of twenty thousand inhabitants, strongly fortified, +with a large commerce, and the haunt of a swarm +of piratical cruisers. The Spanish king had no +money and little heart for this enterprise, but that +did not check the enthusiastic cardinal, who offered +to loan all the sums needed, and to take full +charge of the expedition, leading it himself, if +the king pleased. Ferdinand made no objection +to this, being quite willing to make conquests at +some one else's expense, and the cardinal set to +work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not often that an individual can equip an +army, but Ximenes had a great income of his own +and had the resources of the Church at his back. +By the close of the spring of 1509 he had made ready +a fleet of ten galleys and eighty smaller vessels, and +assembled an army of four thousand horse and ten +thousand foot, fully supplied with provisions and +military stores for a four months' campaign. Such +was the energy and activity of a man whose life, +until a few years before, had been spent in the solitude +of the cloister and in the quiet practices of religion, +and who was now an infirm invalid of more +than seventy years of age.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The nobles thwarted his plans, and mocked at the +idea of "a monk fighting the battles of Spain." The +soldiers had little taste for fighting under a father +of the Church, "while the Great Captain was left to +stay at home and count his beads like a hermit." +The king threw cold water on the enterprise. But +the spirit and enthusiasm of the old monk triumphed +over them all, and on the 16th of May the fleet +weighed anchor, reaching the port of Mazalquivir +on the following day. Oran, the goal of the expedition, +lay about a league away.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As soon as the army was landed and drawn up in +line, Ximenes mounted his mule and rode along its +front, dressed in his priestly robes, but with a sword +by his side. A group of friars followed, also with +monastic garbs and weapons of war. The cardinal, +ascending a rising ground, made an animated address +to the soldiers, rousing their indignation by speaking +of the devastation of the coast of Spain by the Moslems, +and awakening their cupidity by dwelling on +the golden spoil to be found in the rich city of Oran. +He concluded by saying that he had come to peril +his own life in the service of the cross and lead them +in person to battle.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The officers now crowded around the warlike old +monk and earnestly begged him not to expose his +sacred person to the hazards of the fight, saying that +his presence would do more harm than good, as the +men might be distracted from the work before them +by attending to his personal safety. This last argument +moved the warlike cardinal, who, with much +reluctance, consented to keep in the rear and leave<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the command of the army to its military leader, +Count Pedro Navarro.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The day was now far advanced. Beacon-fires on +the hill-tops showed that the country was in alarm. +Dark groups of Moorish soldiers could be seen on +the summit of the ridge that lay between Oran and +Mazalquivir, and which it would be necessary to take +before the city could be reached. The men were +weary with the labors of landing, and needed rest +and refreshment, and Navarro deemed it unsafe to +attempt anything more that day; but the energetic +prelate bade him "to go forward in God's name," +and orders to advance were at once given.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Silently the Spanish troops began to ascend the +steep sides of the acclivity. Fortunately for them, +a dense mist had arisen, which rolled down the skirts +of the hills and filled the valley through which they +moved. As soon as they left its cover and were revealed +to the Moors a shower of balls and arrows +greeted them, followed by a desperate charge down +the hill. But the Spanish infantry, with their deep +ranks and long pikes, moved on unbroken by the assault, +while Navarro opened with a battery of heavy +guns on the flank of the enemy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thrown into disorder by the deadly volleys, the +Moors began to give ground, and, pressed upon +heavily by the Spanish spearsmen, soon broke into +flight. The Spaniards hotly pursued, breaking rank +in their eagerness in a way that might have proved +fatal but for the panic of the Moors, who had lost +all sense of discipline. The hill-top was reached, and +down its opposite slope poured the Spaniards, driving<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the fleeing Moors. Not far before them rose the +walls of Oran. The fleet had anchored before the +city and was vigorously cannonading it, being answered +with equal spirit by sixty pieces of artillery +on the fortifications. Such were the excitement and +enthusiasm of the soldiers that they forgot weariness +and disregarded obstacles. In swift pursuit they +followed the scattering Moors, and in a brief time +were close to the walls, defended by a deeply discouraged +garrison.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Spaniards had brought few ladders, but in the +intense excitement and energy of the moment no +obstacle deterred them. Planting their long pikes +against the walls, or thrusting them into the crevices +between the stones, they clambered up with remarkable +dexterity,—a feat which they were utterly unable +to repeat the next day, when they tried it in +cold blood.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A weak defence was made, and the ramparts soon +swarmed with Spanish soldiers. Sousa, the captain +of the cardinal's guard, was the first to gain the +summit, where he unfurled the banner of Ximenes,—the +cross on one side and the cardinal's arms on +the other. Six other banners soon floated from the +walls, and the soldiers, leaping down into the streets, +gained and threw open the gates. In streamed the +army, sweeping all opposition before it. Resistance +and flight were alike unavailing. Houses and +mosques were tumultuously entered, no mercy being +shown, no regard for age or sex, the soldiers abandoning +themselves to the brutal license and ferocity +common to the wars of that epoch.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In vain Navarro sought to check his brutal troops; +they were beyond control; the butchery never +ceased until, gorged with the food and wine found +in the houses, the worn-out soldiers flung themselves +down in the streets and squares to sleep. Four +thousand Moors had been slain in the brief assault, +and perhaps twice that number were taken prisoners. +The city of Oran, that morning an opulent and +prosperous community, was at night a ruined and +captive city, with its ferocious conquerors sleeping +amidst their slaughtered victims.</p> + +<a name="fig58" id="fig58"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image12.png" width="640" height="387" alt="Illustration: LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN." title="LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was an almost incredible victory, considering +the rapidity with which it had been achieved. On +the morning of the 16th the fleet of transports had +set sail from Spain. On the night of the 17th the +object of the expedition was fully accomplished, the +army being in complete possession of Oran, a +strongly manned and fortified city, taken almost +without loss. Ximenes, to whose warlike enthusiasm +this remarkable victory was wholly due, embarked +in his galley the next morning and sailed along the +city's margin, his soul swelling with satisfaction at +his wonderful success. On landing, the army hailed +him as the true victor of Oran, a wave of acclamations +following him as he advanced to the alcazar, +where the keys of the fortress were put into his +hands. A few hours after the surrender of the +city a powerful reinforcement arrived for its relief, +but on learning of its loss the disconcerted Moors +retired. Had the attack been deferred to the next +day, as Navarro proposed, it would probably have +failed. The people of Spain ascribed the victory to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +inspiration from heaven; but the only inspiration +lay in the impetuous energy and enthusiasm of the +cardinal. Yet at that period it was by no means +uncommon to invent stories of miracles, and it is +soberly asserted that the sun stood still for several +hours while the action went on, Heaven repeating +the miracle of Joshua, and halting the solar orb in +its career, that more of the heathen might be +slaughtered. The greatest miracle of all would +have been had the sun stood still nowhere else than +over the fated city of Oran.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may not be amiss to add to this narrative an +account of a second expedition against Africa, made +by Charles V. some thirty years later, in which +Heaven failed to come to the aid of Spain, and +whose termination was as disastrous as that of the +expedition of Ximenes had been fortunate.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the city of Algiers that Charles set out to +reduce, and, though the season was late and it was +the time of the violent autumnal winds, he persisted +in his purpose in spite of the advice of experienced +mariners. The expedition consisted of twenty +thousand foot and two thousand horse, with a large +body of noble volunteers. The storms came as +promised and gave the army no small trouble in its +voyage, but at length, with much difficulty and +danger, the troops were landed on the coast near +Algiers and advanced at once upon the town.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hascan, the Moorish leader, had only about six +thousand men to oppose to the large Spanish army, +and had little hope of a successful resistance by +force of arms. But in this case Heaven—if we admit<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +its interference at all—came to the aid of the +Moors. On the second day after landing, and before +operations had fairly begun, the clouds gathered +and the skies grew threatening. Towards evening +rain began to fall and a fierce wind arose. During +the night a violent tempest swept the camp, and +the soldiers, who were without tents or shelter of +any kind, were soon in a deplorable state. Their +camp, which was in a low situation, was quickly +overflowed by the pouring rains, and the ground became +ankle deep in mud. No one could lie down, +while the wind blew so furiously that they could +only stand by thrusting their spears into the ground +and clinging to them. About day-dawn they were +attacked by the vigilant Hascan, and a considerable +number of them killed before the enemy was forced +to retire.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bad as the night had been, the day proved more +disastrous still. The tempest continued, its force increasing, +and the sea, roused to its utmost fury by +the winds, made sad havoc of the ships. They were +torn from their anchorage, flung violently together, +beat to pieces on the rocks, and driven ashore, while +many sank bodily in the waves. In less than an +hour fifteen war-vessels and a hundred and forty +transports were wrecked and eight thousand men +had perished, those of the crews who reached shore +being murdered by the Moors as soon as they +touched land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was with anguish and astoundment that the +emperor witnessed this wreck of all his hopes, the +great stores which he had collected for subsistence<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and military purposes being in one fatal hour +buried in the depths of the sea. At length the +wind began to fall, and some hopes arose that vessels +enough might have escaped to carry the distressed +army back to Europe. But darkness was +again at hand, and a second night of suspense and +misery was passed. In the morning a boat reached +land with a messenger from Andrew Doria, the admiral +of the fleet, who sent word that in fifty years +of maritime life he had never seen so frightful a +storm, and that he had been forced to bear away with +his shattered ships to Cape Metafuz, whither he advised +the emperor to march with all speed, as the +skies were still threatening and the tempest might +be renewed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The emperor was now in a fearful quandary. +Metafuz was at least three days' march away. All +the food that had been brought ashore was consumed. +The soldiers, worn out with fatigue, were +in no condition for such a journey. Yet it was impossible +to stay where they were. There was no +need of deliberation; no choice was left; their only +hope of safety lay in instant movement.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sick, wounded, and feeble were placed in the +centre, the stronger in front and rear, and the disastrous +march began. Some of the men could hardly +bear the weight of their arms; others, worn out +with toiling through the nearly impassable roads, +lay down and died; many perished from hunger and +exhaustion, there being no food but roots and berries +gathered by the way and the flesh of horses killed +by the emperor's order; many were drowned in the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +streams, swollen by the severe rains; many were +killed by the enemy, who followed and harassed +them throughout the march. The late gallant army +was a bedraggled and miserable fragment when the +survivors at length reached Metafuz. Fortunately +the storm was at an end, and they were able to obtain +from the ships the provisions of which they +stood so sorely in need.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The calamities which attended this unlucky expedition +were not yet at an end. No sooner had the +soldiers embarked than a new storm arose, less violent +than the former, but sufficient to scatter the +ships to right and left, some making port in Spain, +some in Italy, all seeking such harbors of refuge as +they could find. The emperor, after passing through +great perils, was driven to the port of Bugia in +Africa, where contrary winds held him prisoner for +several weeks. He at length reached Spain, to find +the whole land in dismay at the fate of the gallant +expedition, which had set out with such high hopes +of success. To the end of his reign Charles V. had +no further aspirations for conquest in Africa.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc59" id="toc59"></a> +<a name="pdf60" id="pdf60"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">AN EMPEROR RETIRED FROM BUSINESS.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In October of the year 1555 a strange procession +passed through a rugged and hilly region of Spain. +At its head rode an alcalde with a posse of alguazils. +Next came a gouty old man in a horse-litter, like a +prisoner in the hands of a convoy of officers of +justice. A body of horsemen followed, and in the +rear toiled onward a long file of baggage-mules.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the train advanced into the more settled regions +of the country it became evident that the personage +thus convoyed was not a prisoner, but a +person of the highest consequence. On each side +of the road the people assembled to see him pass, +with a show of deep respect. At the towns along +the route the great lords of the neighborhood gathered +in his honor, and in the cities the traveller was +greeted by respectful deputations of officials. When +Burgos was approached the great constable of Castile, +with a strong retinue of attendants, came to +meet him, and when he passed through the illuminated +streets of that city the bells rang out in merry +peals, while enthusiastic people filled the streets.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was not a prisoner to the law, but a captive to +gout, who thus passed in slow procession through +the lands and cities of Spain. It was the royal<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Charles, King of Spain and the Netherlands, Emperor +of Germany, and magnate of America, at that +time the greatest monarch in Europe, lord of a realm +greater than that of Charlemagne, who made his +way with this small following and in this simple +manner through the heart of his Spanish dominions. +He had done what few kings have done before or +since, voluntarily thrown off his crown in the height +of his power,—weary of reigning, surfeited with +greatness,—and retired to spend the remainder of +his life in privacy, to dwell far from the pomp of +courts in a simple community of monks.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next principal halting-place of the retired +monarch was the city of Valladolid, once the capital +of the kingdom and still a rich and splendid place, +adorned with stately public buildings and the palaces +of great nobles. Here he remained for some time +resting from his journey, his house thronged with +visitors of distinction. Among these, one day, came +the court fool. Charles touched his cap to him.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Welcome, brother," said the jester; "do you raise +your hat to me because you are no longer emperor?"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"No," answered Charles, "but because this sorry +courtesy is all I have left to give you."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On quitting Valladolid Charles seemed to turn his +back finally on the world, with all its pomps and +vanities. Before leaving he took his last dinner in +public, and bade an affectionate farewell to his sisters, +his daughter, and his grandson, who had accompanied +him thus far in his journey. A large train +of nobles and cavaliers rode with him to the gates +of the city, where he courteously dismissed them,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and moved onward attended only by his simple +train.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Heaven be praised!" said the world-weary monarch, +as he came nearer his place of retreat; "after +this no more visits of ceremony, no more receptions!"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But he was not yet rid of show and ostentation. +Spending the night at Medina del Campo, at the +house of a rich banker named Rodrigo de Dueñas, +the latter, by way of display, warmed the emperor's +room with a brazier of pure gold, in which, in place +of common fuel, sticks of cinnamon were burned. +Neither the perfume nor the ostentation was agreeable +to Charles, and on leaving the next morning he +punished his over-officious host by refusing to permit +him to kiss his hand, and by causing him to be paid +for the night's lodging like a common inn-keeper.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was not the first time that cinnamon had +been burned in the emperor's chamber. The same +was done by the Fuggers, the famous bankers of +Germany, who had loaned Charles large sums for +his expedition against Tunis, and entertained him at +their house on his return. In this case the emperor +was not offended by the odor of cinnamon, since it +was modified by a different and more agreeable perfume. +The bankers, grateful to Charles for breaking +up a pestilent nest of Barbary pirates, threw the +receipts for the money they had loaned him into the +fire, turning their gold into ashes in his behalf. This +was a grateful sacrifice to the emperor, whose war-like +enterprises consumed more money than he could +readily command.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The vicinity of Yuste was reached late in November.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Here resided a community of Jeronymite +monks, in whose monastery he proposed to pass the +remainder of his days. There were two roads by +which it could be reached,—one an easy, winding +highway, the other a rugged mountain-pass. But +by the latter four days would be saved, and Charles, +tired of the long journey, determined to take it, +difficult as it might prove.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He had been warned against the mountain pathway, +and found it fully as formidable as he had been +told. A body of hardy rustics were sent ahead, +with pikes, shovels, and other implements, to clear +the way. But it was choked here and there with +fallen stones and trunks of trees which they were +unable to move. In some localities the path wound +round dizzy precipices, where a false step would have +been fatal. To any traveller it would have been very +difficult; to the helpless emperor it was frightfully +dangerous. The peasants carried the litter; in bad +parts of the way the emperor was transferred to his +chair; in very perilous places the vigorous peasants +carried him in their arms.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Several hours of this hard toil passed before they +reached the summit. As they emerged from the +dark defiles of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Puerto Nuevo</span></span>—now known as +"The Emperor's Pass"—Charles exclaimed, "It is the +last pass I shall go through in this world, save that +of death."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The descent was much more easy, and soon the +gray walls of Yuste, half hidden in chestnut-groves, +came in sight. Yet it was three months before the +traveller reached there, for the apartments preparing<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for him were far from ready, and he had to wait +throughout the winter in the vicinity, in a castle of +the Count of Oropesa, and in the midst of an almost +continual downpour of rain, which turned the roads +to mire, the country almost to a swamp, and the +mountains to vapor-heaps. The threshold of his +new home was far from an agreeable one.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Charles V. had long contemplated the step he had +thus taken. He was only fifty-five years of age, +but he had become an old man at fifty, and was such +a victim to the gout as to render his life a constant +torment and the duties of royalty too heavy to be +borne. So, taking a resolution which few monarchs +have taken before or since, he gave up his power and +resolved to spend the remainder of his life in such +quiet and peace as a retired monastery would give. +Spain and its subject lands he transferred to his son +Philip, who was to gain both fame and infamy as +Philip II. He did his best, also, to transfer the imperial +crown of Germany to his fanatical and heartless +heir, but his brother Ferdinand, who was in +power there, would not consent, and he was obliged +to make Ferdinand emperor of Germany, and +break in two the vast dominion which he had controlled.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Charles had only himself to thank for his gout. +Like many a man in humbler life, he had abused the +laws of nature until they had avenged themselves +upon him. The pleasures of the table with him far +surpassed those of intellectual or business pursuits. +He had an extraordinary appetite, equal to that of +any royal <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gourmand</span></span> of whom history speaks, and,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +while leaving his power behind him, he brought this +enemy with him into his retirement.</p> + +<a name="fig61" id="fig61"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image13.png" width="640" height="341" alt="Illustration: CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE." title="CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are told by a Venetian envoy at his court, in +the latter part of his reign, that, while still in bed +in the morning, he was served with potted capon, +prepared with sugar, milk, and spices, and then went +to sleep again. At noon a meal of various dishes +was served him, and another after vespers. In the +evening he supped heartily on anchovies, of which +he was particularly fond, or some other gross and +savory food. His cooks were often at their wits' +end to devise some new dish, rich and highly seasoned +enough to satisfy his appetite, and his perplexed +purveyor one day, knowing Charles's passion +for timepieces, told him "that he really did not know +what new dish he could prepare him, unless it were +a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fricassée</span></span> of watches."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Charles drank as heartily as he ate. His huge +repasts were washed down with potations proportionately +large. Iced beer was a favorite beverage, +with which he began on rising and kept up during +the day. By way of a stronger potation, Rhenish +wine was much to his taste. Roger Ascham, who +saw him on St. Andrew's day dining at the feast of +the Golden Fleece, tells us: "He drank the best that +I ever saw. He had his head in the glass five times +as long as any of us, and never drank less than a +good quart at once of Rhenish."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was this over-indulgence in the pleasures of the +table that brought the emperor to Yuste. His physician +warned him in vain. His confessor wasted +admonitions on his besetting sin. Sickness and suffering<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +vainly gave him warning to desist. Indigestion +troubled him; bilious disorders brought misery +to his overworked stomach. At length came gout, +the most terrible of his foes. This enemy gave him +little rest day or night. The man who had hunted +in the mountains for days without fatigue, who had +kept the saddle day and night in his campaigns, who +had held his own in the lists with the best knights +of Europe, was now a miserable cripple, carried, +wherever he went, in the litter of an invalid.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One would have thought that, in his monastic retreat, +Charles would cease to indulge in gastronomic +excesses, but the retired emperor, with little else to +think of, gave as much attention to his appetite as +ever. Yuste was kept in constant communication +with the rest of the world on matters connected with +the emperor's table. He was especially fond of fish +and all the progeny of the water,—eels, frogs, oysters, +and the like. The trout of the neighborhood +were too small for his liking, so he had larger ones +sent from a distance. Potted fish—anchovies in particular—were +favorite viands. Eel pasty appealed +strongly to his taste. Soles, lampreys, flounders +reached his kitchen from Seville and Portugal. The +country around supplied pork, mutton, and game. +Sausages were sent him from a distance; olives were +brought from afar, as those near at hand were not +to his liking. Presents of sweetmeats and confectionery +were sent him by ladies who remembered +his ancient tastes. In truth, Charles, tortured with +gout, did everything he well could to favor its attacks.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The retired emperor, though he made a monastery +his abode, had no idea of living like a monk. His +apartments were richly furnished and hung with +handsome tapestry, and every attention was paid to +his personal comfort. Rich carpets, canopies of velvet, +sofas and chairs of carved walnut, seats amply +garnished with cushions for the ease of his tender +joints, gave a luxurious aspect to his retirement. +His wardrobe contained no less than sixteen robes +of silk and velvet, lined with ermine, eider-down, or +the soft hair of the Barbary goat. He could not +endure cold weather, and had fireplaces and chimneys +constructed in every room, usually keeping his +apartments almost at furnace heat, much to the discomfort +of his household. With all this, and his +wrappings of fur and eider-down, he would often be +in a shiver and complain that he was chilled to the +bone.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His table was richly provided with plate, its service +being of silver, as were also the articles of the +toilet, the basins, pitchers, and other utensils of his +bed-chamber. With these were articles of pure gold, +valuable for their curious workmanship. He had +brought with him many jewels of value, and a small +but choice collection of paintings, some of them +among the noblest masterpieces of art. Among +them were eight gems from the hand of Titian. +These were hung in rich frames around his rooms. +He was no reader, and had brought few books, his +whole library comprising but thirty-one volumes, +and these mostly religious works, such as psalters, +missals, breviaries, and the like. There was some<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +little science and some little history, but the work +which chiefly pleased him was a French poem, "<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le +Chevalier Délibéré</span></span>," then popular, which celebrated +the exploits of the house of Burgundy, and especially +of Charles the Bold.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And now it comes in place to say something of +how Charles employed himself at Yuste, aside from +eating and drinking and shivering in his chimney +corner. The mode in which a monarch retired from +business passes his time cannot be devoid of interest. +He by no means gave up his attention to the affairs +of the realm, but kept himself well informed in all +that was going on, sometimes much to his annoyance, +since blunders were made that gave him a +passing desire to be again at the head of affairs. In +truth, two years after his retirement, the public concerns +got into such a snarl that Philip earnestly +sought to induce the emperor to leave his retreat +and aid him with his ripened experience. This +Charles utterly refused to do. He had had his fill +of politics. It was much less trouble to run a household +than a nation. But he undertook to do what +he could to improve the revenues of the crown. +Despatches about public affairs were brought to him +constantly, and his mental thermometer went up or +down as things prospered or the reverse. But he +was not to be tempted to plunge again into the turbulent +tide of public affairs.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Charles had other and more humble duties to occupy +his time. His paroxysms of gout came only +at intervals, and in the periods between he kept himself +engaged. He had a taste for mechanics, and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +among his attendants was an Italian named Torriano, +a man of much ingenuity, who afterwards constructed +the celebrated hydraulic works at Toledo. +He was a skilful clock-maker, and, as Charles took a +special interest in timepieces, his assistant furnished +his apartments with a series of elaborate clocks. +One of these was so complicated that its construction +occupied more than three years, every detail +of the work being curiously watched by Charles. +Watches were then of recent invention, yet there +were a number of them at Yuste, made by Torriano.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The attempt to make his clocks keep time together +is said to have been one of the daily occupations of +the retired emperor, and the adjustment of his clocks +and watches gave him so much trouble that he is +said to have one day remarked that it was absurd to +try and make men think alike, when, do what he +would, he could not make two of his timepieces agree.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He often amused himself with Torriano in making +little puppets,—soldiers that would go through their +exercises, dancing tambourine-girls, etc. It is even +asserted that they constructed birds that would fly +in and out of the window, a story rather difficult to +accept. The monks began to look upon Torriano as +a professor of magic when he invented a handmill +small enough to be hidden in a friar's sleeve, yet +capable of grinding enough meal in a day to last a +man for a week.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The emperor was very fond of music, particularly +devotional music, and was a devotee in religious exercises, +spending much of his time in listening to the +addresses of the chaplains, and observing the fasts<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and festivals of the Church. His fondness for fish +made the Lenten season anything but a period of +penance for him.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He went on, indeed, eating and drinking as he +would; and his disease went on growing and deepening, +until at length the shadow of death lay heavy on +the man whose religion did not include temperance in +its precepts. During 1558 he grew steadily weaker, +and on the 21st of September the final day came; +his eyes quietly closed and life fled from his frame.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yuste, famous as the abiding-place of Charles in +his retirement, remained unmolested in the subsequent +history of the country until 1810, when a +party of French dragoons, foraging near by, found +the murdered body of one of their comrades not far +from the monastery gates. Sure in their minds that +the monks had killed him, they broke in, dispersed +the inmates, and set the buildings on fire. The extensive +pile of edifices continued to burn for eight +days, no one seeking to quench the flames. On the +ninth the ancient monastery was left a heap of ashes, +only the church remaining, and, protected by it, the +palace of Charles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1820 a body of neighboring insurgents entered +and defaced the remaining buildings, carrying off +everything they could find of value and turning the +church into a stable. Some of the monks returned, +but in 1837 came an act suppressing the convents, +and the poor Jeronymites were finally turned adrift. +To-day the palace of Charles V. presents only desolate +and dreary chambers, used as magazines for grain +and olives. So passes away the glory of the world.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc62" id="toc62"></a> +<a name="pdf63" id="pdf63"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE FATE OF A RECKLESS PRINCE.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1568 died Don Carlos, Prince of Asturias, the +son of Philip II. of Spain; and in the same year died +Isabella of Valois, the young and beautiful queen of +the Spanish monarch. Legend has connected the +names of Carlos and Isabella, and a mystery hangs +over them which research has failed to dispel. Their +supposed love, their untimely fate, and the suspicion +that their death was due to the jealousy of the king, +have proved a prolific theme for fiction, and the +story of the supposed unhappy fate of the two has +passed from the domain of history into that of +romance and the drama, there being more than one +fine play based on the loves and misfortunes of Carlos +and Isabella. But sober history tells nothing of +the kind, and it is with history that we are here +concerned.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Carlos, the heir of the throne of Spain, was born +in 1545. He was a bold, headstrong boy, reckless +in disposition, fond of manly exercises, generous to +a fault, fearless of heart, and passionately desirous +of a military life. In figure he was deformed, one +shoulder being higher and one leg longer than the +other, while his chest was flat and his back slightly +humped. His features were not unhandsome,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +though very pale, and he spoke with some difficulty. +He was feeble and sickly as a boy, subject to intermittent +fever, and wasted away so greatly that it +seemed as if he would not live to manhood.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such were the mental and physical characteristics +of the princely youth who while still young was betrothed +by treaty to the beautiful French princess +Isabella of Valois. The marriage was not destined +to take place. Before the treaty was ratified, Queen +Mary of England, Philip's wife, died, and his name +was substituted for that of his son in the marriage +treaty. The wedding ceremony took place at Toledo, +in February, 1560, and was celebrated with great +splendor. Carlos was present, and may have felt +some resentment at being robbed by his father of +this beautiful bride. Romantic historians tell us +that Isabella felt a tender sentiment for him, a very +unlikely statement in view of the fact that he was +at that time a sickly, ill-favored boy of only fourteen +years of age. Shortly after the marriage Carlos +was formally recognized as heir to the crown.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two years afterwards a serious accident occurred. +In descending a flight of stairs the boy slipped and +fell headlong, injuring his head so severely that his +life was despaired of. His head swelled to an enormous +size; he became delirious and totally blind; +examination showed that his skull was fractured; a +part of the bone was removed, but no relief was obtained. +All the arts of the doctors of that day +were tried in vain, but the boy got no better. Processions +were made to the churches, prayers were +offered, and pilgrimages were vowed, all without<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +avail. Then more radical means were tried. The +mouldering bones of a holy Franciscan, who had died +a hundred years before, and had always been the +object of the prince's especial veneration, were taken +from their coffin and laid on the boy's bed, and the +cloth that had enclosed the dead man's skull was +placed on his forehead.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That night, we are gravely told, the dead friar +came to Carlos in his sleep, bidding him to "be of +good cheer, for he would certainly recover." Soon +after, the fever subsided, his head shrank back to its +natural size, his sight returned. In two months +from the date of the accident he was physically well, +his recovery being partly or wholly due to the skill +of an Italian surgeon, who trepanned him and by +this act restored him to consciousness.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Likely enough the boy was never cured. The +blow may have done some permanent injury to his +brain. At any rate, he became strikingly eccentric +and reckless, giving way to every mad whim that +came into his mind. The stories of his wild doings +formed the scandal of Madrid. In 1564 one of his +habits was to patrol the streets with a number of +young nobles as lawless as himself, attacking the +passengers with their swords, kissing the women, +and using foul language to ladies of the highest +rank.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At that time it was the custom for the young gallants +of the court to wear very large boots. Carlos +increased the size of his, that he might carry in them +a pair of small pistols. Fearing mischief, the king +ordered the shoemaker to reduce the size of his<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +son's boots; but when the unlucky son of St. Crispin +brought them to the palace, the prince flew into +a rage, beat him severely, and then ordered the +leather to be cut into pieces and stewed, and forced +the shoemaker to swallow it on the spot—or as much +of it as he could get down.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are only a sample of his pranks. He beat +his governor, attempted to throw his chamberlain +out of the window, and threatened to stab Cardinal +Espinosa for banishing a favorite actor from the +palace.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One anecdote told of him displays a reckless and +whimsical humor. Having need of money, Carlos +asked of a merchant, named Grimaldo, a loan of +fifteen hundred ducats. The money-lender readily +consented, thanked the prince for the compliment, +and, in the usual grandiloquent vein of Castilian +courtesy, told Carlos that all he had was at his disposal.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I am glad to learn that," answered the prince. +"You may make the loan, then, one hundred thousand +ducats."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Poor Grimaldo was thunderstruck. He tremblingly +protested that it was impossible,—he had +not the money. "It would ruin my credit," he declared. +"What I said were only words of compliment."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You have no right to bandy compliments with +princes," Don Carlos replied. "I take you at your +word. If you do not, in twenty-four hours, pay +over the money to the last <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">real</span></span>, you shall have bitter +cause to rue it."</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The unhappy Grimaldo knew not what to do. +Carlos was persistent. It took much negotiation to +induce the prince to reduce the sum to sixty thousand +ducats, which the merchant raised and paid,—with +a malediction on all words of compliment. The +money flew like smoke from the prince's hands, he +being quite capable of squandering the revenues of +a kingdom. He lived in the utmost splendor, and +was lavish with all who came near him, saying, in +support of his gifts and charities, "Who will give if +princes do not?"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The mad excesses of the prince, his wild defiance +of decency and decorum, were little to the liking of +his father, who surrounded the young man with +agents whom he justly looked upon as spies, and became +wilder in his conduct in consequence. Offers +of marriage were made from abroad. Catharine de +Médicis proposed the hand of a younger sister of +Isabella. The emperor of Germany pressed for a +union with his daughter Anne, the cousin of Carlos. +Philip agreed to the latter, but deferred the marriage. +He married Anne himself after the death of +Carlos, making her his fourth wife. Thus both the +princesses intended for the son became the brides +of the father.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The trouble between Carlos and his father steadily +grew. The prince was now twenty-one years of +age, and, in his eagerness for a military life, wished +to take charge of affairs in the Netherlands, then in +rebellion against Spain. On learning that the Duke +of Alva was to be sent thither, Carlos said to him, +"You are not to go there; I will go myself."</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The efforts of the duke to soothe him only irritated +him, and in the end he drew his dagger and +exclaimed, "You shall not go; if you do I will kill +you."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A struggle followed, the prince making violent +efforts to stab the duke. It only ended when a +chamberlain came in and rescued Alva. This outrage +on his minister doubled the feeling of animosity +between father and son, and they grew so hostile +that they ceased to speak, though living in the same +palace.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next escapade of Carlos brought matters to a +crisis. He determined to fly from Spain and seek a +more agreeable home in Germany or the Netherlands. +As usual, he had no money, and he tried +to obtain funds by demanding loans from different +cities,—a reckless process which at once proclaimed +that he had some mad design in mind. He went +further than this, saying to his confidants that "he +wished to kill a man with whom he had a quarrel." +This purpose he confessed to a priest, and demanded +absolution. The priest refused this startling request, +and as the prince persisted in his sanguinary purpose, +a conclave of sixteen theologians was called together +to decide what action it was advisable to take in so +extraordinary a case.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After a debate on the subject, one of them asked +Carlos the name of his enemy. The prince calmly +replied,—</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"My father is the person. I wish to take his life."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This extraordinary declaration, in which the mad +prince persisted, threw the conclave into a state of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the utmost consternation. On breaking up, they +sent a messenger to the king, then at the Escorial +Palace, and made him acquainted with the whole +affair. This story, if it is true, seems to indicate +that the prince was insane.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His application to the cities for funds was in a +measure successful. By the middle of January, 1568, +his agents brought him in a hundred and fifty thousand +ducats,—a fourth of the sum he had demanded. +On the 17th he sent an order to Don Ramon de +Tassis, director-general of the posts, demanding that +eight horses should be provided for him that evening. +Tassis, suspecting something wrong, sent word that +the horses were all out. Carlos repeated his order +in a peremptory manner, and the postmaster now +sent all the horses out, and proceeded with the news +to the king at the Escorial. Philip immediately returned +to Madrid, where, the next morning, Carlos +attacked his uncle, Don John of Austria, with a +drawn sword, because the latter refused to repeat a +conversation he had had with the king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For some time Carlos had slept with the utmost +precautions, as if he feared an attack upon his life. +His sword and dagger lay ready by his bedside, and +he kept a loaded musket within reach. He had also +a bolt constructed in such a manner that, by aid of +pulleys, he could fasten or unfasten the door of his +chamber while in bed. All this was known to Philip, +and he ordered the mechanic who had made it to +derange the mechanism so that it would not work. +To force a way into the chamber of a man like +Carlos might not have been safe.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<a name="fig64" id="fig64"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image14.png" width="640" height="367" alt="Illustration: THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID." title="THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the hour of eleven that night the king came +down-stairs, wearing armor on his body and a helmet +on his head. With him were the Duke of Feria, +captain of the guard, several other lords, and twelve +guardsmen. They quietly entered the chamber of +the prince, and the duke, stealing to the bedside, secured +the sword, dagger, and musket which lay there.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The noise now wakened Carlos, who sprang up, +demanding who was there.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"It is the council of state," answered the duke.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On hearing this the prince leaped from the bed, +uttering threats and imprecations, and endeavored +to seize his arms. Philip, who had prudently kept +in the background until the weapons were secured, +now advanced and bade his son to return to bed and +keep quiet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"What does your majesty want of me?" demanded +the prince.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You will soon learn," Philip harshly replied.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He then gave orders that the windows and doors +of the room should be strongly secured and the keys +brought to him. Every article of furniture, even +the andirons, with which violence might have been +done, was removed from the room. The king then +appointed Feria keeper of the prince, and bade the +other nobles to serve him, with due respect, saying +that he would hold them as traitors if they permitted +him to escape.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Your majesty had better kill me than keep me +a prisoner," exclaimed Carlos. "It will be a great +scandal to the kingdom. If you do not kill me I +will kill myself."</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"You will do no such thing," answered Philip. +"That would be the act of a madman."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Your majesty," replied the prince, "treats me so +ill that you drive me to this extremity. I am not +mad, but you drive me to despair."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Other words passed, and on the withdrawal of the +king the voice of Carlos was so broken by sobs that +his words could scarcely be heard. That night the +Duke of Feria and two other lords remained in the +prince's room,—now his prison. Each succeeding +night two of the six appointed lords performed this +duty. They were not allowed to wear their swords +in the presence of the prince, but his meat was cut +up before serving, as no knife was permitted to be +used at his meals. A guard was stationed in the +passage without, and, as the prince could not look +from his barricaded windows, he was from that day +dead to the world.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The king immediately summoned his council of +state and began a process against the prisoner. +Though making a show of deep affliction, he was +present at all the meetings and listened to all the +testimony, which, when written out, formed a heap +of paper half a foot thick.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The news of the arrest of Don Carlos made a great +sensation in Spain. The wildest rumors were set +afloat. Some said that he had tried to kill his father, +others that he was plotting rebellion. Many laid all +the blame on the king. "Others, more prudent than +their neighbors, laid their fingers on their lips and +were silent." The affair created almost as much +sensation throughout Europe as in Spain. Philip,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in his despatches to other courts, spoke in such +vague and mysterious language that it was impossible +to tell what he meant, and the most varied +surmises were advanced.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, Carlos was kept rigorously confined, +so much so that he was not left alone day or night. +Of the two nobles in his chamber at night, one +was required to keep awake while the other slept. +They were permitted to talk with him, but not +on political matters nor on the subject of his imprisonment. +They were ordered to bring him no +messages from without nor receive any from him. +No books except devotional ones were allowed +him.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If it was the purpose of Philip to end the life of +his son by other means than execution he could not +have taken better measures. For a young man of +his high spirit and fiery temper such strict confinement +was maddening. At first he was thrown into +a frenzy, and tried more than once to make way +with himself. The sullenness of despair succeeded. +He grew daily more emaciated, and the malarial +fever which had so long affected him now returned +in a severe degree. To allay the heat of the fever +he would deluge the floor of his chamber with water, +and walk for hours with bare feet on the cold floor. +He had a warming-pan filled with ice and snow +brought him, and kept it for hours at night in his +bed. He would drink snow-water in immoderate +draughts. In his eating he seemed anxious to break +down his strength,—now refusing all food for days +together, now devouring a pasty of four partridges<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at a sitting, washing it down with three gallons or +more of iced water.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That he was permitted to indulge in such caprices +seems to indicate that Philip wished him to kill himself. +No constitution, certainly not so weak a one +as that of Carlos, could long withstand these excesses. +His stomach refused to perform its duty; +severe vomiting attacked him; dysentery set in; +his strength rapidly failed. The expected end came +on the 24th of July, six months after the date of +his imprisonment, death releasing the prince from +the misery of his unhappy lot. One writer tells us +that it was hastened by a strong purgative dose, administered +by his father's orders, and that he was +really assassinated. However that be, Philip had +little reason to be sorry at the death of his lunatic +son. To one of his austere temperament it was +probably an easy solution of a difficult problem.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Less than three months passed after the death of +Carlos when Isabella followed him to the grave. +She was then but twenty-three years old,—about +the same age as himself. The story was soon set +afloat that Philip had murdered both his son and his +wife, moved thereto by jealousy; and from this has +arisen the romantic story of secret love between the +two, with the novels and dramas based thereon. +In all probability the story is without foundation. +Philip is said to have been warmly loved by his wife, +and the poison which carried her away seems to have +been the heavy doses of medicine with which the +doctors of that day sought to cure a passing illness.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc65" id="toc65"></a> +<a name="pdf66" id="pdf66"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">SPAIN'S GREATEST VICTORY AT SEA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 16th of September, 1571, there sailed from +the harbor of Messina one of the greatest fleets the +Mediterranean had ever borne upon its waves. It +consisted of more than three hundred vessels, most +of them small, but some of great bulk for that day, +carrying forty pieces of artillery. On board these +ships were eighty thousand men. Of these, less than +thirty thousand were soldiers, for in those days, +when war-galleys were moved by oars rather than +sails, great numbers of oarsmen were needed. At +the head of this powerful armament was Don John +of Austria, brother of Philip II., and the ablest +naval commander that Spain possessed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At sunrise on the 7th of October the Christian fleet +came in sight, at the entrance to the Bay of Lepanto, +on the west of Greece, of the great Turkish armament, +consisting of nearly two hundred and fifty +royal galleys, with a number of smaller vessels in +the rear. On these ships are said to have been not +less than one hundred and twenty thousand men. +A great battle for the supremacy of Christian or +Mohammedan was about to be fought between two +of the largest fleets ever seen in the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For more than a century the Turks had been<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +masters of Constantinople and the Eastern Empire, +and had extended their dominion far to the west. +The Mediterranean had become a Turkish lake, +which the fleets of the Ottoman emperors swept at +will. Cyprus had fallen, Malta had sustained a terrible +siege, and the coasts of Italy and Spain were +exposed to frightful ravages, in which the corsairs +of the Barbary states joined hands with the Turks. +France only was exempt, its princes having made +an alliance with Turkey, in which they gained +safety at the cost of honor.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Spain was the leading opponent of this devastating +power. For centuries the Spanish people had been +engaged in a bitter crusade against the Moslem +forces. The conquest of Granada was followed by +descents upon the African coast, the most important +of which was the conquest of Tunis by Charles +the Fifth in 1535, on which occasion ten thousand +Christian captives were set free from a dreadful +bondage. An expedition against Tripoli in 1559, +however, ended in disaster, the Turks and the +Moors continued triumphant at sea, and it was not +until 1571 that the proud Moslem powers received an +effectual check.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great fleet of which Don John of Austria +was admiral-in-chief had not come solely from +Spain. Genoa had furnished a large number of galleys, +under their famous admiral, Andrew Doria,—a +name to make the Moslems tremble. Venice had +added its fleet, and the Papal States had sent a +strong contingent of ships. Italy had been suffering +from the Turkish fleet, fire and sword had turned<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Venetian coasts into a smoking desolation, and +this was the answer of Christian Europe to the +Turkish menace.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sight of the Turkish fleet on that memorable +7th of October created instant animation in the +Christian armament. Don John hoisted his pennon, +ordered the great standard of the league, given by +the Pope, to be unfurled, and fired a gun in defiance +of the Turks. Some of the commanders doubted +the wisdom of engaging the enemy in a position +where he had the advantage, but the daring young +commander curtly cut short the discussion.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Gentlemen," he said, "this is the time for combat, +not for counsel."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Steadily the two fleets approached each other on +that quiet sea. The Christian ships extended over a +width of three miles. On the right was Andrew +Doria, with sixty-four galleys. The centre, consisting +of sixty-three galleys, was commanded by Don +John, with Colonna, the captain-general of the Pope, +on one flank, and Veniero, the Venetian captain-general, +on the other. The left wing, commanded +by the noble Venetian Barbarigo, extended as near +to the coast of Ætolia as it was deemed safe to venture. +The reserve, of thirty-five galleys, was under +the Marquis of Santa Cruz. The plan of battle was +simple. Don John's orders to his captains were for +each to select an adversary, close with him at once, +and board as soon as possible.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the fleet advanced the armament of the Turks +came into full view, spread out in half-moon shape +over a wider space than that of the allies. The great<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +galleys, with their gilded and brightly painted prows +and their myriad of banners and pennons, presented +a magnificent spectacle. But the wind, which had +thus far favored the Turks, now suddenly shifted and +blew in their faces, and the sun, as the day advanced, +shone directly in their eyes. The centre of their +line was occupied by the huge galley of Ali Pasha, +their leader. Their right was commanded by Mahomet +Sirocco, viceroy of Egypt; their left by Uluch +Ali, dey of Algiers, the most redoubtable of the corsair +lords of the sea.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The breeze continued light. It was nearly noon +when the fleets came face to face. The sun, now +nearing the zenith, shone down from a cloudless sky. +As yet it seemed like some grand holiday spectacle +rather than the coming of a struggle for life or death.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Suddenly the shrill war-cry of the Turks rang out +on the air. Their cannon began to play. The firing +ran along the line until the whole fleet was engaged. +On the Christian side the trumpets rang defiance +and the guns answered the Turkish peals. The +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">galeazzas</span></span>, a number of mammoth war-ships, had +been towed a half-mile in advance of the Spanish +fleet, and as the Turks came up poured broadsides +from their heavy guns with striking effect, doing +considerable damage. But Ali Pasha, not caring to +engage these monster craft, opened his lines and +passed them by. They had done their work, and +took no further part, being too unwieldy to enter +into close action.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The battle began on the left. Barbarigo, the Venetian +admiral, had brought his ships as near the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +coast as he dared. But Mahomet Sirocco knew the +waters better, passed between his ships and the shore, +and doubled upon him, bringing the Christian line +between two fires. Barbarigo was wounded, eight +galleys were sent to the bottom, and several were +captured. Yet the Venetians, who hated the Turks +with a mortal hatred, fought on with unyielding +fury.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Uluch Ali, on the Christian right, tried the same +manœuvre. But he had Andrew Doria, the experienced +Genoese, to deal with, and his purpose was +defeated by a wide extension of the Christian line. +It was a trial of skill between the two ablest commanders +on the Mediterranean. Doria, by stretching +out his line, had weakened his centre, and the +corsair captain, with alert decision, fell upon some +galleys separated from their companions, sinking +several, and carrying off the great Capitana of Malta +as a prize.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus both on the right and on the left the Christians +had the worst of it. The severest struggle was +in the centre. Here were the flag-ships of the commanders,—the +Real, Don John's vessel, flying the +holy banner of the League; Ali Pasha displaying the +great Ottoman standard, covered with texts from +the Koran in letters of gold, and having the name +of Allah written upon it many thousands of times.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Both the commanders, young and ardent, burned +with desire to meet in mid battle. The rowers urged +forward their vessels with an energy that sent them +ahead of the rest of their lines, driving them through +the foaming water with such force that the pasha's<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +galley, much the larger and loftier of the two, was +hurled upon its opponent until its prow reached the +fourth bench of rowers. Both vessels groaned and +quivered to their very keels with the shock.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As soon as the vessels could be disengaged the +combat began, the pasha opening with a fierce fire +of cannon and musketry, which was returned with +equal fury and more effect. The Spanish gunners +and musketeers were protected by high defences, +and much of the Turkish fire went over their heads, +while their missiles, poured into the unprotected and +crowded crews of Ali's flag-ship, caused terrible loss. +But the Turks had much the advantage in numbers, +and both sides fought with a courage that made the +result a matter of doubt.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The flag-ships were not long left alone. Other +vessels quickly gathered round them, and the combat +spread fiercely to both sides. The new-comers +attacked one another and assailed at every opportunity +the two central ships. But the latter, beating +off their assailants, clung together with unyielding +pertinacity, as if upon them depended the whole +issue of the fight.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The complete width of the entrance to the bay of +Lepanto was now a scene of mortal combat, though +the vessels were so lost under a pall of smoke that +none of the combatants could see far to the right or +left. The lines, indeed, were broken up into small +detachments, each fighting the antagonists in its +front, without regard to what was going on elsewhere. +The battle was in no sense a grand whole, but a +series of separate combats in which the galleys grappled<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and the soldiers and sailors boarded and fought +hand to hand. The slaughter was frightful. In the +case of some vessels, it is said, every man on board +was killed or wounded, while the blood that flowed +from the decks stained the waters of the gulf red +for miles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The left wing of the allies, as has been said, was +worsted at the beginning of the fight, its commander +receiving a wound which proved mortal. But the +Venetians fought on with the courage of despair. +In the end they drove back their adversaries and +themselves became the assailants, taking vessel after +vessel from the foe. The vessel of Mahomet Sirocco +was sunk, and he was slain after escaping death by +drowning. His death ended the resistance of his +followers. They turned to fly, many of the vessels +being run ashore and abandoned and their crews +largely perishing in the water.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While victory in this quarter perched on the Christian +banners, the mortal struggle in the centre went +on. The flag-ships still clung together, an incessant +fire of artillery and musketry sweeping both decks. +The Spaniards proved much the better marksmen, +but the greater numbers of the Turks, and reinforcements +received from an accompanying vessel, balanced +this advantage. Twice the Spaniards tried to +board and were driven back. A third effort was +more successful, and the deck of the Turkish galley +was reached. The two commanders cheered on their +men, exposing themselves to danger as freely as the +meanest soldier. Don John received a wound in the +foot,—fortunately a slight one. Ali Pasha led his<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +janizaries boldly against the boarders, but as he did +so he was struck in the head by a musket-ball and +fell. The loss of his inspiring voice discouraged his +men. For a time they continued to struggle, but, +borne back by their impetuous assailants, they threw +down their arms and asked for quarter.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The deck was covered with the bodies of the dead +and wounded. From beneath them the body of Ali +was drawn, severely, perhaps mortally, wounded. +His rescuers would have killed him on the spot, but +he diverted them by pointing out where his money +and jewels could be found. The next soldier to come +up was one of the galley-slaves, whom Don John had +unchained from the oar and supplied with arms. +Ali's story of treasure was lost on him. With one +blow he severed his head from his shoulders, and +carried the gory prize to Don John, laying it at his +feet. The generous Spaniard looked at it with a +mingling of pity and horror.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Of what use can such a present be to me?" he +coldly asked the slave, who looked for some rich reward; +"throw it into the sea."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was not done. The head was stuck on a +pike and raised aloft on the captured galley. At the +same time the great Ottoman banner was drawn +down, while that of the Cross was elevated with +cheers of triumph in its place.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The shouts of "victory!" the sight of the Christian +standard at the mast-head of Ali's ship, the +news of his death, which spread from ship to ship, +gave new courage to the allies and robbed the +Turks of spirit. They fought on, but more feebly.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Many of their vessels were boarded and taken. +Others were sunk. After four hours of fighting +the resistance of the Turkish centre was at an end.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the right, as related, Andrew Doria had suffered +a severe loss by stretching his line too far. +He would have suffered still more had not the reserve +under Santa Cruz, which had already given +aid to Don John, come to his relief. Strengthened +by Cardona with the Sicilian squadron, he fell on +the Algerine galleys with such fierceness that they +were forced to recoil. In their retreat they were +hotly assailed by Doria, and Uluch, beset on all +sides, was obliged to abandon his prizes and take to +flight. Tidings now came to him of the defeat of +the centre and the death of Ali, and, hoisting signals +for retreat, he stood in all haste to the north, followed +by the galleys of his fleet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With all sail spread and all its oarsmen vigorously +at work, the corsair fleet sped rapidly away, +followed by Doria and Santa Cruz. Don John joined +in the pursuit, hoping to intercept the fugitives in +front of a rocky headland which stretched far into +the sea. But the skilled Algerine leader weathered +this peril, losing a few vessels on the rocks, the remainder, +nearly forty in number, bearing boldly +onward. Soon they distanced their pursuers, many +of whose oarsmen had taken part and been wounded +in the fight. Before nightfall the Algerines were +vanishing below the horizon.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There being signs of a coming storm, Don John +hastened to seek a harbor of refuge, setting fire to +such vessels as were damaged beyond usefulness, and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with the remainder of his prizes making all haste +to the neighboring port of Petala, the best harbor +within reach.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The loss of the Turks had been immense, probably +not less than twenty-five thousand being killed +and five thousand taken prisoners. To Don John's +prizes may be added twelve thousand Christian captives, +chained to the oars by the Turks, who now +came forth, with tears of joy, to bless their deliverers. +The allies had lost no more than eight thousand +men. This discrepancy was largely due to +their use of fire-arms, while many of the Turks +fought with bows and arrows. Only the forty Algerine +ships escaped; one hundred and thirty vessels +were taken. The Christian loss was but fifteen galleys. +The spoils were large and valuable, consisting +in great measure of gold, jewels, and rich brocades.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the noble cavaliers who took part in the fight, +we shall speak only of Alexander Farnese, Prince +of Parma, a nephew of Don John, whom he was +destined to succeed in military renown. He began +here his career with a display of courage and daring +unsurpassed on the fleet. Among the combatants +was a common soldier, Cervantes by name, whose +future glory was to throw into the shade that of all +the leaders in the fight. Though confined to bed +with a fever on the morning of the battle, he insisted +on taking part, and his courage in the affray +was shown by two wounds on his breast and a third +in his hand which disabled it for life. Fortunately +it was the left hand. The right remained to write +the immortal story of Don Quixote de la Mancha.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended one of the greatest naval battles of +modern times. No important political effect came +from it, but it yielded an immense moral result. It +had been the opinion of Europe that the Turks were +invincible at sea. This victory dispelled that theory, +gave new heart to Christendom, and so dispirited the +Turks that in the next year they dared not meet the +Christians at sea, though they were commanded by +the daring dey of Algiers. The beginning of the +decline of the Ottoman empire may be said to date +from the battle of Lepanto.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc67" id="toc67"></a> +<a name="pdf68" id="pdf68"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During almost the whole reign of Philip II. the +army of Spain was kept busily engaged, now with +the Turks and the Barbary states, now with the revolted +Moriscos, or descendants of the Moors of +Granada, now in the conquest of Portugal, now with +the heretics of the Netherlands. All this was not +enough for the ambition of the Spanish king. Elizabeth +of England had aided the Netherland rebels +and had insulted him in America by sending fleets +to plunder his colonies; England, besides, was a nest +of enemies of the church of which Philip was one of +the most zealous supporters; he determined to attempt +the conquest of that heretical and hostile +island and the conversion of its people.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For months all the shipwrights of Spain were +kept busy in building vessels of an extraordinary +size. Throughout the kingdom stores were actively +collected for their equipment. Levies of soldiers +were made in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, +to augment the armies of Spain. What was in view +was the secret of the king, but through most of +1587 all Europe resounded with the noise of his +preparations.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Philip broached his project to his council of state, +but did not gain much support for his enterprise. +"England," said one of them, "is surrounded with<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a tempestuous ocean and has few harbors. Its navy +is equal to that of any other nation, and if a landing +is made we shall find its coasts defended by a powerful +army. It would be better first to subdue the +Netherlands; that done we shall be better able to +chastise the English queen." The Duke of Parma, +Philip's general in chief, was of the same opinion. +Before any success could be hoped for, he said, Spain +should get possession of some large seaport in Zealand, +for the accommodation of its fleet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These prudent counsels were thrown away on the +self-willed king. His armies had lately conquered +Portugal; England could not stand before their valor; +one battle at sea and another on shore would decide +the contest; the fleet he was building would overwhelm +all the ships that England possessed; the +land forces of Elizabeth, undisciplined and unused to +war, could not resist his veteran troops, the heroes +of a hundred battles, and led by the greatest general +of the age. All this he insisted on. Europe should +see what he could do. England should be punished +for its heresy and Elizabeth pay dearly for her discourtesy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Philip was confirmed in his purpose by the approbation +of the Pope. Elizabeth of England was the +greatest enemy of the Catholic faith. She had abolished +it throughout her dominions and executed as a +traitor the Catholic Queen Mary of Scotland. For +nearly thirty years she had been the chief support of +the Protestants in Germany, France, and the Netherlands. +Pope Pius V. had already issued a bull +deposing Elizabeth, on the ground of acts of perfidy.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Sixtus VI., who succeeded, renewed this bull and +encouraged Philip who, ambitious to be considered +the guardian of the Church, hastened his preparations +for the conquest of the island kingdom.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Elizabeth was not deceived by the stories set +afloat by Spain. She did not believe that this great +fleet was intended partly for the reduction of Holland, +partly for use in America, as Philip declared. +Scenting danger afar, she sent Sir Francis Drake +with a fleet to the coast of Spain to interrupt these +stupendous preparations.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Drake was the man for the work. Dispersing the +Spanish fleet sent to oppose him, he entered the +harbor of Cadiz, where he destroyed two large galleons +and a handsome vessel filled with provisions +and naval stores. Then he sailed for the Azores, +captured a rich carrack on the way home from the +East Indies, and returned to England laden with +spoils. He had effectually put an end to Philip's +enterprise for that year.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Philip now took steps towards a treaty of peace +with England, for the purpose of quieting the suspicions +of the queen. She appeared to fall into the +snare, pretended to believe that his fleet was intended +for Holland and America, and entered into a conference +with Spain for the settlement of all disturbing +questions. But at the same time she raised +an army of eighty thousand men, fortified all exposed +ports, and went vigorously to work to equip +her fleet. She had then less than thirty ships in her +navy, and these much smaller than those of Spain, +but the English sailors were the best and boldest in<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the world, new ships were rapidly built, and pains +was taken to increase the abhorrence which the +people felt for the tyranny of Spain. Accounts were +spread abroad of the barbarities practised in America +and in the Netherlands, vivid pictures were drawn +of the cruelties of the Inquisition, and the Catholic +as well as the Protestant people of England became +active in preparing for defence. The whole island +was of one mind; loyalty seemed universal; the citizens +of London provided thirty ships, and the nobility +and gentry of England forty or fifty more. +But these were of small size as compared with those +of their antagonist, and throughout the island apprehension +prevailed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the beginning of May, 1588, Philip's strenuous +labors were concluded and the great fleet was ready. +It was immense as compared with that with which +William the Conqueror had invaded and conquered +England five centuries before. The Invincible Armada, +as the Spaniards called it, consisted of one +hundred and fifty ships, many of them of enormous +size. They were armed with more than two thousand +six hundred great guns, were provisioned for +half a year, and contained military stores in a profusion +which only the wealth of America and the +Indies could have supplied. On them were nearly +twenty thousand of the famous troops of Spain, with +two thousand volunteers of the most distinguished +families, and eight thousand sailors. In addition +there was assembled in the coast districts of the +Netherlands an army of thirty-four thousand men, +for whose transportation to England a great number<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of flat-bottomed vessels had been procured. These +were to venture upon the sea as soon as the Armada +was in position for their support.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And now, indeed, "perfidious Albion" had reason +to tremble. Never had that nation of islanders been +so seriously threatened, not even when the ships of +William of Normandy were setting sail for its shores. +The great fleet, which lay at Lisbon, then a city of +Spain, was to set sail in the early days of May, and +no small degree of fear affected the hearts of all +Protestant Europe, for the conquest of England by +Philip the fanatic would have been a frightful blow +to the cause of religious and political liberty.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All had so far gone well with Spain; now all began +to go ill. At the very time fixed for sailing the +Marquis of Santa Cruz, the admiral of the fleet, was +taken violently ill and died, and with him died the +Duke of Paliano, the vice-admiral. Santa Cruz's +place was not easy to fill. Philip chose to succeed +him the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a nobleman totally +ignorant of sea affairs, giving him for vice-admiral +Martinez de Recaldo, a seaman of much experience. +All this caused so much delay that the fleet did not +sail till May 29.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Storm succeeded sickness to interfere with Philip's +plans. A tempest fell on the fleet on its way to +Corunna, where it was to take on some troops and +stores. All but four of the ships reached Corunna, +but they had been so battered and dishevelled by +the winds that several weeks passed before they +could again be got ready for sea,—much to the discomfiture +of the king, who was eager to become the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lord and master of England. He had dwelt there +in former years as the husband of Queen Mary; +now he was ambitious to set foot there as absolute +king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">England, meanwhile, was in an ebullition of joy. +Word had reached there that the Spanish fleet was +rendered unseaworthy by the storm, and the queen's +secretary, in undue haste, ordered Lord Howard, the +admiral, to lay up four of his largest ships and discharge +their crews, as they would not be needed. +But Howard was not so ready to believe a vague +report, and begged the queen to let him keep the +ships, even if at his own expense, till the truth could +be learned. To satisfy himself, he set sail for Corunna, +intending to try and destroy the Armada if +as much injured as reported. Learning the truth, +and finding that a favorable wind for Spain had begun +to blow, he returned to Plymouth in all haste, +in some dread lest the Armada might precede him +to the English coast.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He had not long been back when stirring tidings +came. The Armada had been seen upon the seas. +Lord Howard at once left harbor with his fleet. The +terrible moment of conflict, so long and nervously +awaited, was at hand. On the next day—July 30—he +came in view of the great Spanish fleet, drawn +up in the form of a crescent, with a space of seven +miles between its wings. Before this giant fleet his +own seemed but a dwarf. Paying no attention to +Lord Howard's ships, the Armada moved on with +dignity up the Channel, its purpose being to disperse +the Dutch and English ships off the Netherland coast<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and escort to England the Duke of Parma's army, +then ready to sail.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lord Howard deemed it wisest to pursue a guerilla +mode of warfare, harassing the Spaniards and taking +any advantage that offered. He first attacked the +flag-ship of the vice-admiral Recaldo, and with such +vigor and dexterity as to excite great alarm in the +Spanish fleet. From that time it kept closer order, yet +on the same day Howard attacked one of its largest +ships. Others hurried to the aid; but in their haste +two of them ran afoul, one, a large galleon, having +her mast broken. She fell behind and was captured +by Sir Francis Drake, who discovered, to his delight, +that she had on board a chief part of the Spanish +treasure.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Other combats took place, in all of which the +English were victorious. The Spaniards proved ignorant +of marine evolutions, and the English sailed +around them with a velocity which none of their +ships could equal, and proved so much better marksmen +that nearly every shot told, while the Spanish +gunners fired high and wasted their balls in the air. +The fight with the Armada seemed a prototype of +the much later sea-battles at Manila and Santiago +de Cuba.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Finally, after a halt before Calais, the Armada +came within sight of Dunkirk, where Parma's army, +with its flat-bottomed transports, was waiting to +embark. Here a calm fell upon the fleets, and they +remained motionless for a whole day. But about +midnight a breeze sprang up and Lord Howard put +into effect a scheme he had devised the previous day.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +He had made a number of fire-ships by filling eight +vessels with pitch, sulphur, and other combustibles, +and these were now set on fire and sent down the +wind against the Spanish fleet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was with terror that the Spaniards beheld the +coming of these flaming ships. They remembered +vividly the havoc occasioned by fire-ships at the +siege of Antwerp. The darkness of the night added +to their fears, and panic spread from end to end of the +fleet. All discipline vanished; self-preservation was +the sole thought of each crew. Some took time to +weigh their anchors, but others, in wild haste, cut +their cables, and soon the ships were driving blindly +before the wind, some running afoul of each other +and being completely disabled by the shock.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When day dawned Lord Howard saw with the +highest satisfaction the results of his stratagem. +The Spanish fleet was in the utmost disorder, its +ships widely dispersed. His own fleet had just been +strengthened, and he at once made an impetuous +attack upon the scattered Armada. The battle began +at four in the morning and lasted till six in the +evening, the Spaniards fighting with great bravery +but doing little execution. Many of their ships were +greatly damaged, and ten of the largest were sunk, +run aground, or captured. The principal galeas, or +large galley, manned with three hundred galley +slaves and having on board four hundred soldiers, +was driven ashore near Calais, and nearly all the +Spaniards were killed or drowned in attempting to +reach land. The rowers were set at liberty.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Spanish admiral was greatly dejected by this<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +series of misfortunes. As yet the English had lost +but one small ship and about one hundred men, +while his losses had been so severe that he began to +dread the destruction of the entire fleet. He could +not without great danger remain where he was. +His ships were too large to approach nearer to the +coast of Flanders. Philip had declined to secure a +suitable harbor in Zealand, as advised. The Armada +was a great and clumsy giant, from which Lord +Howard's much smaller fleet had not fled in terror, +as had been expected, and which now was in such a +condition that there was nothing left for it but to +try and return to Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the getting there was not easy. A return +through the Channel was hindered by the wind, +which blew strongly from the south. Nor was it a +wise movement in the face of the English fleet. +The admiral, therefore, determined to sail northward +and make the circuit of the British islands.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Unfortunately for Lord Howard, he was in no +condition to pursue. By the neglect of the authorities +he had been ill-supplied with gunpowder, and +was forced to return to England for a fresh supply. +But for this deficiency he possibly might, in the distressed +condition of the Spanish fleet, have forced a +surrender of the entire Armada. As it was, his return +proved fortunate, for the fleets had not far separated +when a frightful tempest began, which did +considerable harm to the English ships, but fell with +all its rage on the exposed Armada.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ships, drawn up in close ranks, were hurled +fiercely together, many being sunk. Driven helplessly<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +before the wind, some were dashed to pieces +on the rocks of Norway, others on the Scottish coast +or the shores of the western islands. Some went +down in the open sea. A subsequent storm, which +came from the west, drove more than thirty of them +on the Irish coast. Of these, some got off in a shattered +state, others were utterly wrecked and their +crews murdered on reaching the shore. The admiral's +ship, which had kept in the open sea, reached +the Spanish coast about the close of September.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even after reaching harbor in Spain troubles pursued +them, two of the galleons taking fire and burning +to ashes. Of the delicately reared noble volunteers, +great numbers had died from the hardships +of the voyage, and many more died from diseases +contracted at sea. The total loss is not known; +some say that thirty-two, some that more than +eighty, ships were lost, while the loss of life is estimated +at from ten thousand to fifteen thousand. +Spain felt the calamity severely. There was hardly +a family of rank that had not some one of its members +to mourn, and so universal was the grief that +Philip, to whose ambition the disaster was due, felt +obliged to issue an edict to abridge the time of public +mourning.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In England and Holland, on the contrary, the +event was hailed with universal joy. Days of solemn +thanksgiving were appointed, and Elizabeth, +seated in a triumphal chariot and surrounded by her +ministers and nobles, went for this purpose to St. +Paul's Cathedral, the concourse bearing a great number +of flags that had been taken from the enemy.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The joy at the destruction of the Armada was not +confined to England and Holland. All Northern +Europe joined in it. Philip's ambition, in the +event of victory over England, might have led him +to attempt the subjection of every Protestant state +in Europe, while Catholic France, which he afterwards +attempted to conquer, had the greatest reason +to dread his success.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended the most threatening enterprise in the +religious wars of the sixteenth century, and to Lord +Howard and his gallant captains England and Europe +owe the deepest debt of gratitude, for the success +of the Armada and the conquest of England by +Spain might have proved a calamity whose effects +would have been felt to the present day.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc69" id="toc69"></a> +<a name="pdf70" id="pdf70"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE CAUSES OF SPAIN'S DECADENCE.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The golden age of Spain began in 1492, in which +year the conquest of Granada extinguished the +Arab dominion, and the discovery of America by +Columbus opened a new world to the enterprise of +the Spanish cavaliers. It continued during the +reigns of Charles I. and Philip II., extending over a +period of about a century, during which Spain was +the leading power in Europe, and occupied the foremost +position in the civilized world. In Europe its +possessions included the Netherlands and important +regions in Italy, while its king, Charles I., ruled as +Charles V. over the German empire, possessing a +dominion in Europe only surpassed by that of Charlemagne. +Under Philip II. Portugal became a part of +the Spanish realm, and with it its colony of Brazil, +so that Spain was the unquestioned owner of the +whole continent of South America, while much of +North America lay under its flag.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Wealth flowed into the coffers of this broad kingdom +in steady streams, the riches of America over-flowing +its treasury; its fleet was the greatest, its +army the best trained and most irresistible in Europe; +it stood as the bulwark against that mighty +Ottoman power before which the other nations<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +trembled, and checked its career of victory at Lepanto; +in short, as above said, it was for a brief +period the leading power in Europe, and appeared to +have in it the promise of a glorious career.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the status of Spain during the reigns +of the monarchs named. This was followed by a +long period of decline, which reduced that kingdom +from its position of supremacy into that of +one of the minor powers of Europe. Various +causes contributed to this change, the chief being +the accession of a series of weak monarchs and the +false ideas of the principles of political economy +which then prevailed. The great treasure which +flowed into Spain from her American colonies rather +hastened than retarded her decline. The restrictions +and monopolies of her colonial policy gave +rise to an active contraband trade, which reaped +the harvest of her commerce. The over-abundant +supply of gold and silver had the effect of increasing +the price of other commodities and discouraging +her rising industries, the result being that she was +obliged to purchase abroad the things she ceased to +produce at home and the wealth of America flowed +from her coffers into those of the adjoining nations. +Her policy towards the Moriscos banished the most +active agriculturists from the land, and large districts +became desert, population declined, and the +resources of the kingdom diminished yearly. In a +century after the death of Philip II. Spain, from +being the arbiter of the destinies of Europe, had +grown so weak that the other nations ceased to regard +her otherwise than as a prey for their ambition,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +her population had fallen from eight to six +millions, her revenue from two hundred and eighty +to thirty millions, her navy had vanished, her army +had weakened, and her able soldiers and statesmen +had disappeared.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In addition to the causes of decline named, others +of importance were her treatment of the Jews and +the Moriscos, though the banishment of the former +took place at an earlier date. Despite their activity +in trade and finance and the value to the nations +of their genius for business, the Jews of Europe +were everywhere persecuted, often exposed to +robbery and massacre, and expelled from some +kingdoms. In Spain their expulsion was conducted +with cruel severity.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many of the unfortunate Jews, seeking to escape +persecution, embraced Christianity. But their conversion +was doubted, they were subjected to constant +espionage, and the least suspicion of indulging in +their old worship exposed them to the dangerous +charge of heresy, a word of frightful omen in Spain. +It was to punish these delinquent Jews that in 1480 +the Inquisition was introduced, and at once began its +frightful work, no less than two thousand "heretics" +being burned alive in 1481, while seventeen thousand +were "reconciled," a word of mild meaning elsewhere, +but which in Spain signified torture, confiscation +of property, loss of citizenship, and frequently +imprisonment for life in the dungeons of the Inquisition. +Severe as was the treatment of the Jews +throughout Christendom, nowhere were they treated +more pitilessly than in Spain.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The year 1492, in which Spain gained glory by +the conquest of Granada and the discovery of +America, was one of the deepest misfortune to this +people, who were cruelly driven from the kingdom. +The edict for this was signed by Ferdinand and Isabella +at Granada, March 30, 1492, and decreed that +all unbaptized Jews, without regard to sex, age, or +condition, should leave Spain before the end of the +next July, and never return thither under penalty +of death and confiscation of property. Every Spaniard +was forbidden to give aid in any form to a Jew +after the date named. The Jews might sell their +property and carry the proceeds with them in bills +of exchange or merchandise, but not in gold or +silver.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This edict came like a thunderbolt to the Israelites. +At a tyrant's word they must go forth as exiles +from the land in which they and their forefathers +had dwelt for ages, break all their old ties of habit +and association, and be cast out helpless and defenceless, +marked with a brand of infamy, among nations +who held them in hatred and contempt.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under the unjust terms of the edict they were +forced to abandon most of the property which they +had spent their lives in gaining. It was impossible +to sell their effects in the brief time given, in a market +glutted with similar commodities, for more than +a tithe of their value. As a result their hard-won +wealth was frightfully sacrificed. One chronicler +relates that he saw a house exchanged for an ass +and a vineyard for a suit of clothes. In Aragon the +property of the Jews was confiscated for the benefit<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of their creditors, with little regard to its value. +As for the bills of exchange which they were to take +instead of gold and silver, it was impossible to obtain +them to the amount required in that age of limited +commerce, and here again they were mercilessly +robbed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The migration was one of the most pitiable known +in history. As the time fixed for their departure +approached the roads of the country swarmed with +emigrants, young and old, strong and feeble, sick +and well, some on horses or mules, but the great +multitude on foot. The largest division, some eighty +thousand in number, passed through Portugal, whose +monarch taxed them for a free passage through his +dominions, but, wiser than Ferdinand, permitted +certain skilful artisans among them to settle in his +kingdom.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Those who reached Africa and marched towards +Fez, where many of their race resided, were attacked +by the desert tribes, robbed, slain, and treated with +the most shameful barbarity. Many of them, half-dead +with famine and in utter despair, returned +to the coast, where they consented to be baptized +with the hope that they might be permitted to return +to their native land.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Those who sought Italy contracted an infectious +disease in the crowded and filthy vessels which they +were obliged to take; a disorder so malignant that +it carried off twenty thousand of the people of Naples +during the year, and spread far over the remainder +of Italy. As for the Jews, hosts of them perished +of hunger and disease, and of the whole number expelled,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +estimated at one hundred and sixty thousand, +only a miserable fragment found homes at length +in foreign lands, some seeking Turkey, others gaining +refuge and protection in France and England. +As for the effect of the migration on Spain it must +suffice here to quote the remark of a monarch of +that day: "Do they call this Ferdinand a politic +prince, who can thus impoverish his own kingdom +and enrich ours?"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Spain was in this barbarous manner freed of her +Jewish population. There remained the Moors, who +had capitulated, under favorable terms, to Ferdinand +in 1492. These terms were violated a few years +later by Cardinal Ximenes, his severity driving them +into insurrection in 1500. This was suppressed, and +then punishment began. So rigid was the inquiry +that it seemed as if all the people of Granada would +be condemned as guilty, and in mortal dread many +of them made peace by embracing Christianity, while +others sold their estates and migrated to Barbary. +In the end, all who remained escaped persecution +only by consenting to be baptized, the total number +of converts being estimated at fifty thousand. The +name of Moors, which had superseded that of Arabs, +was now changed to that of Moriscos, by which +these unfortunate people were afterwards known.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ill-faith shown to the Moors of the plain gave +rise to an insurrection in the mountains, in which +the Spaniards suffered a severe defeat. The insurgents, +however, were soon subdued, and most of +them, to prevent being driven from their homes, +professed the Christian faith. By the free use of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +torture and the sword the kings of Spain had succeeded +in adding largely to their Christian subjects.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Moriscos became the most skilful and industrious +agriculturists of Spain, but they were +an alien element of the population and from time +to time irritating edicts were issued for their +control. In 1560 the Moriscos were forbidden +to employ African slaves, for fear that they might +make infidels of them. This was a severe annoyance, +for the wealthy farmers depended on the labor +of these slaves. In 1563 they were forbidden to +possess arms except under license. In 1566 still +more oppressive edicts were passed. They were no +longer to use the Arabic language or wear the Moorish +dress, and the women were required to go about +with their faces unveiled,—a scandalous thing among +Mohammedans. Their weddings were to be conducted +in public, after the Christian forms, their national +songs and dances were interdicted, and they +were even forbidden to indulge in warm baths, +bathing being a custom of which the Spaniard of +that day appears to have disapproved.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result of these oppressive edicts was a violent +and dangerous insurrection, which involved nearly +all the Moriscos of Spain, and continued for more +than two years, requiring all the power of Spain for +its suppression. Don John of Austria, the victor at +Lepanto, led the Spanish troops, but he had a difficult +task, the Moriscos, sheltered in their mountain +fastnesses, making a desperate and protracted resistance, +and showing a warlike energy equal to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that which had been displayed in the defence of +Granada.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The end of the war was followed by a decree from +Philip II. that all the Moors of Granada should be +removed into the interior of the country, their lands +and houses being forfeited, and nothing left them +but their personal effects. This act of confiscation +was followed by their reduction to a state of serfdom +in their new homes, no one being permitted to change +his abode without permission, under a very severe +penalty. If found within ten leagues of Granada +they were condemned, if between the ages of ten +and seventeen, to the galleys for life; if older, to the +punishment of death.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The dispersal of the Moriscos of Granada, while +cruel to them, proved of the greatest benefit to +Spain. Wherever they went the effects of their +superior skill and industry were soon manifested. +They were skilled not only in husbandry, but in the +mechanic arts, and their industry gave a new aspect +of prosperity to the provinces to which they were +banished, while the valleys and hill-sides of Granada, +which had flourished under their cultivation, sank +into barrenness under the unskilful hands of their +successors.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet this benefit to agriculture did not appeal to +the ruling powers in Spain. The Moriscos were not +Spaniards, and could not easily become so while deprived +of all civil rights. While nominally Christian, +there was a suspicion that at heart they were +still Moslems. And their relations to the Moors of +Africa and possible league with the corsairs of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Mediterranean aroused distrust. Under Philip +III., a timid and incapable king, the final act came. +He was induced to sign an edict for the expulsion of +the Moriscos, and this quiet and industrious people, +a million in number, were in 1610, like the Jews +before them, forced to leave their homes in Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not necessary to repeat the story of the +suffering which necessarily followed so barbarous an +act. What has been said of the circumstances attending +the expulsion of the Jews will suffice. +That of the Moriscos was not so inhuman in its +consequences, but it was serious enough. Fortunately, +in view of the intense impolicy and deep intolerance +indicated in the act, its evil effects reacted +upon its advocates. To the Moriscos the suffering +was personal; to Spain it was national. As France +half-ruined herself by expelling the Huguenots, the +most industrious of her population, Spain did the +same in expelling the Moriscos, to whose skill and +industry she owed so much of her prosperity. So it +ever must be when bigotry is allowed to control the +policy of states. France recovered from the evil +effects of her mad act. Spain never did. The expulsion +of the Moriscos was one of the most prominent +causes of her decline, and no indications of a +recovery have yet been shown.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The expulsion of the Jews and Moriscos was not +sufficient to satisfy the intolerant spirit of Spain. +Heresy had made its way even into the minds of +Spaniards. Sons of the Church themselves had +begun to think in other lines than those laid down +for them by the priestly guardians of their minds.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Protestant books were introduced into the ever-faithful +land, and a considerable number of converts +to Protestantism were made.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Upon these heretics the Inquisition descended with +all its frightful force. Philip, in a monstrous edict, +condemned all to be burned alive who bought, sold, +or read books prohibited by the Church. The result +was terrible. The land was filled with spies. +Arrests were made on all sides. The instruments +of torture were kept busy. In all the principal +cities of Spain the monstrous spectacle of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">auto-de-fé</span></span> +was to be seen, multitudes being burned at +the stake for having dared to read the books or +accept the arguments of Protestant writers.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The total effect of this horrible system of persecution +we can only epitomize. Thousands were +burned at the stake, thousands imprisoned for life +after terrible torture, thousands robbed of their +property, and their children condemned to poverty +and opprobrium; and the kingdom of Christ, as the +Spanish monarchs of that day estimated it, was +established in Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Spanish Inquisition proved an instrument of +conviction which none dared question. Heresy was +blotted out from Spain,—and Spain was blotted out +from the ranks of enlightened nations. Freedom +of thought was at an end. The mind of the +Spaniard was put in fetters. Spain, under the +sombre shadow of this barbarity, was shut out +from the light which was breaking over the remainder +of Europe. Literature moved in narrow +channels, philosophy was checked, the domain of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +science was closed, progress was at an end. Spain +stood still while the rest of the world was sweeping +onward; and she stands still to-day, her mind in +the fifteenth century. The decadence of Spain is +due to the various causes named,—the weakness of +her rulers, lack of just and advantageous ideas of +political and commercial economy, suppression of +freedom of thought and opinion on topics which +were being freely handled elsewhere in Christendom, +and a narrow and intolerant policy which, +wherever shown, is a fatal barrier to the progress +of mankind.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc71" id="toc71"></a> +<a name="pdf72" id="pdf72"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE LAST OF A ROYAL RACE.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rebellion of the Moriscos, due to the oppressive +edicts of Philip II., as stated in the preceding +tale, was marked by numerous interesting events. +Some of these are worth giving in illustration of the +final struggle of the Moors in Spain. The insurgents +failed in their first effort, that of seizing the +city of Granada, still filled with their fellow-countrymen, +and restoring as far as possible their old kingdom; +and they afterwards confined themselves to +the difficult passes and mountain fastnesses of the +Sierra Nevada, where they presented a bold front to +the power of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having proclaimed their independence, and cast +off all allegiance to the crown of Spain, their first +step was to select a new monarch of their own race. +The man selected for this purpose was of royal blood, +being descended in a direct line from the ancient +family of the Omeyades, caliphs of Damascus, and +for nearly four centuries rulers in Spain. This man, +who bore the Castilian name of Don Fernando de +Valor, but was known by the Moors as Aben-Humeya, +was at that time twenty-two years of age, +comely in person and engaging in manners, and of a +deportment worthy of the princely line from which +he had descended. A man of courage and energy, +he escaped from Granada and took refuge in the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +mountains, where he began a war to the knife +against Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The early events of the war were unfavorable to +the Moors. Their strongholds were invaded by a +powerful Spanish force under the Marquis of Mondejar, +and their forces soon put to flight. Aben-Humeya +was so hotly pursued that he was forced +to spring from his horse, cut the hamstrings of the +animal to render it useless to his pursuers, and seek +refuge in the depths of the sierras, where dozens +of hiding-places unknown to his pursuers could be +found.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The insurrection was now in a desperate stage. +Mondejar was driving the rebels in arms in terror +before him; tower and town fell in succession into +his hands; everywhere his arms were victorious, +and only one thing was wanting to bring all opposition +to an end,—the capture of Aben-Humeya, the +"little king" of the Alpujarras. This crownless +monarch was known to be wandering with a few +followers in the wilds of the mountains; but while +he lived the insurrection might at any moment blaze +out again, and detachments of soldiers were sent to +pursue him through the sierras.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The captain of one of these parties learned from +a traitor that the fugitive prince remained hidden +in the mountains only during the day, finding shelter +at night in the house of a kinsman, Aben-Aboo, on +the skirts of the sierras. Learning the situation of +this mansion, the Spanish captain led his men with +the greatest secrecy towards it. Travelling by night, +they reached the vicinity of the dwelling under cover<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the darkness. In a minute more the house would +have been surrounded and its inmates secured; but +at this critical moment the arquebuse of one of the +Spaniards was accidentally discharged, the report +echoing loudly among the hills and warning the +lightly sleeping inmates of their danger.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of them, El Zaguer, the uncle of Aben-Humeya, +at once sprang up and leaped from the +window of his room, making his way with all haste +to the mountains. His nephew was not so fortunate. +Running to his window, in the front of the house, he +saw the ground occupied by troops. He hastily +sought another window, but his foes were there before +him. Bewildered and distressed, he knew not +where to turn. The house was surrounded; the +Spaniards were thundering on the door for admittance; +he was like a wolf caught in its lair, and with +as little mercy to hope from his captors.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By good fortune the door was well secured. One +possible chance for safety occurred to the hunted +prince. Hastening down-stairs, he stood behind the +portal and noiselessly drew its bolts. The Spaniards, +finding the door give way, and supposing that it had +yielded to their blows, rushed hastily in and hurried +through the house in search of the fugitive who was +hidden behind the door. The instant they had all +passed he slipped out, and, concealed by the darkness +outside, hastened away, soon finding a secure refuge +in the mountains.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Aben-Aboo remained in the hands of the assaillants, +who vainly questioned him as to the haunts +of his kinsmen. On his refusal to answer they employed<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +torture, but with no better effect. "I may +die," he courageously said, "but my friends will live." +So severe and cruel was their treatment, that in the +end they left him for dead, returning to camp with +the other prisoners they had taken. As it proved, +however, the heroic Aben-Aboo did not die, but lived +to play a leading part in the war.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With kindly treatment of the Moriscos he would +probably have given no more trouble, but the Spanish +proved utterly merciless, their soldiers raging +through the mountains, and committing the foulest +acts of outrage and rapine. In Granada a frightful +deed was committed. A large number of the leading +Moriscos, about one hundred and fifty in all, had been +seized and imprisoned, being held as hostages for the +good behavior of their friends. Here, on a night in +March, the prison was entered by a body of Spaniards, +who assailed the unfortunate captives, arms in hand, +and began an indiscriminate massacre. The prisoners +seizing what means of defence they could find, +fought desperately for their lives, and for two hours +the unequal combat continued, not ending while a +Morisco remained alive.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This savage act led to terrible reprisals on the +part of the insurgents, who in the subsequent war +treated with atrocious cruelty many of their +captives. The Moriscos were soon in arms again, +Aben-Humeya at their head, and the war blazed +throughout the length and breadth of the mountains. +Even from Barbary came a considerable body of +Moors, who entered the service of the Morisco chief. +Fierce and intrepid, trained to the military career,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and accustomed to a life of wild adventure, these +were a most valuable reinforcement to Aben-Humeya's +forces, and enabled him to carry on a guerilla +warfare which proved highly vexatious to the troops +of Spain. He made forays from the mountains into +the plain, penetrating into the vega and boldly +venturing even to the walls of Granada. The insurrection +spread far and wide through the Sierra +Nevada, and the Spanish army, now led by Don John +of Austria, the king's brother, found itself confronted +by a most serious task.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The weak point in the organization of the Moriscos +lay in the character of their king. Aben-Humeya, +at first popular, soon displayed traits of +character which lost him the support of his followers. +Surrounded by a strong body-guard, he led a voluptuous +life, and struck down without mercy those +whom he feared, no less than three hundred and fifty +persons falling victims to his jealousy or revenge. +His cruelty and injustice at length led to a plot for +his death, and his brief reign ended in assassination, +his kinsman, Aben-Aboo, being chosen as his successor.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The new king was a very different man from his +slain predecessor. He was much the older of the +two, a man of high integrity and great decorum of +character. While lacking the dash and love of adventure +of Aben-Humeya, he had superior judgment +in military affairs, and full courage in carrying +out his plans. His election was confirmed from +Algiers, a large quantity of arms and ammunition +was imported from Barbary, reinforcements crossed<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Mediterranean, and the new king began his reign +under excellent auspices, his first movement being +against Orgiba, a fortified place on the road to +Granada, which he invested in October with an army +of ten thousand men.</p> + +<a name="fig73" id="fig73"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image15.png" width="640" height="384" alt="Illustration: THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA." title="THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The capture of this place, which soon followed, +roused the enthusiasm of the Moriscos to the highest +pitch. From all sides the warlike peasantry flocked +to the standard of their able chief, and a war began +resembling that of a century before, when the forces +of Ferdinand and Isabella were invading the Kingdom +of Granada. From peak to peak of the sierras +beacon-fires flashed their signals, calling the bold +mountaineers to forays on the lands of the enemy. +Pouring suddenly down on the lower levels, the +daring marauders swept away in triumph to the +mountains the flocks and herds of their Christian +foes. The vega of Granada became, as in ancient +times, the battle-ground of Moorish and Christian +cavaliers, the latter having generally the advantage, +though occasionally the insurgent bands would break +into the suburbs, or even the city of Granada, filling +its people with consternation, and causing the great +bell of the Alhambra to peal out its tocsin of alarm +and call the Spanish chivalry in haste to the fray.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We cannot describe, even in epitome, the varied +course of this sanguinary war. As might well have +been expected, the greater force of the Spaniards +gradually prevailed, and the autumn of 1570 found +the insurgents almost everywhere subdued. Only +Aben-Aboo, the "little king," remained in arms, a +force of four hundred men being all that were left<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to him of his recent army. But these were men +warmly devoted to him, and until the spring of 1571 +every effort for his capture proved in vain. Hiding +in mountain caves and in inaccessible districts, he +defied pursuit, and in a measure kept alive the flame +of rebellion.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Treason at length brought his career to an end. +One of the few insurgent prisoners who escaped +death at the hands of the Spanish executioners revealed +the hiding-place of the fugitive king, and +named the two persons on whom Aben-Aboo most +relied, his secretary, Abou Amer, and a Moorish captain +named El Senix.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An effort was made to win over the secretary by +one who had formerly known him, a letter being +sent him which roused him to intense indignation. +El Senix, however, becoming aware of its contents, +and having a private grudge against his master, sent +word by the messenger that he would undertake, for +a suitable recompense, to betray him to the Christians.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An interview soon after took place between the +Moor and Barredo, the Spanish agent, some intimation +of which came to the ears of Aben-Aboo. +The king at once sought a cavern in the neighborhood +where El Senix was secreted, and, leaving his +followers outside, imprudently entered alone. He +found El Senix surrounded by several of his friends, +and sternly demanded of him the purpose of his +interview with Barredo. Senix, confused by the +accusation, faltered out that he had simply been +seeking to obtain an amnesty for him. Aben-Aboo<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +listened with a face of scorn, and, turning on his +heel with the word "treachery," walked back to the +mouth of the cave.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Unluckily, his men, with the exception of two +guards stationed at the entrance, had left the spot to +visit some near-by friends. Senix, perceiving that +his own life was in danger, and that this was his +only opportunity for safety, fell with his followers +on the guards, one of whom was killed and the other +put to flight. Then an attack was made on Aben-Aboo. +The latter defended himself desperately, +but the odds were too great, and the dastardly El +Senix ended the struggle by felling him with the +butt-end of his musket, when he was quickly despatched.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus died the last of the Omeyades, the famous +dynasty of Arabian caliphs founded in 660, and established +in Spain in 756. Aben-Aboo, the last of +this royal race, was given in death a triumphal entrance +to Granada, as if he were one whom the Spaniards +delighted to honor. The corpse was set astride +on a mule, being supported by a wooden frame, +which lay hidden beneath flowing robes. On one +side rode Barredo; on the other the murderer El +Senix bore the scimitar and arquebuse of the dead +prince. The kinsmen and friends of the Morisco +chief rode in his train, and after them came a regiment +of infantry and a troop of horse.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the procession moved along the street of Zacatin +salvos of musketry saluted it, peals of artillery +roared from the towers of the Alhambra, and the +multitude thronged to gaze with silent curiosity on<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the ghastly face. Thus the cavalcade proceeded +until the great square of Vivarambla was reached. +Here were assembled the principal cavaliers and +magistrates of the city, and here El Senix dismounted +and delivered to Deza, the president of the +tribunal before which were tried the insurgent captives, +the arms of the murdered prince.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And now this semblance of respect to a brave +enemy was followed by a scene of barbarity worthy +of the Spain of that day. The ceremony of a +public execution was gone through with, the head +of the corpse being struck off, after which the body +was given to the boys of Granada, who dragged +it through the streets and exposed it to every indignity, +finally committing it to the flames. The +head, enclosed in a cage, was set over the gate that +faced towards the Alpujarras. There it remained +for a year, seeming to gaze towards the hills which +the Morisco chief had loved so well, and which had +witnessed his brief and disastrous reign.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the fate of Aben-Aboo, the last of a line +of great monarchs, and one of the best of them all; +a man of lofty spirit, temperate appetites, and courageous +endurance, who, had he lived in more prosperous +days, might have ruled in the royal halls of +Cordova with a renown equal to that of the most +famous caliph of his race.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc74" id="toc74"></a><a name="pdf75" id="pdf75"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">HENRY MORGAN AND THE BUCCANEERS.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the seventeenth century passed on, Spain, under +the influence of religious intolerance and bad government, +grew weak, both at home and abroad. Its +prominent place in Europe was lost. Its vast colonial +provinces in America were scenes of persecution +and anarchy. There the fortresses were allowed to +decay, the soldiers, half-clothed and unpaid, to become +beggars or bandits, the treasures to be pilfered, +and commerce to become a system of fraud; while +the colonists were driven to detest their mother land. +This weakness was followed by dire consequences. +Bands of outcasts from various nations, who had +settled on Spanish territory in the West Indies, at +first to forage on the cattle of Hispaniola, organized +into pirate crews, and, under the name of buccaneers, +became frightful scourges of the commerce of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These wretches, mainly French, English, and +Dutch, deserters and outlaws, the scum of their nations, +made the rich merchant and treasure ships of +Spain their prey, slaughtering their crews, torturing +them for hidden wealth, rioting with profuse prodigality +at their lurking-places on land, and turning +those fair tropical islands into a pandemonium of +outrage, crime, and slaughter. As they troubled<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +little the ships of other nations, these nations rather +favored than sought to suppress them, and Spain +seemed powerless to bring their ravages to an end. +In consequence, as the years went on, they grew +bolder and more adventurous. Beginning with a +few small, deckless sloops, they in time gained large +and well-armed vessels, and created so deep a terror +among the Spaniards by their savage attacks that +the latter rarely made a strong resistance.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lurking in forest-hidden creeks and inlets of the +West India islands, they kept a keen lookout for the +ships that bore to Spain the gold, silver, precious +stones, and rich products of the New World, pursued +them in their swift barks, boarded them, and +killed all who ventured to resist. If the cargo was +a rich one, and there had been little effort at defence, +the prisoners might be spared their lives; if otherwise, +they were flung mercilessly into the sea. Sailing +then to their place of rendezvous, the captors indulged +in the wildest and most luxurious orgies, their +tables groaning with strong liquors and rich provisions; +gaming, music, and dancing succeeding; +extravagance, debauchery, and profusion of every +kind soon dissipating their blood-bought wealth.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the pirate leaders several gained prominence +for superior boldness or cruelty, among whom +we may particularly name L'Olonnois, a Frenchman, +of such savage ferocity that all mariners of +Spanish birth shuddered with fear at his very name. +This wretch suffered the fate he deserved. In an +expedition to the Isthmus of Darien he was taken +prisoner by a band of savage Indians, who tore him<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to pieces alive, flung his quivering limbs into the +fire, and then scattered the ashes to the air.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Most renowned of all the buccaneers was Henry +Morgan, a native of Wales, who ran away from home +as a boy, was sold as a slave in Barbadoes, and afterwards +joined a pirate crew, in time becoming a leader +among the lawless hordes. By this time the raids +of the ferocious buccaneers had almost put an end +to Spanish commerce with the New World, and the +daring freebooters, finding their gains at sea falling +off, collected fleets and made attacks on land, plundering +rich towns and laying waste thriving settlements. +So greatly had Spanish courage degenerated +that the pirates with ease put to flight ten times +their number of that Spanish soldiery which, a century +before, had been the finest in the world.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first pirate to make such a raid was Lewis +Scott, who sacked the town of Campeachy, robbing +it of all its wealth, and forcing its inhabitants to +pay an enormous ransom. Another named Davies +marched inland to Nicaragua, took and plundered +that town, and carried off a rich booty in silver and +precious stones. He afterwards pillaged the city of +St. Augustine, Florida. Others performed similar +exploits, but we must confine our attention to the +deeds of Morgan, the boldest and most successful of +them all.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Morgan's first enterprise was directed against Port +au Prince, Cuba, where, however, the Spaniards had +received warning and concealed their treasures, so +that the buccaneer gained little for his pains. His +next expedition was against Porto Bello, on the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Isthmus, one of the richest and best fortified of +American cities. Two castles, believed to be impregnable, +commanded the entrances to the harbor. +When the freebooters learned that their leader +proposed to attack so strong a place as this the +hearts of the boldest among them shrank. But +Morgan, with a few inspiring words, restored their +courage.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"What boots it," he exclaimed, "how small our +number, if our hearts be great! The fewer we are +the closer will be our union and the larger our shares +of plunder."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Boldness and secrecy carried the day. One of the +castles was taken by surprise, the first knowledge +of the attack coming to the people of the town from +the concussion when Morgan blew it up. Before the +garrison or the citizens could prepare to oppose them +the freebooters were in the town. The governor +and garrison fled in panic haste to the other castle, +while the terrified people threw their treasures into +wells and cisterns. The castle made a gallant resistance, +but was soon obliged to yield to the impetuous +attacks of the pirate crews.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was no light exploit which Morgan had performed,—to +take with five hundred men a fortified +city with a large garrison and strengthened by natural +obstacles to assault. The ablest general in ordinary +war might well have claimed renown for so +signal a victory. But the ability of the leader was +tarnished by the cruelty of the buccaneer. The people +were treated with shocking barbarity, many of +them being shut up in convents and churches and<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +burned alive, while the pirates gave themselves up +to every excess of debauchery.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great booty gained by this raid caused numerous +pirate captains to enlist under Morgan's flag, +and other towns were taken, in which similar orgies +of cruelty and debauchery followed. But the impunity +of the buccaneers was nearing its end. Their +atrocious acts had at length aroused the indignation +of the civilized world, and a treaty was concluded +between Great Britain and Spain whose chief purpose +was to put an end to these sanguinary and +ferocious deeds.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first effect of this treaty was to spur the buccaneers +to the performance of some exploit surpassing +any they had yet achieved. So high was Morgan's +reputation among the pirates that they flocked from +all quarters to enlist under his flag, and he soon had +a fleet of no fewer than thirty-seven vessels manned +by two thousand men. With so large a force an expedition +on a greater scale could well be undertaken, +and a counsel of the chiefs debated whether they +should make an assault upon Vera Cruz, Carthagena, +or Panama. Their choice fell upon Panama, as the +richest of the three.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The city of Panama at that time (1670) was considered +one of the greatest and most opulent in +America. It contained two thousand large buildings +and five thousand smaller, all of which were three +stories high. Many of these were built of stone, +others of cedar wood, being elegantly constructed +and richly furnished. The city was the emporium +for the silver- and gold-mines of New Spain, and its<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +merchants lived in great opulence, their houses rich +in articles of gold and silver, adorned with beautiful +paintings and other works of art, and full of the +luxuries of the age. The churches were magnificent +in their decorations, and richly embellished with ornaments +in gold and silver. The city presented such +a prize to cupidity as freebooters and bandits had +rarely conceived of in their wildest dreams.</p> + +<a name="fig76" id="fig76"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image16.png" width="640" height="385" alt="Illustration: STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA." title="STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The daring enterprise began with the capture by +four hundred men of the Fort of St. Laurence, at +the mouth of the Chagres River. Up this serpentine +stream sailed the freebooters, as far as it would bear +them, and thence they marched overland, suffering +the greatest hardships and overcoming difficulties +which would have deterred men of less intrepid +spirit. Eight days of this terrible march brought +the adventurers within sight of the far-spreading +Pacific, and of the spires of the coveted city on its +shores.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The people of Panama had been apprised of what +was in store for them, and had laid ambuscades for +the buccaneers, but Morgan, by taking an indirect +route to the town, avoided these. Panama was but +partly fortified. In several quarters it lay open to +attack. It must be fought for and won or lost on +the open plain. Here the Spaniards had assembled +to the number of two thousand infantry and four +hundred cavalry, well equipped and possessing everything +needed but spirit to meet the dreaded foe. +They had adopted an expedient sure to prove a +dangerous one. A herd of wild bulls, to the number +of more than two thousand, was provided, with Indians<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and negroes to drive them on the pirate horde. +The result resembled that in which the Greeks drove +elephants upon the Roman legions. Many of the +buccaneers were accustomed to the chase of wild +cattle, and, by shouts and the waving of colored +flags, turned the bulls back upon the Spanish lines, +which they threw into disorder.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The buccaneers followed with an impetuous charge +which broke the ranks of the defenders of the +town, who, after a two hours' combat, were completely +routed, the most of them being killed or +taken prisoners. The assault was now directed upon +the town, which was strongly defended, the pirates +being twice repulsed and suffering much from the +numerous Spanish guns. But after a three hours' +fight they overcame all opposition and the city fell +into their hands.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A scene of frightful bloodshed and inhumanity +followed. The buccaneers gave no quarter, killing +all they met. Lest they should be exposed to a +counter assault while intoxicated, Morgan called +them together and forbade them to taste the wine +of the town, saying that it had been poisoned. +Conflagration followed massacre. Fires broke out +in several quarters of the city, and great numbers +of dwellings, with churches, convents, and numerous +warehouses filled with valuable goods were reduced +to ashes. These fires continued to burn during +most of the month in which the freebooters held the +city, and in which they indulged to the full in their +accustomed cruelty, rapacity, and licentiousness.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Treasure was found in great quantities in the wells<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and caves, where it had been thrown by the terrified +people. The vessels taken in the harbor yielded +valuable commodities. Detachments were sent into +the country to capture and bring back those who +had fled for safety, and by torturing these several +rich deposits of treasure were discovered in the surrounding +forests. A few of the inhabitants escaped +with their wealth by sea, seeking shelter in the +islands of the bay, and a galleon laden with the +king's plate and jewels and other precious articles +belonging to the church and the people narrowly +escaped after a hot chase by the buccaneers. With +these exceptions the rich city was completely looted.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After a month spent among the ruins of Panama +Morgan and his villainous followers departed, one +hundred and seventy-five mules carrying their more +bulky spoil, while with them were six hundred prisoners, +some carrying burdens, others held to ransom. +Thus laden, they reached again the mouth of +the Chagres, where their ships awaited them and +where a division of the spoil was to be made.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Treachery followed this stupendous act of piracy, +Morgan's later history being an extraordinary one +for a man of his infamous record. He was possessed +with the demon of cupidity, and a quarrel arose between +him and his men concerning the division of +the spoil. Morgan ended it by running off with the +disputed plunder. On the night preceding the final +division, during the hours of deepest slumber, the +treacherous chief, with a few of his confidants, set +sail for Jamaica, in a vessel deeply laden with spoils. +On waking and learning this act of base treachery,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the infuriated pirates pursued him, but in vain; he +safely reached Jamaica with his ill-gotten wealth.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this English island the pirate chief gained not +only safety, but honors. In some way he won the +favor of Charles II., who knighted him as Sir Henry +Morgan and placed him on the admiralty court in +Jamaica. He subsequently, for a time, acted as +deputy governor, and in this office displayed the +greatest severity towards his old associates, several +of whom were tried before him and executed. One +whole crew of buccaneers were sent by him to the +Spaniards at Carthagena, in whose hands they were +likely to find little favor. He was subsequently arrested, +sent to England, and imprisoned for three +years under charges from Spain; but this was the +sole punishment dealt out to the most notorious of +the buccaneers.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The success of Morgan's enterprise stimulated the +piratical crews to similar deeds of daring, and the +depredations continued, not only in the West Indies +and eastern South America, but afterwards along the +Pacific, the cities of Leon, in Mexico, New Granada, +on the lake of Nicaragua, and Guayaquil, the port +of Quito, being taken, sacked, and burned. Finally, +France and England joined Spain in efforts for their +suppression, the coasts were more strictly guarded, +and many of the freebooters settled as planters or +became mariners in honest trade. Some of them, +however, continued in their old courses, dispersing +over all seas as enemies of the shipping of the world; +but by the year 1700 their career had fairly come to +an end, and the race of buccaneers ceased to exist.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc77" id="toc77"></a> +<a name="pdf78" id="pdf78"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">ELIZABETH FARNESE AND ALBERONI.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1714 certain events took place in Spain of sufficient +interest to be worth the telling. Philip V., +a feeble monarch, like all those for the century preceding +him, was on the throne. In his youth he +had been the Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. +of France, and upon the death of that great monarch +would be close in the succession to the throne of that +kingdom. But, chosen as king of Spain by the will +of Charles II., he preferred a sure seat to a doubtful +one, and renounced his claim to the French crown, +thus bringing to an end the fierce "War of the Succession," +which had involved most of the powers of +Europe for many years.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Philip, by nature weak and yielding, became in +time a confirmed hypochondriac, and on the death +of his wife, Maria Louise, in 1714, abandoned himself +to grief, refusing to attend to business of any +kind, shutting himself up in the strictest seclusion, +and leaving the affairs of the kingdom practically in +the hands of the Princess Orsini, the governess of +his children, and his chief adviser.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sorrow-stricken as was the bereaved king, affairs +were already in train to provide him with a new +wife, a plan being laid for that purpose at the very<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +funeral of his queen, as some writers say, between +the ambitious Princess Orsini and a cunning Italian +named Alberoni, while they, with a show of grave +decorum, followed Maria Louise to the grave.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of Alberoni is an interesting one. This +man, destined to become prime minister of Spain, +began life as the son of a gardener in the duchy of +Parma. While a youth he showed such powers of +intellect that the Jesuits took him into their seminary +and gave him an education of a superior character. +He assumed holy orders and, by a combination +of knowledge and ability with adulation and +buffoonery, made his way until he received the +appointment of interpreter to the Bishop of St. +Domino, who was about to set out on a mission +from the Duke of Parma to the Duke of Vendôme, +then commander of the French forces in Italy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The worthy bishop soon grew thoroughly disgusted +with Vendôme, who, high as he was in station, +displayed a shameless grossness of manner +which was more than the pious churchman could +endure. The conduct of the affair was therefore left +to the interpreter, whose delicacy was not disturbed +by the duke's behavior, and who managed to ingratiate +himself fully in the good graces of the French +general, becoming so great a favorite that in the end +he left the service of the Duke of Parma for that of +Vendôme.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Subsequently the duke was appointed to a command +in Spain, where he employed Alberoni in all +his negotiations with the court of Madrid. Here the +wily and ambitious Italian won the favor of the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Princess Orsini so fully that when, on Vendôme's +death, he returned home, the Duke of Parma sent +him as his envoy to Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The princess little dreamed the character of the +man whom she had taken into confidential relations, +and who was plotting to overthrow her influence at +court. Bent on retaining her influence by the choice +of a tractable queen, she spoke to Alberoni of the +urgent necessity of finding another bride for the +disconsolate king. The shrewd diplomat named +several eligible princesses, each of whom he dismissed +as objectionable for one reason or another. At the +end he adroitly introduced the name of Elizabeth +Farnese, step-daughter of the Duke of Parma, of +whom he spoke carelessly as a good girl, fattened +on Parmesan cheese and butter, and so narrowly +educated that she had not an idea beyond her embroidery. +She might succeed, he hinted, to the +throne of Parma, as the duke had no child of his +own, in which case there would be a chance for +Spain to regain her lost provinces in Italy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The deluded Princess Orsini was delighted with +the suggestion. With such a girl as this for queen +she could continue to hold the reins of state. She +easily induced Philip to approve the choice; the +Duke of Parma was charmed with the offer; and +the preliminary steps to the marriage were hurried +through with all possible rapidity.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before the final conclusion of the affair, however, +the Princess Orsini discovered in some way that +Alberoni had lied, and that the proposed bride was +by no means the ignorant and incapable country<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +girl she had been told. Furious at the deception, +she at once sent off a courier with orders to stop all +further proceedings relating to the marriage. The +messenger reached Parma in the morning of the day +on which the marriage ceremony was to be performed +by proxy. But Alberoni was wide awake to the +danger, and managed to have the messenger detained +until it was too late. Before he could deliver +his despatches Elizabeth Farnese was the legal wife +of Philip of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The new queen had been fully advised of the state +of affairs by Alberoni. The Princess Orsini, to whom +she owed her elevation, was to be got rid of, at once +and permanently. On crossing the frontiers she +was met by all her household except the princess, +who was with the king, then on his way to meet and +espouse his bride. At Alcala the princess left him +and hastened to meet the queen, reaching the village +of Xadraca in time to receive her as she alighted +from her carriage, kiss her hand, and in virtue +of her office at court to conduct her to her apartment.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Elizabeth met the princess with a show of graciousness, +but on entering her chamber suddenly turned +and accused her visitor of insulting her by lack of +respect, and by appearing before her in improper +attire. The amazed princess, overwhelmed by this +accusation, apologized and remonstrated, but the +queen refused to listen to her, ordered her from the +room, and bade the officer of the guard to arrest and +convey her beyond the frontier.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here was a change in the situation! The officer<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hesitated to arrest one who for years had been supreme +in Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Were you not instructed to obey me implicitly?" +demanded Elizabeth.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Yes, your majesty."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Then do as I have ordered. I assume all responsibility."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Will your majesty give me a written sanction?"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Yes," said Elizabeth, in a tone very different from +that of the bread-and-butter miss whom Alberoni +had represented her.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Calling for pen, ink, and paper, she wrote upon +her knee an order for the princess's arrest, and bade +the hesitating officer to execute it at once.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He dared no longer object. The princess, in court +dress, was hurried into a carriage, with a single +female attendant and two officers, being allowed +neither a change of clothing, protection against the +cold, nor money to procure needed conveniences on +the road. In this way a woman of over sixty years +of age, whose will a few hours before had been absolute +in Spain, was forced to travel throughout an +inclement winter night, and continue her journey +until she was thrust beyond the limits of Spain, +within which she was never again permitted to set +foot.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the first act of the docile girl whom the +ambitious princess had fully expected to use as a tool +for her designs. Schooled by her skilled adviser, +and perhaps sanctioned by Philip, who may have +wished to get rid of his old favorite, Elizabeth at +the start showed a grasp of the situation which she<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was destined to keep until the end. The feeble-minded +monarch at once fell under her influence, +and soon all the affairs of the kingdom became subject +to her control.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Elizabeth was a woman of restless ambition and +impetuous temper, and she managed throughout +Philip's reign to keep the kingdom in constant hot +water. The objects she kept in view were two: first, +to secure to Philip the reversion of the French crown +in case of the death of the then Duke of Anjou, +despite the fact that he had taken frequent oaths of +renunciation; second, to secure for her own children +sovereign rule in Italy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We cannot detail the long story of the intrigues +by which the ambitious woman sought to bring about +these purposes, but in all of them she found an able +ally in Alberoni. Elizabeth did not forget that she +owed her high position to this man. They were, +besides, congenial in disposition, and she persuaded +Philip to trust and consult him, and finally to appoint +him prime minister. Not satisfied with this reward +to her favorite, she, after a few years, induced the +Pope to grant him a cardinal's hat and Philip to +make him a grandee of Spain. The gardener's son +had, by ability and shrewdness, reached the highest +summit to which his ambition could aspire.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the greatest height one may make the most +rapid fall. The power of Alberoni was destined +quickly to reach its end. Yet it was less his own +fault than the ambition of the queen that led to the +termination of his career. As a prime minister he +proved a marked success, giving Spain an administration<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +far superior to any she had enjoyed for many +years. Alberoni was a man of great ability, which +he employed in zealous efforts to improve the internal +condition of the country, having the wisdom +to avail himself of the talents and knowledge of +other able men in handling those departments of +government with which he was unfamiliar. He +seemed inclined to keep Spain at peace, at least until +she had regained some of her old power and energy; +but the demands of the queen overcame his reluctance, +and in the end he entered upon the accomplishment +of her purposes with a daring and recklessness +in full accordance with the demands of her +restless spirit of intrigue.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Louis XIV. died in 1715. Louis XV., his heir, +was a sickly child, not yet five years old. Philip +would have been regent during his youth, and his +heir in case of his death, had he not renounced all +claim to the French throne. He was too weak and +irresolute in himself to take any steps to gain this +position, but his wife spurred him on to ambitious +designs, and Alberoni entered eagerly into her projects, +beginning a series of intrigues in France with +all who were opposed to the Duke of Orleans, the +existing regent.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These intrigues led to war. The duke concluded +an alliance with England and Germany, the former +enemies of France. Philip, exasperated at seeing +himself thus thwarted, declared war against the +German emperor, despite all that Alberoni could do +to prevent, and sent an expedition against Sardinia, +which captured that island. Sicily was also invaded.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Alberoni now entered into intrigues for the restoration +of the banished Stuarts to the English throne, +and took part in a conspiracy in France to seize the +Duke of Orleans and appoint Philip to the regency.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Both these plots failed, the war became general, +Philip found his armies beaten, and Alberoni was +forced to treat for peace. The Spanish minister +had made bitter enemies of George I. of England +and the Duke of Orleans, who, claiming that he was +responsible for disturbing the peace of Europe, demanded +his dismissal as a preliminary to peace. +His failure had lost him influence with the king, but +the queen, the real power behind the throne, supported +him, and it was only by promises of the enemies +of Alberoni to aid her views for the establishment +of her children that she was induced to yield +consent to his overthrow.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 4th of December, 1719, Alberoni spent the +evening transacting affairs of state with the king +and queen. Up to that time he remained in full +favor and authority, however he may have suspected +the intrigues for his overthrow. Their +majesties that night left Madrid for their country +palace at Pardo, and from there was sent a decree +by the hands of a secretary of state, to the all-powerful +minister, depriving him of all his offices, +and bidding him to quit Madrid within eight days +and Spain within three weeks.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alberoni had long been hated by the people of +Spain, and detested by the grandees, who could not +be reconciled to the supremacy of a foreigner and +his appointment to equality with them in rank. But<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +this sudden dismissal seemed to change their sentiments, +and rouse them to realization of the fact +that Spain was losing its ablest man. Nobles and +clergy flocked to his house in such numbers that the +king became alarmed at this sudden popularity, and +ordered him to shorten the time of his departure.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alberoni sought refuge in Rome, but here the +enmity of France and England pursued him, and +Philip accused him of misdemeanors in office, for +which he demanded a trial by the Pope and cardinals. +Before these judges the disgraced minister defended +himself so ably that the court brought the investigation +to a sudden end by ordering him to retire to +a monastery for three years.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This period the favor of the Pope reduced to one +year, and his chief enemy, the regent of France, +soon after dying, he was permitted to leave the +monastery and pass the remainder of his life free +from persecution. His career was a singular one, +considering the lowness of his origin, and showed +what ability and shrewdness may accomplish even +against the greatest obstacles of fortune.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc79" id="toc79"></a> +<a name="pdf80" id="pdf80"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great Mediterranean Sea has its gate-way, +nine miles wide, opening into the Atlantic, the gate-posts +being the headland of Ceuta, on the African +coast, and the famous rock of Gibraltar, in southwestern +Spain, two natural fortresses facing each other +across the sea. It is a singular fact that the African +headland is held by Spain, and the Spanish headland +by Great Britain,—this being a result of the wars +of the eighteenth century. Gibraltar, in fact, has +had a striking history, one worth the telling.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This towering mass of rock rises in solitary grandeur +at the extremity of a sandy level, reaching +upward to a height of fourteen hundred and eight +feet, while it is three miles long and three-fourths +of a mile in average width. It forms a stronghold +of nature which attracted attention at an early date. +To the Greeks it was one of the Pillars of Hercules,—Abyla +(now Ceuta) being the other,—and formed +the supposed western boundary of the world. Tarik, +the Arab, landed here in 711, fortified the rock, and +made it his base of operations against Gothic Spain. +From him it received its name, Gebel el Tarik (Hill +of Tarik), now corrupted into Gibraltar. For seven +centuries it remained in Moorish hands, except for a +short interval after 1302, when it was taken by Ferdinand +II. of Castile. The king of Granada soon<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +recaptured it; from him it was taken by treachery +by the king of Fez in 1333; Alfonso XI. of Castile +vigorously besieged it, but in vain; the king of +Granada mastered it again in 1410; and it finally +fell into the hands of Spain in 1462.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A formidable attempt was made by the Moors for +its recovery in 1540, it being vigorously attacked by +the pirates of Algiers, who fought fiercely to win the +rock, but were finally repulsed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the next event in the history of this much-coveted +rock we must go on to the year 1704, when +the celebrated war of the Succession was in full +play. Louis XIV. of France supported his grandson +Philip V. as the successor to the throne of +Spain. The Archduke Charles of Austria was supported +by England, Portugal, and Holland, and was +conveyed to the Peninsula and landed at Lisbon by +an English fleet under Admiral Rorke. The admiral, +having disposed of the would-be king, sailed for Barcelona, +which he was told was a ripe plum, ready to +fall into his mouth. He was disappointed; Barcelona +was by no means ripe for his purposes, and he sailed +back, ready for any enterprise that might offer itself.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soon before him towered the rock of Gibraltar, +a handsome prize if it could be captured, and poorly +defended, as he knew. The Spaniards, trusting, as +it seems, in the natural strength of the place, which +they deemed impregnable, had left it with a very +small supply of artillery and ammunition, and with +almost no garrison. Here was a promising opportunity +for the disappointed admiral and his associate, +the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, who headed the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +foreign troops. A landing was made, siege lines +were opened, batteries were erected, and a hot bombardment +began, to which the feeble garrison could +make but a weak reply. But the most effective +work was done by a body of soldiers, who scrambled +up a part of the rock that no one dreamed could be +ascended, and appeared above the works, filling with +terror the hearts of the garrison.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two days answered for the enterprise. At the +end of that time the governor, Don Diego de Salmas, +capitulated, and Gibraltar was taken possession of +in the name of Queen Anne of England, the prince +being left there with a garrison of two thousand +men. From that time to this Gibraltar has remained +an outpost of Great Britain, with whose outlying +strongholds the whole world bristles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The loss of this strong place proved a bitter +draught to the pride of Spain, and strenuous efforts +to recapture it were made. In the succeeding year +(1705) it was besieged by a strong force of French +and Spanish troops, but their efforts were wasted, +for the feeble court of Madrid left the army destitute +of necessary supplies. By the peace of +Utrecht, 1713, Gibraltar was formally made over to +Great Britain, a country famous for clinging with +a death-grip to any place of which she has once +taken hold.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Later efforts were made to win the Rock of Tarik +for Spain, one in 1756, but the last and greatest in +1779-82. It is this vigorous effort with which we +are here concerned, the siege being one of the most +famous of recent times.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Revolutionary War in the United States stirred +up all Europe, and finally brought Great Britain two +new foes, the allied kingdoms of France and Spain. +The latter country had never lost its irritation at +seeing a foreign power in possession of a part of its +home territory. Efforts were made to obtain Gibraltar +by negotiation, Spain offering her friendly aid +to Great Britain in her wars if she would give up +Gibraltar. This the British government positively +refused to do, and war was declared. A siege of Gibraltar +began which lasted for more than three years.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Spain began the work in 1779 with a blockade by +sea and an investment by land. Supplies were cut +off from the garrison, which was soon in a state of +serious distress for food, and strong hopes were entertained +that it would be forced to yield. But the +British government was alert. Admiral Rodney +was sent with a strong fleet to the Mediterranean, +the Spanish blockading fleet was defeated, the garrison +relieved, provisioned, and reinforced, and Rodney +sailed in triumph for the West Indies.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For three years the blockade was continued with +varying fortunes, the garrison being now on the +verge of starvation, now relieved by British fleets. +At the close of the third year it was far stronger +than at the beginning. The effort to subdue it by +famine was abandoned, and preparations for a vigorous +siege were made. France had joined her forces +with those of Spain. The island of Minorca, held +by the British, had been taken by the allied fleet, +and it was thought impossible for Gibraltar to resist +the projected assault.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The land force that had so long besieged the rock +was greatly strengthened, new batteries were raised, +new trenches opened, and a severe fire was begun +upon the works. Yet so commanding was the situation +and so strong were the defences of the garrison +that success from the land side seemed impossible, +and it was determined to make the main attack from +the sea.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A promising method of attack was devised by a +French engineer of the highest reputation for skill +in his profession, the Chevalier D'Arçon. The plan +offered by him was so original and ingenious as to +fill the besiegers with hopes of sure success, and the +necessary preparations were diligently made. Ten +powerful floating batteries were constructed, which +were thought fully adapted to resist fire, throw off +shells, and quench red-hot balls. Every effort was +made to render them incombustible and incapable +of being sunk. These formidable batteries were +towed to the bay of Gibraltar and anchored at a +suitable distance from the works, D'Arçon himself +being in command. Ten ships of the line were sent +to co-operate with them, the arrival of reinforcements +from France increased the land army to forty +thousand men, and Crillon, the conqueror of Minorca, +was placed in supreme command. The allied fleets +were ordered to cruise in the straits, so as to prevent +interference by a British fleet.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These great and scientific preparations filled all +hearts with hope. No doubt was entertained that +Gibraltar now must fall and Great Britain receive +the chastisement she deserved. The nobility of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Spain sought in numbers the scene of action, eager +to be present at the triumph of her arms. From +Versailles came the French princes, full of expectation +of witnessing the humbling of British pride. +So confident of success was Charles III., king of +Spain, that his first question every morning on +waking was, "Is Gibraltar taken?" All Spain and +all France were instinct with hope of seeing the pride +of the islanders go down.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gibraltar was garrisoned by seven thousand troops +under General Elliot. These lay behind fortifications +on which had been exhausted all the resources +of the engineering skill of that day, and in their +hearts was the fixed resolve never to surrender. The +question had become one of national pride rather +than of utility. Gibraltar was not likely to prove +of any very important advantage to Great Britain, +but the instinct to hold on has always been with +that country a national trait, and, however she might +have been induced to yield Gibraltar as an act of +policy, she was determined not to do so as an act +of war.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Early on the 13th of September, 1782, the long-threatened +bombardment began from so powerful a +park of artillery that its roar is said to have exceeded +anything ever before heard. There were +defects in the plan. The trenches on land proved to +be too far away. The water was rough and the +gunboats could not assist. But the work of the batteries +came up to the highest expectations. The fire +poured by them upon the works was tremendous, +while for many hours the shells and red-hot balls of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the garrison, fired with the greatest precision, proved +of no avail. The batteries seemed invulnerable to +fire and shell, and the hopes of the besiegers rose to +the highest point, while those of the besieged correspondingly +fell.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end this powerful assault was defeated by +one of those events to which armed bodies of men +are always liable,—a sudden and uncalled-for spasm +of fear that flew like wildfire through fleet and camp. +The day had nearly passed, evening was approaching, +the hopes of the allies were at their height, when +a red-hot ball from the works lodged in the nearest +battery and started a fire, which the crew sought in +vain to quench.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a sudden panic, for which there seems to have +been no sufficient cause, the terrified crew wet their +powder and ceased to fire on the British works. +The panic spread to the other batteries, and from +them to the forces on shore, even the commander-in-chief +being affected by the causeless fear. At one +moment the assailants were enthusiastic with expectation +of success. Not many minutes afterwards +they were so overcome with unreasoning terror that +an insane order was given to burn the batteries, and +these were fired with such precipitate haste that the +crews were allowed no time to escape. More of the +men were saved by their enemies, who came with +generous intrepidity to their aid, than by their own +terror-stricken friends.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This unfortunate event put a sudden end to the +costly and promising effort. The nobles of Spain +and the princes of France left the camp in disgust.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Charles III. received word that Gibraltar was not +captured, and not likely to be, and the idea of taking +the stronghold by force was abandoned, the blockade +being resumed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To keep away British aid the allied fleet was increased +until it numbered forty-seven ships of the +line, with a considerable number of smaller vessels. +Furnaces were prepared to heat shot for the destruction +of any transports and store-ships that might +enter the harbor. Against this great fleet Lord +Howe appeared in October with only thirty sail, +and encumbered with a large convoy. The allied +leaders seeing this small force, felt sure of victory, +and of Gibraltar as their prize.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But again they were doomed to disappointment. +The elements came to the British aid. A violent +storm drove the allied fleet from its anchorage, dispersed +the vessels, injured many of the large ships, +and drove the small craft ashore. Lord Howe, +whose ships were far better handled, sailed in good +order through the straits, and for five days of rough +weather offered battle to the disabled enemy, keeping +them at a distance while his transports and store-ships +entered the harbor and supplied the garrison +abundantly with provisions, ammunition, and men. +The effort to take Gibraltar was hopelessly defeated. +The blockade was still kept up, but merely as a satisfaction +to Spanish pride. All hope of taking the +fortress was at an end. Gibraltar remains to-day +in British hands, and no later attempt to take it has +been made.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc81" id="toc81"></a> +<a name="pdf82" id="pdf82"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE FALL OF A FAVORITE.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The course of our work now brings us down to +recent times. After the death of Philip II., in 1598, +Spain had little history worth considering. Ruled +by a succession of painfully weak kings, who were +devoid of anything approaching political wisdom, +the fortunes of the realm ran steadily downward. +From being the strongest, it became in time one of +the weakest and least considered of European +kingdoms; and from taking the lead in the politics +and wars of Europe, it came to be a plaything of +the neighboring nations,—a catspaw which they +used for the advancement of their own ends.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was in this way that Napoleon treated Spain. +He played with it as a cat plays with a mouse, and +when the proper time came pounced upon it and +gathered it in. Charles IV., the Spanish king of +Napoleon's time, was one of the feeblest of his +weak line,—an imbecile whom the emperor of France +counted no more than a feather in his path. He +sought to deal with him as he had done with the +equally effeminate king of Portugal. When a French +army invaded Portugal in 1807, its weak monarch +cut the knot of the difficulty by taking ship and +crossing the ocean to Brazil, abandoning his old +kingdom and setting up a new one in the New +World. When Spain was in its turn invaded, its<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +king proposed to do the same thing,—to carry the +royal court of Spain to America, and leave a kingdom +without a head to Napoleon. Such an act +would have exactly suited the purposes of the astute +conqueror, but the people rose in riot, and Charles +IV. remained at home.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The real ruler of Spain at that time was a licentious +and insolent favorite of the king and queen, +Emanuel Godoy by name, who began life as a soldier, +was made Duke of Alcudia by his royal patrons, +and was appointed prime minister in 1792. In 1795, +having made peace with France after a disastrous +war, he received the title of "Prince of the Peace." +His administration was very corrupt, and he won +the hatred of the nobles, the people, and the heir to +the throne. But his influence over the imbecile king +and the licentious queen was unbounded, and he +could afford to laugh in the face of his foes. But +favorites are apt to have a short period of power, +and, though Godoy remained long in office, his downfall +at length came.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Napoleon had marched his armies through Spain +to the conquest of Portugal, no one in Spain having +the courage to object. It was stipulated that +a second French army should not cross the Pyrenees, +but in defiance of this Napoleon filled the north +of Spain with his troops in 1808, and sent a third +army across the mountains without pretence of their +being needed in Portugal. No protest was made +against this invasion of a neutral nation. The +court of Madrid was helpless with terror, and, with +the hope of propitiating Napoleon, admitted his<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +legions into all the cities of Catalonia, Biscay, and +Navarre.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Only one thing more was needed to make the +French masters of the whole country. They held +the towns, but the citadels were in possession of +Spanish troops. These could not be expelled by violence +while a show of peace was kept up. But Napoleon +wanted them, and employed stratagem to get +them into his hands.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In two of the towns, St. Sebastian and Figueras, +a simple lie sufficed. The officers in command of +the French garrisons asked permission to quarter +their unruly conscripts in the citadels. As the court +had ordered that all the wishes of the emperor's +officers should be gratified, this seemingly innocent +request was granted. But in place of conscripts the +best men of the regiments were sent, and these were +gradually increased in numbers until in the end they +overpowered the Spanish garrisons and admitted the +French.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Pamplona a similar request was refused by the +governor of the citadel, but he permitted sixty unarmed +men daily to enter the fortress to receive +rations for their respective divisions. Here was the +fatal entering wedge. One night the officer in charge, +whose quarters were near the citadel gate, secretly +filled his house with armed grenadiers. The next +morning sixty picked men, with arms hidden under +their cloaks, were sent in for rations. The hour was +too early, and the French soldiers loitered about +under pretence of waiting for the quartermaster. +Some sauntered into the Spanish guard-house.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Others, by a sportive scuffle on the drawbridge, prevented +its being raised, and occupied the attention +of the garrison. Suddenly a signal was given. The +men drew their weapons and seized the arms of the +Spaniards. The grenadiers rushed from their concealment. +The bridge and gate were secured, French +troops hastened to the aid of their comrades, and +the citadel was won.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Barcelona a different stratagem was employed. +A review of the French forces was held under the +walls of the citadel, whose garrison assembled to +look on. During the progress of the review the +French general, on pretence that he had been ordered +from the city, rode with his staff on to the +drawbridge with the ostensible purpose of bidding +farewell to the Spanish commander. While the +Spaniards curiously watched the manœuvres of the +troops others of the French quietly gathered on the +drawbridge. At a signal this was seized, a rush took +place, and the citadel of Barcelona was added to the +conquests of France.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The surprise of these fortresses produced an immense +sensation in Spain. That country had sunk +into a condition of pitiable weakness. Its navy, once +powerful, was now reduced to a small number of +ships, few of them in condition for service. Its +army, once the strongest in Europe, was now but a +handful of poorly equipped and half-drilled men. +Its finances were in a state of frightful disorganization. +The government of a brainless king, a +dissolute queen, and an incapable favorite had +brought Spain into a condition in which she dared<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +not raise a hand to resist the ambitious French +emperor.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this dilemma Godoy, the so-called "Prince of +the Peace," persuaded the king and queen of Spain +that nothing was left them but flight. The royal +house of Portugal had found a great imperial realm +awaiting it in America. Spain possessed there a +dominion of continental extent. What better could +they do than remove to the New World the seat of +their throne and cut loose from their threatened and +distracted realm?</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The project was concealed under the form of a +journey to Andalusia, for the purpose, as announced +by Godoy, of inspecting the ports. But the extensive +preparations of the court for this journey aroused +a suspicion of its true purpose among the people, +whose indignation became extreme on finding that +they were to be deserted by the royal house, as +Portugal had been. The exasperation of all classes—the +nobility, the middle class, and the people—against +the court grew intense. It was particularly +developed in the army, a body which Godoy had +badly treated. The army leaders argued that they +had better welcome the French than permit this disgrace, +and that it was their duty to prevent by force +the flight of the king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But all this did not deter the Prince of the Peace. +He had several frigates made ready in the port of +Cadiz, the royal carriages were ordered to be in +readiness, and relays of horses were provided on the +road. The date of departure was fixed for the 15th +or 16th of March, 1808.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the 13th Godoy made his way from Madrid to +Aranjuez, a magnificent royal residence on the banks +of the Tagus, then occupied by the royal family. +This residence, in the Italian style and surrounded +by superb grounds and gardens, was fronted by a wide +highway, expanding opposite the palace into a spacious +place, on which were several fine mansions belonging +to courtiers and ministers, one of the finest +being occupied by the prime minister. In the vicinity +a multitude of small houses, inhabited by +tradesmen and shop-keepers, made up the town of +Aranjuez.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Godoy, on arriving at Aranjuez, summoned a council +of the ministers, the time having arrived to apprise +them of what was proposed. One of them, the +Marquis of Caballero, kept him waiting, and on his +arrival refused to consent, either by word or signature, +to the flight of the king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I order you to sign," the prime minister angrily +exclaimed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I take no orders except from the king," haughtily +replied the marquis.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A sharp altercation followed, in which the other +ministers took part, and the meeting broke up in +disorder, nothing being done. On retiring, the irate +counsellors, full of agitation, dropped words which +were caught up by the public and aroused a commotion +that quickly spread throughout the town. +Thence it extended into the surrounding country, +everywhere arousing the disaffected, and soon strange +and sinister faces appeared in the quiet town. The +elements of a popular outbreak were gathering.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During the succeeding two days the altercation +between the Prince of the Peace and the ministers +continued, and the public excitement was added to +by words attributed to Ferdinand, the king's son +and heir to the throne, who was said to have sought +aid against those who proposed to carry him off +against his will. On the morning of the 16th, the +final day fixed for the journey, the public agitation +was so great that the king issued a proclamation, +which was posted in the streets, saying that he had +no thought of leaving his people. It ended: "Spaniards, +be easy; your king will not leave you."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This for the time calmed the people. Yet on the +17th the excitement reappeared. The carriages remained +loaded in the palace court-yard; the relays +of horses were kept up; all the indications were suspicious. +During the day the troops of the garrison +of Madrid not on duty, with a large number of the +populace, appeared in Aranjuez, having marched a +distance of seven or eight leagues. They shouted +maledictions on their way against the queen and the +Prince of the Peace.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The streets of Aranjuez that night were filled with +an excited mob, many of them life-guards from Madrid, +who divided into bands and patrolled the vicinity +of the palace, determined that no one should +leave. About midnight an incident changed the +excitement into a riot. A lady left Godoy's residence +under escort of a few soldiers. She appeared +to be about to enter a carriage. The crowd pressed +closely around, and the hussars of the minister, who +attended the lady, attempted to force a passage<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +through them. At this moment a gun was fired,—by +whom was not known. A frightful tumult at +once arose. The life-guards and other soldiers rushed +upon the hussars, and a furious mob gathered around +the palace, shouting, "Long live the king!" "Death +to the Prince of the Peace!"</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soon a rush was made towards the residence of +the prince, which the throng surrounded, gazing at +it with eyes of anger, yet hesitating to make an attack. +As they paused in doubt, a messenger from +the palace approached the mansion and sought admission. +It was refused from those within. He insisted +upon entrance, and a shot came from the guards +within. In an instant all hesitation was at an end. +The crowd rushed in fury against the doors, broke +them in, and swarmed into the building, driving the +guards back in dismay.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was magnificently furnished, but their passion +to destroy soon made havoc of its furniture and +decorations. Pictures, hangings, costly articles of +use and ornament were torn down, dashed to pieces, +flung from the windows. The mob ran from room +to room, destroying everything of value they met, +and eagerly seeking the object of their hatred, with +a passionate thirst for his life. The whole night +was spent in the search, and, the prince not being +found, his house was reduced to a wreck.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Word of what was taking place filled the weak +soul of Charles IV. with mortal terror. The prince +failed to appear, and, by the advice of the ministers, +a decree was issued by the king on the following +morning depriving Emanuel Godoy of the offices of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +grand admiral and generalissimo, and exiling him +from the court.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus fell this detestable favorite, the people, who +blamed him for the degradation of Spain, breaking +into a passionate joy, singing, dancing, building bonfires, +and giving every manifestation of delight. In +Madrid, when the news reached there, the enthusiasm +approached delirium.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile, where was the fallen favorite? Despite +the close search made by the mob, he remained +concealed in his residence. Alarmed by the crash +of the breaking doors, he had seized a pistol and a +handful of gold, rushed up-stairs, and hid himself in +a loft under the roof, rolling himself up in a sort of +rush carpet used in Spain. Here he remained during +the whole of the 18th and the succeeding night, but +on the morning of the 19th, after thirty-six hours' +suffering, thirst and hunger forced him to leave his +retreat. He presented himself suddenly before a +sentry on duty in the palace, offering him his gold. +But the man refused the bribe and instantly called +the guard. Fortunately the mass of the people +were not near by. Some life-guards who just then +came up placed the miserable captive between their +horses, and conveyed him as rapidly as they could +towards their barracks. But these were at some +distance, the news of the capture spread like wild-fire, +and they had not gone far before the mob began +to gather around them, their hearts full of murderous +rage.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The prince was on foot between two of the +mounted guardsmen, leaning for shelter against the<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pommels of their saddles. Others of the horsemen +closed up in front and rear, and did their best to +protect him from the fury of the rabble, who struck +wildly at him with every weapon they had been able +to snatch up. Despite the efforts of the guardsmen +some of the blows reached him, and he was finally +brought to the barracks with his feet trodden by the +horses, a large wound in his thigh, and one eye +nearly out of his head. Here he was thrown, covered +with blood, upon the straw in the stables, a sad example +of what comes of the favor of kings when +exercised in defiance of the will of the people. +Godoy had begun life as a life-guardsman, and now, +after almost sharing the throne, he had thus returned +to the barracks and the straw bed of his youth.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may give in outline the remainder of the +story of this fallen favorite. Promise being given +that he should have an impartial trial, the mob +ceased its efforts to kill him. Napoleon, who had +use for him, now came to his rescue, and induced +him to sign a deed under which Charles IV. abdicated +the throne in favor of his son. His possessions +in Spain were confiscated, but Charles, who removed +to Rome, was his friend during life. After the +death of his protector he went to Paris, where he +received a pension from Louis Philippe; and in 1847, +when eighty years of age, he received permission to +return to Spain, his titles and most of his property +being restored. But he preferred to live in Paris, +where he died in 1851.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="fig83" id="fig83"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image17.png" width="640" height="370" alt="Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA." title="THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.</div></div> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc84" id="toc84"></a> +<a name="pdf85" id="pdf85"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the banks of the Ebro, in northwestern Spain, +stands the ancient city of Saragossa, formerly the +capital of Aragon, and a place of fame since early +Roman days. A noble bridge of seven arches, built +nearly five centuries ago, crosses the stream, and a +wealth of towers and spires gives the city an imposing +appearance. This city is famous for its sieges, +of which a celebrated one took place in the twelfth +century, when the Christians held it in siege for five +years, ending in 1118. In the end the Moors were +forced to surrender, or such of them as survived, for +a great part of them had died of hunger. In modern +times it gained new and high honor from its celebrated +resistance to the French in 1808. It is this +siege with which we are concerned, one almost without +parallel in history.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have told in the preceding tale how Charles +IV. of Spain was forced to yield the throne to his +son Ferdinand, who was proclaimed king March 20, +1808. This act by no means agreed with the views +of Napoleon, who had plans of his own for Spain, +and who sought to end the difficulty by deposing the +Bourbon royal family and placing his own brother, +Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The imperious emperor of the French had, however, +the people as well as the rulers of Spain to<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +deal with. The news of his arbitrary action was +received throughout the Peninsula with intense indignation, +and suddenly the land blazed into insurrection, +and the French garrisons, which had been +treacherously introduced into Spain, found themselves +besieged. Everywhere the peasants seized +arms and took to the field, and a fierce guerilla warfare +began which the French found it no easy matter +to overcome. At Baylen, a town of Andalusia, which +was besieged by the insurgents, the French suffered +a serious defeat, an army of eighteen thousand men +being forced to surrender as prisoners of war. This +was the only important success of the Spanish, but +they courageously resisted their foes, and at Saragossa +gained an honor unsurpassed in the history of +Spain. Never had there been known such a siege +and such a defence.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Saragossa was attacked by General Lefebre on +June 15, 1808. Thinking that a city protected only +by a low brick wall, with peasants and townsmen +for its defenders, and few guns in condition for service, +could be carried at first assault, the French +general made a vigorous attack, but found himself +driven back. He had but four or five thousand men, +while the town had fifty thousand inhabitants, the +commander of the garrison being Joseph Palafox, a +man of indomitable spirit.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lefebre, perceiving that he had been over-confident, +now encamped and awaited reinforcements, +which arrived on the 29th, increasing his force to +twelve thousand men. He was recalled for service +elsewhere, General Verdier being left in command,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and during the succeeding two months the siege was +vigorously prosecuted, the French being supplied +with a large siege train, with which they hotly bombarded +the city.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weak as were the walls of Saragossa, interiorly +it was remarkably well adapted for defence. The +houses were strongly built, of incombustible material, +they being usually of two stories, each story vaulted +and practically fireproof. Every house had its garrison, +and the massive convents which rose like +castles within the circuit of the wall were filled with +armed men. Usually when the walls of a city are +taken the city falls; but this was by no means the +case with Saragossa. The loss of its walls was but +the beginning, not the end, of its defence. Each +convent, each house, formed a separate fortress. +The walls were loop-holed for musketry, ramparts +were constructed of sand-bags, and beams were raised +endwise against the houses to afford shelter from +shells.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was not until August that the French, now +fifteen thousand strong, were able to force their way +into the city. But to enter the city was not to capture +it. They had to fight their way from street to +street and from house to house. At length the assailants +penetrated to the Cosso, a public walk formed +on the line of the old Moorish ramparts, but here +their advance was checked, the citizens defending +themselves with the most desperate and unyielding +energy.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The singular feature of this defence was that the +women of Saragossa took as active a part in it as<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the men. The Countess Burita, a beautiful young +woman of intrepid spirit, took the lead in forming +her fellow-women into companies, at whose head +were ladies of the highest rank. These, undeterred +by the hottest fire and freely braving wounds and +death, carried provisions to the combatants, removed +the wounded to the hospitals, and were everywhere +active in deeds of mercy and daring. One of them, +a young woman of low rank but intrepid soul, gained +world-wide celebrity by an act of unusual courage +and presence of mind.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While engaged one day in her regular duty, that +of carrying meat and wine to the defenders of a +battery, she found it deserted and the guns abandoned. +The French fire had proved so murderous +that the men had shrunk back in mortal dread. +Snatching a match from the hand of a dead artillery-man, +the brave girl fired his gun, and vowed that she +would never leave it while a Frenchman remained +in Saragossa. Her daring shamed the men, who +returned to their guns, but, as the story goes, the +brave girl kept her vow, working the gun she had +chosen until she had the joy to see the French in +full retreat. This took place on the 14th of August, +when the populace, expecting nothing but to die +amid the ruins of their houses, beheld with delight +the enemy in full retreat. The obstinate resistance +of the people and reverses to the arms of France +elsewhere had forced them to raise the siege.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The deeds of the "Maid of Saragossa" have been +celebrated in poetry by Byron and Southey and in +art by Wilkie, and she stands high on the roll of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +heroic women, being given, as some declare, a more +elevated position than her exploit deserved.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Saragossa, however, was only reprieved, not abandoned. +The French found themselves too busily occupied +elsewhere to attend to this centre of Spanish +valor until months had passed. At length, after the +defeat and retreat of Sir John Moore and the English +allies of Spain, a powerful army, thirty-five +thousand strong, returned to the city on the Ebro, +with a battering train of sixty guns.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Palafox remained in command in the city, which +was now much more strongly fortified and better +prepared for defence. The garrison was super-abundant. +From the field of battle at Tudela, where +the Spaniards had suffered a severe defeat, a stream +of soldiers fled to Saragossa, bringing with them +wagons and military stores in abundance. As the +fugitives passed, the villagers along the road, moved +by terror, joined them, and into the gates of the city +poured a flood of soldiers, camp-followers, and peasants, +until it was thronged with human beings. Last +of all came the French, reaching the city on the 20th +of December, and resuming their interrupted siege. +And now Saragossa, though destined to fall, was to +cover itself with undying glory.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The townsmen, giving up every thought of personal +property, devoted all their goods, their houses, +and their persons to the war, mingling with the soldiers +and the peasants to form one great garrison for +the fortress into which the whole city was transformed. +In all quarters of the city massive churches +and convents rose like citadels, the various large<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +streets running into the broad avenue called the +Cosso, and dividing the city into a number of districts, +each with its large and massive structures, +well capable of defence.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not only these thick-walled buildings, but all the +houses, were converted into forts, the doors and windows +being built up, the fronts loop-holed, and openings +for communication broken through the party-walls; +while the streets were defended by trenches +and earthen ramparts mounted with cannon. Never +before was there such an instance of a whole city +converted into a fortress, the thickness of the ramparts +being here practically measured by the whole +width of the city.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Saragossa had been a royal depot for saltpetre, and +powder-mills near by had taught many of its people +the process of manufacture, so no magazines of +powder subject to explosion were provided, this indispensable +substance being made as it was needed. +Outside the walls the trees were cut down and the +houses demolished, so that they might not shield the +enemy; the public magazines contained six months' +provisions, the convents and houses were well +stocked, and every preparation was made for a long +siege and a vigorous defence.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, as before, companies of women were enrolled +to attend the wounded in the hospitals and +carry food and ammunition to the men, the Countess +Burita being once more their commander, and performing +her important duty with a heroism and high +intelligence worthy of the utmost praise. Not less +than fifty thousand combatants within the walls<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +faced the thirty-five thousand French soldiers without, +who had before them the gigantic task of overcoming +a city in which every dwelling was a fort +and every family a garrison.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A month and more passed before the walls were +taken. Steadily the French guns played on these +defences, breach after breach was made, a number +of the encircling convents were entered and held, and +by the 1st of February the walls and outer strongholds +of the city were lost. Ordinarily, under such +circumstances, the city would have fallen, but here +the work of the assailants had but fairly begun. +The inner defences—the houses with their unyielding +garrisons—stood intact, and a terrible task still +faced the French.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The war was now in the city streets, the houses +nearest the posts held by the enemy were crowded +with defenders, in every quarter the alarm-bells +called the citizens to their duty, new barricades rose +in the streets, mines were sunk in the open spaces, +and the internal passages from house to house were +increased until the whole city formed a vast labyrinth, +throughout which the defenders could move +under cover.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Marshall Lannes, the French commander, viewed +with dread and doubt the scene before him. Untrained +in the art of war as were the bulk of the +defenders, courage and passionate patriotism made +up for all deficiencies. Men like these, heedless of +death in their determined defence, were dangerous +to meet in open battle, and the prudent Frenchman +resolved to employ the slow but surer process of<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +excavating a passage and fighting his way through +house after house until the city should be taken +piecemeal.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mining through the houses was not sufficient. +The greater streets divided the city into a number +of small districts, the group of dwellings in each of +which forming a separate stronghold. To cross these +streets it was necessary to construct underground +galleries, or build traverses, since a Spanish battery +raked each street, and each house had to be fought +for and taken separately.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the Spaniards held the convents and +churches the capture of the houses by the French +was of little service to them, the defenders making +sudden and successful sallies from these strong buildings, +and countermining their enemies, their numbers +and perseverance often frustrating the superior skill +of the French. The latter, therefore, directed their +attacks upon these buildings, mining and destroying +many of them. On the other hand, the defenders +saturated with rosin and pitch the timbers of the +buildings they could no longer hold, and interposed +a barrier of fire between themselves and their assailants +which often delayed them for several days.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Step by step, inch by inch, the French made their +way forward, complete destruction alone enabling +them to advance. The fighting was incessant. The +explosion of mines, the crash of falling buildings, the +roar of cannon and musketry, the shouts of the combatants +continually filled the air, while a cloud of +smoke and dust hung constantly over the city as the +terrible scene of warfare continued day after day.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the 17th of February the Cosso was reached +and passed. But the French soldiers had become +deeply discouraged by their fifty days of unremitting +labor and battle, fighting above and beneath +the earth, facing an enemy as bold as themselves +and much more numerous, and with half the city +still to be conquered. Only the obstinate determination +of Marshal Lannes kept them to their work.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By his orders a general assault was made on the +18th. Under the university, a large building in the +Cosso, mines containing three thousand pounds of +powder were exploded, the walls falling with a terrific +crash. Meanwhile, fifty pieces of artillery were +playing on the side of the Ebro, where the great +convent of St. Lazar was breached and taken, two +thousand men being here cut off from the city. On +the 19th other mines were exploded, and on the 20th +six great mines under the Cosso, loaded with thousands +of pounds of powder, whose explosion would +have caused immense destruction, were ready for the +match, when an offer to surrender brought the terrible +struggle to an end.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The case had become one of surrender or death. +The bombardment, incessant since the 10th of January, +had forced the women and children into the +vaults, which were abundant in Saragossa. There +the closeness of the air, the constant burning of oil, +and the general unsanitary conditions had given rise +to a pestilence which threatened to carry off all the +inhabitants of the city. Such was the state of the +atmosphere that slight wounds became fatal, and +many of the defenders of the barricades were fit only<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for the hospitals. By the 1st of February the death-rate +had become enormous. The daily deaths numbered +nearly five hundred, and thousands of corpses, +which it was impossible to bury, lay in the streets +and houses, and in heaps at the doors of the churches, +infecting the air with their decay. The French held +the suburbs, most of the wall, and one-fourth of the +houses, while the bursting of thousands of shells and +the explosion of nearly fifty thousand pounds of gunpowder +in mines had shaken the city to its foundations. +Of the hundred thousand people who had +gathered within its walls, more than fifty thousand +were dead; thousands of others would soon follow +them to the grave; Palafox, their indomitable chief, +was sick unto death. Yet despite this there was a +strong and energetic party who wished to protract +the siege, and the deputies appointed to arrange +terms of surrender were in peril of their lives.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The terms granted were that the garrison should +march out with the honors of war, to be taken as +prisoners to France; the peasants should be sent to +their homes; the rights of property and exercise of +religion should be guaranteed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended one of the most remarkable sieges on +record,—remarkable alike for the energy and persistence +of the attack and the courage and obstinacy +of the defence. Never in all history has any other +city stood out so long after its walls had fallen. +Rarely has any city been so adapted to a protracted +defence. Had not its houses been nearly incombustible +it would have been reduced to ashes by the +bombardment. Had not its churches and convents<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +possessed the strength of forts it must have quickly +yielded. Had not the people been animated by an +extraordinary enthusiasm, in which women did the +work of men, a host of peasants and citizens could +not so long have endured the terrors of assault on +the one hand and of pestilence on the other. In the +words of General Napier, the historian of the Peninsular +War, "When the other events of the Spanish +war shall be lost in the obscurity of time, or only +traced by disconnected fragments, the story of Zaragoza, +like some ancient triumphal pillar standing +amidst ruins, will tell a tale of past glory."</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc86" id="toc86"></a> +<a name="pdf87" id="pdf87"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">THE HERO OF THE CARLISTS.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Spain for years past has had its double king,—a +king in possession and a king in exile, a holder of +the throne and an aspirant to the throne. For the +greater part of a century one has rarely heard of +Spain without hearing of the Carlists, for continually +since 1830 there has been a princely claimant named +Charles, or Don Carlos, struggling for the crown.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ferdinand VII., who succeeded to the throne on +the abdication of Charles IV. in 1808, made every +effort to obtain an heir. Three wives he had without +a child, and his brother, Don Carlos, naturally +hoped to succeed him. But the persistent king married +a fourth time, and this time a daughter was born +to him. There was a law excluding females from +the throne, but this law had been abrogated by Ferdinand +to please his wife, and thus the birth of his +daughter robbed Don Carlos of his hopes of becoming +king.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ferdinand died in 1833, and the infant Isabella +was proclaimed queen, with her mother as regent. +The liberals supported her, the absolutists gathered +around Don Carlos, and for years there was a bitter +struggle in Spain, the strength of the Carlists being +in the Basque provinces and Spanish Navarre,—a +land of mountaineers, loyal in nature and conservative +by habit.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The dynasty of the pretender has had three successive +claimants to the throne. The first Don Carlos +abdicated in 1844, and was succeeded by Don Carlos +the Second, his son. He died in 1861, and his cousin, +Don Carlos the Third, succeeded to the claim, and +renewed the struggle for the crown. It was this +third of the name that threatened to renew the insurrection +during the Spanish-American war of 1898.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This explanation is necessary to make clear what +is known by Carlism in Spain. Many as have been +the Carlist insurrections, they have had but one leader +of ability, one man capable of bringing them success. +This was the famous Basque chieftain Zumalacarregui, +the renowned "Uncle Tomas" of the +Carlists, whose brilliant career alone breaks the dull +monotony of Spanish history in the nineteenth century, +and who would in all probability have placed +Don Carlos on the throne but for his death from a +mortal wound in 1835. Since then Carlism has +struggled on with little hope of success.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Navarre, the chief seat of the insurrection, borders +on the chain of the Pyrenees, and is a wild confusion +of mountains and hills, where the traveller is confused +in a labyrinth of long and narrow valleys, deep +glens, and rugged rocks and cliffs. The mountains +are highest in the north, but nowhere can horsemen +proceed the day through without dismounting, and +in many localities even foot travel is very difficult. +In passing from village to village long and winding +roads must be traversed, the short cuts across the +mountains being such as only a goat or a Navarrese +can tread.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Regular troops, in traversing this rugged country, +are exhausted by the shortest marches, while the +people of the region go straight through wood and +ravine, plunging into the thick forests and following +narrow paths, through which pursuit is impossible, +and where an invading force does not dare to send +out detachments for fear of having them cut off by +a sudden guerilla attack. It was here and in the +Basque provinces to the west, with their population +of hardy and daring mountaineers, that the troops +of Napoleon found themselves most annoyed by the +bold guerilla chiefs, and here the Carlist forces long +defied the armies of the crown.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tomas Zumalacarregui, the "modern Cid," as his +chief historian entitles him, was a man of high military +genius, rigid in discipline, skilful in administration, +and daring in leadership; a stern, grave soldier, +to whose face a smile rarely came except when shots +were falling thick around him and when his staff +appeared as if they would have preferred music of +a different kind. To this intrepid chief fear seemed +unknown, prudence in battle unthought of, and so +many were his acts of rashness that when a bullet +at length reached him it seemed a miracle that he +had escaped so long. The white charger which he +rode became such a mark for the enemy, from its +frequent appearance at the head of a charging troop +or in rallying a body of skirmishers, that all those +of a similar color ridden by members of his staff +were successively shot, though his always escaped. +On more than one occasion he brought victory out +of doubt, or saved his little army in retreat, by an<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +act of hare-brained bravery. Such was the "Uncle +Tomas" of the Navarrese, the darling of the mountaineers, +the man who would very likely have brought +final victory to their cause had not death cut him +off in the midst of his career.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Few were the adherents of Don Carlos when this +able soldier placed himself at their head,—a feeble +remnant hunted like a band of robbers among their +native mountains. When he appeared in 1833, escaping +from Madrid, where he was known as a brave +soldier and an opponent of the queen, he found but +the fragment of an insurgent army in Navarre. All +he could gather under his banner were about eight +hundred half-armed and undisciplined men,—a sorry +show with which to face an army of over one hundred +and twenty thousand men, many of them veterans +of the recent wars. These were thrown in +successive waves against Uncle Tomas and his handful +of followers, reinforcement following reinforcement, +general succeeding general, even the redoubtable +Mina among them, each with a new plan to +crush the Carlist chief, yet each disastrously failing.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Beginning with eight hundred badly armed peasants +and fourteen horses, the gallant leader had at +the time of his death a force of twenty-eight thousand +well-organized and disciplined infantry and +eight hundred horsemen, with twenty-eight pieces +of artillery and twelve thousand spare muskets, all +won by his good sword from the foe,—his arsenal +being, as he expressed it, "in the ranks of the enemy." +During these two years of incessant war<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +more than fifty thousand of the army of Spain, including +a very large number of officers, had fallen in +Navarre, sixteen fortified places had been taken, and +the cause of Don Carlos was advancing by leaps +and bounds. The road to Madrid lay open to the +Carlist hero when, at the siege of Bilboa, a distant +and nearly spent shot struck him, inflicting a wound +from which he soon died. With the fall of Zumalacarregui +fell the Carlist cause. Weak hands +seized the helm from which his strong one had been +struck, incompetency succeeded genius, and three +years more of a weakening struggle brought the +contest to an end. In all later revivals of the insurrection +it has never gained a hopeful stand, and with +the fall of "Uncle Tomas" the Carlist claim to the +throne seemingly received its death-blow.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The events of the war between the Navarrese and +their opponents were so numerous that it is not easy +to select one of special interest from the mass. We +shall therefore speak only of the final incidents of +Zumalacarregui's career. Among the later events +was the siege and capture of Villafranca. Espartero, +the Spanish general, led seven thousand men to the +relief of this place, marching them across the mountains +on a dark and stormy night with the hope of +taking the Carlists by surprise. But Uncle Tomas +was not the man to be taken unawares, and reversed +the surprise, striking Espartero with a small force in +the darkness, and driving back his men in confusion +and dismay. Eighteen hundred prisoners were +taken, and the general himself narrowly escaped. +General Mirasol was taken, with all his staff, in a<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +road-side house, from which he made an undignified +escape. He was a small man, and by turning up his +embroidered cuffs, these being the only marks of the +grade of brigadier-general in the Spanish army, he +concealed his rank. He told his captors that he was +a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tambor</span></span>. In their anxiety to capture officers the +soldiers considered a drummer too small game, and +dismissed the general with a sound kick to the +custody of those outside. As these had more +prisoners than they could well manage, he easily +escaped.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On learning of the defeat of Espartero the city +surrendered. The news of the fall of Villafranca +had an important effect, the city of Tolosa being +abandoned by its garrison and Burgera surrendered, +though it was strongly garrisoned. Here Charles V.—as +Don Carlos was styled by his party—made a +triumphal entry. He was then at the summit of his +fortunes and full of aspiring hopes. Eybar was +next surrendered, the garrison of Durango fled, and +Salvatierra was evacuated.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Victory seemed to have perched upon the banners +of the Navarrese, town after town falling in rapid +succession into their hands, and the crown of Spain +appeared likely soon to change hands. Zumalacarregui +proposed next to march upon Vittoria, which +had been abandoned with the exception of a few +battalions, and thence upon the important city of +Burgos, where he would either force the enemy to +a battle or move forward upon Madrid. So rapid +and signal had been his successes that consternation +filled the army of the queen, the soldiers being in<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +such terror that little opposition was feared. Bets +ran high in the Carlist army that six weeks would +see them in Madrid, and any odds could have been +had that they would be there within two months. +Such was the promising state of affairs when the +impolitic interference of Don Carlos led to a turn in +the tide of his fortune and the overthrow of his +cause.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What he wanted most was money. His military +chest was empty. In the path of the army lay the +rich mercantile city of Bilboa. Its capture would +furnish a temporary supply. He insisted that the +army, instead of crossing the Ebro and taking full +advantage of the panic of the enemy, should attack +this place. This Zumalacarregui strongly +opposed.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"Can you take it?" asked Carlos.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"I can take it, but it will be at an immense sacrifice, +not so much of men as of time, which now is +precious," was the reply.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Don Carlos insisted, and the general, sorely against +his will, complied. The movement was not only unwise +in itself, it led to an accident that brought to an +end all the fair promise of success.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The siege was begun. Zumalacarregui, anxious to +save time, determined to take the place by storm as +soon as a practicable breach should be made, and on +the morning of the day he had fixed for the assault +he, with his usual daring, stepped into the balcony of +a building not far from the walls to inspect the state +of affairs with his glass.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On seeing a man thus exposed, evidently a superior<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +officer, to judge from his telescope and the black +fur jacket he wore, all the men within that part of +the walls opened fire on him. The general soon +came out of the balcony limping in a way that at +once created alarm, and, unable to conceal his lameness, +he admitted that he was wounded. A bullet, +glancing from one of the bars of the balcony window, +had struck him in the calf of the right leg, +fracturing the small bone and dropping two or three +inches lower in the flesh.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The wound appeared but trifling,—the slight hurt +of a spent ball,—but the surgeons, disputing as to +the policy of extracting the ball, did nothing, not +even dressing the wound till the next morning. It +was of slight importance, they said. He would be +on horseback within a month, perhaps in two weeks. +The wounded man was not so sanguine.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">"The pitcher goes to the well till it breaks at last," +he said. "Two months more and I would not have +cared for any sort of wound."</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Those two months might have put Don Carlos on +the throne and changed the history of Spain. In +eleven days the general was dead and a change had +come over the spirit of affairs. The operations +against Bilboa languished, the garrison regained +their courage, the plan of storming the place was set +aside, the queen's troops, cheered by tidings of the +death of the "terrible Zumalacarregui," took heart +again and marched to the relief of the city. Their +advance ended in the siege being raised, and in the +first encounter after the death of their redoubtable +chief the Carlists met with defeat. The decline in<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the fortunes of Don Carlos had begun. One man +had lifted them from the lowest ebb almost to the +pinnacle of success. With the fall of Zumalacarregui +Carlism received a death-blow in Spain, for there is +little hope that one of this dynasty of claimants will +ever reach the throne.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc88" id="toc88"></a> +<a name="pdf89" id="pdf89"></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">MANILA AND SANTIAGO.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The record of Spain has not been glorious at sea. +She has but one great victory, that of Lepanto, to +offer in evidence against a number of great defeats, +such as those of the Armada, Cape St. Vincent, and +Trafalgar. In 1898 two more defeats, those of Manila +and Santiago, were added to the list, and with +an account of these our series of tales from Spanish +history may fitly close.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Exactly three centuries passed from the death of +Philip II. (1598) to that of the war with the United +States, and during that long period the tide of Spanish +affairs moved steadily downward. At its beginning +Spain exercised a powerful influence over +European politics; at its end she was looked upon +with disdainful pity and had no longer a voice in +continental affairs. Such was the inevitable result +of the weakness and lack of statesmanship with +which the kingdom had been misgoverned during +the greater part of this period.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In her colonial affairs Spain had shown herself as +intolerant and oppressive as at home. When the +other nations of Europe were loosening the reins +of their colonial policy, Spain kept hers unyieldingly +rigid. Colonial revolution was the result, and she +lost all her possessions in America but the islands<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Cuba and Porto Rico. Yet she had learned no +lesson,—she seemed incapable of profiting by experience,—and +the old policy of tyranny and rapacity +was exercised over these islands until Cuba, the +largest of them, was driven into insurrection.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In attempting to suppress this insurrection Spain +adopted the cruel methods she had exercised against +the Moriscos in the sixteenth century, ignoring the +fact that the twentieth century was near its dawn, +and that a new standard of humane sympathy and +moral obligation had arisen in other nations. Her +cruelty towards the insurgent Cubans became so intolerable +that the great neighboring republic of the +United States bade her, in tones of no uncertain +meaning, to bring it to an end. In response Spain +adopted her favorite method of procrastination, and +the frightful reign of starvation in Cuba was maintained. +This was more than the American people +could endure, and war was declared. With the +cause and the general course of that war our readers +are familiar, but it embraced two events of signal +significance—the naval contests of the war—which +are worth telling again as the most striking occurrences +in the recent history of Spain.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At early dawn of the 1st of May, 1898, a squadron +of United States cruisers appeared before the city +of Manila, in the island of Luzon, the largest island +of the Philippine archipelago, then a colony of Spain. +This squadron, consisting of the cruisers Olympia, +Baltimore, Raleigh, and Boston, the gunboats Petrel +and Concord, and the despatch-boat McCulloch, had +entered the bay of Manila during the night, passing<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +unhurt the batteries at its mouth, and at daybreak +swept in proud array past the city front, seeking the +Spanish fleet, which lay in the little bay of Cavité, +opening into the larger bay.</p> + +<a name="fig90" id="fig90"></a><div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center"><img src="images/image18.png" width="640" height="388" alt="Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA." title="THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA.</div><p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Copyright, 1898, by Arkell Publishing Company</p></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Spanish ships consisted of five cruisers and +three gunboats, inferior in weight and armament to +their enemy, but flanked by shore batteries on each +end of the line, and with an exact knowledge of the +harbor, while the Americans were ignorant of distances +and soundings. These advantages on the side +of the Spanish made the two fleets practically equal +in strength. The battle about to be fought was one +of leading importance in naval affairs. It was the +second time in history in which two fleets built under +the new ideas in naval architecture and armament +had met in battle. The result was looked for with +intense interest by the world.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Commodore Dewey, the commander of the American +squadron, remained fully exposed on the bridge +of his flag-ship, the Olympia, as she stood daringly +in, followed in line by the Baltimore, Raleigh, Petrel, +Concord, and Boston. As they came up, the shore +batteries opened fire, followed by the Spanish ships, +while two submarine mines, exploded before the +Olympia, tossed a shower of water uselessly into the +air.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heedless of all this, the ships continued their +course, their guns remaining silent, while the Spanish +fire grew continuous. Plunging shells tore up +the waters of the bay to right and left, but not a +ship was struck, and not a shot came in return from +the frowning muzzles of the American guns. The<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hour of 5.30 had passed and the sun was pouring its +beams brightly over the waters of the bay, when +from the forward turret of the Olympia boomed +a great gun, and an 8-inch shell rushed screaming +in towards the Spanish fleet. Within ten minutes +more all the ships were in action, and a steady stream +of shells were pouring upon the Spanish ships.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The difference in effect was striking. The American +gunners were trained to accurate aiming; the +Spanish idea was simply to load and fire. In consequence +few shells from the Spanish guns reached +their mark, while few of those from American guns +went astray. Soon the fair ships of Spain were +frightfully torn and rent and many of their men +stretched in death, while hardly a sign of damage +was visible on an American hull.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sweeping down parallel to the Spanish line, and +pouring in its fire as it went from a distance of forty-five +hundred yards, the American squadron swept +round in a long ellipse and sailed back, now bringing +its starboard batteries into play. Six times it passed +over this course, the last two at the distance of two +thousand yards. From the great cannon, and from +the batteries of smaller rapid-fire guns, a steady +stream of projectiles was hurled inward, frightfully +rending the Spanish ships, until at the end of the +evolutions three of them were burning fiercely, and +the others were little more than wrecks.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Admiral Montojo's flag-ship, the Reina Cristina, +made a sudden dash from the line in the middle of +the combat, with the evident hope of ramming and +sinking the Olympia. The attempt was a desperate<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +one, the fire of the entire fleet being concentrated +on the single antagonist, until the storm of +projectiles grew so terrific that utter annihilation +seemed at hand. The Spanish admiral now swung +his ship around and started hastily back. Just as +she had fairly started in the reverse course an 8-inch +shell from the Olympia struck her fairly in the +stern and drove inward through every obstruction, +wrecking the aft-boiler and blowing up the deck +in its explosion. It was a fatal shot. Clouds of +white smoke were soon followed by the red glare +of flames. For half an hour longer the crew continued +to work their guns. At the end of that time +the fire was master of the ship.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two torpedo-boats came out with the same purpose, +and met with the same reception. Such a rain +of shell poured on them that they hastily turned and +ran back. They had not gone far before one of them, +torn by a shell, plunged headlong to the bottom of +the bay. The other was beached, her crew flying in +terror to the shore.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While death and destruction were thus playing +havoc with the Spanish ships, the Spanish fire was +mainly wasted upon the sea. Shots struck the +Olympia, Baltimore, and Boston, but did little damage. +One passed just under Commodore Dewey on +the bridge and tore a hole in the deck. One ripped +up the main deck of the Baltimore, disabled a 6-inch +gun, and exploded a box of ammunition, by which +eight men were slightly wounded. These were the +only men hurt on the American side during the +whole battle.</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At 7.35 Commodore Dewey withdrew his ships that +the men might breakfast. The Spanish ships were +in a hopeless state. Shortly after eleven the Americans +returned and ranged up again before the ships +of Spain, nearly all of which were in flames. For +an hour and a quarter longer the blazing ships were +pounded with shot and shell, the Spaniards feebly +replying. At the end of that time the work was at +an end, the batteries being silenced and the ships +sunk, their upper works still blazing. Of their +crews, nearly a thousand had perished in the fight.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended one of the most remarkable naval +battles in history. For more than three hours the +American ships had been targets for a hot fire from +the Spanish fleet and forts, and during all that time +not a man had been killed and not a ship seriously +injured. Meanwhile, the Spanish fleet had ceased to +exist. Its burnt remains lay on the bottom of the +bay. The forts had been battered into shapeless +heaps of earth, their garrisons killed or put to +flight. It was an awful example of the difference +between accurate gunnery and firing at random.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two months later a second example of the same +character was made. Spain's finest squadron, consisting +of the four first-class armored cruisers Maria +Teresa, Vizcaya, Almirante Oquendo, and Cristobal +Colon, with two torpedo-boat destroyers, lay in the +harbor of Santiago de Cuba, blockaded by a powerful +American fleet of battle-ships and cruisers under +Admiral Sampson. They were held in a close trap. +The town was being besieged by land. Sampson's +fleet far outnumbered them at sea. They must<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +either surrender with the town or take the forlorn +hope of escape by flight.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The latter was decided upon. On the morning +of July 3 the lookout on the Brooklyn, Commodore +Schley's flag-ship, reported that a ship was coming +out of the harbor. The cloud of moving smoke had +been seen at the same instant from the battle-ship +Iowa, and in an instant the Sunday morning calm +on these vessels was replaced by intense excitement.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mast-head signals told the other ships of what +was in view, the men rushed in mad haste to +quarters, the guns were made ready for service, ammunition +was hoisted, coal hurled into the furnaces, +and every man on the alert. It was like a man suddenly +awoke from sleep with an alarm cry: at one +moment silent and inert, in the next moment thrilling +with intense life and activity.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was not a battle; it was a flight and pursuit. +The Spaniards as soon as the harbor was cleared +opened a hot fire on the Brooklyn, their nearest antagonist, +which they wished to disable through fear +of her superior speed. But their gunnery here was +like that at Manila, their shells being wasted through +unskilful handling. On the other hand the fire from +the American ships was frightful, precise, and destructive, +the fugitive ships being rapidly torn by +such a rain of shells as had rarely been seen before.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Turning down the coast, the fugitive ships drove +onward at their utmost speed. After them came the +cruiser Brooklyn and the battle-ships Texas, Iowa, +Oregon, and Indiana, hurling shells from their great +guns in their wake. The New York, Admiral Sampson's<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +flag-ship, was distant several miles up the coast, +too far away to take part in the fight.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such a hail of shot, sent with such accurate aim, +could not long be endured. The Maria Teresa, Admiral +Cervera's flag-ship, was quickly in flames, while +shells were piercing her sides and bursting within. +The main steam-pipe was severed, the pump was +put out of service, the captain was killed. Lowering +her flag, the vessel headed for the shore, where +she was quickly beached.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Almirante Oquendo, equally punished, followed +the same example, a mass of flames shrouding +her as she rushed for the beach. The Vizcaya was +the next to succumb, after a futile effort to ram the +Brooklyn. One shell from the cruiser went the entire +length of her gun-deck, killing or wounding all +the men on it. The Oregon was pouring shells into +her hull, and she in turn, burning fiercely, was run +ashore. She had made a flight of twenty miles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Only one of the Spanish cruisers remained,—the +Cristobal Colon. She had passed all her consorts, +and when the Vizcaya went ashore was six miles +ahead of the Brooklyn and more than seven miles +from the Oregon. It looked as if she might escape. +But she would have to round Cape Cruz by a long +detour, and the Brooklyn was headed straight for +the cape, while the Oregon kept on the Colon's trail.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An hour, a second hour, passed; the pursuers were +gaining mile by mile; the spurt of speed of the Colon +was at an end. One of the great 13-inch shells of +the Oregon, fired from four miles away, struck the +water near the Colon. A second fell beyond her.<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +An 8-inch shell from the Brooklyn pierced her above +her armor-belt. At one o'clock both ships were +pounding away at her, an ineffective fire being returned. +At 1.20 she hauled down her flag, and, like +her consorts, ran ashore. She had made a run of +forty-eight miles.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">About six hundred men were killed on the Spanish +ships; the American loss was one man killed and +one wounded. The ships of Spain were blazing +wrecks; those of the United States were none the +worse for the fight. It was like the victory at Manila +repeated. It resembled the latter in another +particular, two torpedo-boats taking part in the affair. +These were attacked by the Gloucester, a +yacht converted into a gunboat, and dealt with so +shrewdly that both of them were sunk.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The battle ended, efforts to save on the part of the +American ships succeeded the effort to destroy, the +Yankee tars showing as much courage and daring +in their attempts to rescue the wounded from the +decks of the burning ships as they had done in the +fight. The ships were blazing fore and aft, their +guns were exploding from the heat, at any moment +the fire might reach the main magazines. A heavy +surf made the work of rescue doubly dangerous; yet +no risk could deter the American sailors while the +chance to save one of the wounded remained, and +they made as proud a record on the decks of the +burning ships as they had done behind the guns.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These two signal victories were the great events +of the war. Conjoined with one victory on land, +they put an end to the conflict. Without a fleet,<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and with no means of aiding her Cuban troops, Spain +was helpless, and the naval victories at Manila and +Santiago, in which one man was killed, virtually settled +the question of Cuban independence, and taught +the nations of Europe that a new and great naval +power had arisen, with which they would have to +deal when they next sought to settle the destinies +of the world.</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">THE END.</p> +</div> + +</div> + +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME VII*** +</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader91" id="rightpageheader91"></a><a name="pgtoc92" id="pgtoc92"></a><a name="pdf93" id="pdf93"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">September 2006 </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg Edition</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt"> + <span class="tei tei-name">Joshua Hutchinson<br /></span> + <span class="tei tei-name">Online Distributed Proofreading Team</span> + </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader94" id="rightpageheader94"></a><a name="pgtoc95" id="pgtoc95"></a><a name="pdf96" id="pdf96"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named + 19457-h.html or + 19457-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found + in: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/5/19457/" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style="font-size: 90%">/dirs/1/9/4/5/19457/</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old + editions will be renamed.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the works from public domain print editions means that + no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the + Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United + States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. + Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this + license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works + to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark. 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?> + +<!-- +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII by Charles Morris + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII + +Author: Charles Morris + +Release Date: October 3, 2006 [Ebook #19457] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 +--> + +<!DOCTYPE TEI.2 SYSTEM "http://www.gutenberg.org/tei/marcello/0.4/dtd/pgtei.dtd"> + +<TEI.2 lang="en"> +<teiHeader> + <fileDesc> + <titleStmt> + <title>Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII</title> + <author>Charles Morris</author> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition n="1">Edition 1</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher> + <date value="2006-10-03">October 3, 2006</date> + <idno type="etext-no">19457</idno> + <idno type='DPid'>projectID42e28301c8069</idno> + <availability> + <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and + with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg + License online at www.gutenberg.org/license</p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + + <sourceDesc> + <bibl> + <title>Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII</title> + <author>Charles Morris</author> + <imprint> + <pubPlace>London</pubPlace> + <pubPlace>Phildelphia</pubPlace> + <publisher>J. B. Lippincott Company</publisher> + <date>1898</date> + </imprint> + </bibl> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + + <encodingDesc> + <classDecl> + <taxonomy id="lc"> + <bibl> + <title>Library of Congress Classification</title> + </bibl> + </taxonomy> + </classDecl> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <langUsage> + <language id="en">English</language> + </langUsage> + <textClass> + <classCode scheme="lc"> + *** <!-- LoC Class (PR, PQ, ...) --> + </classCode> + <keywords> + <list> + <!-- <item></item> any keywords for PG search engine --> + </list> + </keywords> + </textClass> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change> + <date value="2006-9">September 2006</date> + <respStmt> + <name>Joshua Hutchinson<lb /></name> + <name>Online Distributed Proofreading Team</name> + </respStmt> + <item>Project Gutenberg Edition</item> + </change> + </revisionDesc> +</teiHeader> + +<pgExtensions> + <pgStyleSheet> + figure { text-align: center; page-float: 'htbp' } + .floatleft { float: left; margin-right: 2em } + .floatright { float: right; margin-left: 2em } + .w90 { } + .w50 { } + .w20 { } + .w05 { } + @media pdf { + .w90 { width: 90% } + .w50 { width: 50% } + .w20 { width: 20% } + .w05 { width: 5% } + } + </pgStyleSheet> +</pgExtensions> + +<text> +<front> +<div> +<divGen type="pgheader" /> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<figure url="images/image01.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>CHARLES V. AT YUSTE.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: CHARLES V. AT YUSTE.</figDesc> +</figure> +<p></p> +</div> + +<titlePage rend="page-break-before: right"> + <docTitle><titlePart type="main" rend="font-size: x-large">Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality</titlePart><lb /><lb /></docTitle> + <byline><lb />By <docAuthor>Charles Morris</docAuthor><lb /><lb /> + <hi rend="font-style: italic">Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the Dramatists," etc.</hi><lb /><lb /> + in fifteen volumes<lb /><lb /> + Volume VII<lb /><lb /> +</byline> + +<docImprint>London<lb /> +George Bell and Sons<lb /><lb /></docImprint> +<docDate>1898</docDate> +</titlePage> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<p>Copyright 1898, by J. B. Lippincott Company.</p> +<p>Copyright 1904, by J. B. Lippincott Company.</p> +<p>Copyright 1908, by J. B. Lippincott Company.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<head>Contents</head> +<divGen type="toc" /> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<pb n="xi" /><anchor id="Pgxi" /> +<head>Illustrations</head> +<divGen type="fig" /> +</div> + +</front> + +<body> +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<pb n="007" /><anchor id="Pg007" /> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<head>THE GOOD KING WAMBA.</head> + +<p>Long had the Goths been lords of Spain. Chief +after chief had they chosen, king after king had +they served; and, though it was young in time, +Gothic Spain was growing old in years. It reached +its golden age in the time of "Good King Wamba," +a king of fancy as much as of fact, under whom +Spain became a land of Arcady, everybody was +happy, all things prospered, and the tide of evil +events for a space ceased to flow.</p> + +<p>In those days, when a king died and left no son, +the Goths elected a new one, seeking their best and +worthiest, and holding the election in the place +where the old king had passed away. It was in the +little village of Gerticos, some eight miles from the +city of Valladolid, that King Recesuinto had sought +health and found death. Hither came the electors,—the +great nobles, the bishops, and the generals,—and +here they debated who should be king, finally +settling on a venerable Goth named Wamba, the one +man of note in all the kingdom who throughout his +life had declined to accept rank and station.</p> + +<p>The story goes that their choice was aided by +miracle. In those days miracles were "as plentiful +as blackberries," but many of these seem to have +been what we may speak of as "miracles made to +order," designed by shrewd individuals to gain<pb n="008" /><anchor id="Pg008" /> +some personal or other advantage. St. Leo is said +to have told the electors to seek a husbandman +named Wamba, whose lands lay somewhere in the +west, asserting that he did this under direction of +the heavenly powers. However that be, scouts +were sent through the land in search of Wamba, +whom they found at length in his fields, driving his +plough through the soil and asking for no higher +lot. He was like Cincinnatus, the famous Roman, +who was called from the plough to the sceptre.</p> + +<p>"Leave your plough in the furrow," they said to +him; "nobler work awaits you. You have been +elected king of Spain."</p> + +<p>"There is no nobler work," answered Wamba. +"Seek elsewhere your monarch. I prefer to rule +over my fields."</p> + +<p>The astonished heralds knew not what to make +of this. To them the man who would not be king +must be a saint—or an idiot. They reasoned, begged, +implored, until Wamba, anxious to get rid of them, +said,—</p> + +<p>"I will accept the crown when the dry rod in my +hand grows green again,—and not till then."</p> + +<p>The good old husbandman fancied that he had +fairly settled the question, but miracle defeated his +purpose. To his utter surprise and their deep astonishment +the dry stick which he thrust into the +ground at once became a green plant, fresh leaves +breaking out on its upper end. What was the old +man fond of his plough to do in such a case? He had +appealed to Heaven, and here was Heaven's reply. +He went with the heralds to the electoral congress,<pb n="009" /><anchor id="Pg009" /> +but there, in spite of the green branch, he again refused +to be king. He knew what it meant to try +and govern men like those around him, and preferred +not to undertake the task. But one of the chiefs +sprang up, drew his sword, and advanced to the old +man.</p> + +<p>"If you are still obstinate in refusing the position +we offer you," he sternly said, "you shall lose your +head as well as your crown."</p> + +<p>His fierce eyes and brandished sword gave weight +to his words, and Wamba, concluding that he would +rather be a king than a corpse, accepted the trust. +He was then escorted by the council and the army +to Toledo, feeling more like a captive than a monarch. +There he was anointed and crowned, and, +from being lord of his fields, the wise old husbandman +became king of Spain.</p> + +<p>Such a king as Wamba proved to be the Goths +had never known. Age had brought him wisdom, +but it had not robbed him of energy. He knew +what he had to expect and showed himself master +of the situation. Revolts broke out, conspiracies +threatened the throne, but one after another he put +them down. Yet he was as merciful as he was +prompt. His enemies were set free and bidden to +behave themselves better in the future. One ambitious +noble named Paul, who thought it would be +an easy thing to take the throne from an old man +who had shown so plainly that he did not want +it, rose in rebellion. He soon learned his mistake. +Wamba met him in battle, routed his army, and took +him prisoner. Paul expected nothing less than to<pb n="010" /><anchor id="Pg010" /> +have his head stricken off, but Wamba simply ordered +that it should be shaved.</p> + +<p>To shave the crown of the head in those days was +no trifling matter. It formed what is known as +the tonsure, then the mark of the monastic orders. +A man condemned to the tonsure could not serve as +king or chieftain, but must spend the remainder of +his days in seclusion as a monk. So Paul was disposed +of without losing his life.</p> + +<p>Wamba, however, did not spend all his time in +fighting with conspirators. He was so just a king +that all the historians praise him to the stars,—though +none of them tell us what just deeds he did. +He was one of those famous monarchs around whom +legend loves to grow, as the green leaves grew around +his dry rod, and who become kings of fancy in the +absence of facts. About all we know is that he was +"Good King Wamba," a just and merciful man under +whom Spain reached its age of gold.</p> + +<p>He made a great and beautiful city of Toledo, his +capital. It had a wall, but he gave it another, +stronger and loftier. And within the city he built +a noble palace and other splendid buildings, all of +which time has swept away. But over the great +gate of Toledo the inscription still remains: <hi rend="font-style: italic">Erexit +fautore Deo Rex inclytus urbem Wamba</hi>. "To God +and King Wamba the city owes its walls."</p> + +<p>Alas! the end was what might be expected of such +goodness in so evil an age. A traitor arose among +those he most favored. There was a youth named +Ervigio, in whose veins ran the blood of former +kings, and whom Wamba so loved and honored as<pb n="011" /><anchor id="Pg011" /> +to raise him to great authority in the kingdom. +Ervigio was one of those who must be king or slave. +Ambition made him forget all favors, and he determined +to cast his royal benefactor from the throne. +But he was not base enough to murder the good old +man to whom he owed his greatness. It was enough +if he could make him incapable of reigning,—as +Wamba had done with Paul.</p> + +<p>To accomplish this he gave the king a sleeping +potion, and while he was under its influence had him +tonsured,—that is, had the crown of his head shaved. +He then proclaimed that this had been done at the +wish of the king, who was weary of the throne. But +whether or not, the law was strict. No matter how +or why it was done, no man who had received the +tonsure could ever again sit upon the Gothic throne. +Fortunately for Ervigio, Wamba cared no more for +the crown now than he had done at first, and when +he came back to his senses he made little question +of the base trick of his favorite, but cheerfully +enough became a monk. The remaining seven years +of his life he passed happily in withdrawal from a +world into which he had been forced against his will.</p> + +<p>But the people loved him, the good old man, and +were not willing to accept the scheming Ervigio as +their king unless he could prove his right to the +throne. So, in the year 681, he called together a +council of lords and bishops at Toledo, before whom +he appeared with a great show of humility, bringing +testimony to prove that Wamba had become monk +at his own wish, when in peril of death. To this he +added a document signed by Wamba, in which he<pb n="012" /><anchor id="Pg012" /> +abdicated the throne, and another in which he recommended +Ervigio as his successor. For eight days +the council considered the question. The documents +might be false, but Wamba was a monk, and Ervigio +was in power; so they chose him as king. The holy +oil of consecration was poured upon his unholy head.</p> + +<p>Thus it was that Wamba the husbandman first became +king and afterwards monk. In all his stations—farmer, +king, and monk—he acquitted himself well +and worthily, and his name has come down to us +from the mists of time as one of those rare men of +whom we know little, but all that little good.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="013" /><anchor id="Pg013" /> +<head>THE GREEK KING'S DAUGHTER.</head> + +<p>History wears a double face,—one face fancy, the +other fact. The worst of it is that we cannot always +tell which face is turned towards us, and we mistake +one for the other far oftener than we know. In +truth, fancy works in among the facts of the most +sober history, while in that primitive form of history +known as legend or tradition fancy has much the +best of it, though it may often be founded upon fact. +In the present tale we have to do with legend pure +and simple, with hardly a thread of fact to give substance +to its web.</p> + +<p>There was a certain Grecian king of Cadiz whose +daughter was of such peerless beauty that her hand +was sought in marriage by many of the other kings +of Andalusia. In those days "that country was +ruled by several kings, each having estates not extending +over more than one or two cities." What +to do with the crowd of suitors the father was puzzled +to decide. Had a single one asked for his +daughter's hand he might have settled it with a word, +but among so many, equally brave, handsome, and distinguished, +answer was not so easy; and the worthy +king of Cadiz was sorely troubled and perplexed.</p> + +<p>Luckily for him, the fair damsel was as wise as +she was beautiful, and took the matter into her own +hands, making an announcement that quickly cut<pb n="014" /><anchor id="Pg014" /> +down the number of her admirers. She said that +she would have no husband but one who could prove +himself "a wise king." In our days, when every +king and nearly every man thinks himself wise, such +a decision would not have deterred suitors, and she +would have been compelled, in the end, to choose +among the few unwise. But wisdom, in those times +of fable and necromancy, had a wider meaning than +we give it. A wise king was one who had control +of the powers of earth and air, who could call the +genii to his aid by incantations, and perform supernatural +deeds. Hence it was that the suitors fell +off from the maiden like leaves from an autumn +bough, leaving but two who deemed themselves fitting +aspirants to her hand.</p> + +<p>To test the wisdom of these two she gave them +the following tasks: One was bidden to construct +on the mainland an aqueduct and a water-wheel to +bring water from the mountains into Cadiz. The +other was to produce a talisman which should save +the island of Cadiz from invasion by Berbers or any +other of the fierce tribes of Africa, by whom it was +frequently threatened.</p> + +<p>"The one of you," said the princess, "who first +and best performs his task, shall win my hand by +his work."</p> + +<p>The two suitors were warmly in love with the +beautiful maiden, and both ardently entered upon +their duties. The first to get to work was the aqueduct +builder, whose task called for hard labor rather +than magical aid. Cadiz stands on a long, narrow +peninsula, opposite which, on the mainland, the king<pb n="015" /><anchor id="Pg015" /> +built a hydraulic machine, to which the water was +brought by pipes or canals from springs in a nearby +mountain. This stream of cool, refreshing water +poured upon a wheel, by which it was driven into +an aqueduct crossing the bay into Cadiz.</p> + +<p>Here comes the fact behind the legend. Such +an aqueduct stood long in evidence, and as late as +the eighteenth century traces of it could be seen. +We have an account of it by the Arab writer, Al +Makkari. "It consisted," he says, "of a long line +of arches, and the way it was done was this: whenever +they came to high ground or to a mountain +they cut a passage through it; when the ground +was lower, they built a bridge over arches; if they +met with a porous soil, they laid a bed of gravel for +the passage of the water; when the building reached +the sea-shore, the water was made to pass underground, +and in this way it reached Cadiz." So it +was built, and "wise" was the king who built it, +even if he did not call upon the genii for assistance.</p> + +<p>The other king could not perform his labor so +simply. He had a talisman to construct, so powerful +that it would keep out of Spain those fierce African +tribes whose boats swept the seas. What +talisman could he produce that would be proof +against ships and swords? The king thought much +and deeply, and then went diligently to work. On +the border of the strait that lay between Spain and +Africa he built a lofty marble column, a square, +white shaft based on a solid foundation. On its +summit he erected a colossal statue of iron and copper, +melted and cast into the human form. The<pb n="016" /><anchor id="Pg016" /> +figure was that of a Berber, like whom it wore a +full and flowing beard, while a tuft of hair hung +over its forehead in Berber fashion. The dress was +that of the African tribes. The extended right arm +of the figure pointed across the strait towards the +opposite shores. In its hand were a padlock and +keys. Though it spoke not, it seemed to say, "No +one must pass this way." It bore the aspect of a +Berber captive, chained to the tower's top, and +warning his brethren to keep away from Spain.</p> + +<p>Rapidly wrought the rival kings, each seeking to +finish his work the first. In this the aqueduct +builder succeeded. The water began to flow, the +wheel to revolve, and the refreshing liquid to pour +into the public fountains of Cadiz. The multitude +were overjoyed as the glad torrent flowed into their +streets, and hailed with loud acclamations the successful +builder.</p> + +<p>The sound of the people's shouts of joy reached the +ears of the statue builder as he was putting the last +touches to his great work of art and magic. Despair +filled his heart. Despite his labors, his rival had won +the prize. In bitterness of spirit he threw himself +from the top of the column and was dashed to pieces +at its foot. "By which means," says the chronicle, +"the other prince, freed from his rival, became the +master of the lady, of the wheel, and of the charm."</p> + +<p>The talisman was really a watch-tower, from +which the news of an African invasion could be signalled +through the land. In this cold age we can +give its builder credit for no higher magic than that +of wisdom and vigilance.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="017" /><anchor id="Pg017" /> +<head>THE ENCHANTED PALACE.</head> + +<p>Near the city of Toledo, the capital of Spain when +that country was a kingdom of the Goths, was a +great palace of the olden time, or, as some say, a +vast cave, which had been deepened and widened and +made into many rooms. Still others say that it was +a mighty tower, built by Hercules. Whatever it was,—palace, +tower, or cavern,—a spell lay upon it from +far past days, which none had dared to break. There +was an ancient prophecy that Spain would in time +be invaded by barbarians from Africa, and to prevent +this a wise king, who knew the arts of magic, had +placed a secret talisman in one of the rooms. While +this remained undisturbed the country was safe from +invasion. If once the secret of the talisman should +be divulged, swift ruin would descend upon the kingdom +of the Goths. It must be guarded strongly and +well, for in it lay the destinies of Spain.</p> + +<p>A huge iron gate closed the entrance to the enchanted +palace, and upon this each king of the Goths, +on coming to the throne, placed a strong lock, so +that in time huge padlocks covered much of its +front and its secrecy seemed amply assured. When +Roderic, the last king of the Goths, came to the +throne, twenty-seven of such locks hung upon the +gate. As for the keys, some writers tell us that they +remained in the locks, others say that they had been<pb n="018" /><anchor id="Pg018" /> +hidden and lost; but it is certain that no one had +dared to open a single one of the locks; prudence +and fear guarded the secret better than gates and +locks.</p> + +<p>At length the time came when the cherished secret +was to be divulged. Don Roderic, who had seized +the throne by violence, and bore in his heart the fatal +bane of curiosity, determined to learn what had lain +for centuries behind those locks. The whole affair, +he declared, was the jest of an ancient king, which +did very well when superstition ruled the world, but +which was far behind the age in which he lived. Two +things moved the epoch-breaking king,—curiosity, +that vice which has led thousands to ruin, and avarice, +which has brought destruction upon thousands more. +"It is a treasure-house, not a talisman," he told +himself. "Gold, silver, and jewels lie hidden in its +mouldy depths. My treasury is empty, and I should +be a fool to let a cluster of rusty locks keep me from +filling it from this ancient store."</p> + +<p>When it became known what Roderic proposed a +shudder of horror ran through the land. Nobles +and bishops hastened to the audience chamber and +sought to hinder the fateful purpose of the rash +monarch. Their hearts were filled with dread of +the perils that would follow any meddling with the +magic spell, and they earnestly implored him not to +bring the foretold disaster upon the land.</p> + +<p>"The kings who reigned before you have religiously +obeyed the injunction," they said. "Each +of them has fixed his lock to the gate. It will be +wise and prudent in you to follow their example. If<pb n="019" /><anchor id="Pg019" /> +it is gold and jewels you look for, tell us how much +you think the cavern holds, even all your fancy +hopes to find, and so much we will give you. Even +if it beggars us, we will collect and bring you this +sum without fail. We pray and implore you, then, +do not break a custom which our old kings have all +held sacred. They knew well what they did when +they commanded that none after them should seek +to disclose the fatal secret of the hidden chamber."</p> + +<p>Earnest as was their appeal, it was wasted upon +Roderic. Their offer of gold did not reach his deepest +motive; curiosity with him was stronger than +greed, and he laughed in his beard at the fears and +tremblings of his lords.</p> + +<p>"It shall not be said that Don Roderic, the king +of the Goths, fears the devil or his agents," he loudly +declared, and orders were given that the locks should +be forced.</p> + +<p>One by one the rusty safeguards yielded to key +or sledge, and the gates shrieked disapproval when at +length they reluctantly turned on their stiff hinges, +that had not moved for centuries. Into the cavern +strode the king, followed by his fearful but curious +train. The rooms, as tradition had said, were many, +and from room to room he hurried with rapid feet. +He sought in vain. No gold appeared, no jewels +glittered on his sight. The rooms were drear and +empty, their hollow floors mocking his footsteps with +long-silent echoes. One treasure only he found, the +jewelled table of Solomon, a famous ancient work +of art which had long remained hidden from human +sight. Of this wonderful relic we shall say no more<pb n="020" /><anchor id="Pg020" /> +here, for it has a history of its own, to be told in a +future tale.</p> + +<p>On and on went the disappointed king, with +nothing to satisfy his avarice or his curiosity. At +length he entered the chamber of the spell, the magic +room which had so long been locked from human +vision, and looked with eyes of wonder on the secret +which had been so carefully preserved.</p> + +<p>What he saw was simple but threatening. On the +wall of the room was a rude painting, which represented +a group of strangely dressed horsemen, some +wearing turbans, some bareheaded, with locks of +coarse black hair hanging over their foreheads. The +skins of animals covered their limbs; they carried +scimitars and lances and bore fluttering pennons; +their horses were small, but of purest breed.</p> + +<p>Turning in doubt and dread from this enigmatical +drawing, the daring intruder saw in the centre of +the apartment a pedestal bearing a marble urn, in +which lay a scroll of parchment. From this one of +his scribes read the following words:</p> + +<p>"Whenever this asylum is violated and the spell +contained in this urn broken, the people shown in +the picture shall invade the land and overturn the +throne of its kings. The rule of the Goths shall end +and the whole country fall into the hands of heathen +strangers."</p> + +<p>King Roderic looked again with eyes of alarm +on the pictured forms. Well he knew their meaning. +The turban-wearers were Arabians, their horses +the famous steeds of the desert; the bare-headed +barbarians were Berbers or Moors. Already they<pb n="021" /><anchor id="Pg021" /> +threatened the land from Africa's shores; he had +broken the spell which held them back; the time +for the fulfilment of the prophecy was at hand.</p> + +<p>Filled with sudden terror, the rash invader hurried +from the chamber of the talisman, his courtiers flying +with wild haste to the open air. The brazen gates +were closed with a clang which rang dismally through +the empty rooms, and the lock of the king was fixed +upon them. But it was too late. The voice of destiny +had spoken and the fate of the kingdom been +revealed, and all the people looked upon Don Roderic +as a doomed man.</p> + +<p>We have given this legend in its mildest form. +Some Arab writers surround it with magical incidents +until it becomes a tale worthy of the "Arabian +Nights' Entertainments." They speak of two ancient +men with snowy beards who kept the keys of +the gate and opened the locks only at Roderic's +stern command. When the locks were removed no +one could stir the gates until the hand of the king +touched them, when they sprang open of themselves. +Inside stood a huge bronze giant with a club of steel, +with which he dealt resounding blows on the floor +to right and left. He desisted at the king's command, +and the train entered unharmed. In the +magic chamber they found a golden casket containing +a linen cloth between tablets of brass. On this +were painted figures of Arabs in armor. As they +gazed these began to move, sounds of war were +heard, and the vision of a battle between Arab and +Christian warriors passed before the affrighted eyes +of the intruders. The Christian army was defeated,<pb n="022" /><anchor id="Pg022" /> +and Roderic saw the image of himself in flight, and +finally of his horse without a rider. As he rushed +in terror from the fatal room the bronze giant was +no longer to be seen and the ancient guardians of +the gate lay dead upon their posts. In the end the +tower was burned by magic fire, and its very ashes +were scattered by the wings of an innumerable flight +of birds.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="023" /><anchor id="Pg023" /> +<head>THE BATTLE OF THE GUADALETE.</head> + +<p>The legends just given are full of the pith of facts. +Dread of Africa lay deep in the Spanish heart and +gave point to these and other magical and romantic +tales. The story of how the great conqueror, Mohammed, +had come out from the deserts of Arabia +and sent his generals, sword and Koran in hand, to +conquer the world, had spread far to the east and +the west, and brought terror wherever it came. +From Arabia the Moslem hordes had swept through +Egypt and along the African coast to the extremity +of Morocco. They now faced Spain and coveted +that rich and populous land. Well might the degenerate +sons of the Goths fear their coming and +strive to keep them out with talismans and spells.</p> + +<p>Years before, in the days of good King Wamba, a +great Mohammedan fleet had ravaged the Andalusian +coast. Others came, not for conquest, but for +spoil. But at length all North Africa lay under the +Moslem yoke, and Musa Ibn Nasseyr, the conqueror +of the African tribes, cast eyes of greed upon Spain +and laid plans for the subjugation to Arab rule of +that far-spreading Christian land.</p> + +<p>Africa, he was told, was rich, but Spain was richer. +Its soil was as fertile as that of Syria, its climate as<pb n="024" /><anchor id="Pg024" /> +mild and sweet as that of Araby the Blest. The +far-famed mines of distant Cathay did not equal it +in wealth of minerals and gems; nowhere else were +such harbors, nowhere such highlands and plains. +The mountain-ranges, beautiful to see, enclosed valleys +of inexhaustible fertility. It was a land "plentiful +in waters, renowned for their sweetness and +clearness,"—Andalusia's noble streams. Famous +monuments graced its towns: the statue of Hercules +at Cadiz, the idol of Galicia, the stately ruins of +Merida and Tarragona. It was a realm the conquest +of which would bring wealth and fame,—great +glory to the sons of Allah and great treasure to the +successors of the Prophet. Musa determined upon +its invasion.</p> + +<p>A traitor came to his aid. Count Julian was governor +of Ceuta, a Spanish city on the African coast. +His daughter Florinda was maid of honor to the +queen of Don Roderic. But word from the daughter +came to the father that she had suffered grievous +injury at the hands of the king, and Count Julian, +thirsting for revenge upon Roderic, offered to deliver +Ceuta into the hands of the Arabian warrior and +aid him in the conquest of Spain. To test the good +faith of Julian, Musa demanded that he should first +invade Andalusia himself. This he did, taking over +a small force in two vessels, overrunning the coast +country, killing many of its people, and returning +with a large booty in slaves and plunder.</p> + +<p>In the summer of 710 a Berber named Tarif was +sent over to spy out the land, and in the spring of +711 the army of invasion was led over by Tarik Ibn<pb n="025" /><anchor id="Pg025" /> +Zeyad, a valiant chief, who had gained great glory +in the wars with the Berber tribes. Who Tarik was +cannot be told. He was of humble origin, probably +of Persian birth, but possessed of a daring spirit that +was to bring him the highest fame. He is described +as a tall man, with red hair and a white complexion, +blind of one eye, and with a mole on his hand. The +Spanish historians call him Tarik el Tuerto, meaning +either "one-eyed" or "squint-eyed." Such was the +man whom Musa sent to begin the conquest of Spain.</p> + +<p>The army of invasion consisted of seven thousand +men,—a handful to conquer a kingdom. They were +nearly all Moorish and Berber cavalry, there being +only three hundred Arabians of pure blood, most of +whom were officers. Landing in Spain, for a time +they found no one to meet them. Roderic was busy +with his army in the north and knew naught of this +invasion of his kingdom, and for two months Tarik +ravaged the land at his will. But at length the +Gothic king, warned of his danger, began a hasty +march southward, sending orders in advance to levy +troops in all parts of the kingdom, the rallying place +being Cordova.</p> + +<p>It was a large army which he thus got together, +but they were ill-trained, ill-disciplined, and ill-disposed +to their king. Ninety thousand there were, +as Arab historians tell us, while Tarik had but twelve +thousand, Musa having sent him five thousand more. +But the large army was a mob, half-armed, and +lacking courage and discipline; the small army was +a compact and valorous body, used to victory, fearless, +and impetuous.</p> + +<pb n="026" /><anchor id="Pg026" /> + +<p>It was on Sunday, the 19th of July, 711, that the +two armies came face to face on the banks of the +Guadalete, a river whose waters traverse the plain +of Sidonia, in which the battle was fought. It was +one of the decisive battles in the world's history, for +it gave the peninsula of Spain for eight centuries to +Arab dominion. The story of how this battle was +fought is, therefore, among the most important of +the historical tales of Spain.</p> + +<p>Roderic's army consisted of two bodies of men,—a +smaller force of cavaliers, clad in mail armor and +armed with swords and battle-axes, and the main +body, which was a motley crew, without armor, and +carrying bows, lances, axes, clubs, scythes, and slings. +Of the Moslem army the greater number wore mail, +some carrying lances and scimitars of Damascus +steel, others being armed with light long-bows. +Their horses were Arabian or Barbary steeds, such +as Roderic had seen on the walls of the secret +chamber.</p> + +<p>It was in the early morning of a bright spring +day that the Spanish clarions sounded defiance to +the enemy, and the Moorish horns and kettle-drums +rang back the challenge to battle. Nearer and +nearer together came the hosts, the shouts of the +Goths met by the shrill <hi rend="font-style: italic">lelies</hi> of the Moslems.</p> + +<p>"By the faith of the Messiah," Roderic is reported +to have said, "these are the very men I saw +painted on the walls of the chamber of the spell at +Toledo." From that moment, say the chroniclers, +"fear entered his heart." And yet the story goes that +he fought long and well and showed no signs of fear.</p> + +<pb n="027" /><anchor id="Pg027" /> + +<p>On his journey to the south Roderic had travelled +in a chariot of ivory, lined with cloth of gold, and +drawn by three white mules harnessed abreast. On +the silken awning of the chariot pearls, rubies, and +other rich jewels were profusely sprinkled. He sat +with a crown of gold on his head, and was dressed +in a robe made of strings of pearls interwoven with +silk. This splendor of display, however, was not +empty ostentation, but the state and dignity which +was customary with the Gothic kings.</p> + +<p>In his chariot of ivory Roderic passed through +the ranks, exhorting the men to valor, and telling +them that the enemy was a low rabble of heathens, +abhorred of God and men. "Remember," he said, +"the valor of your ancestors and the holy Christian +faith, for whose defence we are fighting." Then he +sprang from his chariot, put on his horned helmet, +mounted his war-horse Orelia, and took his station +in the field, prepared to fight like a soldier and a +king.</p> + +<p>For two days the battle consisted of a series of +skirmishes. At the end of that time the Christians +had the advantage. Their numbers had told, and +new courage came to their hearts. Tarik saw that +defeat would be his lot if this continued, and on the +morning of the third day he made a fiery appeal to +his men, rousing their fanaticism and picturing the +treasures and delights which victory would bring +them. He ended with his war-cry of "Guala! +Guala! Follow me, my warriors! I shall not stop +until I reach the tyrant in the midst of his steel-clad +warriors, and either kill him or he kill me!"</p> + +<pb n="028" /><anchor id="Pg028" /> + +<p>At the head of his men the dusky one-eyed warrior +rushed with fiery energy upon the Gothic lines, +cleaving his way through the ranks towards a general +whose rich armor seemed to him that of the +king. His impetuous charge carried him deep into +their midst. The seeming king was before him. +One blow and he fell dead; while the Moslems, crying +that the king of the Goths was killed, followed +their leader with resistless ardor into the hostile +ranks. The Christians heard and believed the +story, and lost heart as their enemy gained new +energy.</p> + +<p>At this critical moment, as we are told, Bishop +Oppas, brother-in-law of the traitor Julian, drew off +and joined the Moslem ranks. Whether this was +the case or not, the charge of Tarik led the way to +victory. He had pierced the Christian centre. The +wings gave way before the onset of his chiefs. Resistance +was at an end. In utter panic the soldiers +flung away their arms and took to flight, heedless +of the stores and treasures of their camp, thinking +of nothing but safety, flying in all directions through +the country, while the Moslems, following on their +flying steeds, cut them down without mercy.</p> + +<p>Roderic, the king, had disappeared. If slain in +the battle, his body was never found. Wounded and +despairing, he may have been slain in flight or been +drowned in the stream. It was afterwards said that +his war-horse, its golden saddle rich with rubies, +was found riderless beside the stream, and that near +by lay a royal crown and mantle, and a sandal embroidered +with pearls and emeralds. But all we can<pb n="029" /><anchor id="Pg029" /> +safely say is that Roderic had vanished, his army +was dispersed, and Spain was the prize of Tarik and +the Moors, for resistance was quickly at an end, and +they went on from victory to victory until the country +was nearly all in their hands.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="030" /><anchor id="Pg030" /> +<head>THE TABLE OF SOLOMON.</head> + +<p>We have told how King Roderic, when he invaded +the enchanted palace of Toledo, found in its +empty chambers a single treasure,—the famous table +of Solomon. But this was a treasure worth a king's +ransom, a marvellous talisman, so splendid, so beautiful, +so brilliant that the chroniclers can scarce find +words fitly to describe its richness and value. Some +say that it was made of pure gold, richly inlaid with +precious stones. Others say that it was a mosaic of +gold and silver, burnished yellow and gleaming +white, ornamented with three rows of priceless +jewels, one being of large pearls, one of costly +rubies, and a third of gleaming emeralds. Other +writers say that its top was made of a single emerald, +a talisman revealing the fates in its lucid depths. +Most writers say that it stood upon three hundred +and sixty-five feet, each made of a single emerald, +though still another writer declares that it had not +a foot to stand upon.</p> + +<p>Evidently none of these worthy chroniclers had +seen the jewelled table except in the eye of fancy, +which gave it what shape and form best fitted its +far-famed splendor. They varied equally in their +history of the talisman. A mildly drawn story says +that it first came from Jerusalem to Rome, that it +fell into the hands of the Goths when they sacked<pb n="031" /><anchor id="Pg031" /> +the city of the Cæsars, and that some of them brought +it into Spain. But there was a story more in accordance +with the Arabian love of the marvellous +which stated that the table was the work of the +Djinn, or Genii, the mighty spirits of the air, whom +the wise king Solomon had subdued and who obeyed +his commands. After Solomon's time it was kept +among the holy treasures of the temple, and became +one of the richest spoils of the Romans when they +captured and sacked Jerusalem. It afterwards became +the prize of a king of Spain, perhaps in the +way stated above.</p> + +<p>Thus fancy has adorned the rich and beautiful +work of art which Don Roderic is said to have +found in the enchanted palace, and which he placed +as the noblest of the treasures of Spain in the splendid +church of Toledo, the Gothic capital. This city +fell into the hands of Tarik el Tuerto in his conquering +progress through the realm of Spain, and the +emerald table, whose fame had reached the shores +of Africa, was sought by him far and near.</p> + +<p>It had disappeared from the church, perhaps carried +off by the bishop in his flight. But fast as the +fugitives fled, faster rode the Arab horsemen on their +track, one swift troop riding to Medina Celi, on the +high road to Saragossa. On this route they came +to a city named by them Medinatu-l-Mayidah (city +of the table), in which they found the famous talisman. +They brought it to Tarik as one of the choicest +spoils of Spain.</p> + +<p>Its later history is as curious and much more authentic +than its earlier. Tarik, as we have told in<pb n="032" /><anchor id="Pg032" /> +the previous tale, had been sent to Andalusia by +Musa, the caliph's viceroy in Africa, simply that he +might gain a footing in the land, whose conquest +Musa reserved for himself. But the impetuous Tarik +was not to be restrained. No sooner was Roderic +slain and his army dispersed than the Arab cavaliers +spread far and wide through Spain, city after city +falling into their hands, until it seemed as if nothing +would be left for Musa to conquer.</p> + +<p>This state of affairs was far from agreeable to the +jealous and ambitious viceroy. He sent messengers +to the caliph at Damascus, in which he claimed the +conquest of Spain as his own, and barely mentioned +the name of the real conqueror. He severely blamed +Tarik for presuming to conquer a kingdom without +direct orders, and, gathering an army, he crossed to +Spain, that he might rightfully claim a share in the +glory of the conquest.</p> + +<p>Tarik was not ignorant of what Musa had done. +He expected to be called sharply to account by his +jealous superior, and knew well that his brilliant +deeds had been overlooked in the viceroy's despatches +to Damascus, then the capital of the Arab +empire. The daring soldier was therefore full of joy +when the table of Solomon fell into his hands. He +hoped to win favor from Al-Walid, the caliph, by +presenting him this splendid prize. Yet how was +he to accomplish this? Would not Musa, who was +well aware of the existence and value of the table, +claim it as his own and send it to Al-Walid with the +false story that he had won it by the power of his +arms?</p> + +<pb n="033" /><anchor id="Pg033" /> + +<p>To defeat this probable act Tarik devised a shrewd +stratagem. The table, as has been stated, was +abundantly provided with feet, but of these four +were larger than the rest. One of the latter Tarik +took off and concealed, to be used in the future if +what he feared should come to pass.</p> + +<p>As it proved, he had not misjudged his jealous lord. +In due time Musa came to Toledo and rode in state +through the gate-way of that city, Tarik following +like a humble servitor in his train. As soon as he +reached the palace he haughtily demanded a strict +account of the spoils. These were at hand, and were +at once delivered up. Their number and value should +have satisfied his avarice, but the wonderful table of +Solomon, of which he had heard such marvellous +accounts, was not among them, and he demanded +that this, too, should be brought forward. As Tarik +had foreseen, he designed to send it to the caliph, as +an acceptable present and an evidence of his victorious +career.</p> + +<p>The table was produced, and Musa gazed upon it +with eyes of delight. His quick glance, however, +soon discovered that one of the emerald feet was +missing.</p> + +<p>"It is imperfect," he said. "Where is the missing +foot?"</p> + +<p>"That I cannot tell you," replied Tarik; "you +have the table as it was brought to me."</p> + +<p>Musa, accepting this answer without suspicion, +gave orders that the lost foot should be replaced with +one of gold. Then, after thanking the other leading +officers for their zeal and valor, he turned upon Tarik<pb n="034" /><anchor id="Pg034" /> +and accused him in severe tones of disobedience. +He ended by depriving him of his command and +putting him under arrest, while he sent the caliph a +report in which Tarik was sharply blamed and the +merit of his exploits made light of. He would have +gone farther and put him to death, but this he dared +not do without the caliph's orders.</p> + +<p>As it proved, Al-Walid, the Commander of the +Faithful, knew something of the truth. Far distant +as Damascus was from Toledo, a report of Tarik's +exploits had reached his august ears, and Musa received +orders to replace him in his command, since +it would not do "to render useless one of the best +swords of Islam." Musa dared not disobey; and +thus, for the time being, Tarik triumphed.</p> + +<p>And now, for the end of the trouble between Musa +and Tarik, we must go forward in time. They were +left in Spain until they had completed the conquest +of that kingdom, then both were ordered to appear +before the caliph's judgment seat. This they did in +different methods. Tarik, who had no thirst for +spoil, made haste, with empty hands, to Damascus, +where, though he had no rich presents for the commander +of the faithful, he delighted him with the +story of his brilliant deeds. Musa came more slowly +and with more ostentation. Leaving his sons in +command in Spain and Africa, he journeyed slowly +to Syria, with all the display of a triumphal march. +With him were one hundred of his principal officers, +as many sons of the highest Berber chiefs, and the +kings of the Balearic Islands in all their barbaric +state. In his train rode four hundred captive nobles,<pb n="035" /><anchor id="Pg035" /> +each wearing a crown and girdle of gold, and thirty +thousand captives of lower rank. At intervals in +the train were camels and wagons, richly laden with +gold, jewels, and other spoils. He brought to the +East the novelties of the West, hawks, mules, and +Barbary horses, and the curious fruits of Africa and +Spain, "treasures," we are told, "the like of which +no hearer ever heard of before, and no beholder ever +saw before his eyes."</p> + +<p>Thus the proud conqueror came, by slow marches, +with frequent halts. He left Spain in August, 713. +It was February, 715, when he reached the vicinity +of Damascus, having spent a year and a half on the +way.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, changes had taken place in Syria. +Al-Walid, the caliph, was sick unto death, suffering +from a mortal disease, Soliman, his brother and +heir, wrote to Musa when at Tiberias, on the Sea of +Galilee, asking him to halt there, as his brother could +live but a few days. He, as the new caliph, would +receive him. Al-Walid in turn ordered him to hasten +his march. Musa was in a quandary. If Al-Walid +should live, delay might be fatal. If he should die, +haste might be fatal. He took what seemed to him +the safest course, hastened to Damascus, and met +with a brilliant reception. But a change soon came; +in forty days Al-Walid died; Soliman, whom he had +disobeyed, was caliph of the empire. Musa's sun +was near its setting.</p> + +<p>It was not long before the conqueror found himself +treated as a criminal. He was charged with +rapacity, injustice to Tarik, and the purpose of<pb n="036" /><anchor id="Pg036" /> +throwing all power into the hands of his sons. He +was even accused of "disobedience" for making a +triumphal entry into Damascus before the death of +Al-Walid. These and other charges were brought, +Soliman being bent on the ruin of the man who had +added Africa to the Arabian empire.</p> + +<p>When Musa was brought before the caliph for a +final hearing Tarik and many other soldiers from +Spain were present, and there stood before the monarch's +throne the splendid table of Solomon, one of +the presents which Musa had made to Al-Walid, declaring +it to be the most magnificent of all the prizes +of his valor.</p> + +<p>"Tell me," said the caliph to Tarik, "if you know +whence this table came."</p> + +<p>"It was found by me," answered Tarik. "If you +would have evidence of the truth of my words, O +caliph, have it examined and see if it be perfect."</p> + +<p>Soliman gave orders, the table was closely examined, +and it was soon discovered that one of its +emerald feet was gone and that a foot of gold occupied +its place.</p> + +<p>"Ask Musa," said Tarik, "if this was the condition +of the table when he found it."</p> + +<p>"Yes," answered Musa, "it was as you see it +now."</p> + +<p>Tarik answered by taking from under his mantle +the foot of emerald which he had removed, and +which just matched the others.</p> + +<p>"You may learn now," he said to the caliph, +"which of us is the truth-teller. Here is the lost +leg of the table. I found the table and kept this for<pb n="037" /><anchor id="Pg037" /> +evidence. It is the same with most of the treasures +Musa has shown you. It was I who won them and +captured the cities in which they were found. Ask +any of these soldiers if I speak the truth or not."</p> + +<p>These words were ruinous to Musa. The table +had revenged its finder. If Musa had lied in this +case, he had lied in all. So held the angry caliph, +who turned upon him with bitter abuse, calling him +thief and liar, and swearing by Allah that he would +crucify him. In the end he ordered the old man, +fourscore years of age, corpulent and asthmatic, to +be exposed to the fierce sun of Syria for a whole +summer's day, and bade his brother Omar to see that +the cruel sentence was executed.</p> + +<p>Until high noon had passed the old warrior stood +under the scorching solar rays, his blood at length +seeming to boil in his veins, while he sank suffocated +to the earth. Death would soon have ended his +suffering had not Omar, declaring "that he had +never passed a worse day in his life," prevailed upon +the caliph to abridge his punishment.</p> + +<p>Bent upon his utter ruin, the vindictive Soliman +laid upon him the enormous fine of four million and +thirty thousand dinars, equal to about ten million +dollars. His sons were left in power in Spain that +they might aid him in paying the fine. Great as +the sum was, Musa, by giving up his own fortune, +by the aid of his sons in Africa and Spain, and by +assistance from his friends, succeeded in obtaining +it. But even this did not satisfy the caliph, who +now banished him to his birthplace, that his early +friends might see and despise him in his ruin. He<pb n="038" /><anchor id="Pg038" /> +even determined to destroy his sons, that the whole +family might be rooted out and none be left in whose +veins the blood of Musa ran.</p> + +<p>The ablest of these sons, Abdul-Aziz, had been left +in chief command over Spain. Thither the caliph +sent orders for his death. Much as the young ruler +was esteemed, wisely as he had ruled, no one thought +of questioning an order of the Commander of the +Faithful, the mighty autocrat of the great Arabian +empire, and the innocent Abdul was assassinated by +some who had been among his chief friends. His +head was then cut off, embalmed, and sent to Soliman, +before whom it was laid, enclosed in a casket +of precious wood.</p> + +<p>Sending for Musa, the vindictive caliph had the +casket opened in his presence, saying, as the death-like +features appeared, "Do you know whose head +that is?"</p> + +<p>The answer of Musa was a pathetic one. Never +was there a Moslem, he said, who less deserved such +a fate; never a man of milder heart, braver soul, or +more pious and obedient disposition. In the end +the poor old man broke down, and he could only +murmur,—</p> + +<p>"Grant me his head, O Commander of the Faithful, +that I may shut the lids of his eyes."</p> + +<p>"Thou mayest take it," was Soliman's reply.</p> + +<p>And so Musa left the caliph's presence, heart-broken +and disconsolate. It is said that before he +died he was forced to beg his bread. Of Tarik we +hear no more. He had fully repaid Musa for his +injustice, but the caliph, who perhaps feared to let<pb n="039" /><anchor id="Pg039" /> +any one become too great, failed to restore him to +his command, and he disappeared from history. +The cruel Soliman lived only a year after the death +of the victim of his rage. He died in 717, of remorse +for his injustice to Musa, say some, but the +record of history is that he was defeated before Constantinople +and died of grief.</p> + +<p>Thus ends our story of the table of Solomon. It +brought good to none who had to do with it, and +utter disaster to him who had made it an agent of +falsehood and avarice. Injustice cannot hope to +hide itself behind a talisman.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="040" /><anchor id="Pg040" /> +<head>THE STORY OF QUEEN EXILONA.</head> + +<p>When Roderic overthrew the ancient dynasty of +Spain and made himself king, he had the defences +of the cities thrown down that they might not give +shelter to his enemies. Only the walls of the frontier +cities were left, and among these was the ancient +city of Denia, on the Mediterranean shores. Dread +of the Moorish pirates was felt in this stronghold, +and a strong castle was built on a high rock that +overlooked the sea. To the old alcaide who served +as governor of Denia word was brought, at the end +of a day of fierce tempest, that a Moorish ship was +approaching the shore. Instantly the bells were +rung to rouse the people, and signal fires were +kindled on the tower that they might flash from +peak to peak the news of an invasion by the Moors.</p> + +<p>But as the ship came closer it was seen that alarm +had been taken too soon. The vessel was alone and +had evidently been in the grip of the tempest. It +was seen to be a bark rich in carving and gilding, +adorned with silken banderoles, and driven through +the water by banks of crimson oars; a vessel of state +and ceremony, not a ship of war. As it came nearer +it was perceived to have suffered severely in the +ruthless grasp of the storm. Broken were its masts +and shattered its oars, while there fluttered in the +wind the torn remnants of its banners and sails.<pb n="041" /><anchor id="Pg041" /> +When at length it grounded on the sands below the +castle the proud bark was little better than a shattered +wreck.</p> + +<p>It was with deep curiosity that the Spaniards saw +on the deck of the stranded bark a group of high-born +Moors, men and maidens dressed in robes of +silk rich with jewels, and their features bearing the +stamp of lofty rank. In their midst stood a young +lady of striking beauty, sumptuously attired, and evidently +of the highest station, for all paid her reverence, +and a guard of armed Moors stood around her, +scimitar in hand.</p> + +<p>On landing, a venerable Moor approached the alcaide, +who had descended to meet the strangers, and +said, in such words of the Gothic language as he +could command,—</p> + +<p>"Worthy sir, we beg your protection and compassion. +The princess under our care is the only +daughter of the king of Algiers, on her way to the +court of the king of Tunis, to whom she is betrothed. +The tempest has driven us to your shores. Be not, +we implore you, more cruel than the storm, which +has spared us and our precious charge."</p> + +<p>The alcaide returned a courteous answer, offering +the princess and her train the shelter of the castle, +but saying that he had not the power to release them. +They must hold themselves the captives of Roderic, +the king of the Goths, to whom his duty required +him to send them. The fate of a royal captive, he +said, could be decided only by the royal voice.</p> + +<p>Some days afterwards Elyata, the Moorish princess, +entered Toledo in a procession more like that of<pb n="042" /><anchor id="Pg042" /> +a triumphant heroine than of a captive. A band of +Christian horsemen preceded the train. The Moorish +guard, richly attired, followed. In the midst rode +the princess, surrounded by her maidens and dressed +in her bridal robes, which were resplendent with +pearls, diamonds, and other gems. Roderic advanced +in state from his palace to receive her, and +was so struck with her beauty and dignity of aspect +that at first sight warm emotions filled his heart.</p> + +<p>Elyata was sadly downcast at her captivity, but +Roderic, though not releasing her, did all he could +to make her lot a pleasant one. A royal palace was +set aside for her residence, in whose spacious apartments +and charming groves and gardens the grief +of the princess gradually softened and passed away. +Roderic, moved by a growing passion, frequently +visited her, and in time soft sentiments woke in her +heart for the handsome and courteous king. When, +in the end, he begged her to become his bride her +blushes and soft looks spoke consent.</p> + +<p>One thing was wanting. Roderic's bride should +be a Christian. Taught the doctrines of the new +faith by learned bishops, Elyata's consent to the +change of faith was easily won, and the princess was +baptized as a Christian maiden under the new name +of Exilona. The marriage was celebrated with the +greatest magnificence, and was followed by tourneys +and banquets and all the gayeties of the time. Some +of the companions of the princess accepted the new +faith and remained with her. Those who clung to +their old belief were sent back to Africa with rich +presents from the king, an embassy going with them<pb n="043" /><anchor id="Pg043" /> +to inform the monarch of Algiers of his daughter's +marriage, and to offer him the alliance and friendship +of Roderic the Gothic king.</p> + +<figure url="images/image02.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>Queen Exilona passed a happy life as the bride of +the Gothic monarch, but many were the vicissitudes +which lay before her, for the Arab conquest was +near at hand and its effects could not but bear heavily +upon her destiny. After the defeat and death of +Roderic a considerable number of noble Goths sought +shelter in the city of Merida, among them the +widowed queen. Thither came Musa with a large +army and besieged the city. It was strongly and +bravely defended, and the gallant garrison only +yielded when famine came to the aid of their foes.</p> + +<p>A deputation from the city sought the Arab camp +and was conducted to the splendid pavilion of Musa, +whom the deputies found to be an old man with +long white beard and streaming white hair. He received +them kindly, praised them for their valor, +and offered them favorable terms. They returned +the next day to complete the conditions. On this +day the Mohammedan fast of Ramadhan ended, and +the Arabs, who had worn their meanest garb, were +now in their richest attire, and joy had everywhere +succeeded penitent gloom. As for Musa, he seemed +transformed. The meanly dressed and hoary ancient +of the previous visit now appeared a man in +the prime of life, his beard dark-red in hue, and his +robes rich with gold and jewels. The Goths, to +whom the art of dyeing the hair was unknown, +looked on the transformation as a miracle.</p> + +<p>"We have seen," they said on their return, "their<pb n="044" /><anchor id="Pg044" /> +king, who was an old man, become a young one. We +have to do with a nation of prophets who can change +their appearance at will and transform themselves +into any shape they like. Our advice is that we +should grant Musa his demands, for men like these +we cannot resist."</p> + +<p>The stratagem of the Arab was successful, the +gates were opened, and Merida became a captive city. +The people were left their private wealth and were +free to come and go as they would, with the exception +of some of their noblest, who were to be held as +hostages. Among these was the widowed Queen +Exilona.</p> + +<p>She was still young and beautiful. By paying +tribute she was allowed to live unmolested, and in this +way she passed to the second phase of her romantic +career. Arab fancy has surrounded her history with +many surprising incidents, and Lope de Vega, the +Spanish dramatist, has made her the heroine of a +romantic play, but her actual history is so full of +interest that we need not draw contributions from +fable or invention.</p> + +<p>When Musa went to Syria at the command of the +caliph he left his son Abdul-Aziz as emir or governor +of Spain. The new emir was a young, handsome, +and gallant man. He had won fame in Africa, and +gained new repute for wisdom and courage in Spain. +The Moorish princess who had become a Gothic queen +was now a hostage in his hands, and her charms +moved his susceptible heart. His persuasive tongue +and attractive person were not without their effect +upon the fair captive, who a second time lost her<pb n="045" /><anchor id="Pg045" /> +heart to her captor, and agreed once more to become +a bride. Her first husband had been the king of +Gothic Spain. Her second was the ruler of Moorish +Spain. She declined to yield her Christian creed, +but she became his wife and the queen of his heart, +called by him Ummi-Assam, a name of endearment +common in Arab households.</p> + +<p>Exilona was ambitious, and sought to induce her +new husband to assume the style of a king. She +made him a crown of gold and precious stones which +her soft persuasion induced him to wear. She bowed +in his presence as if to a royal potentate, and to +oblige the nobles to do the same she induced him to +have the door-way of his audience chamber made so +low that no one could enter it without making an +involuntary bow. She even tried to convert him to +Christianity, and built a low door to her oratory, so +that any one entering would seem to bow to the +cross.</p> + +<p>These arts of the queen proved fatal to the prince +whom she desired to exalt, for this and other stories +were told to the caliph, who was seeking some excuse +to proceed against the sons of Musa, whose ruin he +had sworn. It was told him that Abdul-Aziz was +seeking to make Spain independent and was bowing +before strange gods. Soliman asked no more, but +sent the order for his death.</p> + +<p>It was to friends of the emir that the fatal mandate +was sent. They loved the mild Abdul, but they +were true sons of Islam, and did not dare to question +the order of the Commander of the Faithful. The +emir was then at a villa near Seville, whither he was<pb n="046" /><anchor id="Pg046" /> +accustomed to withdraw from the cares of state to +the society of his beloved wife. Near by he had +built a mosque, and here, on the morning of his +death, he entered and began to read the Koran.</p> + +<p>A noise at the door disturbed him, and in a moment +a throng burst into the building. At their head was +Habib, his trusted friend, who rushed upon him and +struck him with a dagger. The emir was unhurt, +and sought to escape, but the others were quickly +upon him, and in a moment his body was rent with +dagger strokes and he had fallen dead. His head +was at once cut off, embalmed, and sent to the caliph. +The cruel use made of it we have told.</p> + +<p>A wild commotion followed when the people +learned of this murder, but it was soon quelled. +The power of the caliph was yet too strong to be +questioned, even in far-off Spain. What became of +Exilona we do not know. Some say that she was +slain with her husband; some that she survived him +and died in privacy. However it be, her life was +one of singular romance.</p> + +<p>As for the kindly and unfortunate emir, his +memory was long fondly cherished in Spain, and +his name still exists in the title of a valley in the +suburbs of Antequera, which was named Abdelaxis +in his honor.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="047" /><anchor id="Pg047" /> +<head>PELISTES, THE DEFENDER OF CORDOVA.</head> + +<p>No sooner had Tarik defeated the Christian army +on the fatal field of Sidonia than he sent out detachments +of horsemen in all directions, hoping to win +the leading cities of Spain before the people should +recover from their terror. One of these detachments, +composed of seven hundred horse, was sent +against Cordova, an ancient city which was to become +the capital of Moslem Spain. This force was +led by a brave soldier named Magued, a Roman or +Greek by birth, who had been taken prisoner when +a child and reared in the Arab faith. He now +ranked next to Tarik in the arts and stratagems of +war, and as a horseman and warrior was the model +and admiration of his followers.</p> + +<p>Among the Christian leaders who had fled from +the field of the Guadalete was an old and valiant +Gothic noble, Pelistes by name, who had fought in +the battle front until his son sank in death and most +of his followers had fallen around him. Then, with +the small band left him, he rode in all haste to Cordova, +which he hoped to hold as a stronghold of the +Goths. But he found himself almost alone in the +town, most of whose inhabitants had fled with their +valuables, so that, including the invalids and old<pb n="048" /><anchor id="Pg048" /> +soldiers found there, he had but four hundred men +with whom to defend the city.</p> + +<p>A river ran south of the city and formed one of +its defences. To its banks came Magued,—led, say +some of the chronicles, by the traitor, Count Julian,—and +encamped in a forest of pines. He sent heralds +to the town, demanding its surrender, and +threatening its defenders with death if they resisted. +But Pelistes defied him to do his worst.</p> + +<p>What Magued might have found difficult to do by +force he accomplished by stratagem. A shepherd +whom he had captured told him of the weakness of +the garrison, and acquainted him with a method by +which the city might be entered. Forcing the rustic +to act as guide, Magued crossed the river on a stormy +night, swimming the stream with his horses, each +cavalier having a footman mounted behind him. +By the time they reached the opposite shore the +rain had changed to hail, whose loud pattering +drowned the noise of the horses' hoofs as the assailants +rode to a weak place in the wall of which the +shepherd had told them. Here the battlements were +broken and part of the wall had fallen, and near by +grew a fig-tree whose branches stretched towards +the breach. Up this climbed a nimble soldier, and +by hard effort reached the broken wall. He had +taken with him Magued's turban, whose long folds +of linen were unfolded and let down as a rope, by +whose aid others soon climbed to the summit. The +storm had caused the sentries to leave their posts, +and this part of the wall was left unguarded.</p> + +<p>In a short time a considerable number of the assailants<pb n="049" /><anchor id="Pg049" /> +had gained the top of the wall. Leaping +from the parapet, they entered the city and ran to +the nearest gate, which they flung open to Magued +and his force. The city was theirs; the alarm was +taken too late, and all who resisted were cut down. +By day-dawn Cordova was lost to Spain with the +exception of the church of St. George, a large and +strong edifice, in which Pelistes had taken refuge +with the remnant of his men. Here he found an +ample supply of food and obtained water from some +secret source, so that he was enabled to hold out +against the enemy.</p> + +<p>For three long months the brave garrison defied +its foes, though Magued made every effort to take +the church. How they obtained water was what +most puzzled him, but he finally discovered the +secret through the aid of a negro whom the Christians +had captured and who escaped from their +hands. The prisoner had learned during his captivity +that the church communicated by an underground +channel with a spring somewhere without. +This was sought for with diligence and at length +found, whereupon the water supply of the garrison +was cut off at its source, and a new summons to surrender +was made.</p> + +<p>There are two stories of what afterwards took +place. One is that the garrison refused to surrender, +and that Magued, deeply exasperated, ordered +the church to be set on fire, most of its defenders +perishing in the flames. The other story is a far +more romantic one, and perhaps as likely to be true. +This tells us that Pelistes, weary of long waiting for<pb n="050" /><anchor id="Pg050" /> +assistance from without, determined to leave the +church in search of aid, promising, in case of failure, +to return and die with his friends.</p> + +<p>Mounted on the good steed that he had kept alive +in the church, and armed with lance, sword, and +shield, the valiant warrior set forth before the dawn, +and rode through the silent streets, unseen by sentinel +or early wayfarer. The vision of a Christian +knight on horseback was not likely to attract much +attention, as there were many renegade Christians +with the Moors, brought thither in the train of +Count Julian. Therefore, when the armed warrior +presented himself at a gate of the city just as a foraging +party was entering, he rode forth unnoticed +in the confusion and galloped briskly away towards +the neighboring mountains.</p> + +<p>Having reached there he stopped to rest, but to +his alarm he noticed a horseman in hot pursuit upon +his trail. Spurring his steed onward, Pelistes now +made his way into the rough intricacies of the +mountain paths; but, unluckily, as he was passing +along the edge of a declivity, his horse stumbled and +rolled down into the ravine below, so bruising and +cutting him in the fall that, when he struggled to +his feet, his face was covered with blood.</p> + +<p>While he was in this condition the pursuer rode +up. It proved to be Magued himself, who had seen +him leave the city and had followed in haste. To +his sharp summons for surrender the good knight +responded by drawing his sword, and, wounded and +bleeding as he was, put himself in posture for defence.</p> + +<pb n="051" /><anchor id="Pg051" /> + +<p>The fight that followed was as fierce as some of +those told of King Arthur's knights. Long and +sturdily the two champions fought, foot to foot, +sword to scimitar, until their shields and armor were +rent and hacked and the ground was red with their +blood. Never had those hills seen so furious a fight +by so well-matched champions, and during their +breathing spells the two knights gazed upon each +other with wonder and admiration. Magued had +never met so able an antagonist before, nor Pelistes +encountered so skilfully wielded a blade.</p> + +<p>But the Gothic warrior had been hurt by his fall. +This gave Magued the advantage, and he sought to +take his noble adversary alive. Finally, weak from +loss of blood, the gallant Goth gave a last blow and +fell prostrate. In a moment Magued's point was at +his throat, and he was bidden to ask for his life or +die. No answer came. Unlacing the helmet of the +fallen knight, Magued found him insensible. As he +debated with himself how he would get the captive +of his sword to the city, a group of Moorish cavaliers +rode up and gazed with astonishment on the marks +of the terrible fight. The Christian knight was +placed by them on a spare horse and carried to Cordova's +streets.</p> + +<p>As the train passed the beleaguered church its +garrison, seeing their late leader a captive in Moorish +hands, sallied fiercely out to his rescue, and for +some minutes the street rang sharply with the +sounds of war. But numbers gathered to the defence, +the assailants were driven back, and the +church was entered by their foes, the clash of arms<pb n="052" /><anchor id="Pg052" /> +resounding within its sacred precincts. In the end +most of the garrison were killed and the rest made +prisoners.</p> + +<p>The wounded knight was tenderly cared for by +his captor, soon regaining his senses, and in time +recovering his health. Magued, who had come to +esteem him highly, celebrated his return to health +by a magnificent banquet, at which every honor was +done the noble knight. The Arabs knew well how +to reward valor, even in a foe.</p> + +<p>In the midst of the banquet Pelistes spoke of +a noble Christian knight he once had known, his +brother in arms and the cherished friend of his +heart, one whom he had most admired and loved of +all the Gothic host,—his old and dear comrade, Count +Julian.</p> + +<p>"He is here!" cried some of the Arabs, enthusiastically, +pointing to a knight who had recently entered. +"Here is your old friend and comrade, Count +Julian."</p> + +<p>"That Julian!" cried Pelistes, in tones of scorn; +"that traitor and renegade my friend and comrade! +No, no; this is not Julian, but a fiend from hell +who has entered his body to bring him dishonor and +ruin."</p> + +<p>Turning scornfully away he strode proudly from +the room, leaving the traitor knight, overwhelmed +with shame and confusion, the centre of a circle of +scornful looks, for the Arabs loved not the traitor, +however they might have profited by his treason.</p> + +<p>The fate of Pelistes, as given in the Arab chronicles, +was a tragic one. Magued, who had never<pb n="053" /><anchor id="Pg053" /> +before met his equal at sword play, proposed to send +him to Damascus, thinking that so brave a man +would be a fitting present to the caliph and a living +testimony to his own knightly prowess. But others +valued the prize of valor as well as Magued, Tarik +demanding that the valiant prisoner should be delivered +to him, and Musa afterwards claiming possession. +The controversy ended in a manner suitable +to the temper of the times, Magued slaying the captive +with his own hand rather than deliver to others +the prize of his sword and shield.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="054" /><anchor id="Pg054" /> +<head>THE STRATAGEM OF THEODOMIR.</head> + +<p>The defeat of the Guadalete seemed for the time +to have robbed the Goths of all their ancient courage. +East and west, north and south, rode the Arab horsemen, +and stronghold after stronghold fell almost +without resistance into their hands, until nearly the +whole of Spain had surrendered to the scimitar. +History has but a few stories to tell of valiant defence +by the Gothic warriors. One was that of Pelistes, +at Cordova, which we have just told. The +other was that of the wise and valorous Theodomir, +which we have next to relate.</p> + +<p>Abdul-Aziz, Musa's noble son, whose sad fate we +have chronicled, had been given the control of Southern +Spain, with his head-quarters in Seville. Here, +after subduing the Comarca, he decided on an invasion +of far-off Murcia, the garden-land of the +south, a realm of tropic heat, yet richly fertile and +productive. There ruled a valiant Goth named Theodomir, +who had resisted Tarik on his landing, had +fought in the fatal battle in which Roderic fell, and +had afterwards, with a bare remnant of his followers, +sought his own territory, which after him was called +the land of Tadmir.</p> + +<p>Hither marched Abdul-Aziz, eager to meet in battle<pb n="055" /><anchor id="Pg055" /> +a warrior of such renown, and to add to his dominions +a country so famed for beauty and fertility. +He was to find Theodomir an adversary worthy of +his utmost powers. So small was the force of the +Gothic lord that he dared not meet the formidable +Arab horsemen in open contest, but he checked their +advance by all the arts known in war, occupying the +mountain defiles and gorges through which his +country must be reached, cutting off detachments, +and making the approach of the Arabs difficult and +dangerous.</p> + +<figure url="images/image03.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>His defence was not confined to the hills. At +times he would charge fiercely on detached parties +of Arabs in the valleys or plains, and be off again to +cover before the main force could come up. Long he +defeated every effort of the Arab leader to bring on +an open battle, but at length found himself cornered +at Lorca, in a small valley at a mountain's foot. +Here, though the Goths fought bravely, they found +themselves too greatly outnumbered, and in the end +were put to panic-flight, numbers of them being left +dead on the hotly contested field.</p> + +<p>The handful of fugitives, sharply pursued by the +Moorish cavalry, rode in all haste to the fortified +town of Orihuela, a place of such strength that with +sufficient force they might have defied there the +powerful enemy. But such had been their losses in +battle and in flight that Theodomir found himself +far too weak to face the Moslem host, whose advance +cavalry had followed so keenly on his track as +to reach the outer walls by the time he had fairly +closed the gates.</p> + +<pb n="056" /><anchor id="Pg056" /> + +<p>Defence was impossible. He had not half enough +men to guard the walls and repel assaults. It would +have been folly to stand a siege, yet Theodomir did +not care to surrender except on favorable terms, and +therefore adopted a shrewd stratagem to deceive the +enemy in regard to his strength.</p> + +<p>To the surprise of the Arab leader the walls of the +town, which he had thought half garrisoned, seemed +to swarm with armed and bearded warriors, far too +great a force to be overcome by a sudden dash. In +the face of so warlike an array, caution awoke in +the hearts of the assailants. They had looked for +an easy victory, but against such numbers as these +assault might lead to severe bloodshed and eventual +defeat. They felt that it would be necessary to proceed +by the slow and deliberate methods of a regular +siege.</p> + +<p>While Abdul-Aziz was disposing his forces and +making heedful preparations for the task he saw +before him, he was surprised to see the principal +gate of the city thrown open and a single Gothic +horseman ride forth, bearing a flag of truce and +making signals for a parley. A safe-conduct was +given him, and he was led to the tent of the Moslem +chief.</p> + +<p>"Theodomir has sent me to negotiate with you," +he said, "and I have full power to conclude terms +of surrender. We are abundantly able to hold out, +as you may see by the forces on our walls, but as we +wish to avoid bloodshed we are willing to submit on +honorable terms. Otherwise we will defend ourselves +to the bitter end."</p> + +<pb n="057" /><anchor id="Pg057" /> + +<p>The boldness and assurance with which he spoke +deeply impressed the Arab chief. This was not a +fearful foe seeking for mercy, but a daring antagonist +as ready to fight as to yield.</p> + +<p>"What terms do you demand?" asked Abdul-Aziz.</p> + +<p>"My lord," answered the herald, "will only surrender +on such conditions as a generous enemy +should grant and a valiant people receive. He demands +peace and security for the province and its +people and such authority for himself as the strength +of his walls and the numbers of his garrison justify +him in demanding."</p> + +<p>The wise and clement Arab saw the strength of +the argument, and, glad to obtain so rich a province +without further loss of life, he assented to the terms +proposed, bidding the envoy to return and present +them to his chief. The Gothic knight replied that +there was no need of this, he having full power to +sign the treaty. The terms were therefore drawn +up and signed by the Arab general, after which the +envoy took the pen and, to the astonishment of the +victor, signed the name of Theodomir at the foot of +the document. It was the Gothic chief himself.</p> + +<p>Pleased alike with his confidence and his cleverness, +Abdul-Aziz treated the Gothic knight with the +highest honor and distinction. At the dawn of the +next day the gates of the city were thrown open for +surrender, and Abdul-Aziz entered at the head of a +suitable force. But when the garrison was drawn +up in the centre of the city for surrender, the surprise +of the Moslem became deep amazement. What +he saw before him was a mere handful of stalwart<pb n="058" /><anchor id="Pg058" /> +soldiers, eked out with feeble old men and boys. +But the main body before him was composed of +women, whom the astute Goth had bidden to dress +like men and to tie their long hair under their chins +to represent beards; when, with casques on their +heads and spears in their hands, they had been ranged +along the walls, looking at a distance like a line of +sturdy warriors.</p> + +<p>Theodomir waited with some anxiety, not knowing +how the victor would regard this stratagem. Abdul +might well have viewed with anger the capitulation +of an army of women and dotards, but he had a +sense of humor and a generous heart, and the smile +of amusement on his face told the Gothic chief that +he was fully forgiven for his shrewd stratagem. +Admiration was stronger than mortification in the +Moslem's heart. He praised Theodomir for his witty +and successful expedient, and for the three days that +he remained at Orihuela banquets and fêtes marked +his stay, he occupying the position of a guest rather +than an enemy. No injury was done to people or +town, and the Arabs soon left the province to continue +their career of conquest, satisfied with the arrangements +for tribute which they had made.</p> + +<p>By a strange chance the treaty of surrender of the +land of Tadmir still exists. It is drawn up in Latin +and in Arabic, and is of much interest as showing +the mode in which such things were managed at that +remote date. It stipulates that war shall not be +waged against Theodomir, son of the Goths, and his +people; that he shall not be deprived of his kingdom; +that the Christians shall not be separated from their<pb n="059" /><anchor id="Pg059" /> +wives and children, or hindered in the services of +their religion; and that their temples shall not be +burned. Theodomir was left lord of seven cities,—Orihuela, +Valencia, Alicante, Mula, Biscaret, Aspis, +and Lorca,—in which he was to harbor no enemies +of the Arabs.</p> + +<p>The tribute demanded of him and his nobles was a +dinar (a gold coin) yearly from each, also four measures +each of wheat, barley, must, vinegar, honey, and +oil. Vassals and taxable people were to pay half +this amount.</p> + +<p>These conditions were liberal in the extreme. The +tribute demanded was by no means heavy for a +country so fertile, in which light culture yields +abundant harvests; the delightful valley between +Orihuela and Murcia, in particular, being the garden +spot of Spain. The inhabitants for a long period +escaped the evils of war felt in other parts of the +conquered territory, their province being occupied +by only small garrisons of the enemy, while its distance +from the chief seat of war removed it from +danger.</p> + +<p>After the murder of Abdul-Aziz, Theodomir sent +an embassy to the Caliph Soliman, begging that the +treaty should be respected. The caliph in reply sent +orders that its stipulations should be faithfully observed. +In this the land of Tadmir almost stood +alone in that day, when treaties were usually made +only to be set at naught.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="060" /><anchor id="Pg060" /> +<head>THE CAVE OF COVADONGA.</head> + +<p>Tarik landed in Spain in April, 711. So rapid +were the Arabs in conquest that in two years from +that date nearly the whole peninsula was in their +hands. Not quite all, or history might have another +story to relate. In a remote province of the once +proud kingdom—a rugged northwest corner—a few +of its fugitive sons remained in freedom, left alone +by the Arabs partly through scorn, partly on account +of the rude and difficult character of their +place of refuge. The conquerors despised them, yet +this slender group was to form the basis of the Spain +we know to-day, and to expand and spread until the +conquerors would be driven from Spanish soil.</p> + +<p>The Goths had fled in all directions from their +conquerors, taking with them such of their valuables +as they could carry, some crossing the Pyrenees to +France, some hiding in the mountain valleys, some +seeking a place of refuge in the Asturias, a rough +hill country cut up in all directions by steep, scarped +rocks, narrow defiles, deep ravines, and tangled +thickets. Here the formidable Moslem cavalry could +not pursue them; here no army could deploy; here +ten men might defy a hundred. The place was far +from inviting to the conquerors, but in it was sown +the seed of modern Spain.</p> + +<p>A motley crew it was that gathered in this rugged<pb n="061" /><anchor id="Pg061" /> +region, a medley of fugitives of all ranks and stations,—soldiers, +farmers, and artisans; nobles and +vassals; bishops and monks; men, women, and children,—brought +together by a terror that banished +all distinctions of rank and avocation. For a number +of years this small band of fugitive Christians, gathered +between the mountains and the sea in northwestern +Spain, remained quiet, desiring only to be +overlooked or disregarded by the conquerors. But +in the year 717 a leader came to them, and Spain +once more lifted her head in defiance of her invaders.</p> + +<p>Pelayo, the leader named, is a hero shrouded in +mist. Fable surrounds him; a circle of romantic +stories have budded from his name. He is to us +like his modern namesake, the one battle-ship of +Spain, which, during the recent war, wandered up +and down the Mediterranean with no object in view +that any foreigner could discover. Of the original +Pelayo, some who profess to know say that he was +of the highest rank,—young, handsome, and heroic, +one who had fought under Roderic at the Guadalete, +had been held by the Arabs as a hostage at +Cordova, and had escaped to his native hills, there +to infuse new life and hope into the hearts of the +fugitive group.</p> + +<p>Ibun Hayyan, an Arabian chronicler, gives the +following fanciful account of Pelayo and his feeble +band. "The commencement of the rebellion happened +thus: there remained no city, town, or village +in Galicia but what was in the hands of the Moslems +with the exception of a steep mountain, on which<pb n="062" /><anchor id="Pg062" /> +this Pelayo took refuge with a handful of men. +There his followers went on dying through hunger +until he saw their numbers reduced to about thirty +men and ten women, having no other food for support +than the honey which they gathered in the +crevices of the rock, which they themselves inhabited +like so many bees. However, Pelayo and his +men fortified themselves by degrees in the passes +of the mountain until the Moslems were made acquainted +with their preparations; but, perceiving +how few they were, they heeded not the advice given +to them, but allowed them to gather strength, saying, +'What are thirty barbarians perched upon a +rock? They must inevitably die.'"</p> + +<p>Die they did not, that feeble relic of Spain on the +mountain-side, though long their only care was for +shelter and safety. Here Pelayo cheered them, +doing his utmost to implant new courage in their +fearful hearts. At length the day came when Spain +could again assume a defiant attitude, and in the +mountain valley of Caggas de Onis Pelayo raised +the old Gothic standard and ordered the beating of +the drums. Beyond the sound of the long roll went +his messengers seeking warriors in valley and glen, +and soon his little band had grown to a thousand +stalwart men, filled with his spirit and breathing +defiance to the Moslem conquerors. That was an +eventful day for Spain, in which her crushed people +again lifted their heads.</p> + +<p>It was a varied throng that gathered around Pelayo's +banner. Sons of the Goths and the Romans +were mingled with descendants of the more ancient<pb n="063" /><anchor id="Pg063" /> +Celts and Iberians. Representatives of all the races +that had overrun Spain were there gathered, speaking +a dozen dialects, yet instinct with a single spirit. +From them the modern Spaniard was to come, no +longer Gothic or Roman, but a descendant of all the +tribes and races that had peopled Spain. Some of +them carried the swords and shields they had wielded +in the battle of the Guadalete, others brought the +rude weapons of the mountaineers. But among +them were strong hands and stout hearts, summoned +by the drums of Pelayo to the reconquest of Spain.</p> + +<p>Word soon came to Al Horr, the new emir of +Spain, that a handful of Christians were in arms in +the mountains of the northwest, and he took instant +steps to crush this presumptuous gathering, sending +his trusty general Al Kamah with a force that +seemed abundant to destroy Pelayo and his rebel +band.</p> + +<p>Warning of the approach of the Moslem foe was +quickly brought to the Spanish leader, who at once +left his place of assembly for the cave of Covadonga, +a natural fortress in Eastern Asturia, some five miles +from Caggas de Onis, which he had selected as a +place strikingly adapted to a defensive stand. Here +rise three mountain-peaks to a height of nearly four +thousand feet, enclosing a small circular valley, +across which rushes the swift Diva, a stream issuing +from Mount Orandi. At the base of Mount Auseva, +the western peak, rises a detached rock, one hundred +and seventy feet high, projecting from the mountain +in the form of an arch. At a short distance above +its foot is visible the celebrated cave or grotto of<pb n="064" /><anchor id="Pg064" /> +Covadonga, an opening forty feet wide, twelve feet +high, and extending twenty-five feet into the rock.</p> + +<p>The river sweeps out through a narrow and rocky +defile, at whose narrowest part the banks rise in precipitous +walls. Down this ravine the stream rushes +in rapids and cascades, at one point forming a picturesque +waterfall seventy-five feet in height. Only +through this straitened path can the cave be reached, +and this narrow ravine and the valley within Pelayo +proposed to hold with his slender and ill-armed +force.</p> + +<p>Proudly onward came the Moslem captain, full of +confidence in his powerful force and despising his +handful of opponents. Pelayo drew him on into +the narrow river passage by a clever stratagem. +He had posted a small force at the mouth of the +pass, bidding them to take to flight after a discharge +of arrows. His plan worked well, the seeming retreat +giving assurance to the Moslems, who rushed +forward in pursuit along the narrow ledge that borders +the Diva, and soon emerged into the broader +path that opens into the valley of Covadonga.</p> + +<p>They had incautiously entered a <hi rend="font-style: italic">cul-de-sac</hi>, in +which their numbers were of no avail, and where a +handful of men could hold an army at bay. A +small body of the best armed of the Spaniards occupied +the cave, the others being placed in ambush +among the chestnut-trees that covered the heights +above the Diva. All kept silent until the Moslem advance +had emerged into the valley. Then the battle +began, one of the most famous conflicts in the whole +history of Spain, famous not for the numbers engaged,<pb n="065" /><anchor id="Pg065" /> +but for the issue involved. The future of +Spain dwelt in the hands of that group of patriots. +The fight in the valley was sharp, but one-sided. +The Moslem arrows rebounded harmlessly from the +rocky sides of the cave, whose entrance could be +reached only by a ladder, while the Christians, hurling +their missiles from their point of vantage into +the crowded mass below, punished them so severely +that the advance was forced back upon those that +crowded the defile in the rear. Al Kamah, finding +his army recoiling in dismay and confusion, and discovering +too late his error, ordered a retreat; but no +sooner had a reverse movement been instituted than +the ambushed Christians on the heights began their +deadly work, hurling huge stones and fallen trees +into the defile, killing the Moslems by hundreds, and +choking up the pass until flight became impossible.</p> + +<p>The panic was complete. From every side the +Christians rushed upon the foe. Pelayo, bearing a +cross of oak and crying that the Lord was fighting +for his people, leaped downward from the cave, followed +by his men, who fell with irresistible fury +on the foe, forcing them backward under the brow +of Mount Auseva, where Al Kamah strove to make +a stand.</p> + +<p>The elements now came to the aid of the Christians, +a furious storm arising whose thunders reverberated +among the rocks, while lightnings flashed luridly in +the eyes of the terrified troops. The rain poured +in blinding torrents, and soon the Diva, swollen with +the sudden fall, rose into a flood, and swept away +many of those who were crowded on its slippery<pb n="066" /><anchor id="Pg066" /> +banks. The heavens seemed leagued with the +Christians against the Moslem host, whose destruction +was so thorough that, if we can credit the +chronicles, not a man of the proud army escaped.</p> + +<p>This is doubtless an exaggeration, but the victory +of Pelayo was complete and the first great step in +the reconquest of Spain was taken. The year was +717, six years after the landing of the Arabs and the +defeat of the Goths.</p> + +<p>Thus ended perhaps the most decisive battle in +the history of Spain. With it new Spain began. The +cave of Covadonga is still a place of pilgrimage for +the Spanish patriot, a stairway of marble replacing +the ladder used by Pelayo and his men. We may +tell what followed in a few words. Their terrible +defeat cleared the territory of the Austurias of +Moslem soldiers. From every side fugitive Christians +left their mountain retreats to seek the standard +of Pelayo. Soon the patriotic and daring leader had +an army under his command, by whom he was chosen +king of Christian Spain.</p> + +<p>The Moslems made no further attack. They were +discouraged by their defeat and were engaged in a +project for the invasion of Gaul that required their +utmost force. Pelayo slowly and cautiously extended +his dominions, descending from the mountains into +the plains and valleys, and organizing his new kingdom +in civil as well as in military affairs. All the +men under his control were taught to bear arms, +fortifications were built, the ground was planted, and +industry revived. Territory which the Moslems had +abandoned was occupied, and from a group of soldiers<pb n="067" /><anchor id="Pg067" /> +in a mountain cavern a new nation began to +emerge.</p> + +<p>Pelayo died at Caggas de Onis in the year 737, +twenty years after his great victory. After his +death the work he had begun was carried forward, +until by the year 800 the Spanish dominion had extended +over much of Old Castile,—so called from its +numerous castles. In a hundred years more it had +extended to the borders of New Castile. The work +of reconquest was slowly but surely under way.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<figure url="images/image04.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE.</figDesc> +</figure> +<p></p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="068" /><anchor id="Pg068" /> +<head>THE ADVENTURES OF A FUGITIVE PRINCE.</head> + +<p>A new dynasty came to the throne of the caliphs +of Damascus in 750. The line of the Ommeyades, +who had held the throne since the days of the +Prophet Mohammed, was overthrown, and the line of +the Abbassides began. Abdullah, the new caliph, bent +on destroying every remnant of the old dynasty, invited +ninety of its principal adherents to a banquet, +where they were set upon and brutally murdered. +There followed a scene worthy of a savage. The +tables were removed, carpets were spread over the +bleeding corpses, and on these the viands were placed, +the guests eating their dinner to the dismal music of +the groans of the dying victims beneath.</p> + +<p>The whole country was now scoured for all who +were connected with the fallen dynasty, and wherever +found they were brutally slain; yet despite the vigilance +of the murderers a scion of the family of the +Ommeyades escaped. Abdurrahman, the princely +youth in question, was fortunately absent from Damascus +when the order for his assassination was +given. Warned of his proposed fate, he gathered +what money and jewels he could and fled for his life, +following little-used paths until he reached the banks +of the Euphrates. But spies were on his track and<pb n="069" /><anchor id="Pg069" /> +descriptions of him had been sent to all provinces. +He was just twenty years old, and, unlike the Arabians +in general, had a fair complexion and blue eyes, +so that he could easily be recognized, and it seemed +impossible that he could escape.</p> + +<p>His retreat on the Euphrates was quickly discovered, +and the agents of murder were so hot upon +his track that he was forced to spring into the river +and seek for safety by swimming. The pursuers +reached the banks when the fugitives were nearly +half-way across, Abdurrahman supporting his son, +four years of age, and Bedr, a servant, aiding his +thirteen-year-old brother. The agents of the caliph +called them back, saying that they would not harm +them, and the boy, whose strength was giving out, +turned back in spite of his brother's warning. When +Abdurrahman reached the opposite bank, it was +with a shudder of horror that he saw the murder +of the boy, whose head was at once cut off. That +gruesome spectacle decided the question of his +trusting himself to the mercy of the caliph or his +agents.</p> + +<p>The life of the fugitive prince now became one +of unceasing adventure. He made his way by covert +paths towards Egypt, wandering through the desert +in company with bands of Bedouins, living on their +scanty fare, and constantly on the alert against surprise. +Light sleep and hasty flittings were the rule +with him and his few attendants as they made their +way slowly westward over the barren sands, finally +reaching Egypt. Here he was too near the caliph +for safety, and he kept on westward to Barca, where<pb n="070" /><anchor id="Pg070" /> +he hoped for protection from the governor, who +owed his fortunes to the favor of the late caliph.</p> + +<p>He was mistaken. Ibn Habib, the governor of +Barca, put self-interest above gratitude, and made +vigorous efforts to seize the fugitive, whom he hoped +to send as a welcome gift to the cruel Abdullah. +The life of the fugitive was now one of hair-breadth +escapes. For five years he remained in Barca, disguised +and under a false name, yet in almost daily +peril of his life. On one occasion a band of pursuers +surrounded the tent in which he was and advanced +to search it. His life was saved by Tekfah, +the wife of the chief, who hid him under her clothes. +When, in later years, he came to power, he rewarded +the chief and his wife richly for their kindly +aid.</p> + +<p>On another occasion a body of horse rode into the +village of tents in which he dwelt as a guest and +demanded that he should be given up. The handsome +aspect and gentle manner of the fugitive had +made the tribesmen suspect that they were the hosts +of a disguised prince; he had gained a sure place in +their hearts, and they set the pursuers on a false +scent. Such a person was with them, they said, but +he had gone with a number of young men on a lion +hunt in a neighboring mountain valley and would +not return until the next evening. The pursuers at +once set off for the place mentioned, and the fugitive, +who had been hidden in one of the tents, rode +away in the opposite direction with his slender +train.</p> + +<p>Leaving Barca, he journeyed farther westward<pb n="071" /><anchor id="Pg071" /> +over the desert, which at that point comes down to +the Mediterranean. Finally Tahart was reached, a +town within the modern Algeria, the seat of the +Beni Rustam, a tribe which gave him the kindliest +welcome. To them, as to the Barcans, he seemed +a prince in disguise. Near by was a tribe of Arabs +named the Nefezah, to which his mother had belonged, +and from which he hoped for protection and +assistance. Reaching this, he told his rank and +name, and was welcomed almost as a king, the +tribesmen, his mother's kindred, paying him homage, +and offering their aid to the extent of their ability +in the ambitious scheme which he disclosed.</p> + +<p>This was an invasion of Spain, which at that time +was a scene of confusion and turmoil, distracted by +rival leaders, the people exhausted by wars and +quarrels, many of their towns burned or ruined, and +the country ravaged by famine. What could be +better than for the heir of the illustrious house of +Ommeyades, flying from persecution by the Abbassides, +and miraculously preserved, to seek the throne +of Spain, bring peace to that distracted land, and +found an independent kingdom in that western section +of the vast Arabian empire?</p> + +<p>His servant, Bedr, who had kept with him through +all his varied career and was now his chief officer, +was sent to Spain on a secret mission to the friends +of the late dynasty of caliphs, of whom there were +many in that land. Bedr was highly successful in +his mission. Yusuf, the Abbasside emir, was absent +from Cordova and ignorant of his danger, and all +promised well. Not waiting for the assistance<pb n="072" /><anchor id="Pg072" /> +promised him in Africa, the prince put to sea almost +alone. As he was about to step on board his boat +a number of Berbers gathered round and showed +an intention to prevent his departure. They were +quieted by a handful of dinars and he hastened on +board,—none too soon, for another band, greedy for +gold, rushed to the beach, some of them wading out +and seizing the boat and the camel's-hair cable that +held it to the anchor. These fellows got blows instead +of dinars, one, who would not let go, having +his hand cut off by a sword stroke. The edge of a +scimitar cut the cable, the sail was set, and the +lonely exile set forth upon the sea to the conquest +of a kingdom. It was evening of a spring day of +the year 756 that the fugitive prince landed near +Malaga, in the land of Andalusia, where some prominent +chiefs were in waiting to receive him with the +homage due to a king.</p> + +<p>Hundreds soon flocked to the standard of the adventurer, +whose manly and handsome presence, his +beaming blue eyes, sweet smile, and gracious manner +won him the friendship of all whom he met. With +steadily growing forces he marched to Seville. Here +were many of his partisans, and the people flung +open the gates with wild shouts of welcome. It was +in the month of May that the fortunes of Abdurrahman +were put to the test, Yusuf having hastily gathered +a powerful force and advanced to the plain of +Musarah, near Cordova, on which field the fate of +the kingdom was to be decided.</p> + +<p>It was under a strange banner that Abdurrahman +advanced to meet the army of the emir,—a turban<pb n="073" /><anchor id="Pg073" /> +attached to a lance-head. This standard afterwards +became sacred, the turban, as it grew ragged, being +covered by a new one. At length the hallowed old +rags were removed by an irreverent hand, "and +from that time the empire of the Beni Ummeyah +began to decline."</p> + +<p>We may briefly conclude our tale. The battle +was fierce, but Abdurrahman's boldness and courage +prevailed, and the army of Yusuf in the end gave +way, Cordova becoming the victor's prize. The +generous conqueror gave liberty and distinction to +the defeated emir, and was repaid in two years by +a rebellion in which he had an army of twenty thousand +men to meet. Yusuf was again defeated, and +now lost his life.</p> + +<p>Thus it was that the fugitive prince, who had +saved his life by swimming the Euphrates under the +eyes of an assassin band, became the Caliph of the +West, for under him Spain was cut loose from the +dominion of the Abbassides and made an independent +kingdom, its conqueror becoming its first monarch +under the title of Abdurrahman I.</p> + +<p>Almansur, then the Caliph of the East, sought to +recover the lost domain, sending a large army from +Africa; but this was defeated with terrible slaughter +by the impetuous young prince, who revenged himself +by sending the heads of the general and many +of his officers to the caliph in bags borne by merchants, +which were deposited at the door of Almansur's +tent during the darkness of the night. The +finder was cautioned to be careful, as the bags contained +treasure. So they were brought in to the<pb n="074" /><anchor id="Pg074" /> +caliph, who opened them with his own hand. Great +was his fury and chagrin when he saw what a +ghastly treasure they contained. "This man is the +foul fiend in human form," he exclaimed. "Praised +be Allah that he has placed a sea between him and +me."</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="075" /><anchor id="Pg075" /> +<head>BERNARDO DEL CARPIO.</head> + +<p>Spain, like France, had its hero of legend. The +great French hero was Roland, whose mighty deeds +in the pass of Roncesvalles have been widely commemorated +in song and story. In Spanish legend +the gallant opponent of the champion of France was +Bernardo del Carpio, a hero who perhaps never +lived, except on paper, but about whose name a +stirring cycle of story has grown. The tale of his +life is a tragedy, as that of heroes is apt to be. It +may be briefly told.</p> + +<p>When Charlemagne was on the throne of France +Alfonso II. was king of Christian Spain. A hundred +years had passed since all that was left to Spain was +the cave of Covadonga, and in that time a small +kingdom had grown up with Oviedo for its capital +city. This kingdom had spread from the Asturias +over Leon, which gave its name to the new realm, +and the slow work of driving back the Moslem conquerors +had well begun.</p> + +<p>Alfonso never married and had no children. +People called him Alfonso the Chaste. He went so +far as to forbid any of his family to marry, so that +the love affairs of his sister, the fair infanta Ximena, +ran far from smooth. The beautiful princess loved +and was loved again by the noble Sancho Diaz, Count +of Saldaña, but the king would not listen to their<pb n="076" /><anchor id="Pg076" /> +union. The natural result followed; as they dared +not marry in public they did so in private, and for +a year or two lived happily together, none knowing +of their marriage, and least of all the king.</p> + +<p>But when a son was born to them the truth came +out. It threw the tyrannical king into a violent +rage. His sister was seized by his orders and shut +up in a convent, and her husband was thrown into +prison for life, some accounts saying that his eyes +were put out by order of the cruel king. As for +their infant son, he was sent into the mountains of +the Asturias, to be brought up among peasants and +mountaineers.</p> + +<p>It was known that he had been sent there by Alfonso, +and the people believed him to be the king's +son and treated him as a prince. In the healthy +out-door life of the hills he grew strong and handsome, +while his native courage was shown in hunting +adventures and the perils of mountain life. +When old enough he learned the use of arms, and +soon left his humble friends for the army, in which +his boldness and bravery were shown in many encounters +with the French and the Arabs. Those +about him still supposed him to be the son of the +king, though Alfonso, while furnishing him with all +knightly arms and needs, neither acknowledged nor +treated him as his son. But if not a king's son, he +was a very valiant knight, and became the terror of +all the foes of Spain.</p> + +<p>All this time his unfortunate father languished in +prison, where from time to time he was told by his +keepers of the mighty deeds of the young prince<pb n="077" /><anchor id="Pg077" /> +Bernardo del Carpio, by which name the youthful +warrior was known. Count Sancho knew well that +this was his son, and complained bitterly of the +ingratitude of the youth who could leave his father +perishing in a prison cell while he rode freely and +joyously in the open air, engaged in battle and banquet, +and was everywhere admired and praised. He +knew not that the young warrior had been kept in +ignorance of his birth.</p> + +<p>During this period came that great event in the +early history of Spain in which Charlemagne crossed +the Pyrenees with a great army and marched upon +the city of Saragossa. It was in the return from +this expedition that the dreadful attack took place +in which Roland and the rear guard of the army +were slain in the pass of Roncesvalles. In Spanish +story it was Bernardo del Carpio who led the victorious +hosts, and to whose prowess was due the signal +success.</p> + +<p>This fierce fight in a mountain-pass, in which a +valiant band of mountaineers overwhelmed and destroyed +the flower of the French army, has been exalted +by poetic legend into one of the most stupendous +and romantic of events. Ponderous epic poems +have made Roland their theme, numbers of ballads +and romances tell of his exploits, and the far-off +echoes of his ivory horn still sound through the centuries. +One account tells that he blew his horn so +loud and long that the veins of his neck burst in the +strain. Others tell that he split a mountain in twain +by a mighty stroke of his sword Durandal. The +print of his horse's hoofs are shown on a mountain-peak<pb n="078" /><anchor id="Pg078" /> +where only a flying horse could ever have +stood. In truth, Roland, whose name is barely mentioned +in history, rose to be the greatest hero of +romance, the choicest and best of the twelve paladins +of Charlemagne.</p> + +<p>Bernardo del Carpio was similarly celebrated in +Spanish song, though he attained no such worldwide +fame. History does not name him at all, but +the ballads of Spain say much of his warlike deeds. +It must suffice here to say that this doughty champion +marched upon Roland and his men while they were +winding through the narrow mountain-pass, and as +they advanced the mountaineers swelled their ranks.</p> + +<lg> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">"As through the glen his spears did gleam, the soldiers from the hills,</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">They swelled his host, as mountain-stream receives the roaring rills;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">They round his banner flocked in scorn of haughty Charlemagne,</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">And thus upon their swords are sworn the faithful sons of Spain."</l> +</lg> + +<p>Roland and his force lay silent in death when the +valiant prince led back his army, flushed with victory, +and hailed with the plaudits of all the people +of the land. At this moment of his highest triumph +the tragedy of his life began. His old nurse, who +had feared before to tell the tale, now made him acquainted +with the true story of his birth, telling him +that he was the nephew, not the son, of the king; that +his mother, whom he thought long dead, still lived, +shut up for life in a convent; and that his father lay +languishing in a dungeon cell, blind and in chains.</p> + +<pb n="079" /><anchor id="Pg079" /> + +<p>As may well be imagined, this story filled the soul +of the young hero with righteous wrath. He strode +into the presence of the king and asked, with little +reverence, if the story were true. Alfonso surlily +admitted it. Bernardo then demanded his father's +freedom. This the king refused. Burning with +anger, the valiant youth shut himself up in his castle, +refusing to take part in the rejoicings that followed +the victory, and still sternly demanding the +release of his father.</p> + +<p>"Is it well that I should be abroad fighting thy +battles," he asked the king, "while my father lies +fettered in thy dungeons? Set him free and I shall +ask no further reward."</p> + +<p>Alfonso, who was obstinate in his cruelty, refused, +and the indignant prince took arms against him, +joining the Moors, whom he aided to harry the +king's dominions. Fortifying his castle, and gathering +a bold and daring band from his late followers, +he made incursions deep into the country of the +king, plundering hamlet and city and fighting in the +ranks of the Moslems.</p> + +<p>This method of argument was too forcible even +for the obstinacy of Alfonso. His counsellors, finding +the kingdom itself in danger, urged him to grant +Bernardo's request, and to yield him his father in +return for his castle. The king at length consented, +and Bernardo, as generous and trusting as he was +brave, immediately accepted the proposed exchange, +sought the king, handed him the keys of his castle, +and asked him to fulfil his share of the contract.</p> + +<p>Alfonso agreed to do so, and in a short time the<pb n="080" /><anchor id="Pg080" /> +king and his nephew rode forth, Bernardo's heart +full of joy at the thought of meeting the parent +whom he had never yet seen. As they rode forward +a train came from the opposite direction to meet +them, in the midst a tall figure, clad in splendid +attire and mounted on horseback. But there was +something in his aspect that struck Bernardo's heart +deep with dread.</p> + +<p>"God help me!" he exclaimed, "is that sightless +and corpse-like figure the noble Count of Saldaña, +my father?"</p> + +<p>"You wished to see him," coldly answered the +king. "He is before you. Go and greet him."</p> + +<p>Bernardo did so, and reverently took the cold +hand of his father to kiss it. As he did so the body +fell forward on the neck of the horse. It was only +a corpse. Alfonso had killed the father before delivering +him to his son.</p> + +<p>Only his guards saved the ruthless tyrant at that +moment from death. The infuriated knight swore +a fearful oath of vengeance upon the king, and rode +away, taking the revered corpse with him. Unfortunately, +the story of Bernardo ends here. None +of the ballads tell what he did for revenge. We +may imagine that he joined his power to the Moors +and harried the land of Leon during his after life, +at length reaching Alfonso's heart with his vengeful +blade. But of this neither ballad nor legend tells, +and with the pathetic scene of the dead father's release +our story ends.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="081" /><anchor id="Pg081" /> +<head>RUY DIAZ, THE CID CAMPEADOR.</head> + +<p>Bernardo del Carpio is not the chief Spanish +hero of romance. To find the mate of Roland the +paladin we must seek the incomparable Cid, the +campeador or champion of Spain, the noblest figure +in Spanish story or romance. <hi rend="font-style: italic">El Mio Cid</hi>, "My Cid," +as he is called, with his matchless horse Bavieca and +his trenchant sword Tisona, towers in Spanish tale +far above Christian king and Moslem caliph, as the +pink of chivalry, the pearl of knighthood, the noblest +and worthiest figure in all that stirring age.</p> + +<p>Cid is an Arabic word, meaning "lord" or "chief." +The man to whom it was applied was a real personage, +not a figment of fancy, though it is to poetry +and romance that he owes his fame, his story having +been expanded and embellished in chronicles, epic +poems, and ballads until it bears little semblance to +actual history. Yet the deeds of the man himself +probably lie at the basis of all the splendid fictions +of romance.</p> + +<p>The great poem in which his exploits were first +celebrated, the famous "Poema del Cid," is thought +to be the oldest, as it is one of the noblest in the +Spanish language. Written probably not later than +the year 1200, it is of about three thousand lines in +length, and of such merit that its unknown author +has been designated the "Homer of Spain." As it<pb n="082" /><anchor id="Pg082" /> +was written soon after the death of the Cid, it could +not have deviated far from historic truth. Chief +among the prose works is the "Chronicle of the +Cid,"—<hi rend="font-style: italic">Chronica del famoso Cavallero Cid Ruy Diez</hi>,—which, +with additions from the poem, was charmingly +rendered in English by the poet Southey, whose +production is a prose poem in itself. Such are the +chief sources of our knowledge of the Cid, an active, +stirring figure, full of the spirit of mediævalism, +whose story seems to bring back to us the living +features of the age in which he flourished. A brave +and daring knight, rousing the jealousy of nobles +and kings by his valiant deeds, now banished and +now recalled, now fighting against the Moslems, now +with them, now for his own hand, and in the end +winning himself a realm and dying a king without +the name,—such is the man whose story we propose +to tell.</p> + +<p>This hero of romance was born about the year +1040 at Bivar, a little village near Burgos, his father +being Diego Lainez, a man of gentle birth, his +mother Teresa Rodriguez, daughter of the governor +of the Asturias. He is often called Rodrigo de Bivar, +from his birthplace, but usually Rodrigo Diaz, or +Ruy Diez, as his name is given in the chronicle.</p> + +<p>While still a boy the future prowess of the Cid was +indicated. He was keen of intellect, active of frame, +and showed such wonderful dexterity in manly exercises +as to become unrivalled in the use of arms. +Those were days of almost constant war. The kingdom +of the Moors was beginning to fall to pieces; +that of the Christians was growing steadily stronger;<pb n="083" /><anchor id="Pg083" /> +not only did war rage between the two races, but +Moor fought with Moor, Christian with Christian, +and there was abundant work ready for the strong +hand and sharp sword. This state of affairs was to +the taste of the youthful Rodrigo, whose ambition +was to become a hero of knighthood.</p> + +<p>While gentle in manner and magnanimous in disposition, +the young soldier had an exalted sense of +honor and was sternly devoted to duty. While he +was still a boy his father was bitterly insulted by +Count Gomez, who struck him in the face. The old +man brooded over his humiliation until he lost sleep +and appetite, and withdrew from society into disconsolate +seclusion.</p> + +<p>Rodrigo, deeply moved by his father's grief, sought +and killed the insulter, and brought the old man the +bleeding head of his foe. At this the disconsolate +Diego rose and embraced his son, and bade him sit +above him at table, saying that "he who brought +home that head should be the head of the house of +Layn Calvo."</p> + +<p>From that day on the fame of the young knight +rapidly grew, until at length he defeated and captured +five Moorish kings who had invaded Castile. +This exploit won him the love of Ximena, the fair +daughter of Count Gomez, whom he had slain. +Foreseeing that he would become the greatest man +in Spain, the damsel waited not to be wooed, but +offered him her hand in marriage, an offer which +he was glad to accept. And ever after, says the +chronicle, she was his loving wife.</p> + +<p>The young champion is said to have gained the<pb n="084" /><anchor id="Pg084" /> +good-will of St. Lazarus and the Holy Virgin by +sleeping with a leper who had been shunned by his +knights. No evil consequences came from this example +of Christian philanthropy, while it added to +the knight's high repute.</p> + +<p>Fernando I., who had gathered a large Christian +kingdom under his crown, died when Rodrigo was +but fifteen years of age, and in his will foolishly cut +up his kingdom between his three sons and two +daughters, greatly weakening the Christian power, +and quickly bringing his sons to sword's point. By +the will Sancho was placed over Castile, Alfonso became +king of Leon, Garcia ruled in Galicia; Urraca, +one of the daughters, received the city of Toro, and +Elvira was given that of Zamora.</p> + +<p>Sancho was not satisfied with this division. Being +the oldest, he thought he should have all, and prepared +to seize the shares of his brothers and sisters. +Looking for aid in this design, he was attracted by +the growing fame of young Rodrigo, and gained his +aid in the restoration of Zamora, which the Moors +had destroyed. While thus engaged there came to +Rodrigo messengers with tribute from the five Moorish +kings whom he had captured and released. They +hailed the young warrior as Sid, or Cid, and the +king, struck by the title, said that Ruy Diaz should +thenceforth bear it; also that he should be known +as campeador or champion.</p> + +<p>King Sancho now knighted the young warrior +with his own hand, and soon after made him <hi rend="font-style: italic">alferez</hi>, +or commander of his troops. As such he was despatched +against Alfonso, who was soon driven from<pb n="085" /><anchor id="Pg085" /> +his kingdom of Leon and sought shelter in the Moorish +city of Toledo. Leon being occupied, the Cid +marched against Galicia, and drove out Garcia as he +had done Alfonso. Then he deprived Urraca and +Elvira of the cities left them by their father, and +the whole kingdom was once more placed under a +single ruler.</p> + +<p>It did not long remain so. Sancho died in 1072, +and at once Alfonso and Garcia hurried back from +exile to recover their lost realms. But Alfonso's +ambition equalled that of Sancho. All or none was +his motto. Invading the kingdom of Galicia, he +robbed Garcia of it and held him prisoner. Then +he prepared to invade Castile, and offered the command +of the army for this enterprise to the Cid.</p> + +<p>The latter was ready for fighting in any form, so +that he could fight with honor. But there was +doubt in his mind if service under Alfonso was consistent +with the honor of a knight. King Sancho +had been assassinated while hunting, and it was +whispered that Alfonso had some share in the murder. +The high-minded Cid would not draw sword +for him unless he swore that he had no lot or part +in his brother's death. Twice the Cid gave him the +oath, whereupon, says the chronicle, "My Cid repeated +the oath to him a third time, and the king +and the knights said 'Amen.' But the wrath of the +king was exceeding great; and he said to the Cid, +'Ruy Diaz, why dost thou press me so, man?' From +that day forward there was no love towards My Cid +in the heart of the king."</p> + +<p>But the king had sworn, and the Cid entered his<pb n="086" /><anchor id="Pg086" /> +service and soon conquered Castile, so that Alfonso +became monarch of Castile, Leon, Galicia, and Portugal, +and took the title of Emperor of Spain. As +adelantado, or lord of the marches, Ruy Diaz now +occupied himself with the Moors,—fighting where +hostility reigned, taking tribute for the king from +Seville and other cities, and settling with the sword +the disputes of the chiefs, or aiding them in their +quarrels. Thus he took part with Seville in a war +with Cordova, and was rewarded with so rich a +present by the grateful king that Alfonso, inspired +by his secret hatred for the Cid, grew jealous and +envious.</p> + +<p>During these events years passed on, and the Cid's +two fair daughters grew to womanhood and were +married, at the command of the king, to the two +counts of Carrion. The Cid liked not his sons-in-law, +and good reason he had, for they were a pair +of base hounds despite their lordly title. The brides +were shamefully treated by them, being stripped and +beaten nearly to death on their wedding-journey.</p> + +<p>When word of this outrage came to the Cid his +wrath overflowed. Stalking with little reverence +into the king's hall, he sternly demanded redress for +the brutal act. He could not appeal to the law. +The husband in those days was supreme lord and +master of his wife. But there was an unwritten +law, that of the sword, and the incensed father demanded +that the brutal youths should appear in the +lists and prove their honor, if they could, against his +champion.</p> + +<p>They dared not refuse. In those days, when the<pb n="087" /><anchor id="Pg087" /> +sword was the measure of honor and justice, to refuse +would have been to be disgraced. They came +into the lists, where they were beaten like the +hounds that they had shown themselves, and the +noble girls were set free from their bonds. Better +husbands soon sought the Cid's daughters, and they +were happily married in the end.</p> + +<p>The exploits of the Cid were far too many for us +to tell. Wherever he went victory attended his +sword. On one occasion the king marched to the +aid of one of his Moorish allies, leaving the Cid behind +him too sick to ride. Here was an opportunity +for the Moors, a party of whom broke into Castile +and by a rapid march made themselves masters of +the fortress of Gomez. Up from his bed of sickness +rose the Cid, mounted his steed (though he could +barely sit in the saddle), charged and scattered the +invaders, pursued them into the kingdom of Toledo, +and returned with seven thousand prisoners and all +the Moorish spoil.</p> + +<p>This brilliant defence of the kingdom was the +turning point in his career. The king of Toledo +complained to Alfonso that his neutral territory had +been invaded by the Cid and his troops, and King +Alfonso, seeking revenge for the three oaths he had +been compelled to take, banished the Cid from his +dominions, on the charge of invading the territory +of his allies.</p> + +<p>Thus the champion went forth as a knight-errant, +with few followers, but a great name. Tears came +into his eyes as he looked back upon his home, its +doors open, its hall deserted, no hawks upon the<pb n="088" /><anchor id="Pg088" /> +perches, no horses in the stalls. "My enemies have +done this," he said. "God be praised for all things." +He went to Burgos, but there the people would not +receive him, having had strict orders from the king. +Their houses were closed, the inn-keepers barred +their doors, only a bold little maiden dared venture +out to tell him of the decree. As there was no +shelter for him there, he was forced to seek lodging +in the sands near the town.</p> + +<p>Needing money, he obtained it by a trick that was +not very honorable, though in full accord with the +ethics of those times. He pawned to the Jews two +chests which he said were treasure chests, filled with +gold. Six hundred marks were received, and when +the chests were afterwards opened they proved to be +filled with sand. This was merely a good joke to +poet and chronicler. The Jews lay outside the pale +of justice and fair-dealing.</p> + +<p>Onward went the Cid, his followers growing in +number as he marched. First to Barcelona, then to +Saragossa, he went, seeking knightly adventures +everywhere. In Saragossa he entered the service +of the Moorish king, and for several years fought +well and sturdily for his old enemies. But time +brought a change. In 1081 Alfonso captured Toledo +and made that city his capital, from which he prepared +to push his way still deeper into the Moorish +dominions. He now needed the Cid, whom he had +banished five years before.</p> + +<p>But it was easier to ask than to get. The Cid had +grown too great to be at any king's beck and call. +He would fight for Alfonso, but in his own way,<pb n="089" /><anchor id="Pg089" /> +holding himself free to attack whom he pleased and +when he pleased, and to capture the cities of the +Moslems and rule them as their lord. He had become +a free lance, fighting for his own hand, while +armies sprang, as it were, from the ground at his call +to arms.</p> + +<p>In those days of turmoil valor rarely had long to +wait for opportunity. Ramon Berenguer, lord of +Barcelona, had laid siege to Valencia, an important +city on the Mediterranean coast. Thither marched +the Cid with all speed, seven thousand men in his +train, and forced Ramon to raise the siege. The Cid +became governor of Valencia, under tribute to King +Alfonso, and under honor to hold it against the +Moors.</p> + +<p>The famous champion was not done with his +troubles with Alfonso. In the years that followed +he was once more banished by the faithless king, and +his wife and children were seized and imprisoned. +At a later date he came to the king's aid in his wars, +but found him again false to his word, and was obliged +to flee for safety from the camp.</p> + +<p>Valencia had passed from his control and had more +than once since changed hands. At length the +Moorish power grew so strong that the city refused +to pay tribute to Spain and declared its independence. +Here was work for the Cid—not for the benefit of +Alfonso, but for his own honor and profit. He was +weary of being made the foot-ball of a jealous and +faithless monarch, and craved a kingdom of his own. +Against Valencia he marched with an army of free +swords at his back. He was fighting now for the<pb n="090" /><anchor id="Pg090" /> +Cid, not for Moorish emir or Spanish monarch. For +twenty months he beseiged the fair city, until starvation +came to the aid of his sword. No relief +reached the Moors; the elements fought against +them, floods of rain destroying the roads and washing +away the bridges; on June 15, 1094, the Cid +Campeador marched into the city thenceforth to be +associated with his name.</p> + +<p>Ascending its highest tower, he gazed with joy +upon the fair possession which he had won with his +own good sword without aid from Spanish king or +Moorish ally, and which he proposed to hold for his +own while life remained. His city it was, and today +it bears his name, being known as Valencia del Cid. +But he had to hold it with the good sword by which +he won it, for the Moors, who had failed to aid the +beleaguered city, sought with all their strength to +win it back.</p> + +<p>During the next year thirty thousand of them +came and encamped about the walls of the city. +But fighting behind walls was not to the taste of +the Cid Campeador. Out from the gates he sallied +and drove them like sheep from their camp, killing +fifteen thousand of them in the fight.</p> + +<p>"Be it known," the chronicle tells us, "that this +was a profitable day's work. Every foot-soldier +shared a hundred marks of silver that day, and the +Cid returned full honorably to Valencia. Great was +the joy of the Christians in the Cid Ruy Diaz, who +was born in a happy hour. His beard was grown, +and continued to grow, a great length. My Cid said +of his chin, 'For the love of King Don Alfonso,<pb n="091" /><anchor id="Pg091" /> +who hath banished me from his land, no scissors +shall come upon it, nor shall a hair be cut away, and +Moors and Christians shall talk of it.'" And until +he died his great beard grew on untouched.</p> + +<figure url="images/image05.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>VALENCIA DEL CID.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: VALENCIA DEL CID.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>Not many were the men with whom he had done +his work, but they were soldiers of tried temper and +daring hearts. "There were one thousand knights +of lineage and five hundred and fifty other horsemen. +There were four thousand foot-soldiers, besides boys +and others. Thus many were the people of My Cid, +him of Bivar. And his heart rejoiced, and he smiled +and said, 'Thanks be to God and to Holy Mother +Mary! We had a smaller company when we left +the house of Bivar.'"</p> + +<p>The next year King Yussef, leader of the Moors, +came again to the siege of Valencia, this time with +fifty thousand men. Small as was the force of the +Cid as compared with this great army, he had no idea +of fighting cooped up like a rat in a cage. Out once +more he sallied, with but four thousand men at his +back. His bishop, Hieronymo, absolved them, saying, +"He who shall die, fighting full forward, I +will take as mine his sins, and God shall have his +soul."</p> + +<p>A learned and wise man was the good bishop, but +a valorous one as well, mighty in arms alike on +horseback and on foot. "A boon, Cid don Rodrigo," +he cried. "I have sung mass to you this morning. +Let me have the giving of the first wounds in this +battle."</p> + +<p>"In God's name, do as you will," answered the Cid.</p> + +<p>That day the bishop had his will of the foe, fighting<pb n="092" /><anchor id="Pg092" /> +with both hands until no man knew how many +of the infidels he slew. Indeed, they were all too +busy to heed the bishop's blows, for, so the chronicle +says, only fifteen thousand of the Moslems escaped. +Yussef, sorely wounded, left to the Cid his famous +sword Tisona, and barely escaped from the field with +his life.</p> + +<p>Bucar, the brother of Yussef, came to revenge +him, but he knew not with whom he had to deal. +Bishop Hieronymo led the right wing, and made +havoc in the ranks of the foe. "The bishop pricked +forward," we are told. "Two Moors he slew with +the first two thrusts of his lance; the haft broke +and he laid hold on his sword. God! how well the +bishop fought. He slew two with the lance and five +with the sword. The Moors fled."</p> + +<p>"Turn this way, Bucar," cried the Cid, who rode +close on the heels of the Moorish chief; "you who +came from behind sea to see the Cid with the long +beard. We must greet each other and cut out a +friendship."</p> + +<p>"God confound such friendships," cried Bucar, +following his flying troops with nimble speed.</p> + +<p>Hard behind him rode the Cid, but his horse Bavieca +was weary with the day's hard work, and +Bucar rode a fresh and swift steed. And thus they +went, fugitive and pursuer, until the ships of the +Moors were at hand, when the Cid, finding that he +could not reach the Moorish king with his sword, +flung the weapon fiercely at him, striking him between +the shoulders. Bucar, with the mark of battle +thus upon him, rode into the sea and was taken<pb n="093" /><anchor id="Pg093" /> +into a boat, while the Cid picked up his sword from +the ground and sought his men again.</p> + +<p>The Moorish host did not escape so well. Set +upon fiercely by the Spaniards, they ran in a panic +into the sea, where twice as many were drowned as +were slain in the battle; and of these, seventeen +thousand and more had fallen, while a vast host remained +as prisoners. Of the twenty-nine kings who +came with Bucar, seventeen were left dead upon the +field.</p> + +<p>The chronicler uses numbers with freedom. The +Cid is his hero, and it is his task to exalt him. But +the efforts of the Moors to regain Valencia and their +failure to do so may be accepted as history. In due +time, however, age began to tell upon the Cid, and +death came to him as it does to all. He died in +1099, from grief, as the story goes, that his colleague, +Alvar Fañez, had suffered a defeat. Whether from +grief or age, at any rate he died, and his wife, +Ximena, was left to hold the city, which for two +years she gallantly did, against all the power of the +Moors. Then Alfonso entered it, and, finding that +he could not hold it, burned the principal buildings +and left it to the Moors. A century and a quarter +passed before the Christians won it again.</p> + +<p>When Alfonso left the city of the Cid he brought +with him the body of the campeador, mounted upon +his steed Bavieca, and solemnly and slowly the train +wound on until the corpse of the mighty dead was +brought to the cloister of the monastery of Cardeña. +Here the dead hero was seated on a throne, with his +sword Tisona in his hand; and, the story goes, a<pb n="094" /><anchor id="Pg094" /> +caitiff Jew, perhaps wishing to revenge his brethren +who had been given sand for gold, plucked the flowing +beard of the Cid. At this insult the hand of the +corpse struck out and the insulter was hurled to the +floor.</p> + +<p>The Cid Campeador is a true hero of romance, +and well are the Spaniards proud of him. Honor +was the moving spring of his career. As a devoted +son, he revenged the insult to his father; as a loving +husband, he made Ximena the partner of his fame; +as a tender father, he redressed his daughters' +wrongs; as a loyal subject, he would not serve a +king on whom doubt of treachery rested. In spite +of the injustice of the king, he was true to his country, +and came again and again to its aid. Though +forced into the field as a free lance, he was throughout +a Christian cavalier. And, though he cheated +the Jews, the story goes that he repaid them their +gold. Courage, courtesy, and honor were the jewels +of his fame, and romance holds no nobler hero.</p> + +<p>It will not be amiss to close our tale of the Cid +with a quotation from the famous poem in which it +is shown how even a lion quailed before his majesty:</p> + +<lg> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">"Peter Bermuez arose; somewhat he had to say;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">The words were strangled in his throat, they could not find their way;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Till forth they came at once, without a stop or stay:</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">'Cid, I'll tell you what, this always is your way;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">You have always served me thus, whenever you have come</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">To meet here in the Cortes, you call me Peter the Dumb.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">I cannot help my nature; I never talk nor rail;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">But when a thing is to be done, you know I never fail.</l> +<pb n="095" /><anchor id="Pg095" /> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Fernando, you have lied, you have lied in every word;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">You have been honored by the Cid and favored and preferred.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">I know of all your tricks, and can tell them to your face:</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Do you remember in Valencia the skirmish and the chase?</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">You asked leave of the Cid to make the first attack,</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">You went to meet a Moor, but you soon came running back.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">I met the Moor and killed him, or he would have killed you;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">I gave you up his arms, and all that was my due.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Up to this very hour, I never said a word;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">You praised yourself before the Cid and I stood by and heard</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">How you had killed the Moor, and done a valiant act;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">And they believed you all, but they never knew the fact.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">You are tall enough and handsome, but cowardly and weak,</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Thou tongue without a hand, how can you dare to speak?</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">There's the story of the lions should never be forgot;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Now let us hear, Fernando, what answer you have got?</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">The Cid was sleeping in his chair, with all his knights around;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">The cry went forth along the hall that the lion was unbound.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">What did you do, Fernando? Like a coward as you were,</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">You shrunk behind the Cid, and crouched beneath his chair.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">We pressed around the throne to shield our loved from harm.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">Till the good Cid awoke. He rose without alarm.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">He went to meet the lion with his mantle on his arm.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">The lion was abashed the noble Cid to meet;</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">He bowed his mane to the earth, his muzzle at his feet.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">The Cid by the neck and the mane drew him to his den,</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">He thrust him in at the hatch, and came to the hall again.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">He found his knights, his vassals, and all his valiant men.</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">He asked for his sons-in-law, they were neither of them there</l> +<l rend="margin-left: 2">I defy you for a coward and a traitor as you are.'"</l> +</lg> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="096" /><anchor id="Pg096" /> +<head>LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA.</head> + +<p>On the 16th of July, 1212, was fought the great +battle which broke the Moorish power in Spain. +During the two centuries before fresh streams of invasion +had flowed in from Africa to yield new life +to the Moslem power. From time to time in the +Mohammedan world reforms have sprung up, and +been carried far and wide by fanaticism and the +sword. One such body of reformers, the Almoravides, +invaded Spain in the eleventh century and +carried all before it. It was with these that the +Cid Campeador had to deal. A century later a new +reformer, calling himself El Mahdi, appeared in +Africa, and set going a movement which overflowed +the African states and made its way into Spain, +where it subdued the Moslem kingdoms and threatened +the Christian states. These invaders were +known as the Almohades. They were pure Moors. +The Arab movement had lost its strength, and from +that time forward the Moslem dominions in Spain +were peopled chiefly by Moors.</p> + +<p>Spain was threatened now as France had been +threatened centuries before when Charles Martel +crushed the Arab hordes on the plains of Tours. All +Christendom felt the danger and Pope Innocent III. +preached a crusade for the defence of Spain against +the infidel. In response, thousands of armed crusaders<pb n="097" /><anchor id="Pg097" /> +flocked into Spain, coming in corps, in bands, +and as individuals, and gathered about Toledo, the +capital of Alfonso VIII., King of Castile. From all +the surrounding nations they came, and camped in +the rich country about the capital, a host which +Alfonso had much ado to feed.</p> + +<p>Mohammed An-Nassir, the emperor of the Almohades, +responded to the effort of the Pope by organizing +a crusade in Moslem Africa. He proclaimed an +<hi rend="font-style: italic">Algihed</hi>, or Holy War, ordered a massacre of all the +Christians in his dominions, and then led the fanatical +murderers to Spain to join the forces there in +arms. Christian Europe was pitted against Moslem +Africa in a holy war, Spain the prize of victory, and +the plains of Andalusia the arena of the coming desperate +strife.</p> + +<p>The decisive moment was at hand. Mohammed +left Morocco and reached Seville in June. His new +levies were pouring into Spain in hosts. On the 21st +of June Alfonso began his advance, leading southward +a splendid array. Archbishops and bishops headed +the army. In the van marched a mighty force of +fifty thousand men under Don Diego Lopez de Haro, +ten thousand of them being cavalry. After them +came the troops of the kings of Aragon and Castile, +each a distinct army. Next came the knights of +St. John of Calatrava and the knights of Santiago, +their grand-masters leading, and after them many +other bodies, including troops from Italy and Germany. +Such a gallant host Spain had rarely seen. +It was needed, for the peril was great. While one +hundred thousand marched under the Christian banners,<pb n="098" /><anchor id="Pg098" /> +the green standard of the prophet, if we may +credit the historians, rose before an army nearly four +times as large.</p> + +<figure url="images/image06.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>Without dwelling on the events of the march, we +may hasten forward to the 12th of July, when the +host of Alfonso reached the vicinity of the Moorish +army, and the Navas de Tolosa, the destined field of +battle, lay near at hand. The word <hi rend="font-style: italic">navas</hi> means +"plains." Here, on a sloping spur of the Sierra +Morena, in the upper valley of the Guadalquiver, +about seventy miles east of Cordova, lies an extended +table-land, a grand plateau whose somewhat sloping +surface gave ample space for the vast hosts which +met there on that far-off July day.</p> + +<p>To reach the plateau was the problem before Alfonso. +The Moslems held the ground, and occupied +in force the pass of Losa, Nature's highway to the +plain. What was to be done? The pass could be +won, if at all, only at great cost in life. No other +pass was known. To retire would be to inspirit the +enemy and dispirit the Christian host. No easy way +out of the quandary at first appeared, but a way +was found,—by miracle, the writers of that time say; +but it hardly seems a miracle that a shepherd of the +region knew of another mountain-pass. This man, +Martin Halaja, had grazed his flocks in that vicinity +for years. He told the king of a pass unknown to +the enemy, by which the army might reach the +table-land, and to prove his words led Lopez de +Haro and another through this little-known mountain +by-way. It was difficult but passable, the army was +put in motion and traversed it all night long, and<pb n="099" /><anchor id="Pg099" /> +on the morning of the 14th of July the astonished +eyes of the Mohammedans gazed on the Christian +host, holding in force the borders of the plateau, +and momentarily increasing in numbers and strength. +Ten miles before the eyes of Alfonso and his men +stretched the plain, level in the centre, in the distance +rising in gentle slopes to its border of hills, like a vast +natural amphitheatre. The soldiers, filled with hope +and enthusiasm, spread through their ranks the story +that the shepherd who had led them was an angel, +sent by the Almighty to lead his people to victory +over the infidel.</p> + +<p>Mohammed and his men had been told on the previous +day by their scouts that the camp of the Christians +was breaking up, and rejoiced in what seemed +a victory without a blow. But when they saw these +same Christians defiling in thousands before them +on the plain, ranged in battle array under their various +standards, their joy was changed to rage and +consternation. Against the embattled front their +wild riders rode, threatening the steady troops with +brandished lances and taunting them with cowardice. +But Alfonso held his mail-clad battalions firm, +and the light-armed Moorish horsemen hesitated to +attack. Word was brought to Mohammed that the +Christians would not fight, and in hasty gratulation +he sent off letters to cities in the rear to that +effect. He little dreamed that he was soon to follow +his messengers in swifter speed.</p> + +<p>It was a splendid array upon which the Christians +gazed,—one well calculated to make them tremble for +the result,—for the hosts of Mohammed covered the<pb n="100" /><anchor id="Pg100" /> +hill-sides and plain like "countless swarms of locusts." +On an eminence which gave an outlook over +the whole broad space stood the emperor's tent, of +three-ply crimson velvet flecked with gold, strings +of pearls depending from its purple fringes. To +guard it from assault rows of iron chains were +stretched, before which stood three thousand camels +in line. In front of these ten thousand negroes +formed a living wall, their front bristling with the +steel of their lances, whose butts were planted firmly +in the sand. In the centre of this powerful guard +stood the emperor, wearing the green dress and turban +of his ancestral line. Grasping in one hand his +scimitar, in the other he held a Koran, from which +he read those passages of inspiration to the Moslems +which promised the delights of Paradise to those +who should fall in a holy war and the torments of +hell to the coward who should desert his ranks.</p> + +<p>The next day was Sunday. The Moslems, eager +for battle, stood all day in line, but the Christians +declined to fight, occupying themselves in arranging +their different corps. Night descended without a +skirmish. But this could not continue with the two +armies so closely face to face. One side or the other +must surely attack on the following day. At midnight +heralds called the Christians to mass and +prayer. Everywhere priests were busy confessing +and shriving the soldiers. The sound of the furbishing +of arms mingled with the strains of religious +service. At the dawn of the next day both hosts +were drawn up in battle array. The great struggle +was about to begin.</p> + +<pb n="101" /><anchor id="Pg101" /> + +<p>The army of the Moors, said to contain three hundred +thousand regular troops and seventy-five thousand +irregulars, was drawn up in crescent shape in +front of the imperial tent,—in the centre the vast +host of the Almohades, the tribes of the desert on +the wings, in advance the light-armed troops. The +Christian host was formed in four legions, King +Alfonso occupying the centre, his banner bearing an +effigy of the Virgin. With him were Rodrigo Ximenes, +the archbishop of Toledo, and many other prelates. +The force was less than one hundred thousand +strong, some of the crusaders having left it in the +march.</p> + +<p>The sun was not high when the loud sound of the +Christian trumpets and the Moorish <hi rend="font-style: italic">atabals</hi> gave +signal for the fray, and the two hosts surged forward +to meet in fierce assault. Sternly and fiercely the +battle went on, the struggling multitudes swaying +in the ardor of the fight,—now the Christians, now +the Moslems surging forward or driven back. With +difficulty the thin ranks of the Christians bore the +onsets of their densely grouped foes, and at length +King Alfonso, in fear for the result, turned to the +prelate Rodrigo and exclaimed,—</p> + +<p>"Archbishop, you and I must die here."</p> + +<p>"Not so," cried the bold churchman. "Here we +must triumph over our enemies."</p> + +<p>"Then let us to the van, where we are sorely +needed, for, indeed, our lines are being bitterly +pressed."</p> + +<p>Nothing backward, the archbishop followed the +king. Fernan Garcia, one of the king's cavaliers,<pb n="102" /><anchor id="Pg102" /> +urged him to wait for aid, but Alfonso, commending +himself to God and the Virgin, spurred forward and +plunged into the thick of the fight. And ever as he +rode, by his side rode the archbishop, wearing his +chasuble and bearing aloft the cross. The Moorish +troops, who had been jeering at the king and the +cross-bearing prelate, drew back before this impetuous +assault, which was given force by the troops +who crowded in to the rescue of the king. The +Moors soon yielded to the desperate onset, and were +driven back in wild disarray.</p> + +<p>This was the beginning of the end. Treason in +the Moorish ranks came to the Christian aid. Some +of Mohammed's force, who hated him for having +cruelly slain their chief, turned and fled. The breaking +of their centre opened a way for the Spaniards +to the living fortress which guarded the imperial +tent, and on this dense line of sable lancers the +Christian cavalry madly charged.</p> + +<p>In vain they sought to break that serried line of +steel. Some even turned their horses and tried to +back them in, but without avail. Many fell in the +attempt. The Moslem ranks seemed impervious. +In the end one man did what a host had failed to +perform. A single cavalier, Alvar Nuñez de Lara, +stole in between the negroes and the camels, in some +way passed the chains, and with a cheer of triumph +raised his banner in the interior of the line. A +second and a third followed in his track. The gap +between the camels and the guard widened. Dozens, +hundreds rushed to join their daring leader. The +camels were loosened and dispersed; the negroes,<pb n="103" /><anchor id="Pg103" /> +attacked front and rear, perished or fled; the living +wall that guarded the emperor was gone, and his +sacred person was in peril.</p> + +<p>Mohammed was dazed. His lips still repeated +from the Koran, "God alone is true, and Satan is a +betrayer," but terror was beginning to stir the roots +of his hair. An Arab rode up on a swift mare, and, +springing to the ground, cried,—</p> + +<p>"Mount and flee, O king. Not thy steed but my +mare. She comes of the noblest breed, and knows +not how to fail her rider in his need. All is lost! +Mount and flee!"</p> + +<p>All was lost, indeed. Mohammed scrambled up +and set off at the best speed of the Arabian steed, +followed by his troops in a panic of terror. The +rout was complete. While day continued the Christian +horsemen followed and struck, until the bodies +of slain Moors lay so thick upon the plain that there +was scarce room for man or horse to pass. Then +Archbishop Rodrigo, who had done so much towards +the victory, stood before Mohammed's tent and in a +loud voice intoned the <hi rend="font-style: italic">Te Deum laudamus</hi>, the soldiers +uniting in the sacred chant of victory.</p> + +<p>The archbishop, who became the historian of this +decisive battle, speaks of two hundred thousand +Moslem slain. We cannot believe it so many, despite +the historian's statement. Twenty-five Christians +alone fell. This is as much too small as the +other estimate is too large. But, whatever the losses, +it was a great and glorious victory, and the spoils +of war that fell to the victors were immense. Gold +and silver were there in abundance; horses, camels,<pb n="104" /><anchor id="Pg104" /> +and wagons in profusion; arms of all kinds, commissary +stores in quantities. So vast was the number +of lances strewn on the ground that the conquering +army used only these for firewood in their +camp, and did not burn the half of them.</p> + +<p>King Alfonso, with a wise and prudent liberality, +divided the spoil among his troops and allies, keeping +only the glory of the victory for himself. Mohammed's +splendid tent was taken to Rome to adorn St. +Peter's, and the captured banners were sent to the +cities of Spain as evidences of the great victory. +For himself, the king reserved a fine emerald, which +he placed in the centre of his shield. Ever since +that brilliant day in Spanish annals, the sixteenth +of July has been kept as a holy festival, in which +the captured banners are carried in grand procession, +to celebrate the "Triumph of the Cross."</p> + +<p>The supposed miracle of the shepherd was not +the only one which the monastic writers saw in the +victorious event. It was said that a red cross, like +that of Calatrava, appeared in the sky, inspiriting +the Christians and dismaying their foes; and that +the sight of the Virgin banner borne by the king's +standard-bearer struck the Moslems with terror. +It was a credulous age, one in which reputed miracles +could be woven out of the most homely and +every-day material.</p> + +<p>Death soon came to the leaders in the war. Mohammed, +sullen with defeat, hurried to Morocco, +where he shut himself up in gloomy seclusion, and +died—or was poisoned—before the year's end. Alfonso +died two years later. The Christians did not<pb n="105" /><anchor id="Pg105" /> +follow up their victory with much energy, and the +Moslems still held a large section of Spain, but their +power had culminated and with this signal defeat +began its decline. Step by step they yielded before +the Christian advance, though nearly three centuries +more passed before they lost their final hold +on Spain.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="106" /><anchor id="Pg106" /> +<head>THE KEY OF GRANADA.</head> + +<p>Nearly eight hundred years had passed away +after the landing of Tarik, the Arab, in Spain and +the defeat and death of Don Roderic, the last king +of the Goths. During those centuries the handful +of warriors which in the mountains of the north +had made a final stand against the invading hordes +had grown and spread, pushing back the Arabs and +Moors, until now the Christians held again nearly +all the land, the sole remnant of Moslem dominion +being the kingdom of Granada in the south. The +map of Spain shows the present province of Granada +as a narrow district bordering on the Mediterranean +Sea, but the Moorish kingdom covered a wider space, +spreading over the present provinces of Malaga and +Almeria, and occupying one of the richest sections +of Spain. It was a rock-bound region. In every +direction ran sierras, or rugged mountain-chains, so +rocky and steep as to make the kingdom almost +impregnable. Yet within their sterile confines lay +numbers of deep and rich valleys, prodigal in their +fertility.</p> + +<p>In the centre of the kingdom arose its famous +capital, the populous and beautiful city of Granada, +standing in the midst of a great vega or plain, one +hundred miles and more in circumference and encompassed +by the snowy mountains of the Sierra<pb n="107" /><anchor id="Pg107" /> +Nevada. The seventy thousand houses of the city +spread over two lofty hills and occupied the valley +between them, through which ran the waters of the +Douro. On one of these hills stood the Alcazaba, a +strong fortress; on the other rose the famous Alhambra, +a royal palace and castle, with space within +its confines for forty thousand men, and so rare and +charming in its halls and courts, its gardens and +fountains, that it remains to-day a place of pilgrimage +to the world for lovers of the beautiful in architecture. +And from these hills the city between +showed no less attractive, with its groves of citron, +orange, and pomegranate trees, its leaping fountains, +its airy minarets, its mingled aspect of crowded +dwellings and verdant gardens.</p> + +<p>High walls, three leagues in circuit, with twelve +gates and a thousand and thirty towers, girded it +round, beyond which extended the vega, a vast garden +of delight, to be compared only with the famous +plain of Damascus. Through it the Xenil wound in +silvery curves, its waters spread over the plain in +thousands of irrigating streams and rills. Blooming +gardens and fields of waving grain lent beauty to +the plain; orchards and vineyards clothed the slopes +of the hills; in the orange and citron groves the +voice of the nightingale made the nights musical. +In short, all was so beautiful below and so soft and +serene above that the Moors seemed not without +warrant for their fond belief that Paradise lay in +the skies overhanging this happy plain.</p> + +<p>But, alas for Granada! war hung round its borders, +and the blare of the trumpet and clash of the<pb n="108" /><anchor id="Pg108" /> +sword were ever familiar sounds within its confines. +Christian kingdoms surrounded it, whose people envied +the Moslems this final abiding-place on the soil +of Spain. Hostilities were ceaseless on the borders; +plundering forays were the delight of the Castilian +cavaliers and the Moorish horsemen. Every town +was a fortress, and on every peak stood a watch-tower, +ready to give warning with a signal fire by +night or a cloud of smoke by day of any movement +of invasion. For many years such a state of affairs +continued between Granada and its principal antagonist, +the united kingdoms of Castile and Leon. +Even when, in 1457, a Moorish king, disheartened +by a foray into the vega itself, made a truce with +Henry IV., king of Castile and Leon, and agreed to +pay him an annual tribute, the right of warlike raids +was kept open. It was only required that they must +be conducted secretly, without sound of trumpet or +show of banners, and must not continue more than +three days. Such a state of affairs was desired alike +by the Castilian and Moorish chivalry, who loved +these displays of daring and gallantry, and enjoyed +nothing more than a crossing of swords with their +foes. In 1465 a Moorish prince, Muley Abul Hassan, a +man who enjoyed war and hated the Christians, came +to the throne, and at once the tribute ceased to be +paid. For some years still the truce continued, for +Ferdinand and Isabella, the new monarchs of Spain, +had troubles at home to keep them engaged. But in +1481 the war reopened with more than its old fury, +and was continued until Granada fell in 1492, the +year in which the wise Isabella gave aid to Columbus<pb n="109" /><anchor id="Pg109" /> +for the discovery of an unknown world beyond the +seas.</p> + +<p>The war for the conquest of Granada was one full +of stirring adventure and hair-breadth escapes, of +forays and sieges, of the clash of swords and the +brandishing of spears. It was no longer fought by +Spain on the principle of the raid,—to dash in, kill, +plunder, and speed away with clatter of hoofs and +rattle of spurs. It was Ferdinand's policy to take +and hold, capturing stronghold after stronghold until +all Granada was his. In a memorable pun on the +name of Granada, which signifies a pomegranate, he +said, "I will pick out the seeds of this pomegranate +one by one."</p> + +<p>Muley Abul Hassan, the new Moorish king, began +the work, foolishly breaking the truce which Ferdinand +wished a pretext to bring to an end. On a +dark night in 1481 he fell suddenly on Zahara, a +mountain town on the Christian frontier, so strong +in itself that it was carelessly guarded. It was +taken by surprise, its inhabitants were carried off +as slaves, and a strong Moorish garrison was left to +hold it.</p> + +<p>The Moors paid dearly for their daring assault. +The Christians retaliated by an attack on the strong +and rich city of Alhama, a stronghold within the +centre of the kingdom, only a few leagues distant +from the capital itself. Strongly situated on a rocky +height, with a river nearly surrounding it and a +fortress seated on a steep crag above it, and far +within the border, no dream of danger to Alhama +came to the mind of the Moors, who contented<pb n="110" /><anchor id="Pg110" /> +themselves with a small garrison and a negligent +guard.</p> + +<p>But the loss of Zahara had exasperated Ferdinand. +His wars at home were over and he had time to attend +to the Moors, and scouts had brought word of +the careless security of the guard of Alhama. It +could be reached by a difficult and little-travelled +route through the defiles of the mountains, and there +were possibilities that a secret and rapid march +might lead to its surprise.</p> + +<p>At the head of the enterprise was Don Rodrigo +Ponce de Leon, Marquis of Cadiz, the most distinguished +champion in the war that followed. With +a select force of three thousand light cavalry and +four thousand infantry, adherents of several nobles +who attended the expedition, the mountains were +traversed with the greatest secrecy and celerity, the +marches being made mainly by night and the troops +remaining quiet and concealed during the day. No +fires were made and no noise was permitted, and +midnight of the third day found the invaders in a +small, deep valley not far from the fated town. Only +now were the troops told what was in view. They +had supposed that they were on an ordinary foray. +The inspiring tidings filled them with ardor, and +they demanded to be led at once to the assault.</p> + +<p>Two hours before daybreak the army was placed +in ambush close to Alhama, and a body of three +hundred picked men set out on the difficult task of +scaling the walls of the castle and surprising its garrison. +The ascent was steep and very difficult, but +they were guided by one who had carefully studied<pb n="111" /><anchor id="Pg111" /> +the situation on a previous secret visit and knew +what paths to take. Following him they reached +the foot of the castle walls without discovery.</p> + +<p>Here, under the dark shadow of the towers, they +halted and listened. There was not a sound to be +heard, not a light to be seen; sleep seemed to brood +over castle and town. The ladders were placed and +the men noiselessly ascended, Ortega, the guide, +going first. The parapet reached, they moved +stealthily along its summit until they came upon a +sleepy sentinel. Seizing him by the throat, Ortega +flourished a dagger before his eyes and bade him +point the way to the guard-room. The frightened +Moor obeyed, and a dagger thrust ended all danger +of his giving an alarm. In a minute more the small +scaling party was in the guard-room, massacring +the sleeping garrison, while the remainder of the +three hundred were rapidly ascending to the battlements.</p> + +<p>Some of the awakened Moors fought desperately +for their lives, the clash of arms and cries of the +combatants came loudly from the castle, and the +ambushed army, finding that the surprise had been +effective, rushed from their lurking-place with shouts +and the sound of trumpets and drums, hoping thereby +to increase the dismay of the garrison. Ortega +at length fought his way to a postern, which he +threw open, admitting the Marquis of Cadiz and a +strong following, who quickly overcame all opposition, +the citadel being soon in full possession of the +Christians.</p> + +<p>While this went on the town took the alarm. The<pb n="112" /><anchor id="Pg112" /> +garrison had been destroyed in the citadel, but all +the Moors, citizens and soldiers alike, were accustomed +to weapons and warlike in spirit, and, looking +for speedy aid from Granada, eight leagues away, the +tradesmen manned the battlements and discharged +showers of stones and arrows upon the Christians +wherever visible. The streets leading to the citadel +were barricaded, and a steady fire was maintained +upon its gate, all who attempted to sally into the +city being shot down.</p> + +<p>It began to appear as if the Spaniards had taken +too great a risk. Their peril was great. Unless +they gained the town they must soon be starved out +of the castle. Some of them declared that they +could not hope to hold the town even if they took +it, and proposed to sack and burn the castle and +make good their retreat before the king of Granada +could reach them with his forces.</p> + +<p>This weak-hearted counsel was not to the taste +of the valiant Ponce de Leon. "God has given us +the castle," he said, "and He will aid us in holding +it. We won it with bloodshed; it would be a stain +upon our honor to abandon it through fear. We +knew our peril before we came; let us face it boldly."</p> + +<p>His words prevailed, and the army was led to the +assault, planting their scaling-ladders against the +walls and swarming up to attack the Moors upon +the ramparts. The Marquis of Cadiz, finding that +the gate of the castle was commanded by the artillery +of the town, ordered a breach to be made in the +wall; and through this, sword in hand, he led a body +of troops into the town. At the same time an assault<pb n="113" /><anchor id="Pg113" /> +was made from every point, and the battle +raged with the greatest fury at the ramparts and in +the streets.</p> + +<p>The Moors, who fought for life, liberty, and property, +defended themselves with desperation, fighting +in the streets and from the windows and roofs of +their houses. From morning until night the contest +continued; then, overpowered, the townsmen sought +shelter in a large mosque near the walls, whence +they kept up so hot a flight of arrows and lances +that the assailants dared not approach. Finally, +protected by bucklers and wooden shields, some of +the soldiers succeeded in setting fire to the door of +the mosque. As the flames rolled upward the Moors, +deeming that all was lost, rushed desperately out. +Many of them were killed in this final fight; the +rest surrendered as prisoners.</p> + +<p>The struggle was at an end; the town lay at the +mercy of the Spaniards; it was given up to plunder, +and immense was the booty taken. Gold and silver, +rare jewels, rich silks, and costly goods were found in +abundance; horses and cattle, grain, oil, and honey, all +the productions of the kingdom, in fact, were there +in quantities; for Alhama was the richest town in +the Moorish territory, and from its strength and +situation was called the Key of Granada. The soldiers +were not content with plunder. Thinking that +they could not hold the place, they destroyed all +they could not carry away. Huge jars of oil were +shattered, costly furniture was demolished, much material +of the greatest value was destroyed. In the +dungeons were found many of the Christian captives<pb n="114" /><anchor id="Pg114" /> +who had been taken at Zahara, and who gladly +gained their freedom again.</p> + +<p>The loss of Alhama was a terrible blow to the +kingdom of Granada. Terror filled the citizens of +the capital when the news reached that city. Sighs +and lamentations came from all sides, the mournful +ejaculation, "Woe is me, Alhama!" was in every +mouth, and this afterwards became the burden of a +plaintive ballad, "<hi rend="font-style: italic">Ay de mi, Alhama</hi>," which remains +among the gems of Spanish poetry.</p> + +<p>Abul Hassan, full of wrath at the daring presumption +of his foes, hastened at the head of more +than fifty thousand men against the city, driving +back a force that was marching to the aid of the +Christians, attacking the walls with the fiercest +fury, and cutting off the stream upon which the +city depended for water, thus threatening the defenders +with death by thirst. Yet, though in torments, +they fought with unyielding desperation, and +held their own until the duke of Medina Sidonia, a +bitter enemy of the Marquis of Cadiz in peace, but +his comrade in war, came with a large army to his +aid. King Ferdinand was hastening thither with +all speed, and the Moorish monarch, after a last +fierce assault upon the city, broke up his camp and +retreated in despair. From that time to the end of +the contest the Christians held the "Key of Granada," +a threatening stronghold in the heart of the +land, from which they raided the vega at will, and +exhausted the resources of the kingdom. "<hi rend="font-style: italic">Ay de +mi, Alhama!</hi>"</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="115" /><anchor id="Pg115" /> +<head>KING ABUL HASSAN AND THE ALCAIDE OF GIBRALTAR.</head> + +<p>Muley Abul Hassan, the warlike king of Granada, +weary of having his lands raided and his +towns taken, resolved to repay the Christians in +kind. The Duke of Medina Sidonia had driven him +from captured Alhama. He owed this mighty noble +a grudge, and the opportunity to repay it seemed at +hand. The duke had led his forces to the aid of King +Ferdinand, who was making a foray into Moorish +territory. He had left almost unguarded his far-spreading +lands, wide pasture plains covered thickly +with flocks and herds and offering a rare opportunity +for a hasty foray.</p> + +<p>"I will give this cavalier a lesson that will cure +him of his love for campaigning," said the fierce old +king.</p> + +<p>Leaving his port of Malaga at the head of fifteen +hundred horse and six thousand foot, the Moorish +monarch followed the sea-shore route to the border +of his dominions, entering Christian territory between +Gibraltar and Castellar. There was only one +man in this quarter of whom he had any fear. +This was Pedro de Vargas, governor of Gibraltar, a +shrewd and vigilant old soldier, whose daring Abul +Hassan well knew, but knew also that his garrison +was too small to serve for a successful sally.</p> + +<pb n="116" /><anchor id="Pg116" /> + +<p>The alert Moor, however, advanced with great +caution, sending out parties to explore every pass +where an ambush might await him, since, despite his +secrecy, the news of his coming might have gone +before. At length the broken country of Castellar +was traversed and the plains were reached. Encamping +on the banks of the Celemin, he sent four hundred +lancers to the vicinity of Algeciras to keep a +close watch upon Gibraltar across the bay, to attack +Pedro if he sallied out, and to send word to the camp +if any movement took place. This force was four +times that said to be in Gibraltar. Remaining on +the Celemin with his main body of troops, King +Hassan sent two hundred horsemen to scour the +plain of Tarifa, and as many more to the lands of +Medina Sidonia, the whole district being a rich +pasture land upon which thousands of animals +grazed.</p> + +<p>All went well. The parties of foragers came in, +driving vast flocks and herds, enough to replace +those which had been swept from the vega of Granada +by the foragers of Spain. The troops on watch +at Algeciras sent word that all was quiet at Gibraltar. +Satisfied that for once Pedro de Vargas had been +foiled, the old king called in his detachments and +started back in triumph with his spoils.</p> + +<p>He was mistaken. The vigilant governor had +been advised of his movements, but was too weak +in men to leave his post. Fortunately for him, a +squadron of the armed galleys in the strait put into +port, and, their commander agreeing to take charge +of Gibraltar in his absence, Pedro sallied out at<pb n="117" /><anchor id="Pg117" /> +midnight with seventy of his men, bent upon giving +the Moors what trouble he could.</p> + +<p>Sending men to the mountain-tops, he had alarm +fires kindled as a signal to the peasants that the +Moors were out and their herds in peril. Couriers +were also despatched at speed to rouse the country +and bid all capable of bearing arms to rendezvous at +Castellar, a stronghold which Abul Hassan would +have to pass on his return. The Moorish king saw +the fire signals and knew well what they meant. +Striking his tents, he began as hasty a retreat as his +slow-moving multitude of animals would permit. +In advance rode two hundred and fifty of his bravest +men. Then came the great drove of cattle. In the +rear marched the main army, with Abul Hassan at +its head. And thus they moved across the broken +country towards Castellar.</p> + +<p>Near that place De Vargas was on the watch, a +thick and lofty cloud of dust revealing to him the +position of the Moors. A half-league of hills and +declivities separated the van and the rear of the +raiding column, a long, dense forest rising between. +De Vargas saw that they were in no position to aid +each other quickly, and that something might come +of a sudden and sharp attack. Selecting the best +fifty of his small force, he made a circuit towards a +place which he knew to be suitable for ambush. +Here a narrow glen opened into a defile with high, +steep sides. It was the only route open to the Moors, +and he proposed to let the vanguard and the herds +pass and fall upon the rear.</p> + +<p>The Moors, however, were on the alert. While the<pb n="118" /><anchor id="Pg118" /> +Spaniards lay hidden, six mounted scouts entered +the defile and rode into the mouth of the glen, keenly +looking to right and left for a concealed enemy. +They came so near that a minute or two more must +reveal to them the ambush.</p> + +<p>"Let us kill these men and retreat to Gibraltar," +said one of the Spaniards; "the infidels are far too +many for us."</p> + +<p>"I have come for larger game than this," answered +De Vargas, "and, by the aid of God and +Santiago, I will not go back without making my +mark. I know these Moors, and will show you how +they stand a sudden charge."</p> + +<p>The scouts were riding deeper into the glen. The +ambush could no longer be concealed. At a quick +order from De Vargas ten horsemen rushed so suddenly +upon them that four of their number were in +an instant hurled to the ground. The other two +wheeled and rode back at full speed, hotly pursued +by the ten men. Their dashing pace soon brought +them in sight of the vanguard of the Moors, from +which about eighty horsemen rode out to the aid of +their friends. The Spaniards turned and clattered +back, with this force in sharp pursuit. In a minute +or two both parties came at a furious rush into the +glen.</p> + +<p>This was what De Vargas had foreseen. Bidding +his trumpeter to sound, he dashed from his concealment +at the head of his men, drawn up in close +array. They were upon the Moors almost before +they were seen, their weapons making havoc in the +disordered ranks. The skirmish was short and sharp.<pb n="119" /><anchor id="Pg119" /> +The Moors, taken by surprise, and thrown into confusion, +fell rapidly, their ranks being soon so thinned +that scarce half of them turned in the retreat.</p> + +<p>"After them!" cried De Vargas. "We will have a +brush with the vanguard before the rear can come +up."</p> + +<p>Onward after the flying Moors rode the gallant +fifty, coming with such force and fury on the advance-guard +that many were overturned in the first +shock. Those behind held their own with some +firmness, but their leaders, the alcaides of Marabella +and Casares, being slain, the line gave way and fled +towards the rear-guard, passing through the droves +of cattle, which they threw into utter confusion.</p> + +<p>Nothing further could be done. The trampling +cattle had filled the air with a blinding cloud of +dust. De Vargas was badly wounded. A few minutes +might bring up the Moorish king with an overwhelming +force. Despoiling the slain, and taking +with them some thirty horses, the victorious Spaniards +rode in triumph back to Castellar.</p> + +<p>The Moorish king, hearing the exaggerated report +of the fugitives, feared that all Xeres was up and in +arms.</p> + +<p>"Our road is blocked," cried some of his officers. +"We had better abandon the animals and seek +another route for our return."</p> + +<p>"Not so," cried the old king; "no true soldier +gives up his booty without a blow. Follow me; +we will have a brush with these dogs of Christians."</p> + +<p>In hot haste he galloped onward, right through +the centre of the herd, driving the cattle to right<pb n="120" /><anchor id="Pg120" /> +and left. On reaching the field of battle he found +no Spaniard in sight, but dozens of his own men lay +dead and despoiled, among them the two alcaides. +The sight filled the warlike old king with rage. +Confident that his foes had taken refuge in Castellar, +he rode on to that place, set fire to two houses +near its walls, and sent a shower of arrows into its +streets. Pedro de Vargas was past taking to horse, +but he ordered his men to make a sally, and a sharp +skirmish took place under the walls. In the end the +king drew off to the scene of the fight, buried the +dead except the alcaides, whose bodies were laid on +mules to be interred at Malaga, and, gathering the +scattered herds, drove them past the walls of Castellar +by way of taunting the Christian foe.</p> + +<p>Yet the stern old Moorish warrior could thoroughly +appreciate valor and daring even in an enemy.</p> + +<p>"What are the revenues of the alcaide of Gibraltar?" +he asked of two Christian captives he had +taken.</p> + +<p>"We know not," they replied, "except that he is +entitled to one animal out of every drove of cattle +that passes his bounds."</p> + +<p>"Then Allah forbid that so brave a cavalier should +be defrauded of his dues."</p> + +<p>He gave orders to select twelve of the finest cattle +from the twelve droves that formed the herd of spoil, +and directed that they should be delivered to Pedro +de Vargas.</p> + +<p>"Tell him," said the king, "that I beg his pardon +for not sending these cattle sooner, but have just +learned they are his dues, and hasten to satisfy<pb n="121" /><anchor id="Pg121" /> +them in courtesy to so worthy a cavalier. Tell +him, at the same time, that I did not know the +alcaide of Gibraltar was so vigilant in collecting his +tolls."</p> + +<p>The soldierly pleasantry of the old king was much +to the taste of the brave De Vargas, and called for +a worthy return. He bade his men deliver a rich +silken vest and a scarlet mantle to the messenger, +to be presented to the Moorish king.</p> + +<p>"Tell his majesty," he said, "that I kiss his hands +for the honor he has done me, and regret that my +scanty force was not fitted to give him a more signal +reception. Had three hundred horsemen, whom I +have been promised from Xeres, arrived in time, I +might have served him up an entertainment more +befitting his station. They may arrive during the +night, in which case his majesty, the king, may look +for a royal service in the morning."</p> + +<p>"Allah preserve us," cried the king, on receiving +this message, "from a brush with these hard riders +of Xeres! A handful of troops familiar with these +wild mountain-passes may destroy an army encumbered +like ours with booty."</p> + +<p>It was a relief to the king to find that De Vargas +was too sorely wounded to take the field in person. +A man like him at the head of an adequate force might +have given no end of trouble. During the day the +retreat was pushed with all speed, the herds being +driven with such haste that they were frequently +broken and scattered among the mountain defiles, +the result being that more than five thousand cattle +were lost, being gathered up again by the Christians.</p> + +<pb n="122" /><anchor id="Pg122" /> + +<p>The king returned triumphantly to Malaga with the +remainder, rejoicing in his triumph over the Duke +of Medina Sidonia, and having taught King Ferdinand +that the game of ravaging an enemy's country +was one at which two could play.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="123" /><anchor id="Pg123" /> +<head>THE RIVAL KINGS OF GRANADA.</head> + +<p>"In the hand of God is the destiny of princes. +He alone giveth empire," piously says an old Arabian +chronicler, and goes on with the following story: +A Moorish horseman, mounted on a fleet Arabian +steed, was one day traversing the mountains which +extend between Granada and the frontier of Murcia. +He galloped swiftly through the valleys, but paused +and gazed cautiously from the summit of every +height. A squadron of cavaliers followed warily at +a distance. There were fifty lances. The richness +of their armor and attire showed them to be warriors +of noble rank, and their leader had a lofty and +prince-like demeanor.</p> + +<p>For two nights and a day the cavalcade made its +way through that rugged country, avoiding settled +places and choosing the most solitary passes of the +mountains. Their hardships were severe, but campaigning +was their trade and their horses were of +generous spirit. It was midnight when they left +the hills and rode through darkness and silence to +the city of Granada, under the shadows of whose +high walls they passed to the gate of the Albaycin. +Here the leader ordered his followers to halt and +remain concealed. Taking four or five with him, +he advanced to the gate and struck upon it with the +handle of his scimitar.</p> + +<pb n="124" /><anchor id="Pg124" /> + +<p>"Who is it knocks at this unseasonable hour of +the night?" demanded the warder within.</p> + +<p>"Your king," was the answer. "Open and admit +him."</p> + +<p>Opening a wicket, the warder held forth a light +and looked at the man without. Recognizing him +at a glance, he opened the gate, and the cavalier, +who had feared a less favorable reception, rode in +with his followers and galloped in haste to the hill +of the Albaycin, where the new-comers knocked +loudly at the doors of the principal dwellings, bidding +their tenants to rise and take arms for their +lawful sovereign. The summons was obeyed. Trumpets +soon resounded in the streets; the gleam of +torches lit the dark avenues and flashed upon naked +steel. From right and left the Moors came hurrying +to the rendezvous. By daybreak the whole force +of the Albaycin was under arms, ready to meet in +battle the hostile array on the opposite height of +the Alhambra.</p> + +<p>To tell what this midnight movement meant we +must go back a space in history. The conquest of +Granada was not due to Ferdinand and the Spaniards +alone. It was greatly aided by the dissensions +of the Moors, who were divided into two parties and +fought bitterly with each other during their intervals +of truce with the Christians. Ferdinand won +in the game largely by a shrewd playing off of one +of these factions against the other and by taking +advantage of the weakness and vacillation of the +young king, whose clandestine entrance to the city +we have just seen.</p> + +<pb n="125" /><anchor id="Pg125" /> + +<p>Boabdil el Chico, or Boabdil the Young, as he was +called, was the son of Muley Abul Hassan, against +whom he had rebelled, and with such effect that, +after a bloody battle in the streets of the city, the +old king was driven without its walls. His tyranny +had caused the people to gather round his son.</p> + +<p>From that time forward there was dissension and +civil war in Granada, and the quarrels of its kings +paved the way for the downfall of the state. The +country was divided into the two factions of the +young and the old kings. In the city the hill of the +Albaycin, with its fortress of the Alcazaba, was the +stronghold of Boabdil, while the partisans of Abul +Hassan dwelt on the height of the Alhambra, the +lower town between being the battle-ground of the +rival factions.</p> + +<p>The succeeding events were many, but must be +told in few words. King Boabdil, to show his prowess +to the people, marched over the border to attack +the city of Lucena. As a result he was himself assailed, +his army put to the rout, and himself taken +prisoner by the forces of Ferdinand of Aragon. To +regain his liberty he acknowledged himself a vassal +of the Spanish monarch, to whom he agreed to pay +tribute. On his release he made his way to the city +of Granada, but his adherents were so violently assailed +by those of his father that the streets of the +city ran blood, and Boabdil the Unlucky, as he was +now called, found it advisable to leave the capital +and fix his residence in Almeria, a large and splendid +city whose people were devoted to him.</p> + +<p>As the years went on Muley Abul Hassan became<pb n="126" /><anchor id="Pg126" /> +sadly stricken with age. He grew nearly blind and +was bed-ridden with paralysis. His brother Abdallah, +known as El Zagal, or "The Valiant," commander-in-chief +of the Moorish armies, assumed his duties +as a sovereign, and zealously took up the quarrel +with his son. He attempted to surprise the young +king at Almeria, drove him out as a fugitive, and +took possession of that city. At a later date he +endeavored to remove him by poison. It was this +attempt that spurred Boabdil to the enterprise we +have just described. El Zagal was now full king in +Granada, holding the Alhambra as his palace, and +his nephew, who had been a wanderer since his flight +from Almeria, was instigated to make a bold stroke +for the throne.</p> + +<p>On the day after the secret return of Boabdil +battle raged in the streets of Granada, a fierce encounter +taking place between the two kings in the +square before the principal mosque. Hand to hand +they fought with the greatest fury till separated by +the charges of their followers.</p> + +<p>For days the conflict went on, death and turmoil +ruling in Granada, such hatred existing between the +two factions that neither side gave quarter. Boabdil +was the weaker in men. Fearing defeat in consequence, +he sent a messenger to Don Fadrique de +Toledo, the Christian commander on the border, asking +for assistance. Don Fadrique had been instructed +by Ferdinand to give what aid he could to +the young king, the vassal of Spain, and responded +to Boabdil's request by marching with a body of +troops to the vicinity of Granada. No sooner had<pb n="127" /><anchor id="Pg127" /> +Boabdil seen their advancing banners than he sallied +forth with a squadron to meet them. El Zagal, who +was equally on the alert, sallied forth at the same +time, and drew up his troops in battle array.</p> + +<p>The wary Don Fadrique, in doubt as to the meaning +of this double movement, and fearing treachery, +halted at a safe distance, and drew off for the night +to a secure situation. Early the next morning a +Moorish cavalier approached the sentinels and asked +for an audience with Don Fadrique, as an envoy from +El Zagal. The Christian troops, he said on behalf +of the old king, had come to aid his nephew, but he +was ready to offer them an alliance on better terms +than those of Boabdil. Don Fadrique listened courteously +to the envoy, but for better assurance, determined +to send a representative to El Zagal himself, +under protection of a flag. For this purpose he +selected Don Juan de Vera, one of the most intrepid +and discreet of his cavaliers, who had in years before +been sent by King Ferdinand on a mission to the +Alhambra.</p> + +<p>Don Juan, on reaching the palace, was well received +by the old king, holding an interview with +him which extended so far into the night that it +was too late to return to camp, and he was lodged +in a sumptuous apartment of the Alhambra. In the +morning he was approached by one of the Moorish +courtiers, a man given to jest and satire, who invited +him to take part in a ceremony in the palace mosque. +This invitation, given in jest, was received by the +punctilious Catholic knight in earnest, and he replied, +with stern displeasure,—</p> + +<figure url="images/image07.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<pb n="128" /><anchor id="Pg128" /> + +<p>"The servants of Queen Isabella of Castile, who +bear on their armor the cross of St. Iago, never +enter the temples of Mohammed, except to level them +to the earth and trample on them."</p> + +<p>This discourteous reply was repeated by the courtier +to a renegade, who, having newly adopted the +Moorish faith, was eager to show his devotion to the +Moslem creed, and proposed to engage the hot-tempered +Catholic knight in argument. Seeking Don +Juan, they found him playing chess with the alcaide +of the palace, and the renegade at once began to +comment on the Christian religion in uncomplimentary +terms. Don Juan was quick to anger, but +he restrained himself, and replied, with grave severity,—</p> + +<p>"You would do well to cease talking about what +you do not understand."</p> + +<p>The renegade and his jesting companion replied +in a series of remarks intended as wit, though full +of insolence, Don Juan fuming inwardly as he continued +to play. In the end they went too far, the +courtier making an obscene comparison between the +Virgin Mary and Amina, the mother of Mohammed. +In an instant the old knight sprang up, white with +rage, and dashing aside chess-board and chessmen. +Drawing his sword, he dealt such a "<hi rend="font-style: italic">hermosa cuchillada</hi>" +("handsome slash") across the head of the +offending Moor as to stretch him bleeding on the +floor. The renegade fled in terror, rousing the +echoes of the palace with his outcries and stirring +up guards and attendants, who rushed into the room +where the irate Christian stood sword in hand defying<pb n="129" /><anchor id="Pg129" /> +Mohammed and his hosts. The alarm quickly +reached the ears of the king, who hurried to the +scene, his appearance at once restoring order. On +hearing from the alcaide the cause of the affray, he +acted with becoming dignity, ordering the guards +from the room and directing that the renegade +should be severely punished for daring to infringe +the hospitality of the palace and insult an embassador.</p> + +<p>Don Juan, his quick fury evaporated, sheathed his +sword, thanked the king for his courtesy, and proposed +a return to the camp. But this was not easy +of accomplishment. A garbled report of the tumult +in the palace had spread to the streets, where it was +rumored that Christian spies had been introduced into +the palace with treasonable intent. In a brief time +hundreds of the populace were in arms and thronging +about the gate of Justice of the Alhambra, +where they loudly demanded the death of all Christians +in the palace and of all who had introduced +them.</p> + +<p>It was impossible for Don Juan to leave the palace +by the route he had followed on his arrival. The +infuriated mob would have torn him to pieces. But +it was important that he should depart at once. All +that El Zagal could do was to furnish him with a +disguise, a swift horse, and an escort, and to let him +out of the Alhambra by a private gate. This secret +mode of departure was not relished by the proud +Spaniard, but life was just then of more value than +dignity, as he appreciated when, in Moorish dress, +he passed through crowds who were thirsting for<pb n="130" /><anchor id="Pg130" /> +his blood. A gate of the city was at length reached, +and Don Juan and his escort rode quietly out. But +he was no sooner on the open plain than he spurred +his horse to its speed, and did not draw rein until +the banners of Don Fadrique waved above his head.</p> + +<p>Don Fadrique heard with much approval of the +boldness of his envoy. His opinion of Don Juan's +discretion he kept to himself. He rewarded him +with a valuable horse, and wrote a letter of thanks +to El Zagal for his protection to his emissary. Queen +Isabella, on learning how stoutly the knight had +stood up for the chastity of the Blessed Virgin, +was highly delighted, and conferred several distinctions +of honor upon the cavalier besides presenting +him with three hundred thousand maravedis.</p> + +<p>The outcome of the advances of the two kings was +that Don Fadrique chose Boabdil as his ally, and +sent him a reinforcement of foot-soldiers and arquebusiers. +This introduction of Christians into the +city rekindled the flames of war, and it continued to +rage in the streets for the space of fifty days.</p> + +<p>The result of the struggle between the two kings +may be briefly told. While they contended for supremacy +Ferdinand of Aragon invaded their kingdom +with a large army and marched upon the great +seaport of Malaga. El Zagal sought an accommodation +with Boabdil, that they might unite their +forces against the common foe, but the short-sighted +young man spurned his overtures with disdain. El +Zagal then, the better patriot of the two, marched +himself against the Christian host, hoping to surprise +them in the passes of the mountains and perhaps<pb n="131" /><anchor id="Pg131" /> +capture King Ferdinand himself. Unluckily +for him, his well-laid plan was discovered by the +Christians, who attacked and defeated him, his +troops flying in uncontrollable disorder.</p> + +<p>The news of this disaster reached Granada before +him and infuriated the people, who closed their gates +and threatened the defeated king from the walls. +Nothing remained to El Zagal but to march to Almeria +and establish his court in that city in which +Boabdil had formerly reigned. Thus the positions +of the rival kings became reversed. From that time +forward the kingdom of Granada was divided into +two, and the work of conquest by the Christians +was correspondingly reduced.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="132" /><anchor id="Pg132" /> +<head>THE KNIGHT OF THE EXPLOITS.</head> + +<p>The dull monotony of sieges, of which there were +many during the war with Granada, was little to +the taste of the valorous Spanish cavaliers. They +burned for adventure, and were ever ready for daring +exploits, the more welcome the more dangerous they +promised to be. One day during the siege of Baza, +a strong city in El Zagal's dominions, two of these +spirited young cavaliers, Francisco de Bazan and +Antonio de Cueva, were seated on the ramparts of +the siege works, bewailing the dull life to which +they were confined. They were overheard by a +veteran scout, who was familiar with the surrounding +country.</p> + +<p>"Señors," he said, "if you pine for peril and profit +and are eager to pluck the beard of the fiery old +Moorish king, I can lead you where you will have a +fine opportunity to prove your valor. There are +certain hamlets not far from the walls of El Zagal's +city of Guadix where rich booty awaits the daring +raider. I can lead you there by a way that will +enable you to take them by surprise; and if you are +as cool in the head as you are hot in the spur you +may bear off spoils from under the very eyes of the +king of the Moors."</p> + +<p>He had struck the right vein. The youths were +at once hot for the enterprise. To win booty from<pb n="133" /><anchor id="Pg133" /> +the very gates of Guadix was a stirring scheme, and +they quickly found others of their age as eager as +themselves for the daring adventure. In a short +time they had enrolled a body of nearly three hundred +horse and two hundred foot, well armed and +equipped, and every man of them ready for the road.</p> + +<p>The force obtained, the raiders left the camp early +one evening, keeping their destination secret, and +made their way by starlight through the mountain +passes, led by the <hi rend="font-style: italic">adalid</hi>, or guide. Pressing rapidly +onward by day and night, they reached the hamlets +one morning just before daybreak, and fell on them +suddenly, making prisoners of the inhabitants, sacking +the houses, and sweeping the fields of their +grazing herds. Then, without taking a moment to +rest, they set out with all speed for the mountains, +which they hoped to reach before the country could +be roused.</p> + +<p>Several of the herdsmen had escaped and fled to +Guadix, where they told El Zagal of the daring ravage. +Wild with rage at the insult, the old king at +once sent out six hundred of his choicest horse and +foot, with orders for swift pursuit, bidding them to +recover the booty and bring him as prisoners the +insolent marauders. The Christians, weary with +their two days and nights of hard marching, were +driving the captured cattle and sheep up a mountainside, +when, looking back, they saw a great cloud of +dust upon their trail. Soon they discerned the turbaned +host, evidently superior to them in number, +and man and horse in fresh condition.</p> + +<p>"They are too much for us," cried some of the<pb n="134" /><anchor id="Pg134" /> +horsemen. "It would be madness in our worn-out +state to face a fresh force of that number. We shall +have to let the cattle go and seek safety in flight."</p> + +<p>"What!" cried Antonio and Francisco, their +leaders; "abandon our prey without a blow? Desert +our foot-soldiers and leave them to the enemy? +Did any of you think El Zagal would let us off without +a brush? You do not give good Spanish counsel, +for every soldier knows that there is less danger +in presenting our faces than our backs to the foe, +and fewer men are killed in a brave advance than in +a cowardly retreat."</p> + +<p>Some of the cavaliers were affected by these words, +but the mass of the party were chance volunteers, +who received no pay and had nothing to gain by +risking their lives. Consequently, as the enemy came +near, the diversity of opinions grew into a tumult, +and confusion reigned. The captains ordered the +standard-bearer to advance against the Moors, confident +that any true soldiers would follow his banner. +He hesitated to obey; the turmoil increased; in a +moment more the horsemen might be in full flight.</p> + +<p>At this critical juncture a horseman of the royal +guards rode forward,—the good knight Hernan Perez +del Pulgar, governor of the fortress of Salar. Taking +off the handkerchief which, in the Andalusian fashion, +he wore round his head, he tied it to a lance and +raised it in the air.</p> + +<p>"Comrades," he cried, "why do you load yourself +with arms if you trust for safety to your feet? We +shall see who among you are the brave men and who +are the cowards. If it is a standard you want, here<pb n="135" /><anchor id="Pg135" /> +is mine. Let the man who has the heart to fight +follow this handkerchief."</p> + +<p>Waving his improvised banner, he spurred against +the Moors. Many followed him. Those who at first +held back soon joined the advance. With one accord +the whole body rushed with shouts upon the enemy. +The Moors, who were now close at hand, were seized +with surprise and alarm at this sudden charge. The +foremost files turned and fled in panic, followed by +the others, and pursued by the Christians, who cut +them down without a blow in return. Soon the +whole body was in full flight. Several hundred of +the Moors were killed and their bodies despoiled, +many were taken prisoners, and the Christians returned +in triumph to the army, driving their long +array of cattle and sheep and of mules laden with +booty, and bearing in their front the standard under +which they had fought.</p> + +<p>King Ferdinand was so delighted with this exploit, +and in particular with the gallant action of +Perez del Pulgar, that he conferred knighthood upon +the latter with much ceremony, and authorized him +to bear upon his escutcheon a golden lion in an azure +field, showing a lance with a handkerchief at its +point. Round its border were to be depicted the +eleven alcaides defeated in the battle. This heroic +deed was followed by so many others during the wars +with the Moors that Perez del Pulgar became in time +known by the flattering appellation of "He of the +exploits."</p> + +<p>The most famous exploit of this daring knight +took place during the siege of Granada,—the final<pb n="136" /><anchor id="Pg136" /> +operation of the long war. Here single combats and +minor skirmishes between Christian and Moorish +cavaliers were of almost daily occurrence, until Ferdinand +strictly forbade all such tilts, as he saw that +they gave zeal and courage to the Moors, and were +attended with considerable loss of life among his +bravest followers.</p> + +<p>This edict of the king was very distasteful to the +fiery Moorish knights, who declared that the crafty +Christian wished to destroy chivalry and put an end +to heroic valor. They did their best to provoke the +Spanish knights to combat, galloping on their fleet +steeds close to the borders of the camp and hurling +their lances over the barriers, each lance bearing the +name of its owner with some defiant message. But +despite the irritation caused by these insults to the +Spanish knights, none of them ventured to disobey +the mandate of the king.</p> + +<p>Chief among these Moorish cavaliers was one +named Tarfe, a man of fierce and daring spirit and +a giant in size, who sought to surpass his fellows in +acts of audacity. In one of his sallies towards the +Christian camp this bold cavalier leaped his steed +over the barrier, galloped inward close to the royal +quarters, and launched his spear with such strength +that it quivered in the earth close to the tents of +the sovereigns. The royal guards rushed out, but +Tarfe was already far away, scouring the plain on his +swift Barbary steed. On examining the lance it was +found to bear a label indicating that it was intended +for the queen, who was present in the camp.</p> + +<p>This bravado and the insult offered Queen Isabella<pb n="137" /><anchor id="Pg137" /> +excited the highest indignation among the Christian +warriors. "Shall we let this insolent fellow outdo +us?" said Perez del Pulgar, who was present. "I +propose to teach these insolent Moors a lesson. Who +will stand by me in an enterprise of desperate peril?" +The warriors knew Pulgar well enough to be sure +that his promise of peril was likely to be kept, yet +all who heard him were ready to volunteer. Out +of them he chose fifteen,—men whom he knew he +could trust for strength of arm and valor of heart.</p> + +<p>His proposed enterprise was indeed a perilous one. +A Moorish renegade had agreed to guide him into +the city by a secret pass. Once within, they were +to set fire to the Alcaiceria and others of the principal +buildings, and then escape as best they could.</p> + +<p>At dead of night they set out, provided with the +necessary combustibles. Their guide led them up a +channel of the river Darro, until they halted under +a bridge near the royal gate. Here Pulgar stationed +six of his followers on guard, bidding them to keep +silent and motionless. With the others he made his +way up a drain of the stream which passed under a +part of the city and opened into the streets. All +was dark and silent. Not a soul moved. The renegade, +at the command of Pulgar, led the adventurers +to the principal mosque. Here the pious cavalier +drew from under his cloak a parchment inscribed in +large letters with <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">Ave Maria</hi>, and nailed this to the +door of the mosque, thus dedicating the heathen +temple to the Virgin Mary.</p> + +<p>They now hurried to the Alcaiceria, where the +combustibles were placed ready to fire. Not until<pb n="138" /><anchor id="Pg138" /> +this moment was it discovered that the torch-bearer +had carelessly left his torch at the door of the +mosque. It was too late to return. Pulgar sought +to strike fire with flint and steel, but while doing so +the Moorish guard came upon them in its rounds. +Drawing his sword and followed by his comrades, +the bold Spaniard made a fierce assault upon the +astonished Moors, quickly putting them to flight. +But the enterprise was at an end. The alarm was +given and soldiers were soon hurrying in every direction +through the streets. Guided by the renegade, +Pulgar and his companions hastened to the +drain by which they had entered, plunged into it, +and reached their companions under the bridge. +Here mounting their horses, they rode back to the +camp.</p> + +<p>The Moors were at a loss to imagine the purpose +of this apparently fruitless enterprise, but wild was +their exasperation the next morning when they +found the "Ave Maria" on the door of a mosque in +the centre of their city. The mosque thus sanctified +by Perez del Pulgar was actually converted into a +Christian cathedral after the capture of the city.</p> + +<p>We have yet to describe the sequel of this exploit. +On the succeeding day a powerful train left +the Christian camp and advanced towards the city +walls. In its centre were the king and queen, the +prince and princesses, and the ladies of the court, +surrounded by the royal body-guard,—a richly +dressed troop, composed of the sons of the most +illustrious families of Spain. The Moors gazed with +wonder upon this rare pageant, which moved in<pb n="139" /><anchor id="Pg139" /> +glittering array across the vega to the sound of +martial music; a host brilliant with banners and +plumes, shining arms and shimmering silks, for the +court and the army moved there hand in hand. +Queen Isabella had expressed a wish to see, nearer +at hand, a city whose beauty was of world-wide renown, +and the Marquis of Cadiz had drawn out this +powerful escort that she might be gratified in her +desire. The queen had her wish, but hundreds of +men died that she might be pleased.</p> + +<p>While the royal dame and her ladies were gazing +with delight on the red towers of the Alhambra, +rising in rich contrast through the green verdure of +their groves, a large force of Moorish cavalry poured +from the city gates, ready to accept the gage of +battle which the Christians seemed to offer. The +first to come were a host of richly armed and gayly +attired light cavalry, mounted on fleet and fiery +Barbary steeds. Heavily armed cavalry followed, +and then a strong force of foot-soldiers, until an +army was drawn up on the plain. Queen Isabella +saw this display with disquiet, and forbade an attack +upon the enemy, or even a skirmish, as it would +pain her if a single warrior should lose his life +through the indulgence of her curiosity.</p> + +<p>As a result, though the daring Moorish horsemen +rode fleetly along the Christian front, brandishing +their lances, and defying the cavaliers to mortal +combat, not a Spaniard stirred. The cavaliers were +under the eyes of Ferdinand, by whom such duels +had been strictly forbidden. At length, however, +they were incensed beyond their powers of resistance.<pb n="140" /><anchor id="Pg140" /> +Forth from the city rode a stalwart Moorish +horseman, clad in steel armor, and bearing a huge +buckler and a ponderous lance. His device showed +him to be the giant warrior Tarfe, the daring infidel +who had flung his lance at the queen's tent. As he +rode out he was followed by the shouts and laughter +of a mob, and when he came within full view of the +Spanish army the cavaliers saw, with indignant +horror, tied to his horse's tail and dragging in the +dust, the parchment with its inscription of "Ave +Maria" which Hernan Perez del Pulgar had nailed +to the door of the mosque.</p> + +<p>This insult was more than Castilian flesh and +blood could bear. Hernan was not present to maintain +his deed, but Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the +young companions of his exploit, galloped to the +king and earnestly begged permission to avenge the +degrading insult to their holy faith. The king, who +was as indignant as the knight, gave the desired +permission, and Garcilasso, closing his visor and +grasping his spear, rode out before the ranks and +defied the Moor to combat to the death.</p> + +<p>Tarfe asked nothing better, and an exciting passage +at arms took place on the plain with the two +armies as witnesses. Tarfe was the stronger of the +two, and the more completely armed. He was skilled +in the use of his weapons and dexterous in managing +his horse, and the Christians trembled for their +champion.</p> + +<p>The warriors met in mid career with a furious +shock. Their lances were shivered, and Garcilasso +was borne back in his saddle. But his horse wheeled<pb n="141" /><anchor id="Pg141" /> +away and he was quickly firm in his seat again, +sword in hand. Sword against scimitar, the combatants +returned to the encounter. The Moor rode +a trained horse, that obeyed his every signal. Round +the Christian he circled, seeking some opening for a +blow. But the smaller size of Garcilasso was made +equal by greater agility. Now he parried a blow +with his sword, now he received a furious stroke on +his shield. Each of the combatants before many +minutes felt the edge of the steel, and their blood +began to flow.</p> + +<p>At length the Moor, thinking his antagonist exhausted, +rushed in and grappled with him, using all +his force to fling him from his horse. Garcilasso +grasped him in return with all his strength, and +they fell together to the earth, the Moor uppermost. +Placing his knee on the breast of the Spaniard, +Tarfe drew his dagger and brandished it above his +throat. Terror filled the Christian ranks; a shout of +triumph rose from those of the Moors. But suddenly +Tarfe was seen to loosen his grasp and roll over in +the dust. Garcilasso had shortened his sword and, +as Tarfe raised his arm, had struck him to the heart.</p> + +<p>The rules of chivalry were rigidly observed. No +one interfered on either side. Garcilasso despoiled +his victim, raised the inscription "Ave Maria" on +the point of his sword, and bore it triumphantly +back, amid shouts of triumph from the Christian +army.</p> + +<p>By this time the passions of the Moors were so +excited that they could not be restrained. They +made a furious charge upon the Spanish host, driving<pb n="142" /><anchor id="Pg142" /> +in its advanced ranks. The word to attack was +given the Spaniards in return, the war-cry "Santiago!" +rang along the line, and in a short time both +armies were locked in furious combat. The affair +ended in a repulse of the Moors, the foot-soldiers +taking to flight, and the cavalry vainly endeavoring +to rally them. They were pursued to the gates of the +city, more than two thousand of them being killed, +wounded, or taken prisoners in "the queen's skirmish," +as the affair came to be called.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="143" /><anchor id="Pg143" /> +<head>THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR.</head> + +<p>In 1492, nearly eight centuries after the conquest +of Spain by the Arabs, their dominion ended in the +surrender of the city of Granada by King Boabdil +to the army of Ferdinand and Isabella. The empire +of the Arab Moors had shrunk, year by year and century +by century, before the steady advance of the +Christians, until only the small kingdom of Granada +remained. This, distracted by anarchy within and +assailed by King Ferdinand with all the arts of +statecraft and all the strength of arms, gradually +decreased in dimensions, city after city, district after +district, being lost, until only the single city of +Granada remained.</p> + +<p>This populous and powerful city would have +proved very difficult to take by the ordinary methods +of war, and could only have been subdued with +great loss of life and expenditure of treasure. Ferdinand +assailed it by a less costly and more exasperating +method. Granada subsisted on the broad and +fertile vega or plain surrounding it, a region marvellously +productive in grain and fruits and rich in +cattle and sheep. It was a cold-blooded and cruel +system adopted by the Spanish monarch. He assailed +the city through the vega. Disregarding the +city, he marched his army into the plain at the time +of harvest and so thoroughly destroyed its growing<pb n="144" /><anchor id="Pg144" /> +crops that the smiling and verdant expanse was left +a scene of frightful desolation. This was not accomplished +without sharp reprisals by the Moors, but the +Spaniard persisted until he had converted the fruitful +paradise into a hopeless desert, and then marched +away, leaving the citizens to a winter of despair.</p> + +<p>The next year he came again, encamped his army +near the city, destroyed what little verdure remained +near its walls, and waited calmly until famine and +anarchy should force the citizens to yield. He attempted +no siege. It was not necessary. He could +safely trust to his terrible allies. The crowded city +held out desperately while the summer passed and +autumn moved on to winter's verge, and then, with +famine stalking through their streets and invading +their homes, but one resource remained to the citizens,—surrender.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand did not wish to distress too deeply the +unhappy people. To obtain possession of the city +on any terms was the one thought then in his mind. +Harshness could come later, if necessary. Therefore, +on the 25th of November, 1492, articles of capitulation +were signed, under which the Moors of +Granada were to retain all their possessions, be protected +in their religious exercises, and governed by +their own laws, which were to be administered by +their own officials; the one unwelcome proviso being +that they should become subjects of Spain. To +Boabdil were secured all his rich estates and the patrimony +of the crown, while he was to receive in addition +thirty thousand castellanos in gold. Excellent +terms, one would say, in view of the fact that Granada<pb n="145" /><anchor id="Pg145" /> +was at the mercy of Ferdinand, and might soon +have been obliged to surrender unconditionally.</p> + +<p>On the night preceding the surrender doleful +lamentations filled the halls of the Alhambra, for +the household of Boabdil were bidding a last farewell +to that delightful abode. The most precious +effects were hastily packed upon mules, and with +tears and wailings the rich hangings and ornaments +of the beautiful apartments were removed. Day had +not yet dawned when a sorrowful cavalcade moved +through an obscure postern gate of the palace and +wound through a retired quarter of the city. It +was the family of the deposed monarch, which he +had sent off thus early to save them from possible +scoffs and insults.</p> + +<p>The sun had barely risen when three signal-guns +boomed from the heights of the Alhambra, and the +Christian army began its march across the vega. +To spare the feelings of the citizens it was decided +that the city should not be entered by its usual +gates, and a special road had been opened leading to +the Alhambra.</p> + +<p>At the head of the procession moved the king and +queen, with the prince and princesses and the dignitaries +and ladies of the court, attended by the +royal guards in their rich array. This cortege halted +at the village of Armilla, a league and a half from +the city. Meanwhile, Don Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, +Grand Cardinal of Spain, with an escort of +three thousand foot and a troop of cavalry, proceeded +towards the Alhambra to take possession of +that noblest work of the Moors. At their approach<pb n="146" /><anchor id="Pg146" /> +Boabdil left the palace by a postern gate attended +by fifty cavaliers, and advanced to meet the grand +cardinal, whom, in words of mournful renunciation, +he bade to take possession of the royal fortress of +the Moors. Then he passed sadly onward to meet +the sovereigns of Spain, who had halted awaiting +his approach, while the army stood drawn up on the +broad plain.</p> + +<p>As the Spaniards waited in anxious hope, all eyes +fixed on the Alhambra heights, they saw the silver +cross, the great standard of this crusade, rise upon +the great watch-tower, where it sparkled in the sunbeams, +while beside it floated the pennon of St. +James, at sight of which a great shout of "Santiago! +Santiago!" rose from the awaiting host. Next rose +the royal standard, amid resounding cries of "Castile! +Castile! For King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella." +The sovereigns sank upon their knees, giving +thanks to God for their great victory, the whole +army followed their example, and the choristers of +the royal chapel broke forth into the solemn anthem +of "<hi rend="font-style: italic">Te Deum laudamus</hi>."</p> + +<p>Ferdinand now advanced to a point near the banks +of the Xenil, where he was met by the unfortunate +Boabdil. As the Moorish king approached he made +a movement to dismount, which Ferdinand prevented. +He then offered to kiss the king's hand. +This homage also, as previously arranged, was declined, +whereupon Boabdil leaned forward and kissed +the king's right arm. He then with a resigned mien +delivered the keys of the city.</p> + +<p>"These keys," he said, "are the last relics of the<pb n="147" /><anchor id="Pg147" /> +Arabian empire in Spain. Thine, O king, are our +trophies, our kingdom, and our person. Such is the +will of God! Receive them with the clemency thou +hast promised, and which we look for at thy hands."</p> + +<figure url="images/image08.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>"Doubt not our promises," said Ferdinand, kindly, +"nor that thou shalt regain from our friendship the +prosperity of which the fortune of war has deprived +thee."</p> + +<p>Then drawing from his finger a gold ring set with +a precious stone, Boabdil presented it to the Count +of Tendilla, who, he was informed, was to be governor +of the city, saying,—</p> + +<p>"With this ring Granada has been governed. Take +it and govern with it, and God make you more fortunate +than I."</p> + +<p>He then proceeded to the village of Armilla, where +Queen Isabella remained. She received him with +the utmost courtesy and graciousness, and delivered +to him his son, who had been held as a hostage for +the fulfilment of the capitulation. Boabdil pressed +the child tenderly to his bosom, and moved on until +he had joined his family, from whom and their attendants +the shouts and strains of music of the victorious +army drew tears and moans.</p> + +<p>At length the weeping train reached the summit +of an eminence about two leagues distant which +commanded the last view of Granada. Here they +paused for a look of farewell at the beautiful and +beloved city, whose towers and minarets gleamed +brightly before them in the sunshine. While they +still gazed a peal of artillery, faint with distance, +told them that the city was taken possession of and<pb n="148" /><anchor id="Pg148" /> +was lost to the Moorish kings forever. Boabdil +could no longer contain himself.</p> + +<p>"Allah achbar! God is great!" he murmured, +tears accompanying his words of resignation.</p> + +<p>His mother, a woman of intrepid soul, was indignant +at this display of weakness.</p> + +<p>"You do well," she cried, "to weep like a woman +for what you failed to defend like a man."</p> + +<p>Others strove to console the king, but his tears +were not to be restrained.</p> + +<p>"Allah achbar!" he exclaimed again; "when did +misfortunes ever equal mine?"</p> + +<p>The hill where this took place afterwards became +known as Feg Allah Achbar; but the point of view +where Boabdil obtained the last prospect of Granada +is called by the Spaniards "<hi rend="font-style: italic">El ultimo suspiro del +Moro</hi>" or "The last sigh of the Moor."</p> + +<p>As Boabdil thus took his last look at beautiful +Granada, it behooves us to take a final backward +glance at Arabian Spain, from whose history we +have drawn so much of interest and romance. In +this hospitable realm civilization dwelt when few +traces of it existed elsewhere. Here luxury reigned +while barbarism prevailed widely in Europe. We +are told that in Cordova a man might walk ten +miles by the light of the public lamps, while centuries +afterwards there was not a single public lamp +in London streets. Its avenues were solidly paved, +while centuries afterwards the people of Paris, on +rainy days, stepped from their door-sills into mud +ankle-deep. The dwellings were marked by beauty +and luxury, while the people of Europe, as a rule<pb n="149" /><anchor id="Pg149" /> +in that semi-barbaric period, dwelt in miserable huts, +dressed in leather, and lived on the rudest and least +nutritive food.</p> + +<p>The rulers of France, England, and Germany +lived in rude buildings without chimneys or windows, +with a hole in the roof for the smoke to escape, +at a time when the royal halls of Arabian Spain +were visions of grace and beauty. The residences +of the Arabs had marble balconies overhanging +orange-gardens; their floors and walls were frequently +of rich and graceful mosaic; fountains +gushed in their courts, quicksilver often taking the +place of water, and falling in a glistening spray. In +summer cool air was drawn into the apartments +through ventilating towers; in winter warm and +perfumed air was discharged through hidden passages. +From the ceilings, corniced with fretted gold, +great chandeliers hung. Here were clusters of frail +marble columns, which, in the boudoirs of the sultanas, +gave way to verd-antique incrusted with lapis +lazuli. The furniture was of sandal- or citron-wood, +richly inlaid with gold, silver, or precious minerals. +Tapestry hid the walls, Persian carpets covered the +floors, pillows and couches of elegant forms were +spread about the rooms. Great care was given to +bathing and personal cleanliness at a time when such +a thought had not dawned upon Christian Europe. +Their pleasure-gardens were of unequalled beauty, +and were rich with flowers and fruits. In short, in +this brief space it is impossible to give more than a +bare outline of the marvellous luxury which surrounded +this people, recently come from the deserts<pb n="150" /><anchor id="Pg150" /> +of Arabia, at a time when most of the remainder of +Europe was plunged into the rudest barbarism.</p> + +<p>Much might be said of their libraries, their universities, +their scholars and scientists, and the magnificence +of their architecture, of which abundant +examples still remain in the cities of Spain, the Alhambra +of Granada, the palace which Boabdil so +reluctantly left, being almost without an equal for +lightness, grace, and architectural beauty in the +cities of the world. Well might the dethroned monarch +look back with bitter regret upon this rarest +monument of the Arabian civilization and give vent, +in farewell to its far-seen towers, to "The last sigh +of the Moor."</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="151" /><anchor id="Pg151" /> +<head>THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS.</head> + +<p>In the spring succeeding the fall of Granada there +came to Spain a glory and renown that made her +the envy of all the nations of Europe. During the +year before an Italian mariner, Christopher Columbus +by name, after long haunting the camp and +court of Ferdinand and Isabella, had been sent out +with a meagre expedition in the forlorn hope of discovering +new lands beyond the seas. In March, +1493, extraordinary tidings spread through the kingdom +and reached the ears of the monarchs at their +court in Barcelona. The tidings were that the poor +and despised mariner had returned to Palos with +wonderful tales of the discovery of a vast, rich realm +beyond the seas,—a mighty new empire for Spain.</p> + +<p>The marvellous news set the whole kingdom wild +with joy. The ringing of bells and solemn thanksgivings +welcomed Columbus at the port from which +he had set sail. On his journey to the king's court +his progress was impeded by the multitudes who +thronged to see the suddenly famous man,—the humble +mariner who had discovered for Spain what every +one already spoke of as a "New World." With him +he brought several of the bronze-hued natives of +that far land, dressed in their simple island costume, +and decorated, as they passed through the principal +cities, with collars, bracelets, and other ornaments<pb n="152" /><anchor id="Pg152" /> +of gold. He exhibited, also, gold in dust and in +shapeless masses, many new plants, some of them +of high medicinal value, several animals never before +seen in Europe, and birds whose brilliant plumage +attracted glances of delight from all eyes.</p> + +<p>It was mid-April when Columbus reached Barcelona. +The nobility and knights of the court met him +in splendid array and escorted him to the royal presence +through the admiring throngs that filled the +streets. Ferdinand and Isabella, with their son, +Prince John, awaited his arrival seated under a superb +canopy of state. On the approach of the discoverer +they rose and extended their hands to him +to kiss, not suffering him to kneel in homage. Instead, +they bade him seat himself before them,—a +mark of condescension to a person of his rank unknown +before in the haughty court of Castile. He +was, at that moment, "the man whom the king delighted +to honor," and it was the proudest period in +his life when, having proved triumphantly all for +which he had so long contended, he was honored as +the equal of the proud monarchs of Spain.</p> + +<p>At the request of the sovereigns Columbus gave +them a brief account of his adventures, in a dignified +tone, that warmed with enthusiasm as he proceeded. +He described the various tropical islands he had +landed upon, spoke with favor of their delightful +climate and the fertility of their soil, and exhibited +the specimens he had brought as examples of their +fruitfulness. He dwelt still more fully upon their +wealth in the precious metals, of which he had been +assured by the natives, and offered the gold he<pb n="153" /><anchor id="Pg153" /> +brought with him as evidence. Lastly, he expatiated +on the opportunity offered for the extension +of the Christian religion through lands populous +with pagans,—a suggestion which appealed strongly +to the Spanish heart. When he ceased the king and +queen, with all present, threw themselves on their +knees and gave thanks to God, while the solemn +strains of the <hi rend="font-style: italic">Te Deum</hi> were poured forth by the +choir of the royal chapel.</p> + +<figure url="images/image09.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>Throughout his residence in Barcelona Columbus +continued to receive the most honorable distinction +from the Spanish sovereigns. When Ferdinand rode +abroad the admiral rode by his side. Isabella, the +true promoter of his expedition, treated him with +the most gracious consideration. The courtiers, +emulating their sovereigns, gave frequent entertainments +in his honor, treating him with the punctilious +deference usually shown only to a noble of the highest +rank. It cannot be said, however, that envy at +the high distinction shown this lately obscure and +penniless adventurer was quite concealed, and at one +of these entertainments is said to have taken place +the famous episode of the egg.</p> + +<p>A courtier of shallow wit, with the purpose of +throwing discredit on the achievement of Columbus, +intimated that it was not so great an exploit after +all; all that was necessary was to sail west a certain +number of days; the lands lay there waiting to be +discovered. Were there not other men in Spain, +he asked, capable of this?</p> + +<p>The response of Columbus was to take an egg and +ask those present to make it stand upright on its<pb n="154" /><anchor id="Pg154" /> +end. After they had tried and failed he struck the +egg on the table, cracking the shell and giving it a +base on which to stand.</p> + +<p>"But anybody could do that!" cried the critic.</p> + +<p>"Yes; and anybody can become a discoverer when +once he has been shown the way," retorted Columbus. +"It is easy to follow in a known track."</p> + +<p>By this time all Europe had heard of the brilliant +discovery of the Genoese mariner, and everywhere +admiration at his achievement and interest in its results +were manifested. Europe had never been so +excited by any single event. The world was found +to be larger than had been dreamed of, and it was +evident that hundreds of new things remained to +be known. Word came to Barcelona that King +John of Portugal was equipping a large armament +to obtain a share of the new realms in the west, and +all haste was made to anticipate this dangerous rival +by sending Columbus again to the New World.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of September, 1493, he set sail with a +gallant armament, which quite threw into the shade +his three humble caravels of the year before. It consisted +of seventeen vessels, some of them of large +size for that day, and fifteen hundred souls, including +several persons of rank, and members of the royal +household. Many of those that had taken part in +the Moorish war, stimulated by the love of adventure, +were to win fame in the coming years in the +conquest of the alluring realms of the West, and the +earliest of these sailed now under the banner of the +Great Admiral.</p> + +<p>The story of Columbus is too familiar to readers<pb n="155" /><anchor id="Pg155" /> +for more to be said of it here. It was one in which +the boasted honor of the Spanish court was replaced +by injustice and lack of good faith. Envy and +malice surrounded the discoverer, and in 1500 he +was sent home in chains by an infamous governor. +The king, roused by a strong display of public indignation, +disavowed the base act of his agent, and +received Columbus again with a show of favor, but +failed to reinstate him in the office of which he had +been unjustly deprived. The discoverer of America +died at Valladolid in 1506, giving directions that the +fetters which he had once worn, and which he had +kept as evidence of Spanish ingratitude, should be +buried with him.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="156" /><anchor id="Pg156" /> +<head>PETER THE CRUEL AND THE FREE COMPANIES.</head> + +<p>About the middle of the year 1365 a formidable +expedition set out from France for the invasion of +Castile. It consisted of the celebrated Free Companies, +marauding bands of French and English +knights and archers whose allegiance was to the +sword, and who, having laid waste France, now +sought fresh prey in Spain. Valiant and daring +were these reckless freebooters, bred to war, living +on rapine, battle their delight, revel their relaxation. +For years the French and English Free +Companies had been enemies. Now a truce existed +between their princes, and they had joined hands +under the leadership of the renowned knight Bertrand +du Guesclin, at that time the most famous +soldier of France. Sir Hugh de Calverley headed the +English bands, known as the White Company, and +made up largely of men-at-arms, that is, of heavy +armed horsemen; but with a strong contingent of +the formidable English archers. The total force +comprised more than twelve thousand men.</p> + +<p>"You lead the life of robbers," said Du Guesclin +to them. "Every day you risk your lives in forays, +which yield you more blows than booty. I come to +propose an enterprise worthy of gallant knights and<pb n="157" /><anchor id="Pg157" /> +to open to you a new field of action. In Spain both +glory and profit await you. You will there find a +rich and avaricious king who possesses great treasures, +and is the ally of the Saracens; in fact, is half a +pagan himself. We propose to conquer his kingdom +and to bestow it on the Count of Trastamara, an old +comrade of yours, a good lance, as you all know, and +a gentle and generous knight, who will share with +you his land when you win it for him from the Jews +and Moslems of that wicked king, Don Pedro. Come, +comrades, let us honor God and shame the devil."</p> + +<p>The Free Companies were ready at a word to follow +his banner. Among them were many knights +of noble birth who valued glory above booty, and +looked upon it as a worthy enterprise to dethrone a +cruel and wicked king, the murderer of his queen. +As for the soldiers, they cared not against whom +they fought, if booty was to be had.</p> + +<p>"Messire Bertrand," they said, "gives all that he +wins to his men-at-arms. He is the father of the +soldier. Let us march with him."</p> + +<p>And so the bargain was made and the Free Companies +marched away, light of heart and strong of +hand, with a promising goal before them, and a +chance of abundance of fighting before they would +see their homes again.</p> + +<p>Peter the Cruel, King of Castile and Leon, amply +deserved to be dethroned. His reign had been one +of massacre. All whom he suspected died by the +dagger of the assassin. He bitterly hated his two +half-brothers, Fadrique and Henry. Fadrique he +enticed to his court by a show of friendship, and<pb n="158" /><anchor id="Pg158" /> +then had him brutally murdered at the gate of his +palace, the Alcazar of Seville. But his treatment of +his queen was what made him specially odious to +his people. He married a French princess, Blanche +of Bourbon, but deserted her after two days to return +to his mistress, Maria de Pedilla. Blanche +was taken to Toledo, where she was so closely confined +that the people rose and rescued her from the +king's guards. Peter marched in anger against the +city, but its people defied him and kept the queen. +Then the crafty villain pretended sorrow and asked +for a reconciliation. The queen consented, went +back to him, and was quickly imprisoned in a strong +fortress, where she was murdered by his orders in +1361.</p> + +<p>It was this shameful act and the murder of his +brother Fadrique that roused the people to insurrection. +Henry of Trastamara, the remaining brother, +headed a revolt against the tyrant and invited the +Free Companies to his aid. These were the circumstances +that gave rise to the march of Du Guesclin +and Calverley and their battle-loving bands.</p> + +<p>The adventurers wore crosses on their vests and +banners, as though they were a company of crusaders +raised in the service of the church. But in +truth they were under the ban of excommunication, +for they had no more spared the church than the +castle or the cottage. Du Guesclin, determined to +relieve them from this ban and force the Pope to +grant them absolution, directed his march upon +Avignon, the papal residence in France. It was not +only absolution he wanted. The papal coffers were<pb n="159" /><anchor id="Pg159" /> +full; his military chest was empty; his soldiers +would not remain tractable unless well paid; the +church should have the privilege of aiding the army.</p> + +<p>It was with dismay that the people of Avignon +beheld the White Company encamp before their ramparts, +late in the year 1365. An envoy from the +Pope was sent in haste to their camp, with a promise +from the Holy Father that he would remove the ban +of excommunication if they would evacuate the territory +of the Church. The envoy's mission was a +dangerous one, for the fierce Free Companions had no +reverence for priest or pope. He had hardly crossed +the Rhone before he was confronted by a turbulent +band of English archers, who demanded if he had +brought money.</p> + +<p>"Money?" he asked, in faltering tones.</p> + +<p>"Ay, money!" they insolently cried, impeding his +passage.</p> + +<p>On reaching Du Guesclin's tent he was treated +with more politeness, but was met with the same +demand.</p> + +<p>"We cannot control our troops," said some of the +chiefs; "and, as they are ready to hazard their lives +for the greater glory of the faith, they well deserve +the aid of the Church."</p> + +<p>"The Holy Father will incur much danger if he +refuses the demand of our men," said Du Guesclin, +in smooth but menacing tones. "They have become +good Catholics in spite of themselves, and would +very readily return to their old trade."</p> + +<p>Imminent as the danger was, the Pope resisted, +and tried to scare off that flock of reckless war-hawks<pb n="160" /><anchor id="Pg160" /> +by the thunders of papal condemnation. But +he soon learned that appeals and threats alike were +wasted on the Free Companies. From the windows +of his palace he could see groups of his unruly visitors +at work plundering farms and country houses. +Fires were here and there kindled. The rich lands +of Avignon were in danger of a general ravage.</p> + +<p>"What can I do?" said Du Guesclin to the complaints +of the people. "My soldiers are excommunicated. +The devil is in them, and we are no longer +their masters."</p> + +<p>Evidently there was but one way to get rid of this +irreligious crew. The chiefs agreed to be satisfied +with five thousand golden florins. This sum was +paid, and the knights companions, laden with plunder +and absolved from their sins, set out in the highest +spirits, singing the praises of their captain and +the joys of war. Such was their farewell to France.</p> + +<p>Onward they marched, across the Pyrenees and +into Aragon, whose king had joined with Henry of +Trastamara in requesting their presence. They were +far from welcome to the people of this region of +Spain. Pedro IV. of Aragon had agreed to pay +them one hundred thousand golden florins on condition +that they should pass through his dominions +without disorder; but the adventurers, imagining +that they were already in the enemy's country, began +their usual service of fire and sword. In Barbastro +they pillaged the houses, killed the burghers +or tortured them to extort ransom, and set fire to a +church in which some had taken refuge, burning +alive more than two hundred persons.</p> + +<pb n="161" /><anchor id="Pg161" /> + +<p>If such was the course of these freebooting bands +in the country of their friends, what would it be in +that of their foes? Every effort was made to get +them out of the country as soon as possible. Immediate +action was needed, for the warlike mountaineers +were beginning to revenge the robberies of +the adventurers by waylaying their convoys and +killing their stragglers. In early March, 1366, the +frontier was passed, Sir Hugh de Calverley leading +his men against Borja, a town of Aragon which was +occupied by soldiers of Castile.</p> + +<p>The garrison fled on their approach, and soon the +army entered Castile and marched upon Calahorra, +a town friendly to Prince Henry, and which opened +its gates at sight of their banners. Here an interesting +ceremony took place. Du Guesclin and the +other leaders of the Free Companies, with as much +assurance as if they had already conquered Castile, +offered Henry the throne.</p> + +<p>"Take the crown," said the burly leader. "You +owe this honor to the many noble knights who have +elected you their leader in this campaign. Don +Pedro, your enemy, has refused to meet you in the +battle-field, and thus acknowledges that the throne +of Castile is vacant."</p> + +<p>Henry held back. He felt that these foreigners +had not the crown of Castile in their gift. But +when the Castilians present joined in the demand he +yielded, and permitted them to place the crown upon +his head. His chief captain at once unfurled the +royal standard, and passed through the camp, crying, +"Castile for King Henry! Long live King<pb n="162" /><anchor id="Pg162" /> +Henry!" Then, amid loud acclamations, he planted +the banner on the crest of a hill on the road to +Burgos.</p> + +<p>We need not delay on the events of this campaign. +Everywhere the people of Castile fell away from +their cruel king, and Henry's advance was almost +unopposed. Soon he was in Burgos, and Don Pedro +had become a fugitive without an army and almost +without a friend. Henry was now again crowned +king, many of the Castilian nobles taking part in +the imposing ceremony.</p> + +<p>The first acts of the new king were to recompense +the men who had raised him to that high office. +The money which he found in the treasury served +as a rich reward to the followers of Du Guesclin. +He gave titles of nobility and grants of land with a +free hand to the chiefs of the Free Companies and +his other companions in arms. On Du Guesclin he +conferred his own countship of Trastamara, and +added to it the lordship of Molino, with the domains +appertaining to both. Calverley was made Count +of Carrion, and received the domains which had +formerly been held by the sons-in-law of the Cid. +Lesser rewards were given to lesser chiefs, and none +had reason to accuse Henry of Castile of want of +generosity.</p> + +<p>But the Free Companions soon became a sword in +the side of the new king. As there was no more +fighting to be done, they resumed their old occupation +of pillaging, and from every side complaints +rained in upon the throne. Henry felt it necessary +to get rid of his unruly friends with all despatch.<pb n="163" /><anchor id="Pg163" /> +Retaining Du Guesclin and Calverley in his service, +with fifteen hundred lances, mainly French and +Breton, he dismissed the remainder, placating them +with rich presents and warm thanks. Nothing loath, +and gratified that they had avenged the murdered +Queen Blanche, they took their way back, finding +abundant chance for fighting on their return. The +Castilians, the Navarrese, and the Aragonese all +rose against them, and everywhere they had to force +a passage with their swords. But nothing could +stop them. Spain, accustomed to fight with Arabs +and Moors, had no warriors fit to face these intrepid +and heavily armed veterans. Through the Pyrenees +they made their way, and here cut a road with their +swords through the main body of a French army +which had gathered to oppose their march. Once +more they were upon the soil of France.</p> + +<p>It was the English and Gascon bands that were +principally opposed. It was known that the Black +Prince was preparing to invade Spain, and an effort +was made to cut off the free lances who might enlist +under his banners. This famous knight, son of +Edward III. of England, and victor at the battle +of Poitiers, where he had taken prisoner the king +of France, was a cousin of the fugitive king of +Castile, who sought him at Cape Breton, and begged +his aid to recover his dominions. The chivalrous +prince of Wales knew little of the dastardly deeds of +the suppliant. Don Pedro had brought with him his +three young maiden daughters, whose helpless state +appealed warmly to the generous knight. National +policy accorded with the inclination of the prince,<pb n="164" /><anchor id="Pg164" /> +for the Castilian revolution had been promoted by +France, and the usurper had been in the pay of the +French king. These inducements were enough to +win for Don Pedro the support of Edward III., and +the aid of the Black Prince, who entered upon the +enterprise with the passionate enthusiasm which +was a part of his nature.</p> + +<p>Soon again two armies were in the field, that of +King Henry, raised to defend his new dominions, +and that of the Prince of Wales, gathered to replace +the fugitive Don Pedro upon the throne. With the +latter was the White Company, which had aided to +drive Pedro from his seat and was now equally ready +to replace him there. These bold lancers and archers +fought for their own hands, with little care whose +cause they backed.</p> + +<p>It was through the valley of Roncesvalles, that +celebrated pass which was associated with the name +of the famous Roland, the chief knight of French +romance, that the army of the Black Prince made +its way into Spain. Calverley, who was not willing +to fight against his liege lord, joined him with his +lances, King Henry generously consenting. Du +Guesclin, a veteran in the art of war, advised the +Castilian king to employ a Fabian policy, harassing +the invaders by skirmishes, drawing them deep into +the country, and wearing them out with fatigue and +hunger. He frankly told him that his men could +not face in a pitched battle the English veterans, led +by such a soldier as the Black Prince. But the policy +suggested would have been hazardous in Castile, divided +as it was between two parties. Henry remembered<pb n="165" /><anchor id="Pg165" /> +that his rival had lost the kingdom through +not daring to risk a battle, and he determined to +fight for his throne, trusting his cause to Providence +and the strength of his arms.</p> + +<p>It was in the month of April, 1367, that the two +armies came face to face on a broad plain. They +were fairly matched in numbers, and as day broke +both marched resolutely to the encounter, amid +opposing shouts of "King Henry for Castile" and +"St. George and Guyenne." It was a hard, fierce, +bitter struggle that followed, in which the onset of +Du Guesclin was so impetuous as for a moment to +break the English line. But the end was at hand +when the Castilian cavalry broke in panic before the +charge of an English squadron, which turned Du +Guesclin's battalion and took it in flank. The Captal +de Buch at the same time fell on the flank of the +Castilian vanguard. Thus beset and surrounded, the +French and Spanish men-at-arms desperately sought +to hold their own against much superior numbers. +King Henry fought valiantly, and called on all to +rally round his standard. But at length the banner +fell, the disorder grew general, the ranks broke, and +knights and foot-soldiers joined in a tumultuous +retreat.</p> + +<p>Their only hope now was the bridge of Najera, +over the Najerilla, which stream lay behind their +line. Some rushed for the bridge, others leaped into +the river, which became instantly red with blood, +for the arrows of the archers were poured into the +crowded stream. Only the approach of night, the +fatigue of the victors, and the temptation to plunder<pb n="166" /><anchor id="Pg166" /> +the town and the camp saved the wreck of the Castilian +army, which had lost seven thousand foot-soldiers +and some six hundred men-at-arms. Du +Guesclin's battalion, which alone had made a gallant +stand, was half slain. A large number of prisoners +were taken, among them the valorous Du Guesclin +himself.</p> + +<p>Edward the Black Prince now first learned the +character of the man whom he had come to aid. +Don Pedro galloped excitedly over the plain seeking +his rival, and, chancing to meet Lopez de Orozco, +one of his former friends, now the prisoner of a +Gascon knight, he stabbed him to the heart, despite +the efforts of the Gascon in his defence. The report +of this murder filled the Black Prince with indignation, +which was heightened when Don Pedro offered +to ransom all the Castilian prisoners, plainly indicating +that he intended to murder them. Prince +Edward sternly refused, only consenting to deliver +up certain nobles who had been declared traitors +before the revolution. These Don Pedro immediately +had beheaded before his tent.</p> + +<p>The breach between the allies rapidly widened, +Don Pedro, as soon as he fairly got possession of the +throne, breaking all his engagements with the Black +Prince, while he was unable, from the empty state +of his treasury, to pay the allied troops. Four +months Prince Edward waited, with growing indignation, +for redress, while disease was rapidly carrying +off his men, and then marched in anger from +Spain with scarcely a fifth of the proud array with +which he had won the battle of Najera.</p> + +<pb n="167" /><anchor id="Pg167" /> + +<p>The restored king soon justified his title of Peter +the Cruel by a series of sanguinary executions, murdering +all of the adherents of his rival on whom he +could lay his hands. In this thirst for revenge not +even women escaped, and at length he committed an +act which aroused the indignation of the whole kingdom. +Don Alfonso de Guzman had refused to follow +the king into exile. He now kept out of his reach, +but his mother, Doña Urraca de Osorio, fell into the +hands of the monster, and was punished for being +the mother of a rebel by being burned alive on the +ramparts of Seville.</p> + +<p>These excesses of cruelty roused a rebellious sentiment +throughout Castile, of which Henry, who +had escaped to Aragon from the field of Najera, took +advantage. Supplied with money by the king of +France, he purchased arms and recruited soldiers, +many of the French and Castilians who had been +taken prisoners at Najera and been released on parole +joining him in hopes of winning the means of paying +their ransoms. Crossing the Ebro, he marched upon +Calahorra, in which the year before he had been +proclaimed king. Here numerous volunteers joined +him, and at the head of a considerable force he +marched upon Burgos, which surrendered after a +faint show of resistance.</p> + +<p>During the winter the campaign continued, Leon, +Madrid, and other towns being captured, and in the +spring of 1368 all northern Castile was in Henry's +hands. Don Pedro, whose army was small, had +entered into alliance with the Moorish king of +Granada, who sent him an army of thirty-five thousand<pb n="168" /><anchor id="Pg168" /> +men, with which force a vigorous attack was +made on the city of Cordova,—a holy city in the +eyes of the Moors. Among its defenders was Don +Alfonso de Guzman, whose mother had been burned +to death. The defence was obstinate, but the Moors +at length made breaches in the walls. They were +about to pour into the city when the women, mad +with fear, rushed into the streets with cries and +moans, now reproaching the men-at-arms with cowardice, +now begging them with sobs and tears to +make a last effort to save the city from the brutal +infidels.</p> + +<p>This appeal gave new courage to the Christians. +They rushed on the Moors with the fury of despair, +drove them from the posts they had taken, hurled +them from the ramparts, tore down the black flags +which already waved on the towers, and finally expelled +them from the breaches and the walls in a +panic. The breaches were repaired and the city was +saved. In a few days the Moors, thoroughly disheartened +by their repulse, dispersed, and Don Pedro +lost his allies.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Henry was engaged in the siege of +Toledo, the strongest place in the kingdom, and before +which he persistently lay for months, despite +all allurements to use his forces in other directions. +Here Bertrand du Guesclin, who had been ransomed +by the Black Prince, joined him with a force of +some six hundred men-at-arms, all picked men; and +hither, in March, 1369, Don Pedro marched to the +city's relief at the head of a strong army.</p> + +<p>Henry, on learning of this movement, at once<pb n="169" /><anchor id="Pg169" /> +gathered all the forces he could spare from the siege, +three thousand men-at-arms in all, and hastened to +intercept his rival on the march. Not dreaming of +such a movement, Don Pedro had halted at Montiel, +where his men lay dispersed, in search of food and +forage, over a space of several leagues. They were +attacked at daybreak, their surprise being so complete +that the main body was at once put to flight, +while each division was routed as soon as it appeared. +Henry's forces suffered almost no loss, and within an +hour's time his rival's kingdom was reduced to the +castle of Montiel, in which he had taken refuge with +a few of his followers.</p> + +<p>Leaving the defeated army to take care of itself, +Henry devoted himself to the siege of the castle, +within whose poorly fortified walls lay the prize for +which he fought. Escape was impossible, and the +small supply of provisions would soon be exhausted. +Don Pedro's only hope was to bribe some of his foes. +He sent an agent to Du Guesclin, offering him a rich +reward in gold and lands if he would aid in his escape. +Du Guesclin asked for time to consider, and +immediately informed Henry of the whole transaction. +He was at once offered a richer reward than +Pedro had promised if he would entice the king out +of the castle, and after some hesitation and much +persuasion he consented.</p> + +<p>On the night of March 23, ten days after the +battle, Don Pedro, accompanied by several of his +knights, secretly left the fortress, the feet of their +horses being bound with cloth to deaden the sound +of hoofs. The sentinels, who had been instructed<pb n="170" /><anchor id="Pg170" /> +in advance, allowed them to pass, and they approached +the camp of the French adventurers, where +Du Guesclin was waiting to receive them.</p> + +<p>"To horse, Messire Bertrand," said the king, in a +low voice; "it is time to set out."</p> + +<p>No answer was returned. This silence frightened +Don Pedro. He attempted to spring into his saddle, +but he was surrounded, and a man-at-arms held the +bridle of his horse. An officer asked him to wait in +a neighboring tent. Resistance was impossible, and +he silently obeyed.</p> + +<p>Here he found himself encompassed by a voiceless +group, through whose lines, after a few minutes of +dread suspense, a man in full armor advanced. It +was Henry of Trastamara, who now faced his brother +for the first time in fifteen years. He gazed +with searching eyes upon Don Pedro and his followers.</p> + +<p>"Where is this bastard," he harshly asked, "this +Jew who calls himself King of Castile?"</p> + +<p>"There stands your enemy," said a French esquire, +pointing to Don Pedro.</p> + +<p>Henry gazed at him fixedly. So many years had +elapsed that he failed to recognize him easily.</p> + +<p>"Yes, it is I," exclaimed Don Pedro, "I, the King +of Castile. All the world knows that I am the legitimate +son of good King Alfonso. It is thou that +art the bastard."</p> + +<p>At this insult Henry drew his dagger and struck +the speaker a light blow in the face. They were in +too close a circle to draw their swords, and in mortal +fury they seized each other by the waist and struggled +<pb n="171" /><anchor id="Pg171" /> +furiously, the men around drawing back and no +one attempting to interfere.</p> + +<p>After a brief period the wrestling brothers fell on +a camp bed in a corner of the tent, Don Pedro, who +was the stronger, being uppermost. While he felt +desperately for a weapon with which to pierce his +antagonist, one of those present seized him by the +foot and threw him on one side, so that Henry found +himself uppermost. Popular tradition says that it +was Du Guesclin's hand that did this act, and that +he cried, "I neither make nor unmake kings, but I +serve my lord;" but some writers say it was the +Viscount de Rocaberti, of Aragon.</p> + +<p>However that be, Henry at once took advantage +of the opportunity, picked up his dagger, lifted +the king's coat of mail, and plunged the weapon +again and again into his side. Only two of Don +Pedro's companions sought to defend him, and they +were killed on the spot. Henry had his brother's +head at once cut off, and despatched the gruesome +relic to Seville.</p> + +<p>Thus perished, by an uncalled-for act of treachery +on the part of Du Guesclin, for the castle must soon +have surrendered, one of the most bloodthirsty kings +who ever sat upon a throne. Don Fadrique, his +brother, and Blanche of Bourbon, his wife, both of +whom he had basely murdered, were at length +avenged. Henry ascended the throne as Henry II., +and for years reigned over Castile with a mild and +just rule that threw still deeper horror upon the +bloody career of him who is known in history as +Peter the Cruel.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="172" /><anchor id="Pg172" /> +<head>THE GREAT CAPTAIN.</head> + +<p>The long and bitter war for the conquest of Granada +filled Spain with trained soldiers and skilful +leaders, men who had seen service on a hundred +fields, grim, daring veterans, without their equals in +Europe. The Spanish foot-soldiers of that day were +inflexibly resolute, the cavalry were skilled in the +brilliant tactics of the Moors, and the leaders were +men experienced in all the arts of war. These were +the soldiers who in the New World overthrew empires +with a handful of adventurers, and within a fraction +of a century conquered a continent for Spain. In +Europe they were kept actively employed. Charles +VIII. of France, moved by ambition and thirst for +glory, led an army of invasion into Italy. He was +followed in this career of foreign conquest by his +successor, Louis XII. The armies of France were +opposed by those of Spain, led by the greatest soldier +of the age, Gonsalvo de Cordova, a man who +had learned the art of war in Granada, but in Italy +showed such brilliant and remarkable powers that +he gained the distinguishing title of the Great Captain.</p> + +<p>These wars were stretched out over years, and the +most we can do is to give some of their interesting +incidents. In 1502 the Great Captain lay in the +far south of Italy, faced by a more powerful French<pb n="173" /><anchor id="Pg173" /> +army under the Duke of Nemours, a young nobleman +not wanting in courage, but quite unfit to cope +with the experienced veteran before him. Gonsalvo, +however, was in no condition to try conclusions with +his well-appointed enemy. His little corps was destitute +of proper supplies, the men had been so long +unpaid that they were mutinous, he had pleaded for +reinforcements in vain, and the most he could do was +to concentrate his small force in the seaport of Barleta +and the neighboring strongholds, and make the +best show he could in the face of his powerful foe.</p> + +<p>The war now declined into foraging inroads on +the part of the French, in which they swept the +flocks and herds from the fertile pastures, and into +guerilla operations on the part of the Spanish, who +ambushed and sought to cut off the detached troops +of the enemy. But more romantic encounters occasionally +took place. The knights on both sides, +full of the spirit of chivalry, and eager to prove their +prowess, defied one another to jousts and tourneys, +and for the time being brought back a state of warfare +then fast passing away.</p> + +<p>The most striking of these meetings arose from +the contempt with which the French knights spoke +of the cavalry of their enemy, which they declared to +be far inferior to their own. This insult, when told +to the proud knights of Gonsalvo's army, brought +from them a challenge to the knights of France, +and a warlike meeting between eleven Spanish and +as many French warriors was arranged. A fair +field was offered the combatants in the neutral territory +under the walls of the Venetian city of Trani,<pb n="174" /><anchor id="Pg174" /> +and on the appointed day a gallant array of well-armed +knights of both parties appeared to guard the +lists and maintain the honor of the tournament.</p> + +<p>Spectators crowded the roofs and battlements of +Trani, while the lists were thronged with French and +Spanish cavaliers, who for the time laid aside their +enmity in favor of national honor and a fair fight. +At the fixed hour the champions rode into the lists, +armed at all points, and their horses richly caparisoned +and covered with steel panoply. Among those +on the Castilian side were Diego de Paredes and +Diego de Vera, men who had won renown in the +Moorish wars. Most conspicuous on the other side +was the good knight Pierre de Bayard, the chevalier +"<hi rend="font-style: italic">sans peur et sans reproche</hi>," who was then entering +upon his famous career.</p> + +<p>At the sound of the signal trumpets the hostile +parties rushed to the encounter, meeting in the +centre of the lists with a shock that hurled three of +the Spaniards from their saddle, while four of their +antagonists' horses were slain. The fight, which +began at ten in the morning, and was to end at sunset, +if not concluded before, was prosecuted with +great fury and varied success. Long before the +hour of closing all the French were dismounted except +the Chevalier Bayard and one of his companions, +their horses, at which the Spaniards had +specially aimed, being disabled or slain. Seven of +the Spaniards were still on horseback, and pressed +so hard upon their antagonists that the victory +seemed safely theirs.</p> + +<p>But Bayard and his comrade bravely held their<pb n="175" /><anchor id="Pg175" /> +own, while the others, intrenched behind their dead +horses, defended themselves vigorously with sword +and shield, the Spaniards vainly attempting to spur +their terrified horses over the barrier. The fight +went on in this way until the sun sank below the +horizon, when, both parties still holding the field, +neither was given the palm of victory, all the combatants +being declared to have proved themselves +good and valiant knights.</p> + +<p>Both parties now met in the centre of the lists, +where the combatants embraced as true companions +in chivalry, "making good cheer together" before +they separated. But the Great Captain did not receive +the report of the result with favor.</p> + +<p>"We have," said one of his knights, "disproved +the taunts of the Frenchmen, and shown ourselves +as good horsemen as they."</p> + +<p>"I sent you for better," Gonsalvo coldly replied.</p> + +<p>A second combat in which the Chevalier Bayard +was concerned met with a more tragic termination. +A Spanish cavalier, Alonzo de Sotomayor, complained +that Bayard had treated him uncourteously +while holding him prisoner. Bayard denied the +charge, and defied the Spaniard to prove it by force +of arms, on horse or on foot, as he preferred. Sotomayor, +well knowing Bayard's skill as a horseman, +challenged him to a battle on foot <hi rend="font-style: italic">à l'outrance</hi>, or "to +the death."</p> + +<p>At the appointed time the two combatants entered +the lists, armed with sword and dagger and in complete +armor, though wearing their visors up. For<pb n="176" /><anchor id="Pg176" /> +a few minutes both knelt in silent prayer. They +then rose, crossed themselves, and advanced to the +combat, "the good knight Bayard," we are told, +"moving as light of step as if he were going to lead +some fair lady down the dance."</p> + +<p>Bayard was the smaller man of the two, and still +felt weakness from a fever which had recently prostrated +him. The Spaniard, taking advantage of this, +sought to crush him by the weight of his blows, or +to close with him and bring him to the ground by +dint of his superior strength. But the lightness and +agility of the French knight enabled him to avoid +the Spaniard's grasp, while, by skill with the sword, +he parried his enemy's strokes, and dealt him an +occasional one in return.</p> + +<p>At length, the Spaniard having exposed himself +to attack by an ill-directed blow, Bayard got in so +sharp a thrust on the gorget that it gave way, and +the point of the blade entered his throat. Maddened +by the pain of the wound, Sotomayor leaped furiously +on his antagonist and grasped him in his arms, +both rolling on the ground together. While thus +clasped in fierce struggle Bayard, who had kept his +poniard in his left hand throughout the fight, while +his enemy had left his in his belt, drove the steel +home under his eye with such force that it pierced +through his brain.</p> + +<p>As the victor sprang to his feet, the judges awarded +him the honors of the day, and the minstrels began +to pour forth triumphant strains in his honor. The +good knight, however, bade them desist, as it was +no time for gratulation when a good knight lay dead,<pb n="177" /><anchor id="Pg177" /> +and, first kneeling and returning grateful thanks for +his victory, he walked slowly from the lists, saying +that he was sorry for the result of the combat, and +wished, since his honor was saved, that his antagonist +had lived.</p> + +<p>In these passages at arms we discern the fading +gleam of the spirit of mediæval chivalry, soon to +vanish before the new art of war. Rough and violent +as were these displays as compared with the +pastimes of later days, the magnificence with which +they were conducted, and the manifestations of +knightly honor and courtesy which attended them, +threw something of grace and softness over an age +in which ferocity was the ruling spirit.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the position of the little garrison of +Barleta grew daily worse. No help came, the +French gradually occupied the strongholds of the +neighboring country, and a French fleet in the Adriatic +stood seriously in the way of the arrival of stores +and reinforcements. But the Great Captain maintained +his cheerfulness through all discouragement, +and sought to infuse his spirit into the hearts of his +followers. His condition would have been desperate +with an able opponent, but he perfectly understood +the character of the French commander and patiently +bided his time.</p> + +<p>The opportunity came. The French, weary of the +slow game of blockade, marched from their quarters +and appeared before the walls of Barleta, bent on +drawing the garrison from the "old den" and deciding +the affair in a pitched battle. The Duke of +Nemours sent a trumpet into the town to defy the<pb n="178" /><anchor id="Pg178" /> +Great Captain to the encounter, but the latter coolly +sent back word,—</p> + +<p>"It is my custom to choose my own time and +place for fighting, and I would thank the Duc de +Nemours to wait till my men have time to shoe their +horses and burnish up their arms."</p> + +<p>The duke waited a few days, then, finding that he +could not decoy his wily foe from the walls, broke +camp and marched back, proud of having flaunted +a challenge in the face of the enemy. He knew not +Gonsalvo. The French had not gone far before the +latter opened the gates and sent out his whole force +of cavalry, under Diego de Mendoza, with two corps +of infantry, in rapid pursuit. Mendoza was so eager +that he left the infantry in the rear, and fell on the +French before they had got many miles away.</p> + +<p>A lively skirmish followed, though of short duration, +Mendoza quickly retiring, pursued by the +French rear-guard, whose straggling march had detached +it from the main body of the army. Mendoza's +feigned retreat soon brought him back to the +infantry columns, which closed in on the enemy's +flanks, while the flying cavalry wheeled in the rapid +Moorish style and charged their pursuers boldly in +front. All was now confusion in the French ranks. +Some resisted, but the greater part, finding themselves +entrapped, sought to escape. In the end, +nearly all who did not fall on the field were carried +prisoners to Barleta, under whose walls Gonsalvo +had drawn up his whole army, in readiness to support +Mendoza if necessary. The whole affair had +passed so quickly that Nemours knew nothing of it<pb n="179" /><anchor id="Pg179" /> +until the bulk of his rear-guard were safely lodged +within the walls of the Spanish stronghold.</p> + +<p>This brilliant success proved the turning-point in +the tide of the war. A convoy of transports soon +after reached Barleta, bringing in an abundance of +provisions, and the Spaniards, restored in health +and spirits, looked eagerly for some new enterprise. +Nemours having incautiously set out on a distant +expedition, Gonsalvo at once fell on the town of +Ruvo and took it by storm, in spite of a most obstinate +defence. On April 28, 1503, Gonsalvo, strengthened +by reinforcements, finally left the stronghold +of Barleta, where he and his followers had suffered +so severely and shown such indomitable constancy. +Reaching Cerignola, about sixteen miles from Barleta, +he awaited the advancing army of the French, +rapidly intrenching the ground, which was well +suited for defence. Before these works were completed, +Nemours and his army appeared, and, though +it was near nightfall, made an immediate attack. +The commander was incited to this by taunts on +his courage from some hot-headed subordinates, to +whom he weakly gave way, saying, "We will fight +to-night, then; and perhaps those who vaunt the +loudest will be found to trust more to their spurs +than to their swords,"—a prediction which was to +prove true.</p> + +<p>Of the battle, it must suffice to say that the +trenches dug by the Spaniards fatally checked the +French advance, and in the effort to find a passage +Nemours fell mortally wounded. Soon the French +lines were in confusion, the Spanish arquebusiers<pb n="180" /><anchor id="Pg180" /> +pouring a galling fire into their dense masses. Perceiving +the situation, Gonsalvo ordered a general +advance, and, leaping their intrenchments, the Spaniards +rushed in fury on their foes, most of whose +leaders had fallen. Panic succeeded, and the flying +French were cut down almost without resistance.</p> + +<p>The next morning the Great Captain passed over +the field of battle, where lay more than three thousand +of the French, half their entire force. The +loss of the Spaniards was very small, and all the artillery, +the baggage, and most of the colors of the +enemy were in their hands. Rarely had so complete +a victory been gained in so brief a time, the battle +being hardly more than one hour in duration. The +body of the unfortunate Duke of Nemours was found +under a heap of the slain, much disfigured and bearing +the marks of three wounds. Gonsalvo was affected +to tears at the sight of the mutilated body of +his young and gallant adversary, who, though unfitted +to head an army, had always proved himself a +valiant knight. During the following month Gonsalvo +entered Naples, the main prize of the war, +where he was received with acclamations of joy and +given the triumph which his brilliant exploits so +richly deserved.</p> + +<p>The work of the Great Captain was not yet at an +end. Finding that his forces were being defeated in +every encounter and the cities held by them captured, +Louis XII. sent a large army to their relief, and late +in the year 1503 the hostile forces came face to face +again, Gonsalvo being forced by the exigencies of +the campaign to encamp in a deplorable situation, a<pb n="181" /><anchor id="Pg181" /> +region of swamp, which had been converted by the +incessant rains into a mere quagmire. The French +occupied higher ground and were much more comfortably +situated. But Gonsalvo refused to move. +He was playing his old waiting game, knowing that +the French dared not attack his intrenched camp, +and that time would work steadily in his favor.</p> + +<figure url="images/image10.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>"It is indispensable to the public service to maintain +our present position," he said to the officers who +appealed to him to move; "and be assured, I would +sooner march forward two steps, though it would +bring me to my grave, than fall back one, to gain a +hundred years of life."</p> + +<p>After that there were no more appeals. Gonsalvo's +usual cheerfulness was maintained, infusing spirit +into his men in all the inconveniences of their situation. +He had a well-planned object in view. The +hardy Spaniards, long used to rough campaigning, +bore their trying position with unyielding resolution. +The French, on the contrary, largely new recruits, +grew weary and mutinous, while sickness broke out +in their ranks and increased with alarming rapidity.</p> + +<p>At length Gonsalvo's day came. His opponent, +not dreaming of an attack, had extended his men +over a wide space. On the night of December 28, +in darkness and storm, the Spanish army broke +camp, marched to the river that divided the forces, +silently threw a bridge across the stream, and were +soon on its opposite side. Here they fell like a +thunderbolt on the unsuspecting and unprepared +French, who were soon in disordered retreat, hotly +pursued by their foes, their knights vainly attempting<pb n="182" /><anchor id="Pg182" /> +to check the enemy. Bayard had three horses killed +under him, and was barely rescued from death by a +friend. So utterly were the French beaten that +their discouraged garrisons gave up town after town +without a blow, and that brilliant night's work not +only ended the control of France over the kingdom +of Naples, but filled Louis XII. with apprehension +of losing all his possessions in Italy.</p> + +<p>Such were the most brilliant exploits of the man +who well earned the proud title of the Great Captain. +He was as generous in victory as vigorous in battle, +and as courteous and genial with all he met as if he +had been a courtier instead of a soldier. In the end, +his striking and unbroken success in war aroused the +envy and jealousy of King Ferdinand, and after the +return of Gonsalvo to Spain the unjust monarch +kept him in retirement till his death, putting smaller +men at the head of his armies rather than permit the +greatest soldier of the century to throw his own +exploits more deeply into the shade.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="183" /><anchor id="Pg183" /> +<head>A KING IN CAPTIVITY.</head> + +<p>Two great rivals were on the thrones of France +and Spain,—Francis I., who came to power in France +in 1515, and Charles I., who became king of Spain in +1516. In 1519 they were rivals for the imperial +power in Germany. Charles gained the German +throne, being afterwards known as the emperor +Charles V., and during the remainder of their reigns +these rival monarchs were frequently at war. A +league was formed against the French king by +Charles V., Henry VIII. of England, and Pope Leo +X., as a result of which the French were driven from +the territory of Milan, in Italy. In 1524 they were +defeated at the battle of Sesia, the famous Chevalier +Bayard here falling with a mortal wound; and in +1525 they met with a more disastrous defeat at the +battle of Pavia, whose result is said to have +caused Francis to write to his mother, "<hi rend="font-style: italic">Madame, +tout est perdu fors l'honneur</hi>" ("All is lost but honor").</p> + +<p>The reason for these words may be briefly given. +Francis was besieging Pavia, with hopes of a speedy +surrender, when the forces of Charles marched to +its relief. The most experienced French generals +advised the king to retire, but he refused. He had +said he would take Pavia or perish in the attempt, +and a romantic notion of honor held him fast. The +result was ruinous, as may be expected where sentiment<pb n="184" /><anchor id="Pg184" /> +outweighs prudence. Strongly as the French +were intrenched, they were broken and put to rout, +and soon there was no resistance except where the +king obstinately continued to fight.</p> + +<p>Wounded in several places, and thrown from his +horse, which was killed under him, Francis defended +himself on foot with heroic valor, while the group +of brave officers who sought to save his life, one +after another, lost their own. At length, exhausted +with his efforts, and barely able to wield his sword, +the king was left almost alone, exposed to the fierce +assault of some Spanish soldiers, who were enraged +by his obstinacy and ignorant of his rank.</p> + +<p>At this moment a French gentleman named Pomperant, +who had entered the service of Spain, recognized +the struggling king and hurried to his aid, +helping to keep off the assailants, and begging him +to surrender to the Duke of Bourbon, who was close +at hand. Great as was the peril, Francis indignantly +refused to surrender to a rebel and traitor, as he +held Bourbon to be, and calling to Lannoy, a general +in the imperial army who was also near by, he gave +up his sword to him. Lannoy, recognizing his prisoner, +received the sword with a show of the deepest +respect, and handed the king his own in return, +saying,—</p> + +<p>"It does not become so great a monarch to remain +disarmed in the presence of one of the emperor's +subjects."</p> + +<p>The lack of prudence in Francis had proved serious +not only to himself, but to his troops, ten +thousand of whom fell, among them many distinguished<pb n="185" /><anchor id="Pg185" /> +nobles who preferred death to dishonor. +Numbers of high rank were taken prisoners, among +them the king of Navarre. In two weeks not a +Frenchman remained in Italy. The gains from +years of war had vanished in a single battle.</p> + +<p>The tidings of the captivity of the French king +filled France with consternation and Spain with delight, +while to all Europe it was an event of the +deepest concern, for all the nations felt the danger +that might arise from the ambition of the powerful +emperor of Spain and Germany. Henry VIII. requested +that Francis should be delivered to him, as +an ally of Spain, though knowing well that such a +demand would not gain a moment's consideration. +As for Italy, it was in terror lest it should be overrun +by the imperial armies.</p> + +<p>Francis, whom Lannoy held with great respect, +but with the utmost care to prevent an escape, +hoped much from the generosity of Charles, whose +disposition he judged from his own. But Charles +proposed to weaken his enemy and refused to set him +free unless he would renounce all claims upon Italy, +yield the provinces of Provence and Dauphiné to +form a kingdom for the Constable Bourbon, and give +up Burgundy to Germany. On hearing these severe +conditions, Francis, in a transport of rage, drew his +dagger, exclaiming,—</p> + +<p>"It were better that a king should die thus!"</p> + +<p>A by-stander arrested the thrust; but, though +Francis soon regained his composure, he declared +that he would remain a prisoner for life rather than +purchase liberty at such a price to his country.</p> + +<pb n="186" /><anchor id="Pg186" /> + +<p>Thinking that these conditions came from the +Spanish council, and not from Charles himself, +Francis now became anxious to visit the emperor in +Spain, hoping to soften him in a personal interview. +He even furnished the galleys for that purpose, +Charles at that time being too poor to fit out a +squadron, and soon the spectacle was seen of a captive +monarch sailing in his own ships past his own +dominions, of which he had a distant and sorrowful +view, to a land in which he was to suffer the indignities +of prison life.</p> + +<p>Landing at Barcelona, Francis was taken to +Madrid and lodged in the alcazar, under the most +vigilant guard. He soon found that he had been far +too hasty in trusting to the generosity of his captor. +Charles, on learning of his captivity, had made +a politic show of sympathy and feeling, but on getting +his rival fully into his hands manifested a plain +intention of forcing upon him the hardest bargain +possible. Instead of treating his prisoner with the +courtesy due from one monarch to another, he +seemed to seek by rigorous usage to force from him +a great ransom.</p> + +<p>The captive king was confined in an old castle, +under a keeper of such formal austerity of manners +as added to the disgust of the high-spirited French +monarch. The only exercise allowed him was to +ride on a mule, surrounded by armed guards on +horseback. Though Francis pressingly solicited an +interview, Charles suffered several weeks to pass +before going near him. These indignities made so +deep an impression on the prisoner that his natural<pb n="187" /><anchor id="Pg187" /> +lightness of temper deserted him, and after a period +of deep depression he fell into a dangerous fever, in +which he bitterly complained of the harshness with +which he had been treated, and said that the emperor +would now have the satisfaction of having his +captive die on his hands.</p> + +<p>The physicians at length despaired of his life, and +informed Charles that they saw no hope of his recovery +unless he was granted the interview he so +deeply desired. This news put the emperor into a +quandary. If Francis should die, all the advantage +gained from the battle of Pavia would be lost. And +there were clouds in the sky elsewhere. Henry +VIII. had concluded a treaty of alliance with Queen +Louise, regent of France, and engaged to use all his +efforts for the release of the king. In Italy a dangerous +conspiracy had been detected. There was +danger of a general European confederacy against +him unless he should come to some speedy agreement +with the captive king.</p> + +<p>Charles, moved by these various considerations, at +length visited Francis, and, with a show of respect +and affection, gave him such promises of speedy release +and princely treatment as greatly cheered the +sad heart of the captive. The interview was short; +Francis was too ill to bear a long one; but its effect +was excellent, and the sick man at once began to +recover, soon regaining his former health. Hope +had proved a medicine far superior to all the drugs +of the doctors.</p> + +<p>But the obdurate captor had said more than he +meant. Francis was kept as closely confined as ever.<pb n="188" /><anchor id="Pg188" /> +And insult was added to indignity by the emperor's +reception of the Constable Bourbon, a traitorous subject +of France, whom Charles received with the +highest honors which a monarch could show his +noblest visitor, and whom he made his general-in-chief +in Italy. This act had a most serious result, +which may here be briefly described. In 1527 Bourbon +made an assault on Rome, with an army largely +composed of Lutherans from Germany, and took it +by assault, he being killed on the walls. There followed +a sack of the great city which had not been +surpassed in brutality by the Vandals themselves, +and for months Rome lay in the hands of a barbarous +soldiery, who plundered and destroyed without stint +or mercy.</p> + +<p>What Charles mainly insisted upon and Francis +most indignantly refused was the cession of Burgundy +to the German empire. He was willing to +yield on all other points, but bitterly refused to dismember +his kingdom. He would yield all claim to +territory in Italy and the Netherlands, would pay a +large sum in ransom, and would make other concessions, +but Burgundy was part of France, and Burgundy +he would not give up.</p> + +<p>In the end Francis, in deep despair, took steps towards +resigning his crown to his son, the dauphin. +A plot for his escape was also formed, which filled +Charles with the fear that a second effort might succeed. +In dread that, through seeking too much, he +might lose all, he finally agreed upon a compromise +in regard to Burgundy, Francis consenting to yield +it, but not until after he was set at liberty. The<pb n="189" /><anchor id="Pg189" /> +treaty included many other articles, most of them +severe and rigorous, while Francis agreed to leave +his sons, the dauphin and the Duke of Orleans, in the +emperor's hands as hostages for the fulfilment of the +treaty. This treaty was signed at Madrid, January +14, 1526. By it Charles believed that he had effectually +humbled his rival, and weakened him so that +he could never regain any great power. In this the +statesmen of the day did not agree with him, as they +were not ready to believe that the king of France +would live up to conditions of such severity, forced +from him under constraint.</p> + +<figure url="images/image11.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>The treaty signed, the two monarchs seemed to +become at once the best of friends. They often appeared +together in public; they had long conferences +in private; they travelled in the same litter +and joined in the same amusements; the highest +confidence and affection seemed to exist between +them. Yet this love was all a false show,—Francis +still distrusted the emperor, and Charles still had +him watched like a prisoner.</p> + +<p>In about a month the ratification of the treaty +was brought from France, and Francis set out from +Madrid with the first true emotions of joy which he +had felt for a year. He was escorted by a body of +horse under Alarcon, who, when the frontiers of +France were reached, guarded him as scrupulously +as ever. On arriving at the banks of the Andaye +River, which there separated the two kingdoms, +Lautrec appeared on the opposite bank, with a guard +of horse equal to that of Alarcon. An empty bark +was moored in mid-stream. The cavalry drew up<pb n="190" /><anchor id="Pg190" /> +in order on each bank. Lannoy, with eight gentlemen +and the king, put off in a boat from the Spanish +side of the stream. Lautrec did the same from the +French side, bringing with him the dauphin and the +Duke of Orleans. The two parties met in the empty +vessel, where in a moment the exchange was made, +Francis embracing his sons and then handing them +over as hostages. Leaping into Lautrec's boat, he +was quickly on the soil of France.</p> + +<p>Mounting a Barbary horse which awaited him, +the freed captive waved his hand triumphantly over +his head, shouted joyfully several times, "I am yet +a king!" and galloped away at full speed for Bayonne. +He had been held in captivity for a year +and twenty-two days.</p> + +<p>Our tale of the captivity of the king ends here, +but the consequences of that captivity must be told. +A league was immediately afterwards formed against +Charles, named the Holy League, from the Pope being +at its head. The nobles of Burgundy refused +to be handed over to the imperial realm, and an +assembly called by Francis absolved him from +his oath to keep the treaty of Madrid. Francis, bewailing +his lack of power to do what he had promised +in regard to Burgundy, offered to pay the emperor +two millions of crowns instead. In short, Charles +had overreached himself through his stringency to a +captive rival, and lost all through his eagerness to +obtain too much.</p> + +<p>Ten years afterwards the relations between the +two monarchs were in a measure reversed. A rebellion +had broken out in Flanders which needed<pb n="191" /><anchor id="Pg191" /> +the immediate presence of Charles, and, for reasons +satisfactory to himself, he wished to go through +France. His counsellors at Madrid looked upon such +a movement as fatally rash; but Charles persisted, +feeling that he knew the character of Francis better +than they. The French king was ready enough to +grant the permission asked, and looked upon the +occasion as an opportunity to show his rival how +kings should deal with their royal neighbors.</p> + +<p>Charles was received with an ostentatious welcome, +each town entertaining him with all the magnificence +it could display. He was presented with +the keys of the gates, the prisoners were set at +liberty, and he was shown all the honor due to the +sovereign of the country itself. The emperor, though +impatient to continue his journey, remained six days +in Paris, where all things possible were done to render +his visit a pleasant one. Had Francis listened +to the advice of some of his ministers, he would +have seized and held prisoner the incautious monarch +who had so long kept him in captivity. But the +confidence of the emperor was not misplaced; no +consideration could induce the high-minded French +king to violate his plighted word, or make him believe +that Charles would fail to carry out certain +promises he had made. He forgot for the time how +he had dealt with his own compacts, but Charles remembered, +and was no sooner out of France than all +his promises faded from his mind, and Francis learned +that he was not the only king who could enter into +engagements which he had no intention to fulfil.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="192" /><anchor id="Pg192" /> +<head>THE INVASION OF AFRICA.</head> + +<p>As Italy was invaded by Gonsalvo de Cordova, +the Great Captain, so Africa was invaded by Cardinal +Ximenes, the Great Churchman, one of the ablest +men who ever appeared in Spain, despite the fact +that he made a dreadful bonfire of thousands of +Arabian manuscripts in the great square of Granada. +The greater part of these were copies of the +Koran, but many of them were of high scientific +and literary value, and impossible to replace. Yet, +while thus engaged in a work fitted for an unlettered +barbarian, Ximenes was using his large +revenues to found the University of Alcala, the +greatest educational institution in Spain, and was +preparing his famous polyglot Bible, for which the +rarest manuscripts were purchased, without regard +to cost, that the Scriptures might be shown at one +view in their various ancient languages. To indicate +the cost of this work, it is said that he paid four +thousand golden crowns for seven manuscripts, which +came too late to be of use in the work. It is strange, +under these circumstances, that he failed to preserve +the valuable part of the Arabian manuscripts.</p> + +<p>The vast labors undertaken by Ximenes at home +did not keep him from enterprises abroad. He was +filled with a burning zeal for the propagation of the +Catholic faith, formed plans for a crusade to the<pb n="193" /><anchor id="Pg193" /> +Holy Land, and organized a remarkably successful +expedition against the Moslems of Africa. It is of +the latter that we desire to speak.</p> + +<p>Soon after the death of Isabella, Mazalquivir, a +nest of pirates on the Barbary coast, had been captured +by an expedition organized by the energetic +Ximenes. He quickly set in train a more difficult +enterprise, one directed against Oran, a Moorish city +of twenty thousand inhabitants, strongly fortified, +with a large commerce, and the haunt of a swarm +of piratical cruisers. The Spanish king had no +money and little heart for this enterprise, but that +did not check the enthusiastic cardinal, who offered +to loan all the sums needed, and to take full +charge of the expedition, leading it himself, if +the king pleased. Ferdinand made no objection +to this, being quite willing to make conquests at +some one else's expense, and the cardinal set to +work.</p> + +<p>It is not often that an individual can equip an +army, but Ximenes had a great income of his own +and had the resources of the Church at his back. +By the close of the spring of 1509 he had made ready +a fleet of ten galleys and eighty smaller vessels, and +assembled an army of four thousand horse and ten +thousand foot, fully supplied with provisions and +military stores for a four months' campaign. Such +was the energy and activity of a man whose life, +until a few years before, had been spent in the solitude +of the cloister and in the quiet practices of religion, +and who was now an infirm invalid of more +than seventy years of age.</p> + +<pb n="194" /><anchor id="Pg194" /> + +<p>The nobles thwarted his plans, and mocked at the +idea of "a monk fighting the battles of Spain." The +soldiers had little taste for fighting under a father +of the Church, "while the Great Captain was left to +stay at home and count his beads like a hermit." +The king threw cold water on the enterprise. But +the spirit and enthusiasm of the old monk triumphed +over them all, and on the 16th of May the fleet +weighed anchor, reaching the port of Mazalquivir +on the following day. Oran, the goal of the expedition, +lay about a league away.</p> + +<p>As soon as the army was landed and drawn up in +line, Ximenes mounted his mule and rode along its +front, dressed in his priestly robes, but with a sword +by his side. A group of friars followed, also with +monastic garbs and weapons of war. The cardinal, +ascending a rising ground, made an animated address +to the soldiers, rousing their indignation by speaking +of the devastation of the coast of Spain by the Moslems, +and awakening their cupidity by dwelling on +the golden spoil to be found in the rich city of Oran. +He concluded by saying that he had come to peril +his own life in the service of the cross and lead them +in person to battle.</p> + +<p>The officers now crowded around the warlike old +monk and earnestly begged him not to expose his +sacred person to the hazards of the fight, saying that +his presence would do more harm than good, as the +men might be distracted from the work before them +by attending to his personal safety. This last argument +moved the warlike cardinal, who, with much +reluctance, consented to keep in the rear and leave<pb n="195" /><anchor id="Pg195" /> +the command of the army to its military leader, +Count Pedro Navarro.</p> + +<p>The day was now far advanced. Beacon-fires on +the hill-tops showed that the country was in alarm. +Dark groups of Moorish soldiers could be seen on +the summit of the ridge that lay between Oran and +Mazalquivir, and which it would be necessary to take +before the city could be reached. The men were +weary with the labors of landing, and needed rest +and refreshment, and Navarro deemed it unsafe to +attempt anything more that day; but the energetic +prelate bade him "to go forward in God's name," +and orders to advance were at once given.</p> + +<p>Silently the Spanish troops began to ascend the +steep sides of the acclivity. Fortunately for them, +a dense mist had arisen, which rolled down the skirts +of the hills and filled the valley through which they +moved. As soon as they left its cover and were revealed +to the Moors a shower of balls and arrows +greeted them, followed by a desperate charge down +the hill. But the Spanish infantry, with their deep +ranks and long pikes, moved on unbroken by the assault, +while Navarro opened with a battery of heavy +guns on the flank of the enemy.</p> + +<p>Thrown into disorder by the deadly volleys, the +Moors began to give ground, and, pressed upon +heavily by the Spanish spearsmen, soon broke into +flight. The Spaniards hotly pursued, breaking rank +in their eagerness in a way that might have proved +fatal but for the panic of the Moors, who had lost +all sense of discipline. The hill-top was reached, and +down its opposite slope poured the Spaniards, driving<pb n="196" /><anchor id="Pg196" /> +the fleeing Moors. Not far before them rose the +walls of Oran. The fleet had anchored before the +city and was vigorously cannonading it, being answered +with equal spirit by sixty pieces of artillery +on the fortifications. Such were the excitement and +enthusiasm of the soldiers that they forgot weariness +and disregarded obstacles. In swift pursuit they +followed the scattering Moors, and in a brief time +were close to the walls, defended by a deeply discouraged +garrison.</p> + +<p>The Spaniards had brought few ladders, but in the +intense excitement and energy of the moment no +obstacle deterred them. Planting their long pikes +against the walls, or thrusting them into the crevices +between the stones, they clambered up with remarkable +dexterity,—a feat which they were utterly unable +to repeat the next day, when they tried it in +cold blood.</p> + +<p>A weak defence was made, and the ramparts soon +swarmed with Spanish soldiers. Sousa, the captain +of the cardinal's guard, was the first to gain the +summit, where he unfurled the banner of Ximenes,—the +cross on one side and the cardinal's arms on +the other. Six other banners soon floated from the +walls, and the soldiers, leaping down into the streets, +gained and threw open the gates. In streamed the +army, sweeping all opposition before it. Resistance +and flight were alike unavailing. Houses and +mosques were tumultuously entered, no mercy being +shown, no regard for age or sex, the soldiers abandoning +themselves to the brutal license and ferocity +common to the wars of that epoch.</p> + +<pb n="197" /><anchor id="Pg197" /> + +<p>In vain Navarro sought to check his brutal troops; +they were beyond control; the butchery never +ceased until, gorged with the food and wine found +in the houses, the worn-out soldiers flung themselves +down in the streets and squares to sleep. Four +thousand Moors had been slain in the brief assault, +and perhaps twice that number were taken prisoners. +The city of Oran, that morning an opulent and +prosperous community, was at night a ruined and +captive city, with its ferocious conquerors sleeping +amidst their slaughtered victims.</p> + +<figure url="images/image12.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>It was an almost incredible victory, considering +the rapidity with which it had been achieved. On +the morning of the 16th the fleet of transports had +set sail from Spain. On the night of the 17th the +object of the expedition was fully accomplished, the +army being in complete possession of Oran, a +strongly manned and fortified city, taken almost +without loss. Ximenes, to whose warlike enthusiasm +this remarkable victory was wholly due, embarked +in his galley the next morning and sailed along the +city's margin, his soul swelling with satisfaction at +his wonderful success. On landing, the army hailed +him as the true victor of Oran, a wave of acclamations +following him as he advanced to the alcazar, +where the keys of the fortress were put into his +hands. A few hours after the surrender of the +city a powerful reinforcement arrived for its relief, +but on learning of its loss the disconcerted Moors +retired. Had the attack been deferred to the next +day, as Navarro proposed, it would probably have +failed. The people of Spain ascribed the victory to<pb n="198" /><anchor id="Pg198" /> +inspiration from heaven; but the only inspiration +lay in the impetuous energy and enthusiasm of the +cardinal. Yet at that period it was by no means +uncommon to invent stories of miracles, and it is +soberly asserted that the sun stood still for several +hours while the action went on, Heaven repeating +the miracle of Joshua, and halting the solar orb in +its career, that more of the heathen might be +slaughtered. The greatest miracle of all would +have been had the sun stood still nowhere else than +over the fated city of Oran.</p> + +<p>It may not be amiss to add to this narrative an +account of a second expedition against Africa, made +by Charles V. some thirty years later, in which +Heaven failed to come to the aid of Spain, and +whose termination was as disastrous as that of the +expedition of Ximenes had been fortunate.</p> + +<p>It was the city of Algiers that Charles set out to +reduce, and, though the season was late and it was +the time of the violent autumnal winds, he persisted +in his purpose in spite of the advice of experienced +mariners. The expedition consisted of twenty +thousand foot and two thousand horse, with a large +body of noble volunteers. The storms came as +promised and gave the army no small trouble in its +voyage, but at length, with much difficulty and +danger, the troops were landed on the coast near +Algiers and advanced at once upon the town.</p> + +<p>Hascan, the Moorish leader, had only about six +thousand men to oppose to the large Spanish army, +and had little hope of a successful resistance by +force of arms. But in this case Heaven—if we admit<pb n="199" /><anchor id="Pg199" /> +its interference at all—came to the aid of the +Moors. On the second day after landing, and before +operations had fairly begun, the clouds gathered +and the skies grew threatening. Towards evening +rain began to fall and a fierce wind arose. During +the night a violent tempest swept the camp, and +the soldiers, who were without tents or shelter of +any kind, were soon in a deplorable state. Their +camp, which was in a low situation, was quickly +overflowed by the pouring rains, and the ground became +ankle deep in mud. No one could lie down, +while the wind blew so furiously that they could +only stand by thrusting their spears into the ground +and clinging to them. About day-dawn they were +attacked by the vigilant Hascan, and a considerable +number of them killed before the enemy was forced +to retire.</p> + +<p>Bad as the night had been, the day proved more +disastrous still. The tempest continued, its force increasing, +and the sea, roused to its utmost fury by +the winds, made sad havoc of the ships. They were +torn from their anchorage, flung violently together, +beat to pieces on the rocks, and driven ashore, while +many sank bodily in the waves. In less than an +hour fifteen war-vessels and a hundred and forty +transports were wrecked and eight thousand men +had perished, those of the crews who reached shore +being murdered by the Moors as soon as they +touched land.</p> + +<p>It was with anguish and astoundment that the +emperor witnessed this wreck of all his hopes, the +great stores which he had collected for subsistence<pb n="200" /><anchor id="Pg200" /> +and military purposes being in one fatal hour +buried in the depths of the sea. At length the +wind began to fall, and some hopes arose that vessels +enough might have escaped to carry the distressed +army back to Europe. But darkness was +again at hand, and a second night of suspense and +misery was passed. In the morning a boat reached +land with a messenger from Andrew Doria, the admiral +of the fleet, who sent word that in fifty years +of maritime life he had never seen so frightful a +storm, and that he had been forced to bear away with +his shattered ships to Cape Metafuz, whither he advised +the emperor to march with all speed, as the +skies were still threatening and the tempest might +be renewed.</p> + +<p>The emperor was now in a fearful quandary. +Metafuz was at least three days' march away. All +the food that had been brought ashore was consumed. +The soldiers, worn out with fatigue, were +in no condition for such a journey. Yet it was impossible +to stay where they were. There was no +need of deliberation; no choice was left; their only +hope of safety lay in instant movement.</p> + +<p>The sick, wounded, and feeble were placed in the +centre, the stronger in front and rear, and the disastrous +march began. Some of the men could hardly +bear the weight of their arms; others, worn out +with toiling through the nearly impassable roads, +lay down and died; many perished from hunger and +exhaustion, there being no food but roots and berries +gathered by the way and the flesh of horses killed +by the emperor's order; many were drowned in the<pb n="201" /><anchor id="Pg201" /> +streams, swollen by the severe rains; many were +killed by the enemy, who followed and harassed +them throughout the march. The late gallant army +was a bedraggled and miserable fragment when the +survivors at length reached Metafuz. Fortunately +the storm was at an end, and they were able to obtain +from the ships the provisions of which they +stood so sorely in need.</p> + +<p>The calamities which attended this unlucky expedition +were not yet at an end. No sooner had the +soldiers embarked than a new storm arose, less violent +than the former, but sufficient to scatter the +ships to right and left, some making port in Spain, +some in Italy, all seeking such harbors of refuge as +they could find. The emperor, after passing through +great perils, was driven to the port of Bugia in +Africa, where contrary winds held him prisoner for +several weeks. He at length reached Spain, to find +the whole land in dismay at the fate of the gallant +expedition, which had set out with such high hopes +of success. To the end of his reign Charles V. had +no further aspirations for conquest in Africa.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="202" /><anchor id="Pg202" /> +<head>AN EMPEROR RETIRED FROM BUSINESS.</head> + +<p>In October of the year 1555 a strange procession +passed through a rugged and hilly region of Spain. +At its head rode an alcalde with a posse of alguazils. +Next came a gouty old man in a horse-litter, like a +prisoner in the hands of a convoy of officers of +justice. A body of horsemen followed, and in the +rear toiled onward a long file of baggage-mules.</p> + +<p>As the train advanced into the more settled regions +of the country it became evident that the personage +thus convoyed was not a prisoner, but a +person of the highest consequence. On each side +of the road the people assembled to see him pass, +with a show of deep respect. At the towns along +the route the great lords of the neighborhood gathered +in his honor, and in the cities the traveller was +greeted by respectful deputations of officials. When +Burgos was approached the great constable of Castile, +with a strong retinue of attendants, came to +meet him, and when he passed through the illuminated +streets of that city the bells rang out in merry +peals, while enthusiastic people filled the streets.</p> + +<p>It was not a prisoner to the law, but a captive to +gout, who thus passed in slow procession through +the lands and cities of Spain. It was the royal<pb n="203" /><anchor id="Pg203" /> +Charles, King of Spain and the Netherlands, Emperor +of Germany, and magnate of America, at that +time the greatest monarch in Europe, lord of a realm +greater than that of Charlemagne, who made his +way with this small following and in this simple +manner through the heart of his Spanish dominions. +He had done what few kings have done before or +since, voluntarily thrown off his crown in the height +of his power,—weary of reigning, surfeited with +greatness,—and retired to spend the remainder of +his life in privacy, to dwell far from the pomp of +courts in a simple community of monks.</p> + +<p>The next principal halting-place of the retired +monarch was the city of Valladolid, once the capital +of the kingdom and still a rich and splendid place, +adorned with stately public buildings and the palaces +of great nobles. Here he remained for some time +resting from his journey, his house thronged with +visitors of distinction. Among these, one day, came +the court fool. Charles touched his cap to him.</p> + +<p>"Welcome, brother," said the jester; "do you raise +your hat to me because you are no longer emperor?"</p> + +<p>"No," answered Charles, "but because this sorry +courtesy is all I have left to give you."</p> + +<p>On quitting Valladolid Charles seemed to turn his +back finally on the world, with all its pomps and +vanities. Before leaving he took his last dinner in +public, and bade an affectionate farewell to his sisters, +his daughter, and his grandson, who had accompanied +him thus far in his journey. A large train +of nobles and cavaliers rode with him to the gates +of the city, where he courteously dismissed them,<pb n="204" /><anchor id="Pg204" /> +and moved onward attended only by his simple +train.</p> + +<p>"Heaven be praised!" said the world-weary monarch, +as he came nearer his place of retreat; "after +this no more visits of ceremony, no more receptions!"</p> + +<p>But he was not yet rid of show and ostentation. +Spending the night at Medina del Campo, at the +house of a rich banker named Rodrigo de Dueñas, +the latter, by way of display, warmed the emperor's +room with a brazier of pure gold, in which, in place +of common fuel, sticks of cinnamon were burned. +Neither the perfume nor the ostentation was agreeable +to Charles, and on leaving the next morning he +punished his over-officious host by refusing to permit +him to kiss his hand, and by causing him to be paid +for the night's lodging like a common inn-keeper.</p> + +<p>This was not the first time that cinnamon had +been burned in the emperor's chamber. The same +was done by the Fuggers, the famous bankers of +Germany, who had loaned Charles large sums for +his expedition against Tunis, and entertained him at +their house on his return. In this case the emperor +was not offended by the odor of cinnamon, since it +was modified by a different and more agreeable perfume. +The bankers, grateful to Charles for breaking +up a pestilent nest of Barbary pirates, threw the +receipts for the money they had loaned him into the +fire, turning their gold into ashes in his behalf. This +was a grateful sacrifice to the emperor, whose war-like +enterprises consumed more money than he could +readily command.</p> + +<p>The vicinity of Yuste was reached late in November.<pb n="205" /><anchor id="Pg205" /> +Here resided a community of Jeronymite +monks, in whose monastery he proposed to pass the +remainder of his days. There were two roads by +which it could be reached,—one an easy, winding +highway, the other a rugged mountain-pass. But +by the latter four days would be saved, and Charles, +tired of the long journey, determined to take it, +difficult as it might prove.</p> + +<p>He had been warned against the mountain pathway, +and found it fully as formidable as he had been +told. A body of hardy rustics were sent ahead, +with pikes, shovels, and other implements, to clear +the way. But it was choked here and there with +fallen stones and trunks of trees which they were +unable to move. In some localities the path wound +round dizzy precipices, where a false step would have +been fatal. To any traveller it would have been very +difficult; to the helpless emperor it was frightfully +dangerous. The peasants carried the litter; in bad +parts of the way the emperor was transferred to his +chair; in very perilous places the vigorous peasants +carried him in their arms.</p> + +<p>Several hours of this hard toil passed before they +reached the summit. As they emerged from the +dark defiles of the <hi rend="font-style: italic">Puerto Nuevo</hi>—now known as +"The Emperor's Pass"—Charles exclaimed, "It is the +last pass I shall go through in this world, save that +of death."</p> + +<p>The descent was much more easy, and soon the +gray walls of Yuste, half hidden in chestnut-groves, +came in sight. Yet it was three months before the +traveller reached there, for the apartments preparing<pb n="206" /><anchor id="Pg206" /> +for him were far from ready, and he had to wait +throughout the winter in the vicinity, in a castle of +the Count of Oropesa, and in the midst of an almost +continual downpour of rain, which turned the roads +to mire, the country almost to a swamp, and the +mountains to vapor-heaps. The threshold of his +new home was far from an agreeable one.</p> + +<p>Charles V. had long contemplated the step he had +thus taken. He was only fifty-five years of age, +but he had become an old man at fifty, and was such +a victim to the gout as to render his life a constant +torment and the duties of royalty too heavy to be +borne. So, taking a resolution which few monarchs +have taken before or since, he gave up his power and +resolved to spend the remainder of his life in such +quiet and peace as a retired monastery would give. +Spain and its subject lands he transferred to his son +Philip, who was to gain both fame and infamy as +Philip II. He did his best, also, to transfer the imperial +crown of Germany to his fanatical and heartless +heir, but his brother Ferdinand, who was in +power there, would not consent, and he was obliged +to make Ferdinand emperor of Germany, and +break in two the vast dominion which he had controlled.</p> + +<p>Charles had only himself to thank for his gout. +Like many a man in humbler life, he had abused the +laws of nature until they had avenged themselves +upon him. The pleasures of the table with him far +surpassed those of intellectual or business pursuits. +He had an extraordinary appetite, equal to that of +any royal <hi rend="font-style: italic">gourmand</hi> of whom history speaks, and,<pb n="207" /><anchor id="Pg207" /> +while leaving his power behind him, he brought this +enemy with him into his retirement.</p> + +<figure url="images/image13.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>We are told by a Venetian envoy at his court, in +the latter part of his reign, that, while still in bed +in the morning, he was served with potted capon, +prepared with sugar, milk, and spices, and then went +to sleep again. At noon a meal of various dishes +was served him, and another after vespers. In the +evening he supped heartily on anchovies, of which +he was particularly fond, or some other gross and +savory food. His cooks were often at their wits' +end to devise some new dish, rich and highly seasoned +enough to satisfy his appetite, and his perplexed +purveyor one day, knowing Charles's passion +for timepieces, told him "that he really did not know +what new dish he could prepare him, unless it were +a <hi rend="font-style: italic">fricassée</hi> of watches."</p> + +<p>Charles drank as heartily as he ate. His huge +repasts were washed down with potations proportionately +large. Iced beer was a favorite beverage, +with which he began on rising and kept up during +the day. By way of a stronger potation, Rhenish +wine was much to his taste. Roger Ascham, who +saw him on St. Andrew's day dining at the feast of +the Golden Fleece, tells us: "He drank the best that +I ever saw. He had his head in the glass five times +as long as any of us, and never drank less than a +good quart at once of Rhenish."</p> + +<p>It was this over-indulgence in the pleasures of the +table that brought the emperor to Yuste. His physician +warned him in vain. His confessor wasted +admonitions on his besetting sin. Sickness and suffering<pb n="208" /><anchor id="Pg208" /> +vainly gave him warning to desist. Indigestion +troubled him; bilious disorders brought misery +to his overworked stomach. At length came gout, +the most terrible of his foes. This enemy gave him +little rest day or night. The man who had hunted +in the mountains for days without fatigue, who had +kept the saddle day and night in his campaigns, who +had held his own in the lists with the best knights +of Europe, was now a miserable cripple, carried, +wherever he went, in the litter of an invalid.</p> + +<p>One would have thought that, in his monastic retreat, +Charles would cease to indulge in gastronomic +excesses, but the retired emperor, with little else to +think of, gave as much attention to his appetite as +ever. Yuste was kept in constant communication +with the rest of the world on matters connected with +the emperor's table. He was especially fond of fish +and all the progeny of the water,—eels, frogs, oysters, +and the like. The trout of the neighborhood +were too small for his liking, so he had larger ones +sent from a distance. Potted fish—anchovies in particular—were +favorite viands. Eel pasty appealed +strongly to his taste. Soles, lampreys, flounders +reached his kitchen from Seville and Portugal. The +country around supplied pork, mutton, and game. +Sausages were sent him from a distance; olives were +brought from afar, as those near at hand were not +to his liking. Presents of sweetmeats and confectionery +were sent him by ladies who remembered +his ancient tastes. In truth, Charles, tortured with +gout, did everything he well could to favor its attacks.</p> + +<pb n="209" /><anchor id="Pg209" /> + +<p>The retired emperor, though he made a monastery +his abode, had no idea of living like a monk. His +apartments were richly furnished and hung with +handsome tapestry, and every attention was paid to +his personal comfort. Rich carpets, canopies of velvet, +sofas and chairs of carved walnut, seats amply +garnished with cushions for the ease of his tender +joints, gave a luxurious aspect to his retirement. +His wardrobe contained no less than sixteen robes +of silk and velvet, lined with ermine, eider-down, or +the soft hair of the Barbary goat. He could not +endure cold weather, and had fireplaces and chimneys +constructed in every room, usually keeping his +apartments almost at furnace heat, much to the discomfort +of his household. With all this, and his +wrappings of fur and eider-down, he would often be +in a shiver and complain that he was chilled to the +bone.</p> + +<p>His table was richly provided with plate, its service +being of silver, as were also the articles of the +toilet, the basins, pitchers, and other utensils of his +bed-chamber. With these were articles of pure gold, +valuable for their curious workmanship. He had +brought with him many jewels of value, and a small +but choice collection of paintings, some of them +among the noblest masterpieces of art. Among +them were eight gems from the hand of Titian. +These were hung in rich frames around his rooms. +He was no reader, and had brought few books, his +whole library comprising but thirty-one volumes, +and these mostly religious works, such as psalters, +missals, breviaries, and the like. There was some<pb n="210" /><anchor id="Pg210" /> +little science and some little history, but the work +which chiefly pleased him was a French poem, "<hi rend="font-style: italic">Le +Chevalier Délibéré</hi>," then popular, which celebrated +the exploits of the house of Burgundy, and especially +of Charles the Bold.</p> + +<p>And now it comes in place to say something of +how Charles employed himself at Yuste, aside from +eating and drinking and shivering in his chimney +corner. The mode in which a monarch retired from +business passes his time cannot be devoid of interest. +He by no means gave up his attention to the affairs +of the realm, but kept himself well informed in all +that was going on, sometimes much to his annoyance, +since blunders were made that gave him a +passing desire to be again at the head of affairs. In +truth, two years after his retirement, the public concerns +got into such a snarl that Philip earnestly +sought to induce the emperor to leave his retreat +and aid him with his ripened experience. This +Charles utterly refused to do. He had had his fill +of politics. It was much less trouble to run a household +than a nation. But he undertook to do what +he could to improve the revenues of the crown. +Despatches about public affairs were brought to him +constantly, and his mental thermometer went up or +down as things prospered or the reverse. But he +was not to be tempted to plunge again into the turbulent +tide of public affairs.</p> + +<p>Charles had other and more humble duties to occupy +his time. His paroxysms of gout came only +at intervals, and in the periods between he kept himself +engaged. He had a taste for mechanics, and<pb n="211" /><anchor id="Pg211" /> +among his attendants was an Italian named Torriano, +a man of much ingenuity, who afterwards constructed +the celebrated hydraulic works at Toledo. +He was a skilful clock-maker, and, as Charles took a +special interest in timepieces, his assistant furnished +his apartments with a series of elaborate clocks. +One of these was so complicated that its construction +occupied more than three years, every detail +of the work being curiously watched by Charles. +Watches were then of recent invention, yet there +were a number of them at Yuste, made by Torriano.</p> + +<p>The attempt to make his clocks keep time together +is said to have been one of the daily occupations of +the retired emperor, and the adjustment of his clocks +and watches gave him so much trouble that he is +said to have one day remarked that it was absurd to +try and make men think alike, when, do what he +would, he could not make two of his timepieces agree.</p> + +<p>He often amused himself with Torriano in making +little puppets,—soldiers that would go through their +exercises, dancing tambourine-girls, etc. It is even +asserted that they constructed birds that would fly +in and out of the window, a story rather difficult to +accept. The monks began to look upon Torriano as +a professor of magic when he invented a handmill +small enough to be hidden in a friar's sleeve, yet +capable of grinding enough meal in a day to last a +man for a week.</p> + +<p>The emperor was very fond of music, particularly +devotional music, and was a devotee in religious exercises, +spending much of his time in listening to the +addresses of the chaplains, and observing the fasts<pb n="212" /><anchor id="Pg212" /> +and festivals of the Church. His fondness for fish +made the Lenten season anything but a period of +penance for him.</p> + +<p>He went on, indeed, eating and drinking as he +would; and his disease went on growing and deepening, +until at length the shadow of death lay heavy on +the man whose religion did not include temperance in +its precepts. During 1558 he grew steadily weaker, +and on the 21st of September the final day came; +his eyes quietly closed and life fled from his frame.</p> + +<p>Yuste, famous as the abiding-place of Charles in +his retirement, remained unmolested in the subsequent +history of the country until 1810, when a +party of French dragoons, foraging near by, found +the murdered body of one of their comrades not far +from the monastery gates. Sure in their minds that +the monks had killed him, they broke in, dispersed +the inmates, and set the buildings on fire. The extensive +pile of edifices continued to burn for eight +days, no one seeking to quench the flames. On the +ninth the ancient monastery was left a heap of ashes, +only the church remaining, and, protected by it, the +palace of Charles.</p> + +<p>In 1820 a body of neighboring insurgents entered +and defaced the remaining buildings, carrying off +everything they could find of value and turning the +church into a stable. Some of the monks returned, +but in 1837 came an act suppressing the convents, +and the poor Jeronymites were finally turned adrift. +To-day the palace of Charles V. presents only desolate +and dreary chambers, used as magazines for grain +and olives. So passes away the glory of the world.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="213" /><anchor id="Pg213" /> +<head>THE FATE OF A RECKLESS PRINCE.</head> + +<p>In 1568 died Don Carlos, Prince of Asturias, the +son of Philip II. of Spain; and in the same year died +Isabella of Valois, the young and beautiful queen of +the Spanish monarch. Legend has connected the +names of Carlos and Isabella, and a mystery hangs +over them which research has failed to dispel. Their +supposed love, their untimely fate, and the suspicion +that their death was due to the jealousy of the king, +have proved a prolific theme for fiction, and the +story of the supposed unhappy fate of the two has +passed from the domain of history into that of +romance and the drama, there being more than one +fine play based on the loves and misfortunes of Carlos +and Isabella. But sober history tells nothing of +the kind, and it is with history that we are here +concerned.</p> + +<p>Carlos, the heir of the throne of Spain, was born +in 1545. He was a bold, headstrong boy, reckless +in disposition, fond of manly exercises, generous to +a fault, fearless of heart, and passionately desirous +of a military life. In figure he was deformed, one +shoulder being higher and one leg longer than the +other, while his chest was flat and his back slightly +humped. His features were not unhandsome,<pb n="214" /><anchor id="Pg214" /> +though very pale, and he spoke with some difficulty. +He was feeble and sickly as a boy, subject to intermittent +fever, and wasted away so greatly that it +seemed as if he would not live to manhood.</p> + +<p>Such were the mental and physical characteristics +of the princely youth who while still young was betrothed +by treaty to the beautiful French princess +Isabella of Valois. The marriage was not destined +to take place. Before the treaty was ratified, Queen +Mary of England, Philip's wife, died, and his name +was substituted for that of his son in the marriage +treaty. The wedding ceremony took place at Toledo, +in February, 1560, and was celebrated with great +splendor. Carlos was present, and may have felt +some resentment at being robbed by his father of +this beautiful bride. Romantic historians tell us +that Isabella felt a tender sentiment for him, a very +unlikely statement in view of the fact that he was +at that time a sickly, ill-favored boy of only fourteen +years of age. Shortly after the marriage Carlos +was formally recognized as heir to the crown.</p> + +<p>Two years afterwards a serious accident occurred. +In descending a flight of stairs the boy slipped and +fell headlong, injuring his head so severely that his +life was despaired of. His head swelled to an enormous +size; he became delirious and totally blind; +examination showed that his skull was fractured; a +part of the bone was removed, but no relief was obtained. +All the arts of the doctors of that day +were tried in vain, but the boy got no better. Processions +were made to the churches, prayers were +offered, and pilgrimages were vowed, all without<pb n="215" /><anchor id="Pg215" /> +avail. Then more radical means were tried. The +mouldering bones of a holy Franciscan, who had died +a hundred years before, and had always been the +object of the prince's especial veneration, were taken +from their coffin and laid on the boy's bed, and the +cloth that had enclosed the dead man's skull was +placed on his forehead.</p> + +<p>That night, we are gravely told, the dead friar +came to Carlos in his sleep, bidding him to "be of +good cheer, for he would certainly recover." Soon +after, the fever subsided, his head shrank back to its +natural size, his sight returned. In two months +from the date of the accident he was physically well, +his recovery being partly or wholly due to the skill +of an Italian surgeon, who trepanned him and by +this act restored him to consciousness.</p> + +<p>Likely enough the boy was never cured. The +blow may have done some permanent injury to his +brain. At any rate, he became strikingly eccentric +and reckless, giving way to every mad whim that +came into his mind. The stories of his wild doings +formed the scandal of Madrid. In 1564 one of his +habits was to patrol the streets with a number of +young nobles as lawless as himself, attacking the +passengers with their swords, kissing the women, +and using foul language to ladies of the highest +rank.</p> + +<p>At that time it was the custom for the young gallants +of the court to wear very large boots. Carlos +increased the size of his, that he might carry in them +a pair of small pistols. Fearing mischief, the king +ordered the shoemaker to reduce the size of his<pb n="216" /><anchor id="Pg216" /> +son's boots; but when the unlucky son of St. Crispin +brought them to the palace, the prince flew into +a rage, beat him severely, and then ordered the +leather to be cut into pieces and stewed, and forced +the shoemaker to swallow it on the spot—or as much +of it as he could get down.</p> + +<p>These are only a sample of his pranks. He beat +his governor, attempted to throw his chamberlain +out of the window, and threatened to stab Cardinal +Espinosa for banishing a favorite actor from the +palace.</p> + +<p>One anecdote told of him displays a reckless and +whimsical humor. Having need of money, Carlos +asked of a merchant, named Grimaldo, a loan of +fifteen hundred ducats. The money-lender readily +consented, thanked the prince for the compliment, +and, in the usual grandiloquent vein of Castilian +courtesy, told Carlos that all he had was at his disposal.</p> + +<p>"I am glad to learn that," answered the prince. +"You may make the loan, then, one hundred thousand +ducats."</p> + +<p>Poor Grimaldo was thunderstruck. He tremblingly +protested that it was impossible,—he had +not the money. "It would ruin my credit," he declared. +"What I said were only words of compliment."</p> + +<p>"You have no right to bandy compliments with +princes," Don Carlos replied. "I take you at your +word. If you do not, in twenty-four hours, pay +over the money to the last <hi rend="font-style: italic">real</hi>, you shall have bitter +cause to rue it."</p> + +<pb n="217" /><anchor id="Pg217" /> + +<p>The unhappy Grimaldo knew not what to do. +Carlos was persistent. It took much negotiation to +induce the prince to reduce the sum to sixty thousand +ducats, which the merchant raised and paid,—with +a malediction on all words of compliment. The +money flew like smoke from the prince's hands, he +being quite capable of squandering the revenues of +a kingdom. He lived in the utmost splendor, and +was lavish with all who came near him, saying, in +support of his gifts and charities, "Who will give if +princes do not?"</p> + +<p>The mad excesses of the prince, his wild defiance +of decency and decorum, were little to the liking of +his father, who surrounded the young man with +agents whom he justly looked upon as spies, and became +wilder in his conduct in consequence. Offers +of marriage were made from abroad. Catharine de +Médicis proposed the hand of a younger sister of +Isabella. The emperor of Germany pressed for a +union with his daughter Anne, the cousin of Carlos. +Philip agreed to the latter, but deferred the marriage. +He married Anne himself after the death of +Carlos, making her his fourth wife. Thus both the +princesses intended for the son became the brides +of the father.</p> + +<p>The trouble between Carlos and his father steadily +grew. The prince was now twenty-one years of +age, and, in his eagerness for a military life, wished +to take charge of affairs in the Netherlands, then in +rebellion against Spain. On learning that the Duke +of Alva was to be sent thither, Carlos said to him, +"You are not to go there; I will go myself."</p> + +<pb n="218" /><anchor id="Pg218" /> + +<p>The efforts of the duke to soothe him only irritated +him, and in the end he drew his dagger and +exclaimed, "You shall not go; if you do I will kill +you."</p> + +<p>A struggle followed, the prince making violent +efforts to stab the duke. It only ended when a +chamberlain came in and rescued Alva. This outrage +on his minister doubled the feeling of animosity +between father and son, and they grew so hostile +that they ceased to speak, though living in the same +palace.</p> + +<p>The next escapade of Carlos brought matters to a +crisis. He determined to fly from Spain and seek a +more agreeable home in Germany or the Netherlands. +As usual, he had no money, and he tried +to obtain funds by demanding loans from different +cities,—a reckless process which at once proclaimed +that he had some mad design in mind. He went +further than this, saying to his confidants that "he +wished to kill a man with whom he had a quarrel." +This purpose he confessed to a priest, and demanded +absolution. The priest refused this startling request, +and as the prince persisted in his sanguinary purpose, +a conclave of sixteen theologians was called together +to decide what action it was advisable to take in so +extraordinary a case.</p> + +<p>After a debate on the subject, one of them asked +Carlos the name of his enemy. The prince calmly +replied,—</p> + +<p>"My father is the person. I wish to take his life."</p> + +<p>This extraordinary declaration, in which the mad +prince persisted, threw the conclave into a state of<pb n="219" /><anchor id="Pg219" /> +the utmost consternation. On breaking up, they +sent a messenger to the king, then at the Escorial +Palace, and made him acquainted with the whole +affair. This story, if it is true, seems to indicate +that the prince was insane.</p> + +<p>His application to the cities for funds was in a +measure successful. By the middle of January, 1568, +his agents brought him in a hundred and fifty thousand +ducats,—a fourth of the sum he had demanded. +On the 17th he sent an order to Don Ramon de +Tassis, director-general of the posts, demanding that +eight horses should be provided for him that evening. +Tassis, suspecting something wrong, sent word that +the horses were all out. Carlos repeated his order +in a peremptory manner, and the postmaster now +sent all the horses out, and proceeded with the news +to the king at the Escorial. Philip immediately returned +to Madrid, where, the next morning, Carlos +attacked his uncle, Don John of Austria, with a +drawn sword, because the latter refused to repeat a +conversation he had had with the king.</p> + +<p>For some time Carlos had slept with the utmost +precautions, as if he feared an attack upon his life. +His sword and dagger lay ready by his bedside, and +he kept a loaded musket within reach. He had also +a bolt constructed in such a manner that, by aid of +pulleys, he could fasten or unfasten the door of his +chamber while in bed. All this was known to Philip, +and he ordered the mechanic who had made it to +derange the mechanism so that it would not work. +To force a way into the chamber of a man like +Carlos might not have been safe.</p> + +<pb n="220" /><anchor id="Pg220" /> + +<figure url="images/image14.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>At the hour of eleven that night the king came +down-stairs, wearing armor on his body and a helmet +on his head. With him were the Duke of Feria, +captain of the guard, several other lords, and twelve +guardsmen. They quietly entered the chamber of +the prince, and the duke, stealing to the bedside, secured +the sword, dagger, and musket which lay there.</p> + +<p>The noise now wakened Carlos, who sprang up, +demanding who was there.</p> + +<p>"It is the council of state," answered the duke.</p> + +<p>On hearing this the prince leaped from the bed, +uttering threats and imprecations, and endeavored +to seize his arms. Philip, who had prudently kept +in the background until the weapons were secured, +now advanced and bade his son to return to bed and +keep quiet.</p> + +<p>"What does your majesty want of me?" demanded +the prince.</p> + +<p>"You will soon learn," Philip harshly replied.</p> + +<p>He then gave orders that the windows and doors +of the room should be strongly secured and the keys +brought to him. Every article of furniture, even +the andirons, with which violence might have been +done, was removed from the room. The king then +appointed Feria keeper of the prince, and bade the +other nobles to serve him, with due respect, saying +that he would hold them as traitors if they permitted +him to escape.</p> + +<p>"Your majesty had better kill me than keep me +a prisoner," exclaimed Carlos. "It will be a great +scandal to the kingdom. If you do not kill me I +will kill myself."</p> + +<pb n="221" /><anchor id="Pg221" /> + +<p>"You will do no such thing," answered Philip. +"That would be the act of a madman."</p> + +<p>"Your majesty," replied the prince, "treats me so +ill that you drive me to this extremity. I am not +mad, but you drive me to despair."</p> + +<p>Other words passed, and on the withdrawal of the +king the voice of Carlos was so broken by sobs that +his words could scarcely be heard. That night the +Duke of Feria and two other lords remained in the +prince's room,—now his prison. Each succeeding +night two of the six appointed lords performed this +duty. They were not allowed to wear their swords +in the presence of the prince, but his meat was cut +up before serving, as no knife was permitted to be +used at his meals. A guard was stationed in the +passage without, and, as the prince could not look +from his barricaded windows, he was from that day +dead to the world.</p> + +<p>The king immediately summoned his council of +state and began a process against the prisoner. +Though making a show of deep affliction, he was +present at all the meetings and listened to all the +testimony, which, when written out, formed a heap +of paper half a foot thick.</p> + +<p>The news of the arrest of Don Carlos made a great +sensation in Spain. The wildest rumors were set +afloat. Some said that he had tried to kill his father, +others that he was plotting rebellion. Many laid all +the blame on the king. "Others, more prudent than +their neighbors, laid their fingers on their lips and +were silent." The affair created almost as much +sensation throughout Europe as in Spain. Philip,<pb n="222" /><anchor id="Pg222" /> +in his despatches to other courts, spoke in such +vague and mysterious language that it was impossible +to tell what he meant, and the most varied +surmises were advanced.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Carlos was kept rigorously confined, +so much so that he was not left alone day or night. +Of the two nobles in his chamber at night, one +was required to keep awake while the other slept. +They were permitted to talk with him, but not +on political matters nor on the subject of his imprisonment. +They were ordered to bring him no +messages from without nor receive any from him. +No books except devotional ones were allowed +him.</p> + +<p>If it was the purpose of Philip to end the life of +his son by other means than execution he could not +have taken better measures. For a young man of +his high spirit and fiery temper such strict confinement +was maddening. At first he was thrown into +a frenzy, and tried more than once to make way +with himself. The sullenness of despair succeeded. +He grew daily more emaciated, and the malarial +fever which had so long affected him now returned +in a severe degree. To allay the heat of the fever +he would deluge the floor of his chamber with water, +and walk for hours with bare feet on the cold floor. +He had a warming-pan filled with ice and snow +brought him, and kept it for hours at night in his +bed. He would drink snow-water in immoderate +draughts. In his eating he seemed anxious to break +down his strength,—now refusing all food for days +together, now devouring a pasty of four partridges<pb n="223" /><anchor id="Pg223" /> +at a sitting, washing it down with three gallons or +more of iced water.</p> + +<p>That he was permitted to indulge in such caprices +seems to indicate that Philip wished him to kill himself. +No constitution, certainly not so weak a one +as that of Carlos, could long withstand these excesses. +His stomach refused to perform its duty; +severe vomiting attacked him; dysentery set in; +his strength rapidly failed. The expected end came +on the 24th of July, six months after the date of +his imprisonment, death releasing the prince from +the misery of his unhappy lot. One writer tells us +that it was hastened by a strong purgative dose, administered +by his father's orders, and that he was +really assassinated. However that be, Philip had +little reason to be sorry at the death of his lunatic +son. To one of his austere temperament it was +probably an easy solution of a difficult problem.</p> + +<p>Less than three months passed after the death of +Carlos when Isabella followed him to the grave. +She was then but twenty-three years old,—about +the same age as himself. The story was soon set +afloat that Philip had murdered both his son and his +wife, moved thereto by jealousy; and from this has +arisen the romantic story of secret love between the +two, with the novels and dramas based thereon. +In all probability the story is without foundation. +Philip is said to have been warmly loved by his wife, +and the poison which carried her away seems to have +been the heavy doses of medicine with which the +doctors of that day sought to cure a passing illness.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="224" /><anchor id="Pg224" /> +<head>SPAIN'S GREATEST VICTORY AT SEA.</head> + +<p>On the 16th of September, 1571, there sailed from +the harbor of Messina one of the greatest fleets the +Mediterranean had ever borne upon its waves. It +consisted of more than three hundred vessels, most +of them small, but some of great bulk for that day, +carrying forty pieces of artillery. On board these +ships were eighty thousand men. Of these, less than +thirty thousand were soldiers, for in those days, +when war-galleys were moved by oars rather than +sails, great numbers of oarsmen were needed. At +the head of this powerful armament was Don John +of Austria, brother of Philip II., and the ablest +naval commander that Spain possessed.</p> + +<p>At sunrise on the 7th of October the Christian fleet +came in sight, at the entrance to the Bay of Lepanto, +on the west of Greece, of the great Turkish armament, +consisting of nearly two hundred and fifty +royal galleys, with a number of smaller vessels in +the rear. On these ships are said to have been not +less than one hundred and twenty thousand men. +A great battle for the supremacy of Christian or +Mohammedan was about to be fought between two +of the largest fleets ever seen in the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>For more than a century the Turks had been<pb n="225" /><anchor id="Pg225" /> +masters of Constantinople and the Eastern Empire, +and had extended their dominion far to the west. +The Mediterranean had become a Turkish lake, +which the fleets of the Ottoman emperors swept at +will. Cyprus had fallen, Malta had sustained a terrible +siege, and the coasts of Italy and Spain were +exposed to frightful ravages, in which the corsairs +of the Barbary states joined hands with the Turks. +France only was exempt, its princes having made +an alliance with Turkey, in which they gained +safety at the cost of honor.</p> + +<p>Spain was the leading opponent of this devastating +power. For centuries the Spanish people had been +engaged in a bitter crusade against the Moslem +forces. The conquest of Granada was followed by +descents upon the African coast, the most important +of which was the conquest of Tunis by Charles +the Fifth in 1535, on which occasion ten thousand +Christian captives were set free from a dreadful +bondage. An expedition against Tripoli in 1559, +however, ended in disaster, the Turks and the +Moors continued triumphant at sea, and it was not +until 1571 that the proud Moslem powers received an +effectual check.</p> + +<p>The great fleet of which Don John of Austria +was admiral-in-chief had not come solely from +Spain. Genoa had furnished a large number of galleys, +under their famous admiral, Andrew Doria,—a +name to make the Moslems tremble. Venice had +added its fleet, and the Papal States had sent a +strong contingent of ships. Italy had been suffering +from the Turkish fleet, fire and sword had turned<pb n="226" /><anchor id="Pg226" /> +the Venetian coasts into a smoking desolation, and +this was the answer of Christian Europe to the +Turkish menace.</p> + +<p>The sight of the Turkish fleet on that memorable +7th of October created instant animation in the +Christian armament. Don John hoisted his pennon, +ordered the great standard of the league, given by +the Pope, to be unfurled, and fired a gun in defiance +of the Turks. Some of the commanders doubted +the wisdom of engaging the enemy in a position +where he had the advantage, but the daring young +commander curtly cut short the discussion.</p> + +<p>"Gentlemen," he said, "this is the time for combat, +not for counsel."</p> + +<p>Steadily the two fleets approached each other on +that quiet sea. The Christian ships extended over a +width of three miles. On the right was Andrew +Doria, with sixty-four galleys. The centre, consisting +of sixty-three galleys, was commanded by Don +John, with Colonna, the captain-general of the Pope, +on one flank, and Veniero, the Venetian captain-general, +on the other. The left wing, commanded +by the noble Venetian Barbarigo, extended as near +to the coast of Ætolia as it was deemed safe to venture. +The reserve, of thirty-five galleys, was under +the Marquis of Santa Cruz. The plan of battle was +simple. Don John's orders to his captains were for +each to select an adversary, close with him at once, +and board as soon as possible.</p> + +<p>As the fleet advanced the armament of the Turks +came into full view, spread out in half-moon shape +over a wider space than that of the allies. The great<pb n="227" /><anchor id="Pg227" /> +galleys, with their gilded and brightly painted prows +and their myriad of banners and pennons, presented +a magnificent spectacle. But the wind, which had +thus far favored the Turks, now suddenly shifted and +blew in their faces, and the sun, as the day advanced, +shone directly in their eyes. The centre of their +line was occupied by the huge galley of Ali Pasha, +their leader. Their right was commanded by Mahomet +Sirocco, viceroy of Egypt; their left by Uluch +Ali, dey of Algiers, the most redoubtable of the corsair +lords of the sea.</p> + +<p>The breeze continued light. It was nearly noon +when the fleets came face to face. The sun, now +nearing the zenith, shone down from a cloudless sky. +As yet it seemed like some grand holiday spectacle +rather than the coming of a struggle for life or death.</p> + +<p>Suddenly the shrill war-cry of the Turks rang out +on the air. Their cannon began to play. The firing +ran along the line until the whole fleet was engaged. +On the Christian side the trumpets rang defiance +and the guns answered the Turkish peals. The +<hi rend="font-style: italic">galeazzas</hi>, a number of mammoth war-ships, had +been towed a half-mile in advance of the Spanish +fleet, and as the Turks came up poured broadsides +from their heavy guns with striking effect, doing +considerable damage. But Ali Pasha, not caring to +engage these monster craft, opened his lines and +passed them by. They had done their work, and +took no further part, being too unwieldy to enter +into close action.</p> + +<p>The battle began on the left. Barbarigo, the Venetian +admiral, had brought his ships as near the<pb n="228" /><anchor id="Pg228" /> +coast as he dared. But Mahomet Sirocco knew the +waters better, passed between his ships and the shore, +and doubled upon him, bringing the Christian line +between two fires. Barbarigo was wounded, eight +galleys were sent to the bottom, and several were +captured. Yet the Venetians, who hated the Turks +with a mortal hatred, fought on with unyielding +fury.</p> + +<p>Uluch Ali, on the Christian right, tried the same +manœuvre. But he had Andrew Doria, the experienced +Genoese, to deal with, and his purpose was +defeated by a wide extension of the Christian line. +It was a trial of skill between the two ablest commanders +on the Mediterranean. Doria, by stretching +out his line, had weakened his centre, and the +corsair captain, with alert decision, fell upon some +galleys separated from their companions, sinking +several, and carrying off the great Capitana of Malta +as a prize.</p> + +<p>Thus both on the right and on the left the Christians +had the worst of it. The severest struggle was +in the centre. Here were the flag-ships of the commanders,—the +Real, Don John's vessel, flying the +holy banner of the League; Ali Pasha displaying the +great Ottoman standard, covered with texts from +the Koran in letters of gold, and having the name +of Allah written upon it many thousands of times.</p> + +<p>Both the commanders, young and ardent, burned +with desire to meet in mid battle. The rowers urged +forward their vessels with an energy that sent them +ahead of the rest of their lines, driving them through +the foaming water with such force that the pasha's<pb n="229" /><anchor id="Pg229" /> +galley, much the larger and loftier of the two, was +hurled upon its opponent until its prow reached the +fourth bench of rowers. Both vessels groaned and +quivered to their very keels with the shock.</p> + +<p>As soon as the vessels could be disengaged the +combat began, the pasha opening with a fierce fire +of cannon and musketry, which was returned with +equal fury and more effect. The Spanish gunners +and musketeers were protected by high defences, +and much of the Turkish fire went over their heads, +while their missiles, poured into the unprotected and +crowded crews of Ali's flag-ship, caused terrible loss. +But the Turks had much the advantage in numbers, +and both sides fought with a courage that made the +result a matter of doubt.</p> + +<p>The flag-ships were not long left alone. Other +vessels quickly gathered round them, and the combat +spread fiercely to both sides. The new-comers +attacked one another and assailed at every opportunity +the two central ships. But the latter, beating +off their assailants, clung together with unyielding +pertinacity, as if upon them depended the whole +issue of the fight.</p> + +<p>The complete width of the entrance to the bay of +Lepanto was now a scene of mortal combat, though +the vessels were so lost under a pall of smoke that +none of the combatants could see far to the right or +left. The lines, indeed, were broken up into small +detachments, each fighting the antagonists in its +front, without regard to what was going on elsewhere. +The battle was in no sense a grand whole, but a +series of separate combats in which the galleys grappled<pb n="230" /><anchor id="Pg230" /> +and the soldiers and sailors boarded and fought +hand to hand. The slaughter was frightful. In the +case of some vessels, it is said, every man on board +was killed or wounded, while the blood that flowed +from the decks stained the waters of the gulf red +for miles.</p> + +<p>The left wing of the allies, as has been said, was +worsted at the beginning of the fight, its commander +receiving a wound which proved mortal. But the +Venetians fought on with the courage of despair. +In the end they drove back their adversaries and +themselves became the assailants, taking vessel after +vessel from the foe. The vessel of Mahomet Sirocco +was sunk, and he was slain after escaping death by +drowning. His death ended the resistance of his +followers. They turned to fly, many of the vessels +being run ashore and abandoned and their crews +largely perishing in the water.</p> + +<p>While victory in this quarter perched on the Christian +banners, the mortal struggle in the centre went +on. The flag-ships still clung together, an incessant +fire of artillery and musketry sweeping both decks. +The Spaniards proved much the better marksmen, +but the greater numbers of the Turks, and reinforcements +received from an accompanying vessel, balanced +this advantage. Twice the Spaniards tried to +board and were driven back. A third effort was +more successful, and the deck of the Turkish galley +was reached. The two commanders cheered on their +men, exposing themselves to danger as freely as the +meanest soldier. Don John received a wound in the +foot,—fortunately a slight one. Ali Pasha led his<pb n="231" /><anchor id="Pg231" /> +janizaries boldly against the boarders, but as he did +so he was struck in the head by a musket-ball and +fell. The loss of his inspiring voice discouraged his +men. For a time they continued to struggle, but, +borne back by their impetuous assailants, they threw +down their arms and asked for quarter.</p> + +<p>The deck was covered with the bodies of the dead +and wounded. From beneath them the body of Ali +was drawn, severely, perhaps mortally, wounded. +His rescuers would have killed him on the spot, but +he diverted them by pointing out where his money +and jewels could be found. The next soldier to come +up was one of the galley-slaves, whom Don John had +unchained from the oar and supplied with arms. +Ali's story of treasure was lost on him. With one +blow he severed his head from his shoulders, and +carried the gory prize to Don John, laying it at his +feet. The generous Spaniard looked at it with a +mingling of pity and horror.</p> + +<p>"Of what use can such a present be to me?" he +coldly asked the slave, who looked for some rich reward; +"throw it into the sea."</p> + +<p>This was not done. The head was stuck on a +pike and raised aloft on the captured galley. At the +same time the great Ottoman banner was drawn +down, while that of the Cross was elevated with +cheers of triumph in its place.</p> + +<p>The shouts of "victory!" the sight of the Christian +standard at the mast-head of Ali's ship, the +news of his death, which spread from ship to ship, +gave new courage to the allies and robbed the +Turks of spirit. They fought on, but more feebly.<pb n="232" /><anchor id="Pg232" /> +Many of their vessels were boarded and taken. +Others were sunk. After four hours of fighting +the resistance of the Turkish centre was at an end.</p> + +<p>On the right, as related, Andrew Doria had suffered +a severe loss by stretching his line too far. +He would have suffered still more had not the reserve +under Santa Cruz, which had already given +aid to Don John, come to his relief. Strengthened +by Cardona with the Sicilian squadron, he fell on +the Algerine galleys with such fierceness that they +were forced to recoil. In their retreat they were +hotly assailed by Doria, and Uluch, beset on all +sides, was obliged to abandon his prizes and take to +flight. Tidings now came to him of the defeat of +the centre and the death of Ali, and, hoisting signals +for retreat, he stood in all haste to the north, followed +by the galleys of his fleet.</p> + +<p>With all sail spread and all its oarsmen vigorously +at work, the corsair fleet sped rapidly away, +followed by Doria and Santa Cruz. Don John joined +in the pursuit, hoping to intercept the fugitives in +front of a rocky headland which stretched far into +the sea. But the skilled Algerine leader weathered +this peril, losing a few vessels on the rocks, the remainder, +nearly forty in number, bearing boldly +onward. Soon they distanced their pursuers, many +of whose oarsmen had taken part and been wounded +in the fight. Before nightfall the Algerines were +vanishing below the horizon.</p> + +<p>There being signs of a coming storm, Don John +hastened to seek a harbor of refuge, setting fire to +such vessels as were damaged beyond usefulness, and<pb n="233" /><anchor id="Pg233" /> +with the remainder of his prizes making all haste +to the neighboring port of Petala, the best harbor +within reach.</p> + +<p>The loss of the Turks had been immense, probably +not less than twenty-five thousand being killed +and five thousand taken prisoners. To Don John's +prizes may be added twelve thousand Christian captives, +chained to the oars by the Turks, who now +came forth, with tears of joy, to bless their deliverers. +The allies had lost no more than eight thousand +men. This discrepancy was largely due to +their use of fire-arms, while many of the Turks +fought with bows and arrows. Only the forty Algerine +ships escaped; one hundred and thirty vessels +were taken. The Christian loss was but fifteen galleys. +The spoils were large and valuable, consisting +in great measure of gold, jewels, and rich brocades.</p> + +<p>Of the noble cavaliers who took part in the fight, +we shall speak only of Alexander Farnese, Prince +of Parma, a nephew of Don John, whom he was +destined to succeed in military renown. He began +here his career with a display of courage and daring +unsurpassed on the fleet. Among the combatants +was a common soldier, Cervantes by name, whose +future glory was to throw into the shade that of all +the leaders in the fight. Though confined to bed +with a fever on the morning of the battle, he insisted +on taking part, and his courage in the affray +was shown by two wounds on his breast and a third +in his hand which disabled it for life. Fortunately +it was the left hand. The right remained to write +the immortal story of Don Quixote de la Mancha.</p> + +<pb n="234" /><anchor id="Pg234" /> + +<p>Thus ended one of the greatest naval battles of +modern times. No important political effect came +from it, but it yielded an immense moral result. It +had been the opinion of Europe that the Turks were +invincible at sea. This victory dispelled that theory, +gave new heart to Christendom, and so dispirited the +Turks that in the next year they dared not meet the +Christians at sea, though they were commanded by +the daring dey of Algiers. The beginning of the +decline of the Ottoman empire may be said to date +from the battle of Lepanto.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="235" /><anchor id="Pg235" /> +<head>THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA.</head> + +<p>During almost the whole reign of Philip II. the +army of Spain was kept busily engaged, now with +the Turks and the Barbary states, now with the revolted +Moriscos, or descendants of the Moors of +Granada, now in the conquest of Portugal, now with +the heretics of the Netherlands. All this was not +enough for the ambition of the Spanish king. Elizabeth +of England had aided the Netherland rebels +and had insulted him in America by sending fleets +to plunder his colonies; England, besides, was a nest +of enemies of the church of which Philip was one of +the most zealous supporters; he determined to attempt +the conquest of that heretical and hostile +island and the conversion of its people.</p> + +<p>For months all the shipwrights of Spain were +kept busy in building vessels of an extraordinary +size. Throughout the kingdom stores were actively +collected for their equipment. Levies of soldiers +were made in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, +to augment the armies of Spain. What was in view +was the secret of the king, but through most of +1587 all Europe resounded with the noise of his +preparations.</p> + +<p>Philip broached his project to his council of state, +but did not gain much support for his enterprise. +"England," said one of them, "is surrounded with<pb n="236" /><anchor id="Pg236" /> +a tempestuous ocean and has few harbors. Its navy +is equal to that of any other nation, and if a landing +is made we shall find its coasts defended by a powerful +army. It would be better first to subdue the +Netherlands; that done we shall be better able to +chastise the English queen." The Duke of Parma, +Philip's general in chief, was of the same opinion. +Before any success could be hoped for, he said, Spain +should get possession of some large seaport in Zealand, +for the accommodation of its fleet.</p> + +<p>These prudent counsels were thrown away on the +self-willed king. His armies had lately conquered +Portugal; England could not stand before their valor; +one battle at sea and another on shore would decide +the contest; the fleet he was building would overwhelm +all the ships that England possessed; the +land forces of Elizabeth, undisciplined and unused to +war, could not resist his veteran troops, the heroes +of a hundred battles, and led by the greatest general +of the age. All this he insisted on. Europe should +see what he could do. England should be punished +for its heresy and Elizabeth pay dearly for her discourtesy.</p> + +<p>Philip was confirmed in his purpose by the approbation +of the Pope. Elizabeth of England was the +greatest enemy of the Catholic faith. She had abolished +it throughout her dominions and executed as a +traitor the Catholic Queen Mary of Scotland. For +nearly thirty years she had been the chief support of +the Protestants in Germany, France, and the Netherlands. +Pope Pius V. had already issued a bull +deposing Elizabeth, on the ground of acts of perfidy.<pb n="237" /><anchor id="Pg237" /> +Sixtus VI., who succeeded, renewed this bull and +encouraged Philip who, ambitious to be considered +the guardian of the Church, hastened his preparations +for the conquest of the island kingdom.</p> + +<p>Elizabeth was not deceived by the stories set +afloat by Spain. She did not believe that this great +fleet was intended partly for the reduction of Holland, +partly for use in America, as Philip declared. +Scenting danger afar, she sent Sir Francis Drake +with a fleet to the coast of Spain to interrupt these +stupendous preparations.</p> + +<p>Drake was the man for the work. Dispersing the +Spanish fleet sent to oppose him, he entered the +harbor of Cadiz, where he destroyed two large galleons +and a handsome vessel filled with provisions +and naval stores. Then he sailed for the Azores, +captured a rich carrack on the way home from the +East Indies, and returned to England laden with +spoils. He had effectually put an end to Philip's +enterprise for that year.</p> + +<p>Philip now took steps towards a treaty of peace +with England, for the purpose of quieting the suspicions +of the queen. She appeared to fall into the +snare, pretended to believe that his fleet was intended +for Holland and America, and entered into a conference +with Spain for the settlement of all disturbing +questions. But at the same time she raised +an army of eighty thousand men, fortified all exposed +ports, and went vigorously to work to equip +her fleet. She had then less than thirty ships in her +navy, and these much smaller than those of Spain, +but the English sailors were the best and boldest in<pb n="238" /><anchor id="Pg238" /> +the world, new ships were rapidly built, and pains +was taken to increase the abhorrence which the +people felt for the tyranny of Spain. Accounts were +spread abroad of the barbarities practised in America +and in the Netherlands, vivid pictures were drawn +of the cruelties of the Inquisition, and the Catholic +as well as the Protestant people of England became +active in preparing for defence. The whole island +was of one mind; loyalty seemed universal; the citizens +of London provided thirty ships, and the nobility +and gentry of England forty or fifty more. +But these were of small size as compared with those +of their antagonist, and throughout the island apprehension +prevailed.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of May, 1588, Philip's strenuous +labors were concluded and the great fleet was ready. +It was immense as compared with that with which +William the Conqueror had invaded and conquered +England five centuries before. The Invincible Armada, +as the Spaniards called it, consisted of one +hundred and fifty ships, many of them of enormous +size. They were armed with more than two thousand +six hundred great guns, were provisioned for +half a year, and contained military stores in a profusion +which only the wealth of America and the +Indies could have supplied. On them were nearly +twenty thousand of the famous troops of Spain, with +two thousand volunteers of the most distinguished +families, and eight thousand sailors. In addition +there was assembled in the coast districts of the +Netherlands an army of thirty-four thousand men, +for whose transportation to England a great number<pb n="239" /><anchor id="Pg239" /> +of flat-bottomed vessels had been procured. These +were to venture upon the sea as soon as the Armada +was in position for their support.</p> + +<p>And now, indeed, "perfidious Albion" had reason +to tremble. Never had that nation of islanders been +so seriously threatened, not even when the ships of +William of Normandy were setting sail for its shores. +The great fleet, which lay at Lisbon, then a city of +Spain, was to set sail in the early days of May, and +no small degree of fear affected the hearts of all +Protestant Europe, for the conquest of England by +Philip the fanatic would have been a frightful blow +to the cause of religious and political liberty.</p> + +<p>All had so far gone well with Spain; now all began +to go ill. At the very time fixed for sailing the +Marquis of Santa Cruz, the admiral of the fleet, was +taken violently ill and died, and with him died the +Duke of Paliano, the vice-admiral. Santa Cruz's +place was not easy to fill. Philip chose to succeed +him the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a nobleman totally +ignorant of sea affairs, giving him for vice-admiral +Martinez de Recaldo, a seaman of much experience. +All this caused so much delay that the fleet did not +sail till May 29.</p> + +<p>Storm succeeded sickness to interfere with Philip's +plans. A tempest fell on the fleet on its way to +Corunna, where it was to take on some troops and +stores. All but four of the ships reached Corunna, +but they had been so battered and dishevelled by +the winds that several weeks passed before they +could again be got ready for sea,—much to the discomfiture +of the king, who was eager to become the<pb n="240" /><anchor id="Pg240" /> +lord and master of England. He had dwelt there +in former years as the husband of Queen Mary; +now he was ambitious to set foot there as absolute +king.</p> + +<p>England, meanwhile, was in an ebullition of joy. +Word had reached there that the Spanish fleet was +rendered unseaworthy by the storm, and the queen's +secretary, in undue haste, ordered Lord Howard, the +admiral, to lay up four of his largest ships and discharge +their crews, as they would not be needed. +But Howard was not so ready to believe a vague +report, and begged the queen to let him keep the +ships, even if at his own expense, till the truth could +be learned. To satisfy himself, he set sail for Corunna, +intending to try and destroy the Armada if +as much injured as reported. Learning the truth, +and finding that a favorable wind for Spain had begun +to blow, he returned to Plymouth in all haste, +in some dread lest the Armada might precede him +to the English coast.</p> + +<p>He had not long been back when stirring tidings +came. The Armada had been seen upon the seas. +Lord Howard at once left harbor with his fleet. The +terrible moment of conflict, so long and nervously +awaited, was at hand. On the next day—July 30—he +came in view of the great Spanish fleet, drawn +up in the form of a crescent, with a space of seven +miles between its wings. Before this giant fleet his +own seemed but a dwarf. Paying no attention to +Lord Howard's ships, the Armada moved on with +dignity up the Channel, its purpose being to disperse +the Dutch and English ships off the Netherland coast<pb n="241" /><anchor id="Pg241" /> +and escort to England the Duke of Parma's army, +then ready to sail.</p> + +<p>Lord Howard deemed it wisest to pursue a guerilla +mode of warfare, harassing the Spaniards and taking +any advantage that offered. He first attacked the +flag-ship of the vice-admiral Recaldo, and with such +vigor and dexterity as to excite great alarm in the +Spanish fleet. From that time it kept closer order, yet +on the same day Howard attacked one of its largest +ships. Others hurried to the aid; but in their haste +two of them ran afoul, one, a large galleon, having +her mast broken. She fell behind and was captured +by Sir Francis Drake, who discovered, to his delight, +that she had on board a chief part of the Spanish +treasure.</p> + +<p>Other combats took place, in all of which the +English were victorious. The Spaniards proved ignorant +of marine evolutions, and the English sailed +around them with a velocity which none of their +ships could equal, and proved so much better marksmen +that nearly every shot told, while the Spanish +gunners fired high and wasted their balls in the air. +The fight with the Armada seemed a prototype of +the much later sea-battles at Manila and Santiago +de Cuba.</p> + +<p>Finally, after a halt before Calais, the Armada +came within sight of Dunkirk, where Parma's army, +with its flat-bottomed transports, was waiting to +embark. Here a calm fell upon the fleets, and they +remained motionless for a whole day. But about +midnight a breeze sprang up and Lord Howard put +into effect a scheme he had devised the previous day.<pb n="242" /><anchor id="Pg242" /> +He had made a number of fire-ships by filling eight +vessels with pitch, sulphur, and other combustibles, +and these were now set on fire and sent down the +wind against the Spanish fleet.</p> + +<p>It was with terror that the Spaniards beheld the +coming of these flaming ships. They remembered +vividly the havoc occasioned by fire-ships at the +siege of Antwerp. The darkness of the night added +to their fears, and panic spread from end to end of the +fleet. All discipline vanished; self-preservation was +the sole thought of each crew. Some took time to +weigh their anchors, but others, in wild haste, cut +their cables, and soon the ships were driving blindly +before the wind, some running afoul of each other +and being completely disabled by the shock.</p> + +<p>When day dawned Lord Howard saw with the +highest satisfaction the results of his stratagem. +The Spanish fleet was in the utmost disorder, its +ships widely dispersed. His own fleet had just been +strengthened, and he at once made an impetuous +attack upon the scattered Armada. The battle began +at four in the morning and lasted till six in the +evening, the Spaniards fighting with great bravery +but doing little execution. Many of their ships were +greatly damaged, and ten of the largest were sunk, +run aground, or captured. The principal galeas, or +large galley, manned with three hundred galley +slaves and having on board four hundred soldiers, +was driven ashore near Calais, and nearly all the +Spaniards were killed or drowned in attempting to +reach land. The rowers were set at liberty.</p> + +<p>The Spanish admiral was greatly dejected by this<pb n="243" /><anchor id="Pg243" /> +series of misfortunes. As yet the English had lost +but one small ship and about one hundred men, +while his losses had been so severe that he began to +dread the destruction of the entire fleet. He could +not without great danger remain where he was. +His ships were too large to approach nearer to the +coast of Flanders. Philip had declined to secure a +suitable harbor in Zealand, as advised. The Armada +was a great and clumsy giant, from which Lord +Howard's much smaller fleet had not fled in terror, +as had been expected, and which now was in such a +condition that there was nothing left for it but to +try and return to Spain.</p> + +<p>But the getting there was not easy. A return +through the Channel was hindered by the wind, +which blew strongly from the south. Nor was it a +wise movement in the face of the English fleet. +The admiral, therefore, determined to sail northward +and make the circuit of the British islands.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately for Lord Howard, he was in no +condition to pursue. By the neglect of the authorities +he had been ill-supplied with gunpowder, and +was forced to return to England for a fresh supply. +But for this deficiency he possibly might, in the distressed +condition of the Spanish fleet, have forced a +surrender of the entire Armada. As it was, his return +proved fortunate, for the fleets had not far separated +when a frightful tempest began, which did +considerable harm to the English ships, but fell with +all its rage on the exposed Armada.</p> + +<p>The ships, drawn up in close ranks, were hurled +fiercely together, many being sunk. Driven helplessly<pb n="244" /><anchor id="Pg244" /> +before the wind, some were dashed to pieces +on the rocks of Norway, others on the Scottish coast +or the shores of the western islands. Some went +down in the open sea. A subsequent storm, which +came from the west, drove more than thirty of them +on the Irish coast. Of these, some got off in a shattered +state, others were utterly wrecked and their +crews murdered on reaching the shore. The admiral's +ship, which had kept in the open sea, reached +the Spanish coast about the close of September.</p> + +<p>Even after reaching harbor in Spain troubles pursued +them, two of the galleons taking fire and burning +to ashes. Of the delicately reared noble volunteers, +great numbers had died from the hardships +of the voyage, and many more died from diseases +contracted at sea. The total loss is not known; +some say that thirty-two, some that more than +eighty, ships were lost, while the loss of life is estimated +at from ten thousand to fifteen thousand. +Spain felt the calamity severely. There was hardly +a family of rank that had not some one of its members +to mourn, and so universal was the grief that +Philip, to whose ambition the disaster was due, felt +obliged to issue an edict to abridge the time of public +mourning.</p> + +<p>In England and Holland, on the contrary, the +event was hailed with universal joy. Days of solemn +thanksgiving were appointed, and Elizabeth, +seated in a triumphal chariot and surrounded by her +ministers and nobles, went for this purpose to St. +Paul's Cathedral, the concourse bearing a great number +of flags that had been taken from the enemy.</p> + +<pb n="245" /><anchor id="Pg245" /> + +<p>The joy at the destruction of the Armada was not +confined to England and Holland. All Northern +Europe joined in it. Philip's ambition, in the +event of victory over England, might have led him +to attempt the subjection of every Protestant state +in Europe, while Catholic France, which he afterwards +attempted to conquer, had the greatest reason +to dread his success.</p> + +<p>Thus ended the most threatening enterprise in the +religious wars of the sixteenth century, and to Lord +Howard and his gallant captains England and Europe +owe the deepest debt of gratitude, for the success +of the Armada and the conquest of England by +Spain might have proved a calamity whose effects +would have been felt to the present day.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="246" /><anchor id="Pg246" /> +<head>THE CAUSES OF SPAIN'S DECADENCE.</head> + +<p>The golden age of Spain began in 1492, in which +year the conquest of Granada extinguished the +Arab dominion, and the discovery of America by +Columbus opened a new world to the enterprise of +the Spanish cavaliers. It continued during the +reigns of Charles I. and Philip II., extending over a +period of about a century, during which Spain was +the leading power in Europe, and occupied the foremost +position in the civilized world. In Europe its +possessions included the Netherlands and important +regions in Italy, while its king, Charles I., ruled as +Charles V. over the German empire, possessing a +dominion in Europe only surpassed by that of Charlemagne. +Under Philip II. Portugal became a part of +the Spanish realm, and with it its colony of Brazil, +so that Spain was the unquestioned owner of the +whole continent of South America, while much of +North America lay under its flag.</p> + +<p>Wealth flowed into the coffers of this broad kingdom +in steady streams, the riches of America over-flowing +its treasury; its fleet was the greatest, its +army the best trained and most irresistible in Europe; +it stood as the bulwark against that mighty +Ottoman power before which the other nations<pb n="247" /><anchor id="Pg247" /> +trembled, and checked its career of victory at Lepanto; +in short, as above said, it was for a brief +period the leading power in Europe, and appeared to +have in it the promise of a glorious career.</p> + +<p>Such was the status of Spain during the reigns +of the monarchs named. This was followed by a +long period of decline, which reduced that kingdom +from its position of supremacy into that of +one of the minor powers of Europe. Various +causes contributed to this change, the chief being +the accession of a series of weak monarchs and the +false ideas of the principles of political economy +which then prevailed. The great treasure which +flowed into Spain from her American colonies rather +hastened than retarded her decline. The restrictions +and monopolies of her colonial policy gave +rise to an active contraband trade, which reaped +the harvest of her commerce. The over-abundant +supply of gold and silver had the effect of increasing +the price of other commodities and discouraging +her rising industries, the result being that she was +obliged to purchase abroad the things she ceased to +produce at home and the wealth of America flowed +from her coffers into those of the adjoining nations. +Her policy towards the Moriscos banished the most +active agriculturists from the land, and large districts +became desert, population declined, and the +resources of the kingdom diminished yearly. In a +century after the death of Philip II. Spain, from +being the arbiter of the destinies of Europe, had +grown so weak that the other nations ceased to regard +her otherwise than as a prey for their ambition,<pb n="248" /><anchor id="Pg248" /> +her population had fallen from eight to six +millions, her revenue from two hundred and eighty +to thirty millions, her navy had vanished, her army +had weakened, and her able soldiers and statesmen +had disappeared.</p> + +<p>In addition to the causes of decline named, others +of importance were her treatment of the Jews and +the Moriscos, though the banishment of the former +took place at an earlier date. Despite their activity +in trade and finance and the value to the nations +of their genius for business, the Jews of Europe +were everywhere persecuted, often exposed to +robbery and massacre, and expelled from some +kingdoms. In Spain their expulsion was conducted +with cruel severity.</p> + +<p>Many of the unfortunate Jews, seeking to escape +persecution, embraced Christianity. But their conversion +was doubted, they were subjected to constant +espionage, and the least suspicion of indulging in +their old worship exposed them to the dangerous +charge of heresy, a word of frightful omen in Spain. +It was to punish these delinquent Jews that in 1480 +the Inquisition was introduced, and at once began its +frightful work, no less than two thousand "heretics" +being burned alive in 1481, while seventeen thousand +were "reconciled," a word of mild meaning elsewhere, +but which in Spain signified torture, confiscation +of property, loss of citizenship, and frequently +imprisonment for life in the dungeons of the Inquisition. +Severe as was the treatment of the Jews +throughout Christendom, nowhere were they treated +more pitilessly than in Spain.</p> + +<pb n="249" /><anchor id="Pg249" /> + +<p>The year 1492, in which Spain gained glory by +the conquest of Granada and the discovery of +America, was one of the deepest misfortune to this +people, who were cruelly driven from the kingdom. +The edict for this was signed by Ferdinand and Isabella +at Granada, March 30, 1492, and decreed that +all unbaptized Jews, without regard to sex, age, or +condition, should leave Spain before the end of the +next July, and never return thither under penalty +of death and confiscation of property. Every Spaniard +was forbidden to give aid in any form to a Jew +after the date named. The Jews might sell their +property and carry the proceeds with them in bills +of exchange or merchandise, but not in gold or +silver.</p> + +<p>This edict came like a thunderbolt to the Israelites. +At a tyrant's word they must go forth as exiles +from the land in which they and their forefathers +had dwelt for ages, break all their old ties of habit +and association, and be cast out helpless and defenceless, +marked with a brand of infamy, among nations +who held them in hatred and contempt.</p> + +<p>Under the unjust terms of the edict they were +forced to abandon most of the property which they +had spent their lives in gaining. It was impossible +to sell their effects in the brief time given, in a market +glutted with similar commodities, for more than +a tithe of their value. As a result their hard-won +wealth was frightfully sacrificed. One chronicler +relates that he saw a house exchanged for an ass +and a vineyard for a suit of clothes. In Aragon the +property of the Jews was confiscated for the benefit<pb n="250" /><anchor id="Pg250" /> +of their creditors, with little regard to its value. +As for the bills of exchange which they were to take +instead of gold and silver, it was impossible to obtain +them to the amount required in that age of limited +commerce, and here again they were mercilessly +robbed.</p> + +<p>The migration was one of the most pitiable known +in history. As the time fixed for their departure +approached the roads of the country swarmed with +emigrants, young and old, strong and feeble, sick +and well, some on horses or mules, but the great +multitude on foot. The largest division, some eighty +thousand in number, passed through Portugal, whose +monarch taxed them for a free passage through his +dominions, but, wiser than Ferdinand, permitted +certain skilful artisans among them to settle in his +kingdom.</p> + +<p>Those who reached Africa and marched towards +Fez, where many of their race resided, were attacked +by the desert tribes, robbed, slain, and treated with +the most shameful barbarity. Many of them, half-dead +with famine and in utter despair, returned +to the coast, where they consented to be baptized +with the hope that they might be permitted to return +to their native land.</p> + +<p>Those who sought Italy contracted an infectious +disease in the crowded and filthy vessels which they +were obliged to take; a disorder so malignant that +it carried off twenty thousand of the people of Naples +during the year, and spread far over the remainder +of Italy. As for the Jews, hosts of them perished +of hunger and disease, and of the whole number expelled,<pb n="251" /><anchor id="Pg251" /> +estimated at one hundred and sixty thousand, +only a miserable fragment found homes at length +in foreign lands, some seeking Turkey, others gaining +refuge and protection in France and England. +As for the effect of the migration on Spain it must +suffice here to quote the remark of a monarch of +that day: "Do they call this Ferdinand a politic +prince, who can thus impoverish his own kingdom +and enrich ours?"</p> + +<p>Spain was in this barbarous manner freed of her +Jewish population. There remained the Moors, who +had capitulated, under favorable terms, to Ferdinand +in 1492. These terms were violated a few years +later by Cardinal Ximenes, his severity driving them +into insurrection in 1500. This was suppressed, and +then punishment began. So rigid was the inquiry +that it seemed as if all the people of Granada would +be condemned as guilty, and in mortal dread many +of them made peace by embracing Christianity, while +others sold their estates and migrated to Barbary. +In the end, all who remained escaped persecution +only by consenting to be baptized, the total number +of converts being estimated at fifty thousand. The +name of Moors, which had superseded that of Arabs, +was now changed to that of Moriscos, by which +these unfortunate people were afterwards known.</p> + +<p>The ill-faith shown to the Moors of the plain gave +rise to an insurrection in the mountains, in which +the Spaniards suffered a severe defeat. The insurgents, +however, were soon subdued, and most of +them, to prevent being driven from their homes, +professed the Christian faith. By the free use of<pb n="252" /><anchor id="Pg252" /> +torture and the sword the kings of Spain had succeeded +in adding largely to their Christian subjects.</p> + +<p>The Moriscos became the most skilful and industrious +agriculturists of Spain, but they were +an alien element of the population and from time +to time irritating edicts were issued for their +control. In 1560 the Moriscos were forbidden +to employ African slaves, for fear that they might +make infidels of them. This was a severe annoyance, +for the wealthy farmers depended on the labor +of these slaves. In 1563 they were forbidden to +possess arms except under license. In 1566 still +more oppressive edicts were passed. They were no +longer to use the Arabic language or wear the Moorish +dress, and the women were required to go about +with their faces unveiled,—a scandalous thing among +Mohammedans. Their weddings were to be conducted +in public, after the Christian forms, their national +songs and dances were interdicted, and they +were even forbidden to indulge in warm baths, +bathing being a custom of which the Spaniard of +that day appears to have disapproved.</p> + +<p>The result of these oppressive edicts was a violent +and dangerous insurrection, which involved nearly +all the Moriscos of Spain, and continued for more +than two years, requiring all the power of Spain for +its suppression. Don John of Austria, the victor at +Lepanto, led the Spanish troops, but he had a difficult +task, the Moriscos, sheltered in their mountain +fastnesses, making a desperate and protracted resistance, +and showing a warlike energy equal to<pb n="253" /><anchor id="Pg253" /> +that which had been displayed in the defence of +Granada.</p> + +<p>The end of the war was followed by a decree from +Philip II. that all the Moors of Granada should be +removed into the interior of the country, their lands +and houses being forfeited, and nothing left them +but their personal effects. This act of confiscation +was followed by their reduction to a state of serfdom +in their new homes, no one being permitted to change +his abode without permission, under a very severe +penalty. If found within ten leagues of Granada +they were condemned, if between the ages of ten +and seventeen, to the galleys for life; if older, to the +punishment of death.</p> + +<p>The dispersal of the Moriscos of Granada, while +cruel to them, proved of the greatest benefit to +Spain. Wherever they went the effects of their +superior skill and industry were soon manifested. +They were skilled not only in husbandry, but in the +mechanic arts, and their industry gave a new aspect +of prosperity to the provinces to which they were +banished, while the valleys and hill-sides of Granada, +which had flourished under their cultivation, sank +into barrenness under the unskilful hands of their +successors.</p> + +<p>Yet this benefit to agriculture did not appeal to +the ruling powers in Spain. The Moriscos were not +Spaniards, and could not easily become so while deprived +of all civil rights. While nominally Christian, +there was a suspicion that at heart they were +still Moslems. And their relations to the Moors of +Africa and possible league with the corsairs of the<pb n="254" /><anchor id="Pg254" /> +Mediterranean aroused distrust. Under Philip +III., a timid and incapable king, the final act came. +He was induced to sign an edict for the expulsion of +the Moriscos, and this quiet and industrious people, +a million in number, were in 1610, like the Jews +before them, forced to leave their homes in Spain.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary to repeat the story of the +suffering which necessarily followed so barbarous an +act. What has been said of the circumstances attending +the expulsion of the Jews will suffice. +That of the Moriscos was not so inhuman in its +consequences, but it was serious enough. Fortunately, +in view of the intense impolicy and deep intolerance +indicated in the act, its evil effects reacted +upon its advocates. To the Moriscos the suffering +was personal; to Spain it was national. As France +half-ruined herself by expelling the Huguenots, the +most industrious of her population, Spain did the +same in expelling the Moriscos, to whose skill and +industry she owed so much of her prosperity. So it +ever must be when bigotry is allowed to control the +policy of states. France recovered from the evil +effects of her mad act. Spain never did. The expulsion +of the Moriscos was one of the most prominent +causes of her decline, and no indications of a +recovery have yet been shown.</p> + +<p>The expulsion of the Jews and Moriscos was not +sufficient to satisfy the intolerant spirit of Spain. +Heresy had made its way even into the minds of +Spaniards. Sons of the Church themselves had +begun to think in other lines than those laid down +for them by the priestly guardians of their minds.<pb n="255" /><anchor id="Pg255" /> +Protestant books were introduced into the ever-faithful +land, and a considerable number of converts +to Protestantism were made.</p> + +<p>Upon these heretics the Inquisition descended with +all its frightful force. Philip, in a monstrous edict, +condemned all to be burned alive who bought, sold, +or read books prohibited by the Church. The result +was terrible. The land was filled with spies. +Arrests were made on all sides. The instruments +of torture were kept busy. In all the principal +cities of Spain the monstrous spectacle of the <hi rend="font-style: italic">auto-de-fé</hi> +was to be seen, multitudes being burned at +the stake for having dared to read the books or +accept the arguments of Protestant writers.</p> + +<p>The total effect of this horrible system of persecution +we can only epitomize. Thousands were +burned at the stake, thousands imprisoned for life +after terrible torture, thousands robbed of their +property, and their children condemned to poverty +and opprobrium; and the kingdom of Christ, as the +Spanish monarchs of that day estimated it, was +established in Spain.</p> + +<p>The Spanish Inquisition proved an instrument of +conviction which none dared question. Heresy was +blotted out from Spain,—and Spain was blotted out +from the ranks of enlightened nations. Freedom +of thought was at an end. The mind of the +Spaniard was put in fetters. Spain, under the +sombre shadow of this barbarity, was shut out +from the light which was breaking over the remainder +of Europe. Literature moved in narrow +channels, philosophy was checked, the domain of<pb n="256" /><anchor id="Pg256" /> +science was closed, progress was at an end. Spain +stood still while the rest of the world was sweeping +onward; and she stands still to-day, her mind in +the fifteenth century. The decadence of Spain is +due to the various causes named,—the weakness of +her rulers, lack of just and advantageous ideas of +political and commercial economy, suppression of +freedom of thought and opinion on topics which +were being freely handled elsewhere in Christendom, +and a narrow and intolerant policy which, +wherever shown, is a fatal barrier to the progress +of mankind.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="257" /><anchor id="Pg257" /> +<head>THE LAST OF A ROYAL RACE.</head> + +<p>The rebellion of the Moriscos, due to the oppressive +edicts of Philip II., as stated in the preceding +tale, was marked by numerous interesting events. +Some of these are worth giving in illustration of the +final struggle of the Moors in Spain. The insurgents +failed in their first effort, that of seizing the +city of Granada, still filled with their fellow-countrymen, +and restoring as far as possible their old kingdom; +and they afterwards confined themselves to +the difficult passes and mountain fastnesses of the +Sierra Nevada, where they presented a bold front to +the power of Spain.</p> + +<p>Having proclaimed their independence, and cast +off all allegiance to the crown of Spain, their first +step was to select a new monarch of their own race. +The man selected for this purpose was of royal blood, +being descended in a direct line from the ancient +family of the Omeyades, caliphs of Damascus, and +for nearly four centuries rulers in Spain. This man, +who bore the Castilian name of Don Fernando de +Valor, but was known by the Moors as Aben-Humeya, +was at that time twenty-two years of age, +comely in person and engaging in manners, and of a +deportment worthy of the princely line from which +he had descended. A man of courage and energy, +he escaped from Granada and took refuge in the<pb n="258" /><anchor id="Pg258" /> +mountains, where he began a war to the knife +against Spain.</p> + +<p>The early events of the war were unfavorable to +the Moors. Their strongholds were invaded by a +powerful Spanish force under the Marquis of Mondejar, +and their forces soon put to flight. Aben-Humeya +was so hotly pursued that he was forced +to spring from his horse, cut the hamstrings of the +animal to render it useless to his pursuers, and seek +refuge in the depths of the sierras, where dozens +of hiding-places unknown to his pursuers could be +found.</p> + +<p>The insurrection was now in a desperate stage. +Mondejar was driving the rebels in arms in terror +before him; tower and town fell in succession into +his hands; everywhere his arms were victorious, +and only one thing was wanting to bring all opposition +to an end,—the capture of Aben-Humeya, the +"little king" of the Alpujarras. This crownless +monarch was known to be wandering with a few +followers in the wilds of the mountains; but while +he lived the insurrection might at any moment blaze +out again, and detachments of soldiers were sent to +pursue him through the sierras.</p> + +<p>The captain of one of these parties learned from +a traitor that the fugitive prince remained hidden +in the mountains only during the day, finding shelter +at night in the house of a kinsman, Aben-Aboo, on +the skirts of the sierras. Learning the situation of +this mansion, the Spanish captain led his men with +the greatest secrecy towards it. Travelling by night, +they reached the vicinity of the dwelling under cover<pb n="259" /><anchor id="Pg259" /> +of the darkness. In a minute more the house would +have been surrounded and its inmates secured; but +at this critical moment the arquebuse of one of the +Spaniards was accidentally discharged, the report +echoing loudly among the hills and warning the +lightly sleeping inmates of their danger.</p> + +<p>One of them, El Zaguer, the uncle of Aben-Humeya, +at once sprang up and leaped from the +window of his room, making his way with all haste +to the mountains. His nephew was not so fortunate. +Running to his window, in the front of the house, he +saw the ground occupied by troops. He hastily +sought another window, but his foes were there before +him. Bewildered and distressed, he knew not +where to turn. The house was surrounded; the +Spaniards were thundering on the door for admittance; +he was like a wolf caught in its lair, and with +as little mercy to hope from his captors.</p> + +<p>By good fortune the door was well secured. One +possible chance for safety occurred to the hunted +prince. Hastening down-stairs, he stood behind the +portal and noiselessly drew its bolts. The Spaniards, +finding the door give way, and supposing that it had +yielded to their blows, rushed hastily in and hurried +through the house in search of the fugitive who was +hidden behind the door. The instant they had all +passed he slipped out, and, concealed by the darkness +outside, hastened away, soon finding a secure refuge +in the mountains.</p> + +<p>Aben-Aboo remained in the hands of the assaillants, +who vainly questioned him as to the haunts +of his kinsmen. On his refusal to answer they employed<pb n="260" /><anchor id="Pg260" /> +torture, but with no better effect. "I may +die," he courageously said, "but my friends will live." +So severe and cruel was their treatment, that in the +end they left him for dead, returning to camp with +the other prisoners they had taken. As it proved, +however, the heroic Aben-Aboo did not die, but lived +to play a leading part in the war.</p> + +<p>With kindly treatment of the Moriscos he would +probably have given no more trouble, but the Spanish +proved utterly merciless, their soldiers raging +through the mountains, and committing the foulest +acts of outrage and rapine. In Granada a frightful +deed was committed. A large number of the leading +Moriscos, about one hundred and fifty in all, had been +seized and imprisoned, being held as hostages for the +good behavior of their friends. Here, on a night in +March, the prison was entered by a body of Spaniards, +who assailed the unfortunate captives, arms in hand, +and began an indiscriminate massacre. The prisoners +seizing what means of defence they could find, +fought desperately for their lives, and for two hours +the unequal combat continued, not ending while a +Morisco remained alive.</p> + +<p>This savage act led to terrible reprisals on the +part of the insurgents, who in the subsequent war +treated with atrocious cruelty many of their +captives. The Moriscos were soon in arms again, +Aben-Humeya at their head, and the war blazed +throughout the length and breadth of the mountains. +Even from Barbary came a considerable body of +Moors, who entered the service of the Morisco chief. +Fierce and intrepid, trained to the military career,<pb n="261" /><anchor id="Pg261" /> +and accustomed to a life of wild adventure, these +were a most valuable reinforcement to Aben-Humeya's +forces, and enabled him to carry on a guerilla +warfare which proved highly vexatious to the troops +of Spain. He made forays from the mountains into +the plain, penetrating into the vega and boldly +venturing even to the walls of Granada. The insurrection +spread far and wide through the Sierra +Nevada, and the Spanish army, now led by Don John +of Austria, the king's brother, found itself confronted +by a most serious task.</p> + +<p>The weak point in the organization of the Moriscos +lay in the character of their king. Aben-Humeya, +at first popular, soon displayed traits of +character which lost him the support of his followers. +Surrounded by a strong body-guard, he led a voluptuous +life, and struck down without mercy those +whom he feared, no less than three hundred and fifty +persons falling victims to his jealousy or revenge. +His cruelty and injustice at length led to a plot for +his death, and his brief reign ended in assassination, +his kinsman, Aben-Aboo, being chosen as his successor.</p> + +<p>The new king was a very different man from his +slain predecessor. He was much the older of the +two, a man of high integrity and great decorum of +character. While lacking the dash and love of adventure +of Aben-Humeya, he had superior judgment +in military affairs, and full courage in carrying +out his plans. His election was confirmed from +Algiers, a large quantity of arms and ammunition +was imported from Barbary, reinforcements crossed<pb n="262" /><anchor id="Pg262" /> +the Mediterranean, and the new king began his reign +under excellent auspices, his first movement being +against Orgiba, a fortified place on the road to +Granada, which he invested in October with an army +of ten thousand men.</p> + +<figure url="images/image15.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>The capture of this place, which soon followed, +roused the enthusiasm of the Moriscos to the highest +pitch. From all sides the warlike peasantry flocked +to the standard of their able chief, and a war began +resembling that of a century before, when the forces +of Ferdinand and Isabella were invading the Kingdom +of Granada. From peak to peak of the sierras +beacon-fires flashed their signals, calling the bold +mountaineers to forays on the lands of the enemy. +Pouring suddenly down on the lower levels, the +daring marauders swept away in triumph to the +mountains the flocks and herds of their Christian +foes. The vega of Granada became, as in ancient +times, the battle-ground of Moorish and Christian +cavaliers, the latter having generally the advantage, +though occasionally the insurgent bands would break +into the suburbs, or even the city of Granada, filling +its people with consternation, and causing the great +bell of the Alhambra to peal out its tocsin of alarm +and call the Spanish chivalry in haste to the fray.</p> + +<p>We cannot describe, even in epitome, the varied +course of this sanguinary war. As might well have +been expected, the greater force of the Spaniards +gradually prevailed, and the autumn of 1570 found +the insurgents almost everywhere subdued. Only +Aben-Aboo, the "little king," remained in arms, a +force of four hundred men being all that were left<pb n="263" /><anchor id="Pg263" /> +to him of his recent army. But these were men +warmly devoted to him, and until the spring of 1571 +every effort for his capture proved in vain. Hiding +in mountain caves and in inaccessible districts, he +defied pursuit, and in a measure kept alive the flame +of rebellion.</p> + +<p>Treason at length brought his career to an end. +One of the few insurgent prisoners who escaped +death at the hands of the Spanish executioners revealed +the hiding-place of the fugitive king, and +named the two persons on whom Aben-Aboo most +relied, his secretary, Abou Amer, and a Moorish captain +named El Senix.</p> + +<p>An effort was made to win over the secretary by +one who had formerly known him, a letter being +sent him which roused him to intense indignation. +El Senix, however, becoming aware of its contents, +and having a private grudge against his master, sent +word by the messenger that he would undertake, for +a suitable recompense, to betray him to the Christians.</p> + +<p>An interview soon after took place between the +Moor and Barredo, the Spanish agent, some intimation +of which came to the ears of Aben-Aboo. +The king at once sought a cavern in the neighborhood +where El Senix was secreted, and, leaving his +followers outside, imprudently entered alone. He +found El Senix surrounded by several of his friends, +and sternly demanded of him the purpose of his +interview with Barredo. Senix, confused by the +accusation, faltered out that he had simply been +seeking to obtain an amnesty for him. Aben-Aboo<pb n="264" /><anchor id="Pg264" /> +listened with a face of scorn, and, turning on his +heel with the word "treachery," walked back to the +mouth of the cave.</p> + +<p>Unluckily, his men, with the exception of two +guards stationed at the entrance, had left the spot to +visit some near-by friends. Senix, perceiving that +his own life was in danger, and that this was his +only opportunity for safety, fell with his followers +on the guards, one of whom was killed and the other +put to flight. Then an attack was made on Aben-Aboo. +The latter defended himself desperately, +but the odds were too great, and the dastardly El +Senix ended the struggle by felling him with the +butt-end of his musket, when he was quickly despatched.</p> + +<p>Thus died the last of the Omeyades, the famous +dynasty of Arabian caliphs founded in 660, and established +in Spain in 756. Aben-Aboo, the last of +this royal race, was given in death a triumphal entrance +to Granada, as if he were one whom the Spaniards +delighted to honor. The corpse was set astride +on a mule, being supported by a wooden frame, +which lay hidden beneath flowing robes. On one +side rode Barredo; on the other the murderer El +Senix bore the scimitar and arquebuse of the dead +prince. The kinsmen and friends of the Morisco +chief rode in his train, and after them came a regiment +of infantry and a troop of horse.</p> + +<p>As the procession moved along the street of Zacatin +salvos of musketry saluted it, peals of artillery +roared from the towers of the Alhambra, and the +multitude thronged to gaze with silent curiosity on<pb n="265" /><anchor id="Pg265" /> +the ghastly face. Thus the cavalcade proceeded +until the great square of Vivarambla was reached. +Here were assembled the principal cavaliers and +magistrates of the city, and here El Senix dismounted +and delivered to Deza, the president of the +tribunal before which were tried the insurgent captives, +the arms of the murdered prince.</p> + +<p>And now this semblance of respect to a brave +enemy was followed by a scene of barbarity worthy +of the Spain of that day. The ceremony of a +public execution was gone through with, the head +of the corpse being struck off, after which the body +was given to the boys of Granada, who dragged +it through the streets and exposed it to every indignity, +finally committing it to the flames. The +head, enclosed in a cage, was set over the gate that +faced towards the Alpujarras. There it remained +for a year, seeming to gaze towards the hills which +the Morisco chief had loved so well, and which had +witnessed his brief and disastrous reign.</p> + +<p>Such was the fate of Aben-Aboo, the last of a line +of great monarchs, and one of the best of them all; +a man of lofty spirit, temperate appetites, and courageous +endurance, who, had he lived in more prosperous +days, might have ruled in the royal halls of +Cordova with a renown equal to that of the most +famous caliph of his race.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /><index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="266" /><anchor id="Pg266" /> +<head>HENRY MORGAN AND THE BUCCANEERS.</head> + +<p>As the seventeenth century passed on, Spain, under +the influence of religious intolerance and bad government, +grew weak, both at home and abroad. Its +prominent place in Europe was lost. Its vast colonial +provinces in America were scenes of persecution +and anarchy. There the fortresses were allowed to +decay, the soldiers, half-clothed and unpaid, to become +beggars or bandits, the treasures to be pilfered, +and commerce to become a system of fraud; while +the colonists were driven to detest their mother land. +This weakness was followed by dire consequences. +Bands of outcasts from various nations, who had +settled on Spanish territory in the West Indies, at +first to forage on the cattle of Hispaniola, organized +into pirate crews, and, under the name of buccaneers, +became frightful scourges of the commerce of Spain.</p> + +<p>These wretches, mainly French, English, and +Dutch, deserters and outlaws, the scum of their nations, +made the rich merchant and treasure ships of +Spain their prey, slaughtering their crews, torturing +them for hidden wealth, rioting with profuse prodigality +at their lurking-places on land, and turning +those fair tropical islands into a pandemonium of +outrage, crime, and slaughter. As they troubled<pb n="267" /><anchor id="Pg267" /> +little the ships of other nations, these nations rather +favored than sought to suppress them, and Spain +seemed powerless to bring their ravages to an end. +In consequence, as the years went on, they grew +bolder and more adventurous. Beginning with a +few small, deckless sloops, they in time gained large +and well-armed vessels, and created so deep a terror +among the Spaniards by their savage attacks that +the latter rarely made a strong resistance.</p> + +<p>Lurking in forest-hidden creeks and inlets of the +West India islands, they kept a keen lookout for the +ships that bore to Spain the gold, silver, precious +stones, and rich products of the New World, pursued +them in their swift barks, boarded them, and +killed all who ventured to resist. If the cargo was +a rich one, and there had been little effort at defence, +the prisoners might be spared their lives; if otherwise, +they were flung mercilessly into the sea. Sailing +then to their place of rendezvous, the captors indulged +in the wildest and most luxurious orgies, their +tables groaning with strong liquors and rich provisions; +gaming, music, and dancing succeeding; +extravagance, debauchery, and profusion of every +kind soon dissipating their blood-bought wealth.</p> + +<p>Among the pirate leaders several gained prominence +for superior boldness or cruelty, among whom +we may particularly name L'Olonnois, a Frenchman, +of such savage ferocity that all mariners of +Spanish birth shuddered with fear at his very name. +This wretch suffered the fate he deserved. In an +expedition to the Isthmus of Darien he was taken +prisoner by a band of savage Indians, who tore him<pb n="268" /><anchor id="Pg268" /> +to pieces alive, flung his quivering limbs into the +fire, and then scattered the ashes to the air.</p> + +<p>Most renowned of all the buccaneers was Henry +Morgan, a native of Wales, who ran away from home +as a boy, was sold as a slave in Barbadoes, and afterwards +joined a pirate crew, in time becoming a leader +among the lawless hordes. By this time the raids +of the ferocious buccaneers had almost put an end +to Spanish commerce with the New World, and the +daring freebooters, finding their gains at sea falling +off, collected fleets and made attacks on land, plundering +rich towns and laying waste thriving settlements. +So greatly had Spanish courage degenerated +that the pirates with ease put to flight ten times +their number of that Spanish soldiery which, a century +before, had been the finest in the world.</p> + +<p>The first pirate to make such a raid was Lewis +Scott, who sacked the town of Campeachy, robbing +it of all its wealth, and forcing its inhabitants to +pay an enormous ransom. Another named Davies +marched inland to Nicaragua, took and plundered +that town, and carried off a rich booty in silver and +precious stones. He afterwards pillaged the city of +St. Augustine, Florida. Others performed similar +exploits, but we must confine our attention to the +deeds of Morgan, the boldest and most successful of +them all.</p> + +<p>Morgan's first enterprise was directed against Port +au Prince, Cuba, where, however, the Spaniards had +received warning and concealed their treasures, so +that the buccaneer gained little for his pains. His +next expedition was against Porto Bello, on the<pb n="269" /><anchor id="Pg269" /> +Isthmus, one of the richest and best fortified of +American cities. Two castles, believed to be impregnable, +commanded the entrances to the harbor. +When the freebooters learned that their leader +proposed to attack so strong a place as this the +hearts of the boldest among them shrank. But +Morgan, with a few inspiring words, restored their +courage.</p> + +<p>"What boots it," he exclaimed, "how small our +number, if our hearts be great! The fewer we are +the closer will be our union and the larger our shares +of plunder."</p> + +<p>Boldness and secrecy carried the day. One of the +castles was taken by surprise, the first knowledge +of the attack coming to the people of the town from +the concussion when Morgan blew it up. Before the +garrison or the citizens could prepare to oppose them +the freebooters were in the town. The governor +and garrison fled in panic haste to the other castle, +while the terrified people threw their treasures into +wells and cisterns. The castle made a gallant resistance, +but was soon obliged to yield to the impetuous +attacks of the pirate crews.</p> + +<p>It was no light exploit which Morgan had performed,—to +take with five hundred men a fortified +city with a large garrison and strengthened by natural +obstacles to assault. The ablest general in ordinary +war might well have claimed renown for so +signal a victory. But the ability of the leader was +tarnished by the cruelty of the buccaneer. The people +were treated with shocking barbarity, many of +them being shut up in convents and churches and<pb n="270" /><anchor id="Pg270" /> +burned alive, while the pirates gave themselves up +to every excess of debauchery.</p> + +<p>The great booty gained by this raid caused numerous +pirate captains to enlist under Morgan's flag, +and other towns were taken, in which similar orgies +of cruelty and debauchery followed. But the impunity +of the buccaneers was nearing its end. Their +atrocious acts had at length aroused the indignation +of the civilized world, and a treaty was concluded +between Great Britain and Spain whose chief purpose +was to put an end to these sanguinary and +ferocious deeds.</p> + +<p>The first effect of this treaty was to spur the buccaneers +to the performance of some exploit surpassing +any they had yet achieved. So high was Morgan's +reputation among the pirates that they flocked from +all quarters to enlist under his flag, and he soon had +a fleet of no fewer than thirty-seven vessels manned +by two thousand men. With so large a force an expedition +on a greater scale could well be undertaken, +and a counsel of the chiefs debated whether they +should make an assault upon Vera Cruz, Carthagena, +or Panama. Their choice fell upon Panama, as the +richest of the three.</p> + +<p>The city of Panama at that time (1670) was considered +one of the greatest and most opulent in +America. It contained two thousand large buildings +and five thousand smaller, all of which were three +stories high. Many of these were built of stone, +others of cedar wood, being elegantly constructed +and richly furnished. The city was the emporium +for the silver- and gold-mines of New Spain, and its<pb n="271" /><anchor id="Pg271" /> +merchants lived in great opulence, their houses rich +in articles of gold and silver, adorned with beautiful +paintings and other works of art, and full of the +luxuries of the age. The churches were magnificent +in their decorations, and richly embellished with ornaments +in gold and silver. The city presented such +a prize to cupidity as freebooters and bandits had +rarely conceived of in their wildest dreams.</p> + +<figure url="images/image16.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>The daring enterprise began with the capture by +four hundred men of the Fort of St. Laurence, at +the mouth of the Chagres River. Up this serpentine +stream sailed the freebooters, as far as it would bear +them, and thence they marched overland, suffering +the greatest hardships and overcoming difficulties +which would have deterred men of less intrepid +spirit. Eight days of this terrible march brought +the adventurers within sight of the far-spreading +Pacific, and of the spires of the coveted city on its +shores.</p> + +<p>The people of Panama had been apprised of what +was in store for them, and had laid ambuscades for +the buccaneers, but Morgan, by taking an indirect +route to the town, avoided these. Panama was but +partly fortified. In several quarters it lay open to +attack. It must be fought for and won or lost on +the open plain. Here the Spaniards had assembled +to the number of two thousand infantry and four +hundred cavalry, well equipped and possessing everything +needed but spirit to meet the dreaded foe. +They had adopted an expedient sure to prove a +dangerous one. A herd of wild bulls, to the number +of more than two thousand, was provided, with Indians<pb n="272" /><anchor id="Pg272" /> +and negroes to drive them on the pirate horde. +The result resembled that in which the Greeks drove +elephants upon the Roman legions. Many of the +buccaneers were accustomed to the chase of wild +cattle, and, by shouts and the waving of colored +flags, turned the bulls back upon the Spanish lines, +which they threw into disorder.</p> + +<p>The buccaneers followed with an impetuous charge +which broke the ranks of the defenders of the +town, who, after a two hours' combat, were completely +routed, the most of them being killed or +taken prisoners. The assault was now directed upon +the town, which was strongly defended, the pirates +being twice repulsed and suffering much from the +numerous Spanish guns. But after a three hours' +fight they overcame all opposition and the city fell +into their hands.</p> + +<p>A scene of frightful bloodshed and inhumanity +followed. The buccaneers gave no quarter, killing +all they met. Lest they should be exposed to a +counter assault while intoxicated, Morgan called +them together and forbade them to taste the wine +of the town, saying that it had been poisoned. +Conflagration followed massacre. Fires broke out +in several quarters of the city, and great numbers +of dwellings, with churches, convents, and numerous +warehouses filled with valuable goods were reduced +to ashes. These fires continued to burn during +most of the month in which the freebooters held the +city, and in which they indulged to the full in their +accustomed cruelty, rapacity, and licentiousness.</p> + +<p>Treasure was found in great quantities in the wells<pb n="273" /><anchor id="Pg273" /> +and caves, where it had been thrown by the terrified +people. The vessels taken in the harbor yielded +valuable commodities. Detachments were sent into +the country to capture and bring back those who +had fled for safety, and by torturing these several +rich deposits of treasure were discovered in the surrounding +forests. A few of the inhabitants escaped +with their wealth by sea, seeking shelter in the +islands of the bay, and a galleon laden with the +king's plate and jewels and other precious articles +belonging to the church and the people narrowly +escaped after a hot chase by the buccaneers. With +these exceptions the rich city was completely looted.</p> + +<p>After a month spent among the ruins of Panama +Morgan and his villainous followers departed, one +hundred and seventy-five mules carrying their more +bulky spoil, while with them were six hundred prisoners, +some carrying burdens, others held to ransom. +Thus laden, they reached again the mouth of +the Chagres, where their ships awaited them and +where a division of the spoil was to be made.</p> + +<p>Treachery followed this stupendous act of piracy, +Morgan's later history being an extraordinary one +for a man of his infamous record. He was possessed +with the demon of cupidity, and a quarrel arose between +him and his men concerning the division of +the spoil. Morgan ended it by running off with the +disputed plunder. On the night preceding the final +division, during the hours of deepest slumber, the +treacherous chief, with a few of his confidants, set +sail for Jamaica, in a vessel deeply laden with spoils. +On waking and learning this act of base treachery,<pb n="274" /><anchor id="Pg274" /> +the infuriated pirates pursued him, but in vain; he +safely reached Jamaica with his ill-gotten wealth.</p> + +<p>In this English island the pirate chief gained not +only safety, but honors. In some way he won the +favor of Charles II., who knighted him as Sir Henry +Morgan and placed him on the admiralty court in +Jamaica. He subsequently, for a time, acted as +deputy governor, and in this office displayed the +greatest severity towards his old associates, several +of whom were tried before him and executed. One +whole crew of buccaneers were sent by him to the +Spaniards at Carthagena, in whose hands they were +likely to find little favor. He was subsequently arrested, +sent to England, and imprisoned for three +years under charges from Spain; but this was the +sole punishment dealt out to the most notorious of +the buccaneers.</p> + +<p>The success of Morgan's enterprise stimulated the +piratical crews to similar deeds of daring, and the +depredations continued, not only in the West Indies +and eastern South America, but afterwards along the +Pacific, the cities of Leon, in Mexico, New Granada, +on the lake of Nicaragua, and Guayaquil, the port +of Quito, being taken, sacked, and burned. Finally, +France and England joined Spain in efforts for their +suppression, the coasts were more strictly guarded, +and many of the freebooters settled as planters or +became mariners in honest trade. Some of them, +however, continued in their old courses, dispersing +over all seas as enemies of the shipping of the world; +but by the year 1700 their career had fairly come to +an end, and the race of buccaneers ceased to exist.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="275" /><anchor id="Pg275" /> +<head>ELIZABETH FARNESE AND ALBERONI.</head> + +<p>In 1714 certain events took place in Spain of sufficient +interest to be worth the telling. Philip V., +a feeble monarch, like all those for the century preceding +him, was on the throne. In his youth he +had been the Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. +of France, and upon the death of that great monarch +would be close in the succession to the throne of that +kingdom. But, chosen as king of Spain by the will +of Charles II., he preferred a sure seat to a doubtful +one, and renounced his claim to the French crown, +thus bringing to an end the fierce "War of the Succession," +which had involved most of the powers of +Europe for many years.</p> + +<p>Philip, by nature weak and yielding, became in +time a confirmed hypochondriac, and on the death +of his wife, Maria Louise, in 1714, abandoned himself +to grief, refusing to attend to business of any +kind, shutting himself up in the strictest seclusion, +and leaving the affairs of the kingdom practically in +the hands of the Princess Orsini, the governess of +his children, and his chief adviser.</p> + +<p>Sorrow-stricken as was the bereaved king, affairs +were already in train to provide him with a new +wife, a plan being laid for that purpose at the very<pb n="276" /><anchor id="Pg276" /> +funeral of his queen, as some writers say, between +the ambitious Princess Orsini and a cunning Italian +named Alberoni, while they, with a show of grave +decorum, followed Maria Louise to the grave.</p> + +<p>The story of Alberoni is an interesting one. This +man, destined to become prime minister of Spain, +began life as the son of a gardener in the duchy of +Parma. While a youth he showed such powers of +intellect that the Jesuits took him into their seminary +and gave him an education of a superior character. +He assumed holy orders and, by a combination +of knowledge and ability with adulation and +buffoonery, made his way until he received the +appointment of interpreter to the Bishop of St. +Domino, who was about to set out on a mission +from the Duke of Parma to the Duke of Vendôme, +then commander of the French forces in Italy.</p> + +<p>The worthy bishop soon grew thoroughly disgusted +with Vendôme, who, high as he was in station, +displayed a shameless grossness of manner +which was more than the pious churchman could +endure. The conduct of the affair was therefore left +to the interpreter, whose delicacy was not disturbed +by the duke's behavior, and who managed to ingratiate +himself fully in the good graces of the French +general, becoming so great a favorite that in the end +he left the service of the Duke of Parma for that of +Vendôme.</p> + +<p>Subsequently the duke was appointed to a command +in Spain, where he employed Alberoni in all +his negotiations with the court of Madrid. Here the +wily and ambitious Italian won the favor of the<pb n="277" /><anchor id="Pg277" /> +Princess Orsini so fully that when, on Vendôme's +death, he returned home, the Duke of Parma sent +him as his envoy to Spain.</p> + +<p>The princess little dreamed the character of the +man whom she had taken into confidential relations, +and who was plotting to overthrow her influence at +court. Bent on retaining her influence by the choice +of a tractable queen, she spoke to Alberoni of the +urgent necessity of finding another bride for the +disconsolate king. The shrewd diplomat named +several eligible princesses, each of whom he dismissed +as objectionable for one reason or another. At the +end he adroitly introduced the name of Elizabeth +Farnese, step-daughter of the Duke of Parma, of +whom he spoke carelessly as a good girl, fattened +on Parmesan cheese and butter, and so narrowly +educated that she had not an idea beyond her embroidery. +She might succeed, he hinted, to the +throne of Parma, as the duke had no child of his +own, in which case there would be a chance for +Spain to regain her lost provinces in Italy.</p> + +<p>The deluded Princess Orsini was delighted with +the suggestion. With such a girl as this for queen +she could continue to hold the reins of state. She +easily induced Philip to approve the choice; the +Duke of Parma was charmed with the offer; and +the preliminary steps to the marriage were hurried +through with all possible rapidity.</p> + +<p>Before the final conclusion of the affair, however, +the Princess Orsini discovered in some way that +Alberoni had lied, and that the proposed bride was +by no means the ignorant and incapable country<pb n="278" /><anchor id="Pg278" /> +girl she had been told. Furious at the deception, +she at once sent off a courier with orders to stop all +further proceedings relating to the marriage. The +messenger reached Parma in the morning of the day +on which the marriage ceremony was to be performed +by proxy. But Alberoni was wide awake to the +danger, and managed to have the messenger detained +until it was too late. Before he could deliver +his despatches Elizabeth Farnese was the legal wife +of Philip of Spain.</p> + +<p>The new queen had been fully advised of the state +of affairs by Alberoni. The Princess Orsini, to whom +she owed her elevation, was to be got rid of, at once +and permanently. On crossing the frontiers she +was met by all her household except the princess, +who was with the king, then on his way to meet and +espouse his bride. At Alcala the princess left him +and hastened to meet the queen, reaching the village +of Xadraca in time to receive her as she alighted +from her carriage, kiss her hand, and in virtue +of her office at court to conduct her to her apartment.</p> + +<p>Elizabeth met the princess with a show of graciousness, +but on entering her chamber suddenly turned +and accused her visitor of insulting her by lack of +respect, and by appearing before her in improper +attire. The amazed princess, overwhelmed by this +accusation, apologized and remonstrated, but the +queen refused to listen to her, ordered her from the +room, and bade the officer of the guard to arrest and +convey her beyond the frontier.</p> + +<p>Here was a change in the situation! The officer<pb n="279" /><anchor id="Pg279" /> +hesitated to arrest one who for years had been supreme +in Spain.</p> + +<p>"Were you not instructed to obey me implicitly?" +demanded Elizabeth.</p> + +<p>"Yes, your majesty."</p> + +<p>"Then do as I have ordered. I assume all responsibility."</p> + +<p>"Will your majesty give me a written sanction?"</p> + +<p>"Yes," said Elizabeth, in a tone very different from +that of the bread-and-butter miss whom Alberoni +had represented her.</p> + +<p>Calling for pen, ink, and paper, she wrote upon +her knee an order for the princess's arrest, and bade +the hesitating officer to execute it at once.</p> + +<p>He dared no longer object. The princess, in court +dress, was hurried into a carriage, with a single +female attendant and two officers, being allowed +neither a change of clothing, protection against the +cold, nor money to procure needed conveniences on +the road. In this way a woman of over sixty years +of age, whose will a few hours before had been absolute +in Spain, was forced to travel throughout an +inclement winter night, and continue her journey +until she was thrust beyond the limits of Spain, +within which she was never again permitted to set +foot.</p> + +<p>Such was the first act of the docile girl whom the +ambitious princess had fully expected to use as a tool +for her designs. Schooled by her skilled adviser, +and perhaps sanctioned by Philip, who may have +wished to get rid of his old favorite, Elizabeth at +the start showed a grasp of the situation which she<pb n="280" /><anchor id="Pg280" /> +was destined to keep until the end. The feeble-minded +monarch at once fell under her influence, +and soon all the affairs of the kingdom became subject +to her control.</p> + +<p>Elizabeth was a woman of restless ambition and +impetuous temper, and she managed throughout +Philip's reign to keep the kingdom in constant hot +water. The objects she kept in view were two: first, +to secure to Philip the reversion of the French crown +in case of the death of the then Duke of Anjou, +despite the fact that he had taken frequent oaths of +renunciation; second, to secure for her own children +sovereign rule in Italy.</p> + +<p>We cannot detail the long story of the intrigues +by which the ambitious woman sought to bring about +these purposes, but in all of them she found an able +ally in Alberoni. Elizabeth did not forget that she +owed her high position to this man. They were, +besides, congenial in disposition, and she persuaded +Philip to trust and consult him, and finally to appoint +him prime minister. Not satisfied with this reward +to her favorite, she, after a few years, induced the +Pope to grant him a cardinal's hat and Philip to +make him a grandee of Spain. The gardener's son +had, by ability and shrewdness, reached the highest +summit to which his ambition could aspire.</p> + +<p>From the greatest height one may make the most +rapid fall. The power of Alberoni was destined +quickly to reach its end. Yet it was less his own +fault than the ambition of the queen that led to the +termination of his career. As a prime minister he +proved a marked success, giving Spain an administration<pb n="281" /><anchor id="Pg281" /> +far superior to any she had enjoyed for many +years. Alberoni was a man of great ability, which +he employed in zealous efforts to improve the internal +condition of the country, having the wisdom +to avail himself of the talents and knowledge of +other able men in handling those departments of +government with which he was unfamiliar. He +seemed inclined to keep Spain at peace, at least until +she had regained some of her old power and energy; +but the demands of the queen overcame his reluctance, +and in the end he entered upon the accomplishment +of her purposes with a daring and recklessness +in full accordance with the demands of her +restless spirit of intrigue.</p> + +<p>Louis XIV. died in 1715. Louis XV., his heir, +was a sickly child, not yet five years old. Philip +would have been regent during his youth, and his +heir in case of his death, had he not renounced all +claim to the French throne. He was too weak and +irresolute in himself to take any steps to gain this +position, but his wife spurred him on to ambitious +designs, and Alberoni entered eagerly into her projects, +beginning a series of intrigues in France with +all who were opposed to the Duke of Orleans, the +existing regent.</p> + +<p>These intrigues led to war. The duke concluded +an alliance with England and Germany, the former +enemies of France. Philip, exasperated at seeing +himself thus thwarted, declared war against the +German emperor, despite all that Alberoni could do +to prevent, and sent an expedition against Sardinia, +which captured that island. Sicily was also invaded.<pb n="282" /><anchor id="Pg282" /> +Alberoni now entered into intrigues for the restoration +of the banished Stuarts to the English throne, +and took part in a conspiracy in France to seize the +Duke of Orleans and appoint Philip to the regency.</p> + +<p>Both these plots failed, the war became general, +Philip found his armies beaten, and Alberoni was +forced to treat for peace. The Spanish minister +had made bitter enemies of George I. of England +and the Duke of Orleans, who, claiming that he was +responsible for disturbing the peace of Europe, demanded +his dismissal as a preliminary to peace. +His failure had lost him influence with the king, but +the queen, the real power behind the throne, supported +him, and it was only by promises of the enemies +of Alberoni to aid her views for the establishment +of her children that she was induced to yield +consent to his overthrow.</p> + +<p>On the 4th of December, 1719, Alberoni spent the +evening transacting affairs of state with the king +and queen. Up to that time he remained in full +favor and authority, however he may have suspected +the intrigues for his overthrow. Their +majesties that night left Madrid for their country +palace at Pardo, and from there was sent a decree +by the hands of a secretary of state, to the all-powerful +minister, depriving him of all his offices, +and bidding him to quit Madrid within eight days +and Spain within three weeks.</p> + +<p>Alberoni had long been hated by the people of +Spain, and detested by the grandees, who could not +be reconciled to the supremacy of a foreigner and +his appointment to equality with them in rank. But<pb n="283" /><anchor id="Pg283" /> +this sudden dismissal seemed to change their sentiments, +and rouse them to realization of the fact +that Spain was losing its ablest man. Nobles and +clergy flocked to his house in such numbers that the +king became alarmed at this sudden popularity, and +ordered him to shorten the time of his departure.</p> + +<p>Alberoni sought refuge in Rome, but here the +enmity of France and England pursued him, and +Philip accused him of misdemeanors in office, for +which he demanded a trial by the Pope and cardinals. +Before these judges the disgraced minister defended +himself so ably that the court brought the investigation +to a sudden end by ordering him to retire to +a monastery for three years.</p> + +<p>This period the favor of the Pope reduced to one +year, and his chief enemy, the regent of France, +soon after dying, he was permitted to leave the +monastery and pass the remainder of his life free +from persecution. His career was a singular one, +considering the lowness of his origin, and showed +what ability and shrewdness may accomplish even +against the greatest obstacles of fortune.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="284" /><anchor id="Pg284" /> +<head>THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR.</head> + +<p>The great Mediterranean Sea has its gate-way, +nine miles wide, opening into the Atlantic, the gate-posts +being the headland of Ceuta, on the African +coast, and the famous rock of Gibraltar, in southwestern +Spain, two natural fortresses facing each other +across the sea. It is a singular fact that the African +headland is held by Spain, and the Spanish headland +by Great Britain,—this being a result of the wars +of the eighteenth century. Gibraltar, in fact, has +had a striking history, one worth the telling.</p> + +<p>This towering mass of rock rises in solitary grandeur +at the extremity of a sandy level, reaching +upward to a height of fourteen hundred and eight +feet, while it is three miles long and three-fourths +of a mile in average width. It forms a stronghold +of nature which attracted attention at an early date. +To the Greeks it was one of the Pillars of Hercules,—Abyla +(now Ceuta) being the other,—and formed +the supposed western boundary of the world. Tarik, +the Arab, landed here in 711, fortified the rock, and +made it his base of operations against Gothic Spain. +From him it received its name, Gebel el Tarik (Hill +of Tarik), now corrupted into Gibraltar. For seven +centuries it remained in Moorish hands, except for a +short interval after 1302, when it was taken by Ferdinand +II. of Castile. The king of Granada soon<pb n="285" /><anchor id="Pg285" /> +recaptured it; from him it was taken by treachery +by the king of Fez in 1333; Alfonso XI. of Castile +vigorously besieged it, but in vain; the king of +Granada mastered it again in 1410; and it finally +fell into the hands of Spain in 1462.</p> + +<p>A formidable attempt was made by the Moors for +its recovery in 1540, it being vigorously attacked by +the pirates of Algiers, who fought fiercely to win the +rock, but were finally repulsed.</p> + +<p>For the next event in the history of this much-coveted +rock we must go on to the year 1704, when +the celebrated war of the Succession was in full +play. Louis XIV. of France supported his grandson +Philip V. as the successor to the throne of +Spain. The Archduke Charles of Austria was supported +by England, Portugal, and Holland, and was +conveyed to the Peninsula and landed at Lisbon by +an English fleet under Admiral Rorke. The admiral, +having disposed of the would-be king, sailed for Barcelona, +which he was told was a ripe plum, ready to +fall into his mouth. He was disappointed; Barcelona +was by no means ripe for his purposes, and he sailed +back, ready for any enterprise that might offer itself.</p> + +<p>Soon before him towered the rock of Gibraltar, +a handsome prize if it could be captured, and poorly +defended, as he knew. The Spaniards, trusting, as +it seems, in the natural strength of the place, which +they deemed impregnable, had left it with a very +small supply of artillery and ammunition, and with +almost no garrison. Here was a promising opportunity +for the disappointed admiral and his associate, +the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, who headed the<pb n="286" /><anchor id="Pg286" /> +foreign troops. A landing was made, siege lines +were opened, batteries were erected, and a hot bombardment +began, to which the feeble garrison could +make but a weak reply. But the most effective +work was done by a body of soldiers, who scrambled +up a part of the rock that no one dreamed could be +ascended, and appeared above the works, filling with +terror the hearts of the garrison.</p> + +<p>Two days answered for the enterprise. At the +end of that time the governor, Don Diego de Salmas, +capitulated, and Gibraltar was taken possession of +in the name of Queen Anne of England, the prince +being left there with a garrison of two thousand +men. From that time to this Gibraltar has remained +an outpost of Great Britain, with whose outlying +strongholds the whole world bristles.</p> + +<p>The loss of this strong place proved a bitter +draught to the pride of Spain, and strenuous efforts +to recapture it were made. In the succeeding year +(1705) it was besieged by a strong force of French +and Spanish troops, but their efforts were wasted, +for the feeble court of Madrid left the army destitute +of necessary supplies. By the peace of +Utrecht, 1713, Gibraltar was formally made over to +Great Britain, a country famous for clinging with +a death-grip to any place of which she has once +taken hold.</p> + +<p>Later efforts were made to win the Rock of Tarik +for Spain, one in 1756, but the last and greatest in +1779-82. It is this vigorous effort with which we +are here concerned, the siege being one of the most +famous of recent times.</p> + +<pb n="287" /><anchor id="Pg287" /> + +<p>The Revolutionary War in the United States stirred +up all Europe, and finally brought Great Britain two +new foes, the allied kingdoms of France and Spain. +The latter country had never lost its irritation at +seeing a foreign power in possession of a part of its +home territory. Efforts were made to obtain Gibraltar +by negotiation, Spain offering her friendly aid +to Great Britain in her wars if she would give up +Gibraltar. This the British government positively +refused to do, and war was declared. A siege of Gibraltar +began which lasted for more than three years.</p> + +<p>Spain began the work in 1779 with a blockade by +sea and an investment by land. Supplies were cut +off from the garrison, which was soon in a state of +serious distress for food, and strong hopes were entertained +that it would be forced to yield. But the +British government was alert. Admiral Rodney +was sent with a strong fleet to the Mediterranean, +the Spanish blockading fleet was defeated, the garrison +relieved, provisioned, and reinforced, and Rodney +sailed in triumph for the West Indies.</p> + +<p>For three years the blockade was continued with +varying fortunes, the garrison being now on the +verge of starvation, now relieved by British fleets. +At the close of the third year it was far stronger +than at the beginning. The effort to subdue it by +famine was abandoned, and preparations for a vigorous +siege were made. France had joined her forces +with those of Spain. The island of Minorca, held +by the British, had been taken by the allied fleet, +and it was thought impossible for Gibraltar to resist +the projected assault.</p> + +<pb n="288" /><anchor id="Pg288" /> + +<p>The land force that had so long besieged the rock +was greatly strengthened, new batteries were raised, +new trenches opened, and a severe fire was begun +upon the works. Yet so commanding was the situation +and so strong were the defences of the garrison +that success from the land side seemed impossible, +and it was determined to make the main attack from +the sea.</p> + +<p>A promising method of attack was devised by a +French engineer of the highest reputation for skill +in his profession, the Chevalier D'Arçon. The plan +offered by him was so original and ingenious as to +fill the besiegers with hopes of sure success, and the +necessary preparations were diligently made. Ten +powerful floating batteries were constructed, which +were thought fully adapted to resist fire, throw off +shells, and quench red-hot balls. Every effort was +made to render them incombustible and incapable +of being sunk. These formidable batteries were +towed to the bay of Gibraltar and anchored at a +suitable distance from the works, D'Arçon himself +being in command. Ten ships of the line were sent +to co-operate with them, the arrival of reinforcements +from France increased the land army to forty +thousand men, and Crillon, the conqueror of Minorca, +was placed in supreme command. The allied fleets +were ordered to cruise in the straits, so as to prevent +interference by a British fleet.</p> + +<p>These great and scientific preparations filled all +hearts with hope. No doubt was entertained that +Gibraltar now must fall and Great Britain receive +the chastisement she deserved. The nobility of<pb n="289" /><anchor id="Pg289" /> +Spain sought in numbers the scene of action, eager +to be present at the triumph of her arms. From +Versailles came the French princes, full of expectation +of witnessing the humbling of British pride. +So confident of success was Charles III., king of +Spain, that his first question every morning on +waking was, "Is Gibraltar taken?" All Spain and +all France were instinct with hope of seeing the pride +of the islanders go down.</p> + +<p>Gibraltar was garrisoned by seven thousand troops +under General Elliot. These lay behind fortifications +on which had been exhausted all the resources +of the engineering skill of that day, and in their +hearts was the fixed resolve never to surrender. The +question had become one of national pride rather +than of utility. Gibraltar was not likely to prove +of any very important advantage to Great Britain, +but the instinct to hold on has always been with +that country a national trait, and, however she might +have been induced to yield Gibraltar as an act of +policy, she was determined not to do so as an act +of war.</p> + +<p>Early on the 13th of September, 1782, the long-threatened +bombardment began from so powerful a +park of artillery that its roar is said to have exceeded +anything ever before heard. There were +defects in the plan. The trenches on land proved to +be too far away. The water was rough and the +gunboats could not assist. But the work of the batteries +came up to the highest expectations. The fire +poured by them upon the works was tremendous, +while for many hours the shells and red-hot balls of<pb n="290" /><anchor id="Pg290" /> +the garrison, fired with the greatest precision, proved +of no avail. The batteries seemed invulnerable to +fire and shell, and the hopes of the besiegers rose to +the highest point, while those of the besieged correspondingly +fell.</p> + +<p>In the end this powerful assault was defeated by +one of those events to which armed bodies of men +are always liable,—a sudden and uncalled-for spasm +of fear that flew like wildfire through fleet and camp. +The day had nearly passed, evening was approaching, +the hopes of the allies were at their height, when +a red-hot ball from the works lodged in the nearest +battery and started a fire, which the crew sought in +vain to quench.</p> + +<p>In a sudden panic, for which there seems to have +been no sufficient cause, the terrified crew wet their +powder and ceased to fire on the British works. +The panic spread to the other batteries, and from +them to the forces on shore, even the commander-in-chief +being affected by the causeless fear. At one +moment the assailants were enthusiastic with expectation +of success. Not many minutes afterwards +they were so overcome with unreasoning terror that +an insane order was given to burn the batteries, and +these were fired with such precipitate haste that the +crews were allowed no time to escape. More of the +men were saved by their enemies, who came with +generous intrepidity to their aid, than by their own +terror-stricken friends.</p> + +<p>This unfortunate event put a sudden end to the +costly and promising effort. The nobles of Spain +and the princes of France left the camp in disgust.<pb n="291" /><anchor id="Pg291" /> +Charles III. received word that Gibraltar was not +captured, and not likely to be, and the idea of taking +the stronghold by force was abandoned, the blockade +being resumed.</p> + +<p>To keep away British aid the allied fleet was increased +until it numbered forty-seven ships of the +line, with a considerable number of smaller vessels. +Furnaces were prepared to heat shot for the destruction +of any transports and store-ships that might +enter the harbor. Against this great fleet Lord +Howe appeared in October with only thirty sail, +and encumbered with a large convoy. The allied +leaders seeing this small force, felt sure of victory, +and of Gibraltar as their prize.</p> + +<p>But again they were doomed to disappointment. +The elements came to the British aid. A violent +storm drove the allied fleet from its anchorage, dispersed +the vessels, injured many of the large ships, +and drove the small craft ashore. Lord Howe, +whose ships were far better handled, sailed in good +order through the straits, and for five days of rough +weather offered battle to the disabled enemy, keeping +them at a distance while his transports and store-ships +entered the harbor and supplied the garrison +abundantly with provisions, ammunition, and men. +The effort to take Gibraltar was hopelessly defeated. +The blockade was still kept up, but merely as a satisfaction +to Spanish pride. All hope of taking the +fortress was at an end. Gibraltar remains to-day +in British hands, and no later attempt to take it has +been made.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="292" /><anchor id="Pg292" /> +<head>THE FALL OF A FAVORITE.</head> + +<p>The course of our work now brings us down to +recent times. After the death of Philip II., in 1598, +Spain had little history worth considering. Ruled +by a succession of painfully weak kings, who were +devoid of anything approaching political wisdom, +the fortunes of the realm ran steadily downward. +From being the strongest, it became in time one of +the weakest and least considered of European +kingdoms; and from taking the lead in the politics +and wars of Europe, it came to be a plaything of +the neighboring nations,—a catspaw which they +used for the advancement of their own ends.</p> + +<p>It was in this way that Napoleon treated Spain. +He played with it as a cat plays with a mouse, and +when the proper time came pounced upon it and +gathered it in. Charles IV., the Spanish king of +Napoleon's time, was one of the feeblest of his +weak line,—an imbecile whom the emperor of France +counted no more than a feather in his path. He +sought to deal with him as he had done with the +equally effeminate king of Portugal. When a French +army invaded Portugal in 1807, its weak monarch +cut the knot of the difficulty by taking ship and +crossing the ocean to Brazil, abandoning his old +kingdom and setting up a new one in the New +World. When Spain was in its turn invaded, its<pb n="293" /><anchor id="Pg293" /> +king proposed to do the same thing,—to carry the +royal court of Spain to America, and leave a kingdom +without a head to Napoleon. Such an act +would have exactly suited the purposes of the astute +conqueror, but the people rose in riot, and Charles +IV. remained at home.</p> + +<p>The real ruler of Spain at that time was a licentious +and insolent favorite of the king and queen, +Emanuel Godoy by name, who began life as a soldier, +was made Duke of Alcudia by his royal patrons, +and was appointed prime minister in 1792. In 1795, +having made peace with France after a disastrous +war, he received the title of "Prince of the Peace." +His administration was very corrupt, and he won +the hatred of the nobles, the people, and the heir to +the throne. But his influence over the imbecile king +and the licentious queen was unbounded, and he +could afford to laugh in the face of his foes. But +favorites are apt to have a short period of power, +and, though Godoy remained long in office, his downfall +at length came.</p> + +<p>Napoleon had marched his armies through Spain +to the conquest of Portugal, no one in Spain having +the courage to object. It was stipulated that +a second French army should not cross the Pyrenees, +but in defiance of this Napoleon filled the north +of Spain with his troops in 1808, and sent a third +army across the mountains without pretence of their +being needed in Portugal. No protest was made +against this invasion of a neutral nation. The +court of Madrid was helpless with terror, and, with +the hope of propitiating Napoleon, admitted his<pb n="294" /><anchor id="Pg294" /> +legions into all the cities of Catalonia, Biscay, and +Navarre.</p> + +<p>Only one thing more was needed to make the +French masters of the whole country. They held +the towns, but the citadels were in possession of +Spanish troops. These could not be expelled by violence +while a show of peace was kept up. But Napoleon +wanted them, and employed stratagem to get +them into his hands.</p> + +<p>In two of the towns, St. Sebastian and Figueras, +a simple lie sufficed. The officers in command of +the French garrisons asked permission to quarter +their unruly conscripts in the citadels. As the court +had ordered that all the wishes of the emperor's +officers should be gratified, this seemingly innocent +request was granted. But in place of conscripts the +best men of the regiments were sent, and these were +gradually increased in numbers until in the end they +overpowered the Spanish garrisons and admitted the +French.</p> + +<p>At Pamplona a similar request was refused by the +governor of the citadel, but he permitted sixty unarmed +men daily to enter the fortress to receive +rations for their respective divisions. Here was the +fatal entering wedge. One night the officer in charge, +whose quarters were near the citadel gate, secretly +filled his house with armed grenadiers. The next +morning sixty picked men, with arms hidden under +their cloaks, were sent in for rations. The hour was +too early, and the French soldiers loitered about +under pretence of waiting for the quartermaster. +Some sauntered into the Spanish guard-house.<pb n="295" /><anchor id="Pg295" /> +Others, by a sportive scuffle on the drawbridge, prevented +its being raised, and occupied the attention +of the garrison. Suddenly a signal was given. The +men drew their weapons and seized the arms of the +Spaniards. The grenadiers rushed from their concealment. +The bridge and gate were secured, French +troops hastened to the aid of their comrades, and +the citadel was won.</p> + +<p>At Barcelona a different stratagem was employed. +A review of the French forces was held under the +walls of the citadel, whose garrison assembled to +look on. During the progress of the review the +French general, on pretence that he had been ordered +from the city, rode with his staff on to the +drawbridge with the ostensible purpose of bidding +farewell to the Spanish commander. While the +Spaniards curiously watched the manœuvres of the +troops others of the French quietly gathered on the +drawbridge. At a signal this was seized, a rush took +place, and the citadel of Barcelona was added to the +conquests of France.</p> + +<p>The surprise of these fortresses produced an immense +sensation in Spain. That country had sunk +into a condition of pitiable weakness. Its navy, once +powerful, was now reduced to a small number of +ships, few of them in condition for service. Its +army, once the strongest in Europe, was now but a +handful of poorly equipped and half-drilled men. +Its finances were in a state of frightful disorganization. +The government of a brainless king, a +dissolute queen, and an incapable favorite had +brought Spain into a condition in which she dared<pb n="296" /><anchor id="Pg296" /> +not raise a hand to resist the ambitious French +emperor.</p> + +<p>In this dilemma Godoy, the so-called "Prince of +the Peace," persuaded the king and queen of Spain +that nothing was left them but flight. The royal +house of Portugal had found a great imperial realm +awaiting it in America. Spain possessed there a +dominion of continental extent. What better could +they do than remove to the New World the seat of +their throne and cut loose from their threatened and +distracted realm?</p> + +<p>The project was concealed under the form of a +journey to Andalusia, for the purpose, as announced +by Godoy, of inspecting the ports. But the extensive +preparations of the court for this journey aroused +a suspicion of its true purpose among the people, +whose indignation became extreme on finding that +they were to be deserted by the royal house, as +Portugal had been. The exasperation of all classes—the +nobility, the middle class, and the people—against +the court grew intense. It was particularly +developed in the army, a body which Godoy had +badly treated. The army leaders argued that they +had better welcome the French than permit this disgrace, +and that it was their duty to prevent by force +the flight of the king.</p> + +<p>But all this did not deter the Prince of the Peace. +He had several frigates made ready in the port of +Cadiz, the royal carriages were ordered to be in +readiness, and relays of horses were provided on the +road. The date of departure was fixed for the 15th +or 16th of March, 1808.</p> + +<pb n="297" /><anchor id="Pg297" /> + +<p>On the 13th Godoy made his way from Madrid to +Aranjuez, a magnificent royal residence on the banks +of the Tagus, then occupied by the royal family. +This residence, in the Italian style and surrounded +by superb grounds and gardens, was fronted by a wide +highway, expanding opposite the palace into a spacious +place, on which were several fine mansions belonging +to courtiers and ministers, one of the finest +being occupied by the prime minister. In the vicinity +a multitude of small houses, inhabited by +tradesmen and shop-keepers, made up the town of +Aranjuez.</p> + +<p>Godoy, on arriving at Aranjuez, summoned a council +of the ministers, the time having arrived to apprise +them of what was proposed. One of them, the +Marquis of Caballero, kept him waiting, and on his +arrival refused to consent, either by word or signature, +to the flight of the king.</p> + +<p>"I order you to sign," the prime minister angrily +exclaimed.</p> + +<p>"I take no orders except from the king," haughtily +replied the marquis.</p> + +<p>A sharp altercation followed, in which the other +ministers took part, and the meeting broke up in +disorder, nothing being done. On retiring, the irate +counsellors, full of agitation, dropped words which +were caught up by the public and aroused a commotion +that quickly spread throughout the town. +Thence it extended into the surrounding country, +everywhere arousing the disaffected, and soon strange +and sinister faces appeared in the quiet town. The +elements of a popular outbreak were gathering.</p> + +<pb n="298" /><anchor id="Pg298" /> + +<p>During the succeeding two days the altercation +between the Prince of the Peace and the ministers +continued, and the public excitement was added to +by words attributed to Ferdinand, the king's son +and heir to the throne, who was said to have sought +aid against those who proposed to carry him off +against his will. On the morning of the 16th, the +final day fixed for the journey, the public agitation +was so great that the king issued a proclamation, +which was posted in the streets, saying that he had +no thought of leaving his people. It ended: "Spaniards, +be easy; your king will not leave you."</p> + +<p>This for the time calmed the people. Yet on the +17th the excitement reappeared. The carriages remained +loaded in the palace court-yard; the relays +of horses were kept up; all the indications were suspicious. +During the day the troops of the garrison +of Madrid not on duty, with a large number of the +populace, appeared in Aranjuez, having marched a +distance of seven or eight leagues. They shouted +maledictions on their way against the queen and the +Prince of the Peace.</p> + +<p>The streets of Aranjuez that night were filled with +an excited mob, many of them life-guards from Madrid, +who divided into bands and patrolled the vicinity +of the palace, determined that no one should +leave. About midnight an incident changed the +excitement into a riot. A lady left Godoy's residence +under escort of a few soldiers. She appeared +to be about to enter a carriage. The crowd pressed +closely around, and the hussars of the minister, who +attended the lady, attempted to force a passage<pb n="299" /><anchor id="Pg299" /> +through them. At this moment a gun was fired,—by +whom was not known. A frightful tumult at +once arose. The life-guards and other soldiers rushed +upon the hussars, and a furious mob gathered around +the palace, shouting, "Long live the king!" "Death +to the Prince of the Peace!"</p> + +<p>Soon a rush was made towards the residence of +the prince, which the throng surrounded, gazing at +it with eyes of anger, yet hesitating to make an attack. +As they paused in doubt, a messenger from +the palace approached the mansion and sought admission. +It was refused from those within. He insisted +upon entrance, and a shot came from the guards +within. In an instant all hesitation was at an end. +The crowd rushed in fury against the doors, broke +them in, and swarmed into the building, driving the +guards back in dismay.</p> + +<p>It was magnificently furnished, but their passion +to destroy soon made havoc of its furniture and +decorations. Pictures, hangings, costly articles of +use and ornament were torn down, dashed to pieces, +flung from the windows. The mob ran from room +to room, destroying everything of value they met, +and eagerly seeking the object of their hatred, with +a passionate thirst for his life. The whole night +was spent in the search, and, the prince not being +found, his house was reduced to a wreck.</p> + +<p>Word of what was taking place filled the weak +soul of Charles IV. with mortal terror. The prince +failed to appear, and, by the advice of the ministers, +a decree was issued by the king on the following +morning depriving Emanuel Godoy of the offices of<pb n="300" /><anchor id="Pg300" /> +grand admiral and generalissimo, and exiling him +from the court.</p> + +<p>Thus fell this detestable favorite, the people, who +blamed him for the degradation of Spain, breaking +into a passionate joy, singing, dancing, building bonfires, +and giving every manifestation of delight. In +Madrid, when the news reached there, the enthusiasm +approached delirium.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, where was the fallen favorite? Despite +the close search made by the mob, he remained +concealed in his residence. Alarmed by the crash +of the breaking doors, he had seized a pistol and a +handful of gold, rushed up-stairs, and hid himself in +a loft under the roof, rolling himself up in a sort of +rush carpet used in Spain. Here he remained during +the whole of the 18th and the succeeding night, but +on the morning of the 19th, after thirty-six hours' +suffering, thirst and hunger forced him to leave his +retreat. He presented himself suddenly before a +sentry on duty in the palace, offering him his gold. +But the man refused the bribe and instantly called +the guard. Fortunately the mass of the people +were not near by. Some life-guards who just then +came up placed the miserable captive between their +horses, and conveyed him as rapidly as they could +towards their barracks. But these were at some +distance, the news of the capture spread like wild-fire, +and they had not gone far before the mob began +to gather around them, their hearts full of murderous +rage.</p> + +<p>The prince was on foot between two of the +mounted guardsmen, leaning for shelter against the<pb n="301" /><anchor id="Pg301" /> +pommels of their saddles. Others of the horsemen +closed up in front and rear, and did their best to +protect him from the fury of the rabble, who struck +wildly at him with every weapon they had been able +to snatch up. Despite the efforts of the guardsmen +some of the blows reached him, and he was finally +brought to the barracks with his feet trodden by the +horses, a large wound in his thigh, and one eye +nearly out of his head. Here he was thrown, covered +with blood, upon the straw in the stables, a sad example +of what comes of the favor of kings when +exercised in defiance of the will of the people. +Godoy had begun life as a life-guardsman, and now, +after almost sharing the throne, he had thus returned +to the barracks and the straw bed of his youth.</p> + +<p>We may give in outline the remainder of the +story of this fallen favorite. Promise being given +that he should have an impartial trial, the mob +ceased its efforts to kill him. Napoleon, who had +use for him, now came to his rescue, and induced +him to sign a deed under which Charles IV. abdicated +the throne in favor of his son. His possessions +in Spain were confiscated, but Charles, who removed +to Rome, was his friend during life. After the +death of his protector he went to Paris, where he +received a pension from Louis Philippe; and in 1847, +when eighty years of age, he received permission to +return to Spain, his titles and most of his property +being restored. But he preferred to live in Paris, +where he died in 1851.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<figure url="images/image17.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.</head> +<figDesc>Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.</figDesc> +</figure> +<p></p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="302" /><anchor id="Pg302" /> +<head>THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA.</head> + +<p>On the banks of the Ebro, in northwestern Spain, +stands the ancient city of Saragossa, formerly the +capital of Aragon, and a place of fame since early +Roman days. A noble bridge of seven arches, built +nearly five centuries ago, crosses the stream, and a +wealth of towers and spires gives the city an imposing +appearance. This city is famous for its sieges, +of which a celebrated one took place in the twelfth +century, when the Christians held it in siege for five +years, ending in 1118. In the end the Moors were +forced to surrender, or such of them as survived, for +a great part of them had died of hunger. In modern +times it gained new and high honor from its celebrated +resistance to the French in 1808. It is this +siege with which we are concerned, one almost without +parallel in history.</p> + +<p>We have told in the preceding tale how Charles +IV. of Spain was forced to yield the throne to his +son Ferdinand, who was proclaimed king March 20, +1808. This act by no means agreed with the views +of Napoleon, who had plans of his own for Spain, +and who sought to end the difficulty by deposing the +Bourbon royal family and placing his own brother, +Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne.</p> + +<p>The imperious emperor of the French had, however, +the people as well as the rulers of Spain to<pb n="303" /><anchor id="Pg303" /> +deal with. The news of his arbitrary action was +received throughout the Peninsula with intense indignation, +and suddenly the land blazed into insurrection, +and the French garrisons, which had been +treacherously introduced into Spain, found themselves +besieged. Everywhere the peasants seized +arms and took to the field, and a fierce guerilla warfare +began which the French found it no easy matter +to overcome. At Baylen, a town of Andalusia, which +was besieged by the insurgents, the French suffered +a serious defeat, an army of eighteen thousand men +being forced to surrender as prisoners of war. This +was the only important success of the Spanish, but +they courageously resisted their foes, and at Saragossa +gained an honor unsurpassed in the history of +Spain. Never had there been known such a siege +and such a defence.</p> + +<p>Saragossa was attacked by General Lefebre on +June 15, 1808. Thinking that a city protected only +by a low brick wall, with peasants and townsmen +for its defenders, and few guns in condition for service, +could be carried at first assault, the French +general made a vigorous attack, but found himself +driven back. He had but four or five thousand men, +while the town had fifty thousand inhabitants, the +commander of the garrison being Joseph Palafox, a +man of indomitable spirit.</p> + +<p>Lefebre, perceiving that he had been over-confident, +now encamped and awaited reinforcements, +which arrived on the 29th, increasing his force to +twelve thousand men. He was recalled for service +elsewhere, General Verdier being left in command,<pb n="304" /><anchor id="Pg304" /> +and during the succeeding two months the siege was +vigorously prosecuted, the French being supplied +with a large siege train, with which they hotly bombarded +the city.</p> + +<p>Weak as were the walls of Saragossa, interiorly +it was remarkably well adapted for defence. The +houses were strongly built, of incombustible material, +they being usually of two stories, each story vaulted +and practically fireproof. Every house had its garrison, +and the massive convents which rose like +castles within the circuit of the wall were filled with +armed men. Usually when the walls of a city are +taken the city falls; but this was by no means the +case with Saragossa. The loss of its walls was but +the beginning, not the end, of its defence. Each +convent, each house, formed a separate fortress. +The walls were loop-holed for musketry, ramparts +were constructed of sand-bags, and beams were raised +endwise against the houses to afford shelter from +shells.</p> + +<p>It was not until August that the French, now +fifteen thousand strong, were able to force their way +into the city. But to enter the city was not to capture +it. They had to fight their way from street to +street and from house to house. At length the assailants +penetrated to the Cosso, a public walk formed +on the line of the old Moorish ramparts, but here +their advance was checked, the citizens defending +themselves with the most desperate and unyielding +energy.</p> + +<p>The singular feature of this defence was that the +women of Saragossa took as active a part in it as<pb n="305" /><anchor id="Pg305" /> +the men. The Countess Burita, a beautiful young +woman of intrepid spirit, took the lead in forming +her fellow-women into companies, at whose head +were ladies of the highest rank. These, undeterred +by the hottest fire and freely braving wounds and +death, carried provisions to the combatants, removed +the wounded to the hospitals, and were everywhere +active in deeds of mercy and daring. One of them, +a young woman of low rank but intrepid soul, gained +world-wide celebrity by an act of unusual courage +and presence of mind.</p> + +<p>While engaged one day in her regular duty, that +of carrying meat and wine to the defenders of a +battery, she found it deserted and the guns abandoned. +The French fire had proved so murderous +that the men had shrunk back in mortal dread. +Snatching a match from the hand of a dead artillery-man, +the brave girl fired his gun, and vowed that she +would never leave it while a Frenchman remained +in Saragossa. Her daring shamed the men, who +returned to their guns, but, as the story goes, the +brave girl kept her vow, working the gun she had +chosen until she had the joy to see the French in +full retreat. This took place on the 14th of August, +when the populace, expecting nothing but to die +amid the ruins of their houses, beheld with delight +the enemy in full retreat. The obstinate resistance +of the people and reverses to the arms of France +elsewhere had forced them to raise the siege.</p> + +<p>The deeds of the "Maid of Saragossa" have been +celebrated in poetry by Byron and Southey and in +art by Wilkie, and she stands high on the roll of<pb n="306" /><anchor id="Pg306" /> +heroic women, being given, as some declare, a more +elevated position than her exploit deserved.</p> + +<p>Saragossa, however, was only reprieved, not abandoned. +The French found themselves too busily occupied +elsewhere to attend to this centre of Spanish +valor until months had passed. At length, after the +defeat and retreat of Sir John Moore and the English +allies of Spain, a powerful army, thirty-five +thousand strong, returned to the city on the Ebro, +with a battering train of sixty guns.</p> + +<p>Palafox remained in command in the city, which +was now much more strongly fortified and better +prepared for defence. The garrison was super-abundant. +From the field of battle at Tudela, where +the Spaniards had suffered a severe defeat, a stream +of soldiers fled to Saragossa, bringing with them +wagons and military stores in abundance. As the +fugitives passed, the villagers along the road, moved +by terror, joined them, and into the gates of the city +poured a flood of soldiers, camp-followers, and peasants, +until it was thronged with human beings. Last +of all came the French, reaching the city on the 20th +of December, and resuming their interrupted siege. +And now Saragossa, though destined to fall, was to +cover itself with undying glory.</p> + +<p>The townsmen, giving up every thought of personal +property, devoted all their goods, their houses, +and their persons to the war, mingling with the soldiers +and the peasants to form one great garrison for +the fortress into which the whole city was transformed. +In all quarters of the city massive churches +and convents rose like citadels, the various large<pb n="307" /><anchor id="Pg307" /> +streets running into the broad avenue called the +Cosso, and dividing the city into a number of districts, +each with its large and massive structures, +well capable of defence.</p> + +<p>Not only these thick-walled buildings, but all the +houses, were converted into forts, the doors and windows +being built up, the fronts loop-holed, and openings +for communication broken through the party-walls; +while the streets were defended by trenches +and earthen ramparts mounted with cannon. Never +before was there such an instance of a whole city +converted into a fortress, the thickness of the ramparts +being here practically measured by the whole +width of the city.</p> + +<p>Saragossa had been a royal depot for saltpetre, and +powder-mills near by had taught many of its people +the process of manufacture, so no magazines of +powder subject to explosion were provided, this indispensable +substance being made as it was needed. +Outside the walls the trees were cut down and the +houses demolished, so that they might not shield the +enemy; the public magazines contained six months' +provisions, the convents and houses were well +stocked, and every preparation was made for a long +siege and a vigorous defence.</p> + +<p>Again, as before, companies of women were enrolled +to attend the wounded in the hospitals and +carry food and ammunition to the men, the Countess +Burita being once more their commander, and performing +her important duty with a heroism and high +intelligence worthy of the utmost praise. Not less +than fifty thousand combatants within the walls<pb n="308" /><anchor id="Pg308" /> +faced the thirty-five thousand French soldiers without, +who had before them the gigantic task of overcoming +a city in which every dwelling was a fort +and every family a garrison.</p> + +<p>A month and more passed before the walls were +taken. Steadily the French guns played on these +defences, breach after breach was made, a number +of the encircling convents were entered and held, and +by the 1st of February the walls and outer strongholds +of the city were lost. Ordinarily, under such +circumstances, the city would have fallen, but here +the work of the assailants had but fairly begun. +The inner defences—the houses with their unyielding +garrisons—stood intact, and a terrible task still +faced the French.</p> + +<p>The war was now in the city streets, the houses +nearest the posts held by the enemy were crowded +with defenders, in every quarter the alarm-bells +called the citizens to their duty, new barricades rose +in the streets, mines were sunk in the open spaces, +and the internal passages from house to house were +increased until the whole city formed a vast labyrinth, +throughout which the defenders could move +under cover.</p> + +<p>Marshall Lannes, the French commander, viewed +with dread and doubt the scene before him. Untrained +in the art of war as were the bulk of the +defenders, courage and passionate patriotism made +up for all deficiencies. Men like these, heedless of +death in their determined defence, were dangerous +to meet in open battle, and the prudent Frenchman +resolved to employ the slow but surer process of<pb n="309" /><anchor id="Pg309" /> +excavating a passage and fighting his way through +house after house until the city should be taken +piecemeal.</p> + +<p>Mining through the houses was not sufficient. +The greater streets divided the city into a number +of small districts, the group of dwellings in each of +which forming a separate stronghold. To cross these +streets it was necessary to construct underground +galleries, or build traverses, since a Spanish battery +raked each street, and each house had to be fought +for and taken separately.</p> + +<p>While the Spaniards held the convents and +churches the capture of the houses by the French +was of little service to them, the defenders making +sudden and successful sallies from these strong buildings, +and countermining their enemies, their numbers +and perseverance often frustrating the superior skill +of the French. The latter, therefore, directed their +attacks upon these buildings, mining and destroying +many of them. On the other hand, the defenders +saturated with rosin and pitch the timbers of the +buildings they could no longer hold, and interposed +a barrier of fire between themselves and their assailants +which often delayed them for several days.</p> + +<p>Step by step, inch by inch, the French made their +way forward, complete destruction alone enabling +them to advance. The fighting was incessant. The +explosion of mines, the crash of falling buildings, the +roar of cannon and musketry, the shouts of the combatants +continually filled the air, while a cloud of +smoke and dust hung constantly over the city as the +terrible scene of warfare continued day after day.</p> + +<pb n="310" /><anchor id="Pg310" /> + +<p>By the 17th of February the Cosso was reached +and passed. But the French soldiers had become +deeply discouraged by their fifty days of unremitting +labor and battle, fighting above and beneath +the earth, facing an enemy as bold as themselves +and much more numerous, and with half the city +still to be conquered. Only the obstinate determination +of Marshal Lannes kept them to their work.</p> + +<p>By his orders a general assault was made on the +18th. Under the university, a large building in the +Cosso, mines containing three thousand pounds of +powder were exploded, the walls falling with a terrific +crash. Meanwhile, fifty pieces of artillery were +playing on the side of the Ebro, where the great +convent of St. Lazar was breached and taken, two +thousand men being here cut off from the city. On +the 19th other mines were exploded, and on the 20th +six great mines under the Cosso, loaded with thousands +of pounds of powder, whose explosion would +have caused immense destruction, were ready for the +match, when an offer to surrender brought the terrible +struggle to an end.</p> + +<p>The case had become one of surrender or death. +The bombardment, incessant since the 10th of January, +had forced the women and children into the +vaults, which were abundant in Saragossa. There +the closeness of the air, the constant burning of oil, +and the general unsanitary conditions had given rise +to a pestilence which threatened to carry off all the +inhabitants of the city. Such was the state of the +atmosphere that slight wounds became fatal, and +many of the defenders of the barricades were fit only<pb n="311" /><anchor id="Pg311" /> +for the hospitals. By the 1st of February the death-rate +had become enormous. The daily deaths numbered +nearly five hundred, and thousands of corpses, +which it was impossible to bury, lay in the streets +and houses, and in heaps at the doors of the churches, +infecting the air with their decay. The French held +the suburbs, most of the wall, and one-fourth of the +houses, while the bursting of thousands of shells and +the explosion of nearly fifty thousand pounds of gunpowder +in mines had shaken the city to its foundations. +Of the hundred thousand people who had +gathered within its walls, more than fifty thousand +were dead; thousands of others would soon follow +them to the grave; Palafox, their indomitable chief, +was sick unto death. Yet despite this there was a +strong and energetic party who wished to protract +the siege, and the deputies appointed to arrange +terms of surrender were in peril of their lives.</p> + +<p>The terms granted were that the garrison should +march out with the honors of war, to be taken as +prisoners to France; the peasants should be sent to +their homes; the rights of property and exercise of +religion should be guaranteed.</p> + +<p>Thus ended one of the most remarkable sieges on +record,—remarkable alike for the energy and persistence +of the attack and the courage and obstinacy +of the defence. Never in all history has any other +city stood out so long after its walls had fallen. +Rarely has any city been so adapted to a protracted +defence. Had not its houses been nearly incombustible +it would have been reduced to ashes by the +bombardment. Had not its churches and convents<pb n="312" /><anchor id="Pg312" /> +possessed the strength of forts it must have quickly +yielded. Had not the people been animated by an +extraordinary enthusiasm, in which women did the +work of men, a host of peasants and citizens could +not so long have endured the terrors of assault on +the one hand and of pestilence on the other. In the +words of General Napier, the historian of the Peninsular +War, "When the other events of the Spanish +war shall be lost in the obscurity of time, or only +traced by disconnected fragments, the story of Zaragoza, +like some ancient triumphal pillar standing +amidst ruins, will tell a tale of past glory."</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="313" /><anchor id="Pg313" /> +<head>THE HERO OF THE CARLISTS.</head> + +<p>Spain for years past has had its double king,—a +king in possession and a king in exile, a holder of +the throne and an aspirant to the throne. For the +greater part of a century one has rarely heard of +Spain without hearing of the Carlists, for continually +since 1830 there has been a princely claimant named +Charles, or Don Carlos, struggling for the crown.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand VII., who succeeded to the throne on +the abdication of Charles IV. in 1808, made every +effort to obtain an heir. Three wives he had without +a child, and his brother, Don Carlos, naturally +hoped to succeed him. But the persistent king married +a fourth time, and this time a daughter was born +to him. There was a law excluding females from +the throne, but this law had been abrogated by Ferdinand +to please his wife, and thus the birth of his +daughter robbed Don Carlos of his hopes of becoming +king.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand died in 1833, and the infant Isabella +was proclaimed queen, with her mother as regent. +The liberals supported her, the absolutists gathered +around Don Carlos, and for years there was a bitter +struggle in Spain, the strength of the Carlists being +in the Basque provinces and Spanish Navarre,—a +land of mountaineers, loyal in nature and conservative +by habit.</p> + +<pb n="314" /><anchor id="Pg314" /> + +<p>The dynasty of the pretender has had three successive +claimants to the throne. The first Don Carlos +abdicated in 1844, and was succeeded by Don Carlos +the Second, his son. He died in 1861, and his cousin, +Don Carlos the Third, succeeded to the claim, and +renewed the struggle for the crown. It was this +third of the name that threatened to renew the insurrection +during the Spanish-American war of 1898.</p> + +<p>This explanation is necessary to make clear what +is known by Carlism in Spain. Many as have been +the Carlist insurrections, they have had but one leader +of ability, one man capable of bringing them success. +This was the famous Basque chieftain Zumalacarregui, +the renowned "Uncle Tomas" of the +Carlists, whose brilliant career alone breaks the dull +monotony of Spanish history in the nineteenth century, +and who would in all probability have placed +Don Carlos on the throne but for his death from a +mortal wound in 1835. Since then Carlism has +struggled on with little hope of success.</p> + +<p>Navarre, the chief seat of the insurrection, borders +on the chain of the Pyrenees, and is a wild confusion +of mountains and hills, where the traveller is confused +in a labyrinth of long and narrow valleys, deep +glens, and rugged rocks and cliffs. The mountains +are highest in the north, but nowhere can horsemen +proceed the day through without dismounting, and +in many localities even foot travel is very difficult. +In passing from village to village long and winding +roads must be traversed, the short cuts across the +mountains being such as only a goat or a Navarrese +can tread.</p> + +<pb n="315" /><anchor id="Pg315" /> + +<p>Regular troops, in traversing this rugged country, +are exhausted by the shortest marches, while the +people of the region go straight through wood and +ravine, plunging into the thick forests and following +narrow paths, through which pursuit is impossible, +and where an invading force does not dare to send +out detachments for fear of having them cut off by +a sudden guerilla attack. It was here and in the +Basque provinces to the west, with their population +of hardy and daring mountaineers, that the troops +of Napoleon found themselves most annoyed by the +bold guerilla chiefs, and here the Carlist forces long +defied the armies of the crown.</p> + +<p>Tomas Zumalacarregui, the "modern Cid," as his +chief historian entitles him, was a man of high military +genius, rigid in discipline, skilful in administration, +and daring in leadership; a stern, grave soldier, +to whose face a smile rarely came except when shots +were falling thick around him and when his staff +appeared as if they would have preferred music of +a different kind. To this intrepid chief fear seemed +unknown, prudence in battle unthought of, and so +many were his acts of rashness that when a bullet +at length reached him it seemed a miracle that he +had escaped so long. The white charger which he +rode became such a mark for the enemy, from its +frequent appearance at the head of a charging troop +or in rallying a body of skirmishers, that all those +of a similar color ridden by members of his staff +were successively shot, though his always escaped. +On more than one occasion he brought victory out +of doubt, or saved his little army in retreat, by an<pb n="316" /><anchor id="Pg316" /> +act of hare-brained bravery. Such was the "Uncle +Tomas" of the Navarrese, the darling of the mountaineers, +the man who would very likely have brought +final victory to their cause had not death cut him +off in the midst of his career.</p> + +<p>Few were the adherents of Don Carlos when this +able soldier placed himself at their head,—a feeble +remnant hunted like a band of robbers among their +native mountains. When he appeared in 1833, escaping +from Madrid, where he was known as a brave +soldier and an opponent of the queen, he found but +the fragment of an insurgent army in Navarre. All +he could gather under his banner were about eight +hundred half-armed and undisciplined men,—a sorry +show with which to face an army of over one hundred +and twenty thousand men, many of them veterans +of the recent wars. These were thrown in +successive waves against Uncle Tomas and his handful +of followers, reinforcement following reinforcement, +general succeeding general, even the redoubtable +Mina among them, each with a new plan to +crush the Carlist chief, yet each disastrously failing.</p> + +<p>Beginning with eight hundred badly armed peasants +and fourteen horses, the gallant leader had at +the time of his death a force of twenty-eight thousand +well-organized and disciplined infantry and +eight hundred horsemen, with twenty-eight pieces +of artillery and twelve thousand spare muskets, all +won by his good sword from the foe,—his arsenal +being, as he expressed it, "in the ranks of the enemy." +During these two years of incessant war<pb n="317" /><anchor id="Pg317" /> +more than fifty thousand of the army of Spain, including +a very large number of officers, had fallen in +Navarre, sixteen fortified places had been taken, and +the cause of Don Carlos was advancing by leaps +and bounds. The road to Madrid lay open to the +Carlist hero when, at the siege of Bilboa, a distant +and nearly spent shot struck him, inflicting a wound +from which he soon died. With the fall of Zumalacarregui +fell the Carlist cause. Weak hands +seized the helm from which his strong one had been +struck, incompetency succeeded genius, and three +years more of a weakening struggle brought the +contest to an end. In all later revivals of the insurrection +it has never gained a hopeful stand, and with +the fall of "Uncle Tomas" the Carlist claim to the +throne seemingly received its death-blow.</p> + +<p>The events of the war between the Navarrese and +their opponents were so numerous that it is not easy +to select one of special interest from the mass. We +shall therefore speak only of the final incidents of +Zumalacarregui's career. Among the later events +was the siege and capture of Villafranca. Espartero, +the Spanish general, led seven thousand men to the +relief of this place, marching them across the mountains +on a dark and stormy night with the hope of +taking the Carlists by surprise. But Uncle Tomas +was not the man to be taken unawares, and reversed +the surprise, striking Espartero with a small force in +the darkness, and driving back his men in confusion +and dismay. Eighteen hundred prisoners were +taken, and the general himself narrowly escaped. +General Mirasol was taken, with all his staff, in a<pb n="318" /><anchor id="Pg318" /> +road-side house, from which he made an undignified +escape. He was a small man, and by turning up his +embroidered cuffs, these being the only marks of the +grade of brigadier-general in the Spanish army, he +concealed his rank. He told his captors that he was +a <hi rend="font-style: italic">tambor</hi>. In their anxiety to capture officers the +soldiers considered a drummer too small game, and +dismissed the general with a sound kick to the +custody of those outside. As these had more +prisoners than they could well manage, he easily +escaped.</p> + +<p>On learning of the defeat of Espartero the city +surrendered. The news of the fall of Villafranca +had an important effect, the city of Tolosa being +abandoned by its garrison and Burgera surrendered, +though it was strongly garrisoned. Here Charles V.—as +Don Carlos was styled by his party—made a +triumphal entry. He was then at the summit of his +fortunes and full of aspiring hopes. Eybar was +next surrendered, the garrison of Durango fled, and +Salvatierra was evacuated.</p> + +<p>Victory seemed to have perched upon the banners +of the Navarrese, town after town falling in rapid +succession into their hands, and the crown of Spain +appeared likely soon to change hands. Zumalacarregui +proposed next to march upon Vittoria, which +had been abandoned with the exception of a few +battalions, and thence upon the important city of +Burgos, where he would either force the enemy to +a battle or move forward upon Madrid. So rapid +and signal had been his successes that consternation +filled the army of the queen, the soldiers being in<pb n="319" /><anchor id="Pg319" /> +such terror that little opposition was feared. Bets +ran high in the Carlist army that six weeks would +see them in Madrid, and any odds could have been +had that they would be there within two months. +Such was the promising state of affairs when the +impolitic interference of Don Carlos led to a turn in +the tide of his fortune and the overthrow of his +cause.</p> + +<p>What he wanted most was money. His military +chest was empty. In the path of the army lay the +rich mercantile city of Bilboa. Its capture would +furnish a temporary supply. He insisted that the +army, instead of crossing the Ebro and taking full +advantage of the panic of the enemy, should attack +this place. This Zumalacarregui strongly +opposed.</p> + +<p>"Can you take it?" asked Carlos.</p> + +<p>"I can take it, but it will be at an immense sacrifice, +not so much of men as of time, which now is +precious," was the reply.</p> + +<p>Don Carlos insisted, and the general, sorely against +his will, complied. The movement was not only unwise +in itself, it led to an accident that brought to an +end all the fair promise of success.</p> + +<p>The siege was begun. Zumalacarregui, anxious to +save time, determined to take the place by storm as +soon as a practicable breach should be made, and on +the morning of the day he had fixed for the assault +he, with his usual daring, stepped into the balcony of +a building not far from the walls to inspect the state +of affairs with his glass.</p> + +<p>On seeing a man thus exposed, evidently a superior<pb n="320" /><anchor id="Pg320" /> +officer, to judge from his telescope and the black +fur jacket he wore, all the men within that part of +the walls opened fire on him. The general soon +came out of the balcony limping in a way that at +once created alarm, and, unable to conceal his lameness, +he admitted that he was wounded. A bullet, +glancing from one of the bars of the balcony window, +had struck him in the calf of the right leg, +fracturing the small bone and dropping two or three +inches lower in the flesh.</p> + +<p>The wound appeared but trifling,—the slight hurt +of a spent ball,—but the surgeons, disputing as to +the policy of extracting the ball, did nothing, not +even dressing the wound till the next morning. It +was of slight importance, they said. He would be +on horseback within a month, perhaps in two weeks. +The wounded man was not so sanguine.</p> + +<p>"The pitcher goes to the well till it breaks at last," +he said. "Two months more and I would not have +cared for any sort of wound."</p> + +<p>Those two months might have put Don Carlos on +the throne and changed the history of Spain. In +eleven days the general was dead and a change had +come over the spirit of affairs. The operations +against Bilboa languished, the garrison regained +their courage, the plan of storming the place was set +aside, the queen's troops, cheered by tidings of the +death of the "terrible Zumalacarregui," took heart +again and marched to the relief of the city. Their +advance ended in the siege being raised, and in the +first encounter after the death of their redoubtable +chief the Carlists met with defeat. The decline in<pb n="321" /><anchor id="Pg321" /> +the fortunes of Don Carlos had begun. One man +had lifted them from the lowest ebb almost to the +pinnacle of success. With the fall of Zumalacarregui +Carlism received a death-blow in Spain, for there is +little hope that one of this dynasty of claimants will +ever reach the throne.</p> +</div> + +<div rend="page-break-before: right"> +<index index="toc" /> +<index index="pdf" /> +<pb n="322" /><anchor id="Pg322" /> +<head>MANILA AND SANTIAGO.</head> + +<p>The record of Spain has not been glorious at sea. +She has but one great victory, that of Lepanto, to +offer in evidence against a number of great defeats, +such as those of the Armada, Cape St. Vincent, and +Trafalgar. In 1898 two more defeats, those of Manila +and Santiago, were added to the list, and with +an account of these our series of tales from Spanish +history may fitly close.</p> + +<p>Exactly three centuries passed from the death of +Philip II. (1598) to that of the war with the United +States, and during that long period the tide of Spanish +affairs moved steadily downward. At its beginning +Spain exercised a powerful influence over +European politics; at its end she was looked upon +with disdainful pity and had no longer a voice in +continental affairs. Such was the inevitable result +of the weakness and lack of statesmanship with +which the kingdom had been misgoverned during +the greater part of this period.</p> + +<p>In her colonial affairs Spain had shown herself as +intolerant and oppressive as at home. When the +other nations of Europe were loosening the reins +of their colonial policy, Spain kept hers unyieldingly +rigid. Colonial revolution was the result, and she +lost all her possessions in America but the islands<pb n="323" /><anchor id="Pg323" /> +of Cuba and Porto Rico. Yet she had learned no +lesson,—she seemed incapable of profiting by experience,—and +the old policy of tyranny and rapacity +was exercised over these islands until Cuba, the +largest of them, was driven into insurrection.</p> + +<p>In attempting to suppress this insurrection Spain +adopted the cruel methods she had exercised against +the Moriscos in the sixteenth century, ignoring the +fact that the twentieth century was near its dawn, +and that a new standard of humane sympathy and +moral obligation had arisen in other nations. Her +cruelty towards the insurgent Cubans became so intolerable +that the great neighboring republic of the +United States bade her, in tones of no uncertain +meaning, to bring it to an end. In response Spain +adopted her favorite method of procrastination, and +the frightful reign of starvation in Cuba was maintained. +This was more than the American people +could endure, and war was declared. With the +cause and the general course of that war our readers +are familiar, but it embraced two events of signal +significance—the naval contests of the war—which +are worth telling again as the most striking occurrences +in the recent history of Spain.</p> + +<p>At early dawn of the 1st of May, 1898, a squadron +of United States cruisers appeared before the city +of Manila, in the island of Luzon, the largest island +of the Philippine archipelago, then a colony of Spain. +This squadron, consisting of the cruisers Olympia, +Baltimore, Raleigh, and Boston, the gunboats Petrel +and Concord, and the despatch-boat McCulloch, had +entered the bay of Manila during the night, passing<pb n="324" /><anchor id="Pg324" /> +unhurt the batteries at its mouth, and at daybreak +swept in proud array past the city front, seeking the +Spanish fleet, which lay in the little bay of Cavité, +opening into the larger bay.</p> + +<figure url="images/image18.png" rend="w90"> +<index index="fig" /> +<head>THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA.</head> +<p rend="text-align: left">Copyright, 1898, by Arkell Publishing Company</p> +<figDesc>Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.</figDesc> +</figure> + +<p>The Spanish ships consisted of five cruisers and +three gunboats, inferior in weight and armament to +their enemy, but flanked by shore batteries on each +end of the line, and with an exact knowledge of the +harbor, while the Americans were ignorant of distances +and soundings. These advantages on the side +of the Spanish made the two fleets practically equal +in strength. The battle about to be fought was one +of leading importance in naval affairs. It was the +second time in history in which two fleets built under +the new ideas in naval architecture and armament +had met in battle. The result was looked for with +intense interest by the world.</p> + +<p>Commodore Dewey, the commander of the American +squadron, remained fully exposed on the bridge +of his flag-ship, the Olympia, as she stood daringly +in, followed in line by the Baltimore, Raleigh, Petrel, +Concord, and Boston. As they came up, the shore +batteries opened fire, followed by the Spanish ships, +while two submarine mines, exploded before the +Olympia, tossed a shower of water uselessly into the +air.</p> + +<p>Heedless of all this, the ships continued their +course, their guns remaining silent, while the Spanish +fire grew continuous. Plunging shells tore up +the waters of the bay to right and left, but not a +ship was struck, and not a shot came in return from +the frowning muzzles of the American guns. The<pb n="325" /><anchor id="Pg325" /> +hour of 5.30 had passed and the sun was pouring its +beams brightly over the waters of the bay, when +from the forward turret of the Olympia boomed +a great gun, and an 8-inch shell rushed screaming +in towards the Spanish fleet. Within ten minutes +more all the ships were in action, and a steady stream +of shells were pouring upon the Spanish ships.</p> + +<p>The difference in effect was striking. The American +gunners were trained to accurate aiming; the +Spanish idea was simply to load and fire. In consequence +few shells from the Spanish guns reached +their mark, while few of those from American guns +went astray. Soon the fair ships of Spain were +frightfully torn and rent and many of their men +stretched in death, while hardly a sign of damage +was visible on an American hull.</p> + +<p>Sweeping down parallel to the Spanish line, and +pouring in its fire as it went from a distance of forty-five +hundred yards, the American squadron swept +round in a long ellipse and sailed back, now bringing +its starboard batteries into play. Six times it passed +over this course, the last two at the distance of two +thousand yards. From the great cannon, and from +the batteries of smaller rapid-fire guns, a steady +stream of projectiles was hurled inward, frightfully +rending the Spanish ships, until at the end of the +evolutions three of them were burning fiercely, and +the others were little more than wrecks.</p> + +<p>Admiral Montojo's flag-ship, the Reina Cristina, +made a sudden dash from the line in the middle of +the combat, with the evident hope of ramming and +sinking the Olympia. The attempt was a desperate<pb n="326" /><anchor id="Pg326" /> +one, the fire of the entire fleet being concentrated +on the single antagonist, until the storm of +projectiles grew so terrific that utter annihilation +seemed at hand. The Spanish admiral now swung +his ship around and started hastily back. Just as +she had fairly started in the reverse course an 8-inch +shell from the Olympia struck her fairly in the +stern and drove inward through every obstruction, +wrecking the aft-boiler and blowing up the deck +in its explosion. It was a fatal shot. Clouds of +white smoke were soon followed by the red glare +of flames. For half an hour longer the crew continued +to work their guns. At the end of that time +the fire was master of the ship.</p> + +<p>Two torpedo-boats came out with the same purpose, +and met with the same reception. Such a rain +of shell poured on them that they hastily turned and +ran back. They had not gone far before one of them, +torn by a shell, plunged headlong to the bottom of +the bay. The other was beached, her crew flying in +terror to the shore.</p> + +<p>While death and destruction were thus playing +havoc with the Spanish ships, the Spanish fire was +mainly wasted upon the sea. Shots struck the +Olympia, Baltimore, and Boston, but did little damage. +One passed just under Commodore Dewey on +the bridge and tore a hole in the deck. One ripped +up the main deck of the Baltimore, disabled a 6-inch +gun, and exploded a box of ammunition, by which +eight men were slightly wounded. These were the +only men hurt on the American side during the +whole battle.</p> + +<pb n="327" /><anchor id="Pg327" /> + +<p>At 7.35 Commodore Dewey withdrew his ships that +the men might breakfast. The Spanish ships were +in a hopeless state. Shortly after eleven the Americans +returned and ranged up again before the ships +of Spain, nearly all of which were in flames. For +an hour and a quarter longer the blazing ships were +pounded with shot and shell, the Spaniards feebly +replying. At the end of that time the work was at +an end, the batteries being silenced and the ships +sunk, their upper works still blazing. Of their +crews, nearly a thousand had perished in the fight.</p> + +<p>Thus ended one of the most remarkable naval +battles in history. For more than three hours the +American ships had been targets for a hot fire from +the Spanish fleet and forts, and during all that time +not a man had been killed and not a ship seriously +injured. Meanwhile, the Spanish fleet had ceased to +exist. Its burnt remains lay on the bottom of the +bay. The forts had been battered into shapeless +heaps of earth, their garrisons killed or put to +flight. It was an awful example of the difference +between accurate gunnery and firing at random.</p> + +<p>Two months later a second example of the same +character was made. Spain's finest squadron, consisting +of the four first-class armored cruisers Maria +Teresa, Vizcaya, Almirante Oquendo, and Cristobal +Colon, with two torpedo-boat destroyers, lay in the +harbor of Santiago de Cuba, blockaded by a powerful +American fleet of battle-ships and cruisers under +Admiral Sampson. They were held in a close trap. +The town was being besieged by land. Sampson's +fleet far outnumbered them at sea. They must<pb n="328" /><anchor id="Pg328" /> +either surrender with the town or take the forlorn +hope of escape by flight.</p> + +<p>The latter was decided upon. On the morning +of July 3 the lookout on the Brooklyn, Commodore +Schley's flag-ship, reported that a ship was coming +out of the harbor. The cloud of moving smoke had +been seen at the same instant from the battle-ship +Iowa, and in an instant the Sunday morning calm +on these vessels was replaced by intense excitement.</p> + +<p>Mast-head signals told the other ships of what +was in view, the men rushed in mad haste to +quarters, the guns were made ready for service, ammunition +was hoisted, coal hurled into the furnaces, +and every man on the alert. It was like a man suddenly +awoke from sleep with an alarm cry: at one +moment silent and inert, in the next moment thrilling +with intense life and activity.</p> + +<p>This was not a battle; it was a flight and pursuit. +The Spaniards as soon as the harbor was cleared +opened a hot fire on the Brooklyn, their nearest antagonist, +which they wished to disable through fear +of her superior speed. But their gunnery here was +like that at Manila, their shells being wasted through +unskilful handling. On the other hand the fire from +the American ships was frightful, precise, and destructive, +the fugitive ships being rapidly torn by +such a rain of shells as had rarely been seen before.</p> + +<p>Turning down the coast, the fugitive ships drove +onward at their utmost speed. After them came the +cruiser Brooklyn and the battle-ships Texas, Iowa, +Oregon, and Indiana, hurling shells from their great +guns in their wake. The New York, Admiral Sampson's<pb n="329" /><anchor id="Pg329" /> +flag-ship, was distant several miles up the coast, +too far away to take part in the fight.</p> + +<p>Such a hail of shot, sent with such accurate aim, +could not long be endured. The Maria Teresa, Admiral +Cervera's flag-ship, was quickly in flames, while +shells were piercing her sides and bursting within. +The main steam-pipe was severed, the pump was +put out of service, the captain was killed. Lowering +her flag, the vessel headed for the shore, where +she was quickly beached.</p> + +<p>The Almirante Oquendo, equally punished, followed +the same example, a mass of flames shrouding +her as she rushed for the beach. The Vizcaya was +the next to succumb, after a futile effort to ram the +Brooklyn. One shell from the cruiser went the entire +length of her gun-deck, killing or wounding all +the men on it. The Oregon was pouring shells into +her hull, and she in turn, burning fiercely, was run +ashore. She had made a flight of twenty miles.</p> + +<p>Only one of the Spanish cruisers remained,—the +Cristobal Colon. She had passed all her consorts, +and when the Vizcaya went ashore was six miles +ahead of the Brooklyn and more than seven miles +from the Oregon. It looked as if she might escape. +But she would have to round Cape Cruz by a long +detour, and the Brooklyn was headed straight for +the cape, while the Oregon kept on the Colon's trail.</p> + +<p>An hour, a second hour, passed; the pursuers were +gaining mile by mile; the spurt of speed of the Colon +was at an end. One of the great 13-inch shells of +the Oregon, fired from four miles away, struck the +water near the Colon. A second fell beyond her.<pb n="330" /><anchor id="Pg330" /> +An 8-inch shell from the Brooklyn pierced her above +her armor-belt. At one o'clock both ships were +pounding away at her, an ineffective fire being returned. +At 1.20 she hauled down her flag, and, like +her consorts, ran ashore. She had made a run of +forty-eight miles.</p> + +<p>About six hundred men were killed on the Spanish +ships; the American loss was one man killed and +one wounded. The ships of Spain were blazing +wrecks; those of the United States were none the +worse for the fight. It was like the victory at Manila +repeated. It resembled the latter in another +particular, two torpedo-boats taking part in the affair. +These were attacked by the Gloucester, a +yacht converted into a gunboat, and dealt with so +shrewdly that both of them were sunk.</p> + +<p>The battle ended, efforts to save on the part of the +American ships succeeded the effort to destroy, the +Yankee tars showing as much courage and daring +in their attempts to rescue the wounded from the +decks of the burning ships as they had done in the +fight. The ships were blazing fore and aft, their +guns were exploding from the heat, at any moment +the fire might reach the main magazines. A heavy +surf made the work of rescue doubly dangerous; yet +no risk could deter the American sailors while the +chance to save one of the wounded remained, and +they made as proud a record on the decks of the +burning ships as they had done behind the guns.</p> + +<p>These two signal victories were the great events +of the war. Conjoined with one victory on land, +they put an end to the conflict. Without a fleet,<pb n="331" /><anchor id="Pg331" /> +and with no means of aiding her Cuban troops, Spain +was helpless, and the naval victories at Manila and +Santiago, in which one man was killed, virtually settled +the question of Cuban independence, and taught +the nations of Europe that a new and great naval +power had arisen, with which they would have to +deal when they next sought to settle the destinies +of the world.</p> + +<p>THE END.</p> +</div> + +</body> + +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> +<div> +<divGen type="pgfooter" /> +</div> + +</back> + + </text> +</TEI.2> + +<!-- +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 19457-tei.tei or 19457-tei.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/5/19457/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume VII + +Author: Charles Morris + +Release Date: October 3, 2006 [Ebook #19457] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME VII*** + + + + + + [Illustration: CHARLES V. AT YUSTE.] + + CHARLES V. AT YUSTE. + + + + + +Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality + + +By Charles Morris + +_Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the +Dramatists," etc._ + +in fifteen volumes + +Volume VII + +London +George Bell and Sons + +1898 + + + + + +Copyright 1898, by J. B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright 1904, by J. B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright 1908, by J. B. Lippincott Company. + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +THE GOOD KING WAMBA. +THE GREEK KING'S DAUGHTER. +THE ENCHANTED PALACE. +THE BATTLE OF THE GUADALETE. +THE TABLE OF SOLOMON. +THE STORY OF QUEEN EXILONA. +PELISTES, THE DEFENDER OF CORDOVA. +THE STRATAGEM OF THEODOMIR. +THE CAVE OF COVADONGA. +THE ADVENTURES OF A FUGITIVE PRINCE. +BERNARDO DEL CARPIO. +RUY DIAZ, THE CID CAMPEADOR. +LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA. +THE KEY OF GRANADA. +KING ABUL HASSAN AND THE ALCAIDE OF GIBRALTAR. +THE RIVAL KINGS OF GRANADA. +THE KNIGHT OF THE EXPLOITS. +THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR. +THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS. +PETER THE CRUEL AND THE FREE COMPANIES. +THE GREAT CAPTAIN. +A KING IN CAPTIVITY. +THE INVASION OF AFRICA. +AN EMPEROR RETIRED FROM BUSINESS. +THE FATE OF A RECKLESS PRINCE. +SPAIN'S GREATEST VICTORY AT SEA. +THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. +THE CAUSES OF SPAIN'S DECADENCE. +THE LAST OF A ROYAL RACE. +HENRY MORGAN AND THE BUCCANEERS. +ELIZABETH FARNESE AND ALBERONI. +THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. +THE FALL OF A FAVORITE. +THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA. +THE HERO OF THE CARLISTS. +MANILA AND SANTIAGO. + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +CHARLES V. AT YUSTE. +TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR. +A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS. +BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE. +VALENCIA DEL CID. +ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE. +KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA. +MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE. +RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. +GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS. +FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR. +LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN. +CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE. +THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID. +THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA. +STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA. +THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA. +THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA. + + + + + + +THE GOOD KING WAMBA. + + +Long had the Goths been lords of Spain. Chief after chief had they chosen, +king after king had they served; and, though it was young in time, Gothic +Spain was growing old in years. It reached its golden age in the time of +"Good King Wamba," a king of fancy as much as of fact, under whom Spain +became a land of Arcady, everybody was happy, all things prospered, and +the tide of evil events for a space ceased to flow. + +In those days, when a king died and left no son, the Goths elected a new +one, seeking their best and worthiest, and holding the election in the +place where the old king had passed away. It was in the little village of +Gerticos, some eight miles from the city of Valladolid, that King +Recesuinto had sought health and found death. Hither came the +electors,--the great nobles, the bishops, and the generals,--and here they +debated who should be king, finally settling on a venerable Goth named +Wamba, the one man of note in all the kingdom who throughout his life had +declined to accept rank and station. + +The story goes that their choice was aided by miracle. In those days +miracles were "as plentiful as blackberries," but many of these seem to +have been what we may speak of as "miracles made to order," designed by +shrewd individuals to gain some personal or other advantage. St. Leo is +said to have told the electors to seek a husbandman named Wamba, whose +lands lay somewhere in the west, asserting that he did this under +direction of the heavenly powers. However that be, scouts were sent +through the land in search of Wamba, whom they found at length in his +fields, driving his plough through the soil and asking for no higher lot. +He was like Cincinnatus, the famous Roman, who was called from the plough +to the sceptre. + +"Leave your plough in the furrow," they said to him; "nobler work awaits +you. You have been elected king of Spain." + +"There is no nobler work," answered Wamba. "Seek elsewhere your monarch. I +prefer to rule over my fields." + +The astonished heralds knew not what to make of this. To them the man who +would not be king must be a saint--or an idiot. They reasoned, begged, +implored, until Wamba, anxious to get rid of them, said,-- + +"I will accept the crown when the dry rod in my hand grows green +again,--and not till then." + +The good old husbandman fancied that he had fairly settled the question, +but miracle defeated his purpose. To his utter surprise and their deep +astonishment the dry stick which he thrust into the ground at once became +a green plant, fresh leaves breaking out on its upper end. What was the +old man fond of his plough to do in such a case? He had appealed to +Heaven, and here was Heaven's reply. He went with the heralds to the +electoral congress, but there, in spite of the green branch, he again +refused to be king. He knew what it meant to try and govern men like those +around him, and preferred not to undertake the task. But one of the chiefs +sprang up, drew his sword, and advanced to the old man. + +"If you are still obstinate in refusing the position we offer you," he +sternly said, "you shall lose your head as well as your crown." + +His fierce eyes and brandished sword gave weight to his words, and Wamba, +concluding that he would rather be a king than a corpse, accepted the +trust. He was then escorted by the council and the army to Toledo, feeling +more like a captive than a monarch. There he was anointed and crowned, +and, from being lord of his fields, the wise old husbandman became king of +Spain. + +Such a king as Wamba proved to be the Goths had never known. Age had +brought him wisdom, but it had not robbed him of energy. He knew what he +had to expect and showed himself master of the situation. Revolts broke +out, conspiracies threatened the throne, but one after another he put them +down. Yet he was as merciful as he was prompt. His enemies were set free +and bidden to behave themselves better in the future. One ambitious noble +named Paul, who thought it would be an easy thing to take the throne from +an old man who had shown so plainly that he did not want it, rose in +rebellion. He soon learned his mistake. Wamba met him in battle, routed +his army, and took him prisoner. Paul expected nothing less than to have +his head stricken off, but Wamba simply ordered that it should be shaved. + +To shave the crown of the head in those days was no trifling matter. It +formed what is known as the tonsure, then the mark of the monastic orders. +A man condemned to the tonsure could not serve as king or chieftain, but +must spend the remainder of his days in seclusion as a monk. So Paul was +disposed of without losing his life. + +Wamba, however, did not spend all his time in fighting with conspirators. +He was so just a king that all the historians praise him to the +stars,--though none of them tell us what just deeds he did. He was one of +those famous monarchs around whom legend loves to grow, as the green +leaves grew around his dry rod, and who become kings of fancy in the +absence of facts. About all we know is that he was "Good King Wamba," a +just and merciful man under whom Spain reached its age of gold. + +He made a great and beautiful city of Toledo, his capital. It had a wall, +but he gave it another, stronger and loftier. And within the city he built +a noble palace and other splendid buildings, all of which time has swept +away. But over the great gate of Toledo the inscription still remains: +_Erexit fautore Deo Rex inclytus urbem Wamba_. "To God and King Wamba the +city owes its walls." + +Alas! the end was what might be expected of such goodness in so evil an +age. A traitor arose among those he most favored. There was a youth named +Ervigio, in whose veins ran the blood of former kings, and whom Wamba so +loved and honored as to raise him to great authority in the kingdom. +Ervigio was one of those who must be king or slave. Ambition made him +forget all favors, and he determined to cast his royal benefactor from the +throne. But he was not base enough to murder the good old man to whom he +owed his greatness. It was enough if he could make him incapable of +reigning,--as Wamba had done with Paul. + +To accomplish this he gave the king a sleeping potion, and while he was +under its influence had him tonsured,--that is, had the crown of his head +shaved. He then proclaimed that this had been done at the wish of the +king, who was weary of the throne. But whether or not, the law was strict. +No matter how or why it was done, no man who had received the tonsure +could ever again sit upon the Gothic throne. Fortunately for Ervigio, +Wamba cared no more for the crown now than he had done at first, and when +he came back to his senses he made little question of the base trick of +his favorite, but cheerfully enough became a monk. The remaining seven +years of his life he passed happily in withdrawal from a world into which +he had been forced against his will. + +But the people loved him, the good old man, and were not willing to accept +the scheming Ervigio as their king unless he could prove his right to the +throne. So, in the year 681, he called together a council of lords and +bishops at Toledo, before whom he appeared with a great show of humility, +bringing testimony to prove that Wamba had become monk at his own wish, +when in peril of death. To this he added a document signed by Wamba, in +which he abdicated the throne, and another in which he recommended Ervigio +as his successor. For eight days the council considered the question. The +documents might be false, but Wamba was a monk, and Ervigio was in power; +so they chose him as king. The holy oil of consecration was poured upon +his unholy head. + +Thus it was that Wamba the husbandman first became king and afterwards +monk. In all his stations--farmer, king, and monk--he acquitted himself well +and worthily, and his name has come down to us from the mists of time as +one of those rare men of whom we know little, but all that little good. + + + + + +THE GREEK KING'S DAUGHTER. + + +History wears a double face,--one face fancy, the other fact. The worst of +it is that we cannot always tell which face is turned towards us, and we +mistake one for the other far oftener than we know. In truth, fancy works +in among the facts of the most sober history, while in that primitive form +of history known as legend or tradition fancy has much the best of it, +though it may often be founded upon fact. In the present tale we have to +do with legend pure and simple, with hardly a thread of fact to give +substance to its web. + +There was a certain Grecian king of Cadiz whose daughter was of such +peerless beauty that her hand was sought in marriage by many of the other +kings of Andalusia. In those days "that country was ruled by several +kings, each having estates not extending over more than one or two +cities." What to do with the crowd of suitors the father was puzzled to +decide. Had a single one asked for his daughter's hand he might have +settled it with a word, but among so many, equally brave, handsome, and +distinguished, answer was not so easy; and the worthy king of Cadiz was +sorely troubled and perplexed. + +Luckily for him, the fair damsel was as wise as she was beautiful, and +took the matter into her own hands, making an announcement that quickly +cut down the number of her admirers. She said that she would have no +husband but one who could prove himself "a wise king." In our days, when +every king and nearly every man thinks himself wise, such a decision would +not have deterred suitors, and she would have been compelled, in the end, +to choose among the few unwise. But wisdom, in those times of fable and +necromancy, had a wider meaning than we give it. A wise king was one who +had control of the powers of earth and air, who could call the genii to +his aid by incantations, and perform supernatural deeds. Hence it was that +the suitors fell off from the maiden like leaves from an autumn bough, +leaving but two who deemed themselves fitting aspirants to her hand. + +To test the wisdom of these two she gave them the following tasks: One was +bidden to construct on the mainland an aqueduct and a water-wheel to bring +water from the mountains into Cadiz. The other was to produce a talisman +which should save the island of Cadiz from invasion by Berbers or any +other of the fierce tribes of Africa, by whom it was frequently +threatened. + +"The one of you," said the princess, "who first and best performs his +task, shall win my hand by his work." + +The two suitors were warmly in love with the beautiful maiden, and both +ardently entered upon their duties. The first to get to work was the +aqueduct builder, whose task called for hard labor rather than magical +aid. Cadiz stands on a long, narrow peninsula, opposite which, on the +mainland, the king built a hydraulic machine, to which the water was +brought by pipes or canals from springs in a nearby mountain. This stream +of cool, refreshing water poured upon a wheel, by which it was driven into +an aqueduct crossing the bay into Cadiz. + +Here comes the fact behind the legend. Such an aqueduct stood long in +evidence, and as late as the eighteenth century traces of it could be +seen. We have an account of it by the Arab writer, Al Makkari. "It +consisted," he says, "of a long line of arches, and the way it was done +was this: whenever they came to high ground or to a mountain they cut a +passage through it; when the ground was lower, they built a bridge over +arches; if they met with a porous soil, they laid a bed of gravel for the +passage of the water; when the building reached the sea-shore, the water +was made to pass underground, and in this way it reached Cadiz." So it was +built, and "wise" was the king who built it, even if he did not call upon +the genii for assistance. + +The other king could not perform his labor so simply. He had a talisman to +construct, so powerful that it would keep out of Spain those fierce +African tribes whose boats swept the seas. What talisman could he produce +that would be proof against ships and swords? The king thought much and +deeply, and then went diligently to work. On the border of the strait that +lay between Spain and Africa he built a lofty marble column, a square, +white shaft based on a solid foundation. On its summit he erected a +colossal statue of iron and copper, melted and cast into the human form. +The figure was that of a Berber, like whom it wore a full and flowing +beard, while a tuft of hair hung over its forehead in Berber fashion. The +dress was that of the African tribes. The extended right arm of the figure +pointed across the strait towards the opposite shores. In its hand were a +padlock and keys. Though it spoke not, it seemed to say, "No one must pass +this way." It bore the aspect of a Berber captive, chained to the tower's +top, and warning his brethren to keep away from Spain. + +Rapidly wrought the rival kings, each seeking to finish his work the +first. In this the aqueduct builder succeeded. The water began to flow, +the wheel to revolve, and the refreshing liquid to pour into the public +fountains of Cadiz. The multitude were overjoyed as the glad torrent +flowed into their streets, and hailed with loud acclamations the +successful builder. + +The sound of the people's shouts of joy reached the ears of the statue +builder as he was putting the last touches to his great work of art and +magic. Despair filled his heart. Despite his labors, his rival had won the +prize. In bitterness of spirit he threw himself from the top of the column +and was dashed to pieces at its foot. "By which means," says the +chronicle, "the other prince, freed from his rival, became the master of +the lady, of the wheel, and of the charm." + +The talisman was really a watch-tower, from which the news of an African +invasion could be signalled through the land. In this cold age we can give +its builder credit for no higher magic than that of wisdom and vigilance. + + + + + +THE ENCHANTED PALACE. + + +Near the city of Toledo, the capital of Spain when that country was a +kingdom of the Goths, was a great palace of the olden time, or, as some +say, a vast cave, which had been deepened and widened and made into many +rooms. Still others say that it was a mighty tower, built by Hercules. +Whatever it was,--palace, tower, or cavern,--a spell lay upon it from far +past days, which none had dared to break. There was an ancient prophecy +that Spain would in time be invaded by barbarians from Africa, and to +prevent this a wise king, who knew the arts of magic, had placed a secret +talisman in one of the rooms. While this remained undisturbed the country +was safe from invasion. If once the secret of the talisman should be +divulged, swift ruin would descend upon the kingdom of the Goths. It must +be guarded strongly and well, for in it lay the destinies of Spain. + +A huge iron gate closed the entrance to the enchanted palace, and upon +this each king of the Goths, on coming to the throne, placed a strong +lock, so that in time huge padlocks covered much of its front and its +secrecy seemed amply assured. When Roderic, the last king of the Goths, +came to the throne, twenty-seven of such locks hung upon the gate. As for +the keys, some writers tell us that they remained in the locks, others say +that they had been hidden and lost; but it is certain that no one had +dared to open a single one of the locks; prudence and fear guarded the +secret better than gates and locks. + +At length the time came when the cherished secret was to be divulged. Don +Roderic, who had seized the throne by violence, and bore in his heart the +fatal bane of curiosity, determined to learn what had lain for centuries +behind those locks. The whole affair, he declared, was the jest of an +ancient king, which did very well when superstition ruled the world, but +which was far behind the age in which he lived. Two things moved the +epoch-breaking king,--curiosity, that vice which has led thousands to ruin, +and avarice, which has brought destruction upon thousands more. "It is a +treasure-house, not a talisman," he told himself. "Gold, silver, and +jewels lie hidden in its mouldy depths. My treasury is empty, and I should +be a fool to let a cluster of rusty locks keep me from filling it from +this ancient store." + +When it became known what Roderic proposed a shudder of horror ran through +the land. Nobles and bishops hastened to the audience chamber and sought +to hinder the fateful purpose of the rash monarch. Their hearts were +filled with dread of the perils that would follow any meddling with the +magic spell, and they earnestly implored him not to bring the foretold +disaster upon the land. + +"The kings who reigned before you have religiously obeyed the injunction," +they said. "Each of them has fixed his lock to the gate. It will be wise +and prudent in you to follow their example. If it is gold and jewels you +look for, tell us how much you think the cavern holds, even all your fancy +hopes to find, and so much we will give you. Even if it beggars us, we +will collect and bring you this sum without fail. We pray and implore you, +then, do not break a custom which our old kings have all held sacred. They +knew well what they did when they commanded that none after them should +seek to disclose the fatal secret of the hidden chamber." + +Earnest as was their appeal, it was wasted upon Roderic. Their offer of +gold did not reach his deepest motive; curiosity with him was stronger +than greed, and he laughed in his beard at the fears and tremblings of his +lords. + +"It shall not be said that Don Roderic, the king of the Goths, fears the +devil or his agents," he loudly declared, and orders were given that the +locks should be forced. + +One by one the rusty safeguards yielded to key or sledge, and the gates +shrieked disapproval when at length they reluctantly turned on their stiff +hinges, that had not moved for centuries. Into the cavern strode the king, +followed by his fearful but curious train. The rooms, as tradition had +said, were many, and from room to room he hurried with rapid feet. He +sought in vain. No gold appeared, no jewels glittered on his sight. The +rooms were drear and empty, their hollow floors mocking his footsteps with +long-silent echoes. One treasure only he found, the jewelled table of +Solomon, a famous ancient work of art which had long remained hidden from +human sight. Of this wonderful relic we shall say no more here, for it has +a history of its own, to be told in a future tale. + +On and on went the disappointed king, with nothing to satisfy his avarice +or his curiosity. At length he entered the chamber of the spell, the magic +room which had so long been locked from human vision, and looked with eyes +of wonder on the secret which had been so carefully preserved. + +What he saw was simple but threatening. On the wall of the room was a rude +painting, which represented a group of strangely dressed horsemen, some +wearing turbans, some bareheaded, with locks of coarse black hair hanging +over their foreheads. The skins of animals covered their limbs; they +carried scimitars and lances and bore fluttering pennons; their horses +were small, but of purest breed. + +Turning in doubt and dread from this enigmatical drawing, the daring +intruder saw in the centre of the apartment a pedestal bearing a marble +urn, in which lay a scroll of parchment. From this one of his scribes read +the following words: + +"Whenever this asylum is violated and the spell contained in this urn +broken, the people shown in the picture shall invade the land and overturn +the throne of its kings. The rule of the Goths shall end and the whole +country fall into the hands of heathen strangers." + +King Roderic looked again with eyes of alarm on the pictured forms. Well +he knew their meaning. The turban-wearers were Arabians, their horses the +famous steeds of the desert; the bare-headed barbarians were Berbers or +Moors. Already they threatened the land from Africa's shores; he had +broken the spell which held them back; the time for the fulfilment of the +prophecy was at hand. + +Filled with sudden terror, the rash invader hurried from the chamber of +the talisman, his courtiers flying with wild haste to the open air. The +brazen gates were closed with a clang which rang dismally through the +empty rooms, and the lock of the king was fixed upon them. But it was too +late. The voice of destiny had spoken and the fate of the kingdom been +revealed, and all the people looked upon Don Roderic as a doomed man. + +We have given this legend in its mildest form. Some Arab writers surround +it with magical incidents until it becomes a tale worthy of the "Arabian +Nights' Entertainments." They speak of two ancient men with snowy beards +who kept the keys of the gate and opened the locks only at Roderic's stern +command. When the locks were removed no one could stir the gates until the +hand of the king touched them, when they sprang open of themselves. Inside +stood a huge bronze giant with a club of steel, with which he dealt +resounding blows on the floor to right and left. He desisted at the king's +command, and the train entered unharmed. In the magic chamber they found a +golden casket containing a linen cloth between tablets of brass. On this +were painted figures of Arabs in armor. As they gazed these began to move, +sounds of war were heard, and the vision of a battle between Arab and +Christian warriors passed before the affrighted eyes of the intruders. The +Christian army was defeated, and Roderic saw the image of himself in +flight, and finally of his horse without a rider. As he rushed in terror +from the fatal room the bronze giant was no longer to be seen and the +ancient guardians of the gate lay dead upon their posts. In the end the +tower was burned by magic fire, and its very ashes were scattered by the +wings of an innumerable flight of birds. + + + + + +THE BATTLE OF THE GUADALETE. + + +The legends just given are full of the pith of facts. Dread of Africa lay +deep in the Spanish heart and gave point to these and other magical and +romantic tales. The story of how the great conqueror, Mohammed, had come +out from the deserts of Arabia and sent his generals, sword and Koran in +hand, to conquer the world, had spread far to the east and the west, and +brought terror wherever it came. From Arabia the Moslem hordes had swept +through Egypt and along the African coast to the extremity of Morocco. +They now faced Spain and coveted that rich and populous land. Well might +the degenerate sons of the Goths fear their coming and strive to keep them +out with talismans and spells. + +Years before, in the days of good King Wamba, a great Mohammedan fleet had +ravaged the Andalusian coast. Others came, not for conquest, but for +spoil. But at length all North Africa lay under the Moslem yoke, and Musa +Ibn Nasseyr, the conqueror of the African tribes, cast eyes of greed upon +Spain and laid plans for the subjugation to Arab rule of that +far-spreading Christian land. + +Africa, he was told, was rich, but Spain was richer. Its soil was as +fertile as that of Syria, its climate as mild and sweet as that of Araby +the Blest. The far-famed mines of distant Cathay did not equal it in +wealth of minerals and gems; nowhere else were such harbors, nowhere such +highlands and plains. The mountain-ranges, beautiful to see, enclosed +valleys of inexhaustible fertility. It was a land "plentiful in waters, +renowned for their sweetness and clearness,"--Andalusia's noble streams. +Famous monuments graced its towns: the statue of Hercules at Cadiz, the +idol of Galicia, the stately ruins of Merida and Tarragona. It was a realm +the conquest of which would bring wealth and fame,--great glory to the sons +of Allah and great treasure to the successors of the Prophet. Musa +determined upon its invasion. + +A traitor came to his aid. Count Julian was governor of Ceuta, a Spanish +city on the African coast. His daughter Florinda was maid of honor to the +queen of Don Roderic. But word from the daughter came to the father that +she had suffered grievous injury at the hands of the king, and Count +Julian, thirsting for revenge upon Roderic, offered to deliver Ceuta into +the hands of the Arabian warrior and aid him in the conquest of Spain. To +test the good faith of Julian, Musa demanded that he should first invade +Andalusia himself. This he did, taking over a small force in two vessels, +overrunning the coast country, killing many of its people, and returning +with a large booty in slaves and plunder. + +In the summer of 710 a Berber named Tarif was sent over to spy out the +land, and in the spring of 711 the army of invasion was led over by Tarik +Ibn Zeyad, a valiant chief, who had gained great glory in the wars with +the Berber tribes. Who Tarik was cannot be told. He was of humble origin, +probably of Persian birth, but possessed of a daring spirit that was to +bring him the highest fame. He is described as a tall man, with red hair +and a white complexion, blind of one eye, and with a mole on his hand. The +Spanish historians call him Tarik el Tuerto, meaning either "one-eyed" or +"squint-eyed." Such was the man whom Musa sent to begin the conquest of +Spain. + +The army of invasion consisted of seven thousand men,--a handful to conquer +a kingdom. They were nearly all Moorish and Berber cavalry, there being +only three hundred Arabians of pure blood, most of whom were officers. +Landing in Spain, for a time they found no one to meet them. Roderic was +busy with his army in the north and knew naught of this invasion of his +kingdom, and for two months Tarik ravaged the land at his will. But at +length the Gothic king, warned of his danger, began a hasty march +southward, sending orders in advance to levy troops in all parts of the +kingdom, the rallying place being Cordova. + +It was a large army which he thus got together, but they were ill-trained, +ill-disciplined, and ill-disposed to their king. Ninety thousand there +were, as Arab historians tell us, while Tarik had but twelve thousand, +Musa having sent him five thousand more. But the large army was a mob, +half-armed, and lacking courage and discipline; the small army was a +compact and valorous body, used to victory, fearless, and impetuous. + +It was on Sunday, the 19th of July, 711, that the two armies came face to +face on the banks of the Guadalete, a river whose waters traverse the +plain of Sidonia, in which the battle was fought. It was one of the +decisive battles in the world's history, for it gave the peninsula of +Spain for eight centuries to Arab dominion. The story of how this battle +was fought is, therefore, among the most important of the historical tales +of Spain. + +Roderic's army consisted of two bodies of men,--a smaller force of +cavaliers, clad in mail armor and armed with swords and battle-axes, and +the main body, which was a motley crew, without armor, and carrying bows, +lances, axes, clubs, scythes, and slings. Of the Moslem army the greater +number wore mail, some carrying lances and scimitars of Damascus steel, +others being armed with light long-bows. Their horses were Arabian or +Barbary steeds, such as Roderic had seen on the walls of the secret +chamber. + +It was in the early morning of a bright spring day that the Spanish +clarions sounded defiance to the enemy, and the Moorish horns and +kettle-drums rang back the challenge to battle. Nearer and nearer together +came the hosts, the shouts of the Goths met by the shrill _lelies_ of the +Moslems. + +"By the faith of the Messiah," Roderic is reported to have said, "these +are the very men I saw painted on the walls of the chamber of the spell at +Toledo." From that moment, say the chroniclers, "fear entered his heart." +And yet the story goes that he fought long and well and showed no signs of +fear. + +On his journey to the south Roderic had travelled in a chariot of ivory, +lined with cloth of gold, and drawn by three white mules harnessed +abreast. On the silken awning of the chariot pearls, rubies, and other +rich jewels were profusely sprinkled. He sat with a crown of gold on his +head, and was dressed in a robe made of strings of pearls interwoven with +silk. This splendor of display, however, was not empty ostentation, but +the state and dignity which was customary with the Gothic kings. + +In his chariot of ivory Roderic passed through the ranks, exhorting the +men to valor, and telling them that the enemy was a low rabble of +heathens, abhorred of God and men. "Remember," he said, "the valor of your +ancestors and the holy Christian faith, for whose defence we are +fighting." Then he sprang from his chariot, put on his horned helmet, +mounted his war-horse Orelia, and took his station in the field, prepared +to fight like a soldier and a king. + +For two days the battle consisted of a series of skirmishes. At the end of +that time the Christians had the advantage. Their numbers had told, and +new courage came to their hearts. Tarik saw that defeat would be his lot +if this continued, and on the morning of the third day he made a fiery +appeal to his men, rousing their fanaticism and picturing the treasures +and delights which victory would bring them. He ended with his war-cry of +"Guala! Guala! Follow me, my warriors! I shall not stop until I reach the +tyrant in the midst of his steel-clad warriors, and either kill him or he +kill me!" + +At the head of his men the dusky one-eyed warrior rushed with fiery energy +upon the Gothic lines, cleaving his way through the ranks towards a +general whose rich armor seemed to him that of the king. His impetuous +charge carried him deep into their midst. The seeming king was before him. +One blow and he fell dead; while the Moslems, crying that the king of the +Goths was killed, followed their leader with resistless ardor into the +hostile ranks. The Christians heard and believed the story, and lost heart +as their enemy gained new energy. + +At this critical moment, as we are told, Bishop Oppas, brother-in-law of +the traitor Julian, drew off and joined the Moslem ranks. Whether this was +the case or not, the charge of Tarik led the way to victory. He had +pierced the Christian centre. The wings gave way before the onset of his +chiefs. Resistance was at an end. In utter panic the soldiers flung away +their arms and took to flight, heedless of the stores and treasures of +their camp, thinking of nothing but safety, flying in all directions +through the country, while the Moslems, following on their flying steeds, +cut them down without mercy. + +Roderic, the king, had disappeared. If slain in the battle, his body was +never found. Wounded and despairing, he may have been slain in flight or +been drowned in the stream. It was afterwards said that his war-horse, its +golden saddle rich with rubies, was found riderless beside the stream, and +that near by lay a royal crown and mantle, and a sandal embroidered with +pearls and emeralds. But all we can safely say is that Roderic had +vanished, his army was dispersed, and Spain was the prize of Tarik and the +Moors, for resistance was quickly at an end, and they went on from victory +to victory until the country was nearly all in their hands. + + + + + +THE TABLE OF SOLOMON. + + +We have told how King Roderic, when he invaded the enchanted palace of +Toledo, found in its empty chambers a single treasure,--the famous table of +Solomon. But this was a treasure worth a king's ransom, a marvellous +talisman, so splendid, so beautiful, so brilliant that the chroniclers can +scarce find words fitly to describe its richness and value. Some say that +it was made of pure gold, richly inlaid with precious stones. Others say +that it was a mosaic of gold and silver, burnished yellow and gleaming +white, ornamented with three rows of priceless jewels, one being of large +pearls, one of costly rubies, and a third of gleaming emeralds. Other +writers say that its top was made of a single emerald, a talisman +revealing the fates in its lucid depths. Most writers say that it stood +upon three hundred and sixty-five feet, each made of a single emerald, +though still another writer declares that it had not a foot to stand upon. + +Evidently none of these worthy chroniclers had seen the jewelled table +except in the eye of fancy, which gave it what shape and form best fitted +its far-famed splendor. They varied equally in their history of the +talisman. A mildly drawn story says that it first came from Jerusalem to +Rome, that it fell into the hands of the Goths when they sacked the city +of the Caesars, and that some of them brought it into Spain. But there was +a story more in accordance with the Arabian love of the marvellous which +stated that the table was the work of the Djinn, or Genii, the mighty +spirits of the air, whom the wise king Solomon had subdued and who obeyed +his commands. After Solomon's time it was kept among the holy treasures of +the temple, and became one of the richest spoils of the Romans when they +captured and sacked Jerusalem. It afterwards became the prize of a king of +Spain, perhaps in the way stated above. + +Thus fancy has adorned the rich and beautiful work of art which Don +Roderic is said to have found in the enchanted palace, and which he placed +as the noblest of the treasures of Spain in the splendid church of Toledo, +the Gothic capital. This city fell into the hands of Tarik el Tuerto in +his conquering progress through the realm of Spain, and the emerald table, +whose fame had reached the shores of Africa, was sought by him far and +near. + +It had disappeared from the church, perhaps carried off by the bishop in +his flight. But fast as the fugitives fled, faster rode the Arab horsemen +on their track, one swift troop riding to Medina Celi, on the high road to +Saragossa. On this route they came to a city named by them +Medinatu-l-Mayidah (city of the table), in which they found the famous +talisman. They brought it to Tarik as one of the choicest spoils of Spain. + +Its later history is as curious and much more authentic than its earlier. +Tarik, as we have told in the previous tale, had been sent to Andalusia by +Musa, the caliph's viceroy in Africa, simply that he might gain a footing +in the land, whose conquest Musa reserved for himself. But the impetuous +Tarik was not to be restrained. No sooner was Roderic slain and his army +dispersed than the Arab cavaliers spread far and wide through Spain, city +after city falling into their hands, until it seemed as if nothing would +be left for Musa to conquer. + +This state of affairs was far from agreeable to the jealous and ambitious +viceroy. He sent messengers to the caliph at Damascus, in which he claimed +the conquest of Spain as his own, and barely mentioned the name of the +real conqueror. He severely blamed Tarik for presuming to conquer a +kingdom without direct orders, and, gathering an army, he crossed to +Spain, that he might rightfully claim a share in the glory of the +conquest. + +Tarik was not ignorant of what Musa had done. He expected to be called +sharply to account by his jealous superior, and knew well that his +brilliant deeds had been overlooked in the viceroy's despatches to +Damascus, then the capital of the Arab empire. The daring soldier was +therefore full of joy when the table of Solomon fell into his hands. He +hoped to win favor from Al-Walid, the caliph, by presenting him this +splendid prize. Yet how was he to accomplish this? Would not Musa, who was +well aware of the existence and value of the table, claim it as his own +and send it to Al-Walid with the false story that he had won it by the +power of his arms? + +To defeat this probable act Tarik devised a shrewd stratagem. The table, +as has been stated, was abundantly provided with feet, but of these four +were larger than the rest. One of the latter Tarik took off and concealed, +to be used in the future if what he feared should come to pass. + +As it proved, he had not misjudged his jealous lord. In due time Musa came +to Toledo and rode in state through the gate-way of that city, Tarik +following like a humble servitor in his train. As soon as he reached the +palace he haughtily demanded a strict account of the spoils. These were at +hand, and were at once delivered up. Their number and value should have +satisfied his avarice, but the wonderful table of Solomon, of which he had +heard such marvellous accounts, was not among them, and he demanded that +this, too, should be brought forward. As Tarik had foreseen, he designed +to send it to the caliph, as an acceptable present and an evidence of his +victorious career. + +The table was produced, and Musa gazed upon it with eyes of delight. His +quick glance, however, soon discovered that one of the emerald feet was +missing. + +"It is imperfect," he said. "Where is the missing foot?" + +"That I cannot tell you," replied Tarik; "you have the table as it was +brought to me." + +Musa, accepting this answer without suspicion, gave orders that the lost +foot should be replaced with one of gold. Then, after thanking the other +leading officers for their zeal and valor, he turned upon Tarik and +accused him in severe tones of disobedience. He ended by depriving him of +his command and putting him under arrest, while he sent the caliph a +report in which Tarik was sharply blamed and the merit of his exploits +made light of. He would have gone farther and put him to death, but this +he dared not do without the caliph's orders. + +As it proved, Al-Walid, the Commander of the Faithful, knew something of +the truth. Far distant as Damascus was from Toledo, a report of Tarik's +exploits had reached his august ears, and Musa received orders to replace +him in his command, since it would not do "to render useless one of the +best swords of Islam." Musa dared not disobey; and thus, for the time +being, Tarik triumphed. + +And now, for the end of the trouble between Musa and Tarik, we must go +forward in time. They were left in Spain until they had completed the +conquest of that kingdom, then both were ordered to appear before the +caliph's judgment seat. This they did in different methods. Tarik, who had +no thirst for spoil, made haste, with empty hands, to Damascus, where, +though he had no rich presents for the commander of the faithful, he +delighted him with the story of his brilliant deeds. Musa came more slowly +and with more ostentation. Leaving his sons in command in Spain and +Africa, he journeyed slowly to Syria, with all the display of a triumphal +march. With him were one hundred of his principal officers, as many sons +of the highest Berber chiefs, and the kings of the Balearic Islands in all +their barbaric state. In his train rode four hundred captive nobles, each +wearing a crown and girdle of gold, and thirty thousand captives of lower +rank. At intervals in the train were camels and wagons, richly laden with +gold, jewels, and other spoils. He brought to the East the novelties of +the West, hawks, mules, and Barbary horses, and the curious fruits of +Africa and Spain, "treasures," we are told, "the like of which no hearer +ever heard of before, and no beholder ever saw before his eyes." + +Thus the proud conqueror came, by slow marches, with frequent halts. He +left Spain in August, 713. It was February, 715, when he reached the +vicinity of Damascus, having spent a year and a half on the way. + +Meanwhile, changes had taken place in Syria. Al-Walid, the caliph, was +sick unto death, suffering from a mortal disease, Soliman, his brother and +heir, wrote to Musa when at Tiberias, on the Sea of Galilee, asking him to +halt there, as his brother could live but a few days. He, as the new +caliph, would receive him. Al-Walid in turn ordered him to hasten his +march. Musa was in a quandary. If Al-Walid should live, delay might be +fatal. If he should die, haste might be fatal. He took what seemed to him +the safest course, hastened to Damascus, and met with a brilliant +reception. But a change soon came; in forty days Al-Walid died; Soliman, +whom he had disobeyed, was caliph of the empire. Musa's sun was near its +setting. + +It was not long before the conqueror found himself treated as a criminal. +He was charged with rapacity, injustice to Tarik, and the purpose of +throwing all power into the hands of his sons. He was even accused of +"disobedience" for making a triumphal entry into Damascus before the death +of Al-Walid. These and other charges were brought, Soliman being bent on +the ruin of the man who had added Africa to the Arabian empire. + +When Musa was brought before the caliph for a final hearing Tarik and many +other soldiers from Spain were present, and there stood before the +monarch's throne the splendid table of Solomon, one of the presents which +Musa had made to Al-Walid, declaring it to be the most magnificent of all +the prizes of his valor. + +"Tell me," said the caliph to Tarik, "if you know whence this table came." + +"It was found by me," answered Tarik. "If you would have evidence of the +truth of my words, O caliph, have it examined and see if it be perfect." + +Soliman gave orders, the table was closely examined, and it was soon +discovered that one of its emerald feet was gone and that a foot of gold +occupied its place. + +"Ask Musa," said Tarik, "if this was the condition of the table when he +found it." + +"Yes," answered Musa, "it was as you see it now." + +Tarik answered by taking from under his mantle the foot of emerald which +he had removed, and which just matched the others. + +"You may learn now," he said to the caliph, "which of us is the +truth-teller. Here is the lost leg of the table. I found the table and +kept this for evidence. It is the same with most of the treasures Musa has +shown you. It was I who won them and captured the cities in which they +were found. Ask any of these soldiers if I speak the truth or not." + +These words were ruinous to Musa. The table had revenged its finder. If +Musa had lied in this case, he had lied in all. So held the angry caliph, +who turned upon him with bitter abuse, calling him thief and liar, and +swearing by Allah that he would crucify him. In the end he ordered the old +man, fourscore years of age, corpulent and asthmatic, to be exposed to the +fierce sun of Syria for a whole summer's day, and bade his brother Omar to +see that the cruel sentence was executed. + +Until high noon had passed the old warrior stood under the scorching solar +rays, his blood at length seeming to boil in his veins, while he sank +suffocated to the earth. Death would soon have ended his suffering had not +Omar, declaring "that he had never passed a worse day in his life," +prevailed upon the caliph to abridge his punishment. + +Bent upon his utter ruin, the vindictive Soliman laid upon him the +enormous fine of four million and thirty thousand dinars, equal to about +ten million dollars. His sons were left in power in Spain that they might +aid him in paying the fine. Great as the sum was, Musa, by giving up his +own fortune, by the aid of his sons in Africa and Spain, and by assistance +from his friends, succeeded in obtaining it. But even this did not satisfy +the caliph, who now banished him to his birthplace, that his early friends +might see and despise him in his ruin. He even determined to destroy his +sons, that the whole family might be rooted out and none be left in whose +veins the blood of Musa ran. + +The ablest of these sons, Abdul-Aziz, had been left in chief command over +Spain. Thither the caliph sent orders for his death. Much as the young +ruler was esteemed, wisely as he had ruled, no one thought of questioning +an order of the Commander of the Faithful, the mighty autocrat of the +great Arabian empire, and the innocent Abdul was assassinated by some who +had been among his chief friends. His head was then cut off, embalmed, and +sent to Soliman, before whom it was laid, enclosed in a casket of precious +wood. + +Sending for Musa, the vindictive caliph had the casket opened in his +presence, saying, as the death-like features appeared, "Do you know whose +head that is?" + +The answer of Musa was a pathetic one. Never was there a Moslem, he said, +who less deserved such a fate; never a man of milder heart, braver soul, +or more pious and obedient disposition. In the end the poor old man broke +down, and he could only murmur,-- + +"Grant me his head, O Commander of the Faithful, that I may shut the lids +of his eyes." + +"Thou mayest take it," was Soliman's reply. + +And so Musa left the caliph's presence, heart-broken and disconsolate. It +is said that before he died he was forced to beg his bread. Of Tarik we +hear no more. He had fully repaid Musa for his injustice, but the caliph, +who perhaps feared to let any one become too great, failed to restore him +to his command, and he disappeared from history. The cruel Soliman lived +only a year after the death of the victim of his rage. He died in 717, of +remorse for his injustice to Musa, say some, but the record of history is +that he was defeated before Constantinople and died of grief. + +Thus ends our story of the table of Solomon. It brought good to none who +had to do with it, and utter disaster to him who had made it an agent of +falsehood and avarice. Injustice cannot hope to hide itself behind a +talisman. + + + + + +THE STORY OF QUEEN EXILONA. + + +When Roderic overthrew the ancient dynasty of Spain and made himself king, +he had the defences of the cities thrown down that they might not give +shelter to his enemies. Only the walls of the frontier cities were left, +and among these was the ancient city of Denia, on the Mediterranean +shores. Dread of the Moorish pirates was felt in this stronghold, and a +strong castle was built on a high rock that overlooked the sea. To the old +alcaide who served as governor of Denia word was brought, at the end of a +day of fierce tempest, that a Moorish ship was approaching the shore. +Instantly the bells were rung to rouse the people, and signal fires were +kindled on the tower that they might flash from peak to peak the news of +an invasion by the Moors. + +But as the ship came closer it was seen that alarm had been taken too +soon. The vessel was alone and had evidently been in the grip of the +tempest. It was seen to be a bark rich in carving and gilding, adorned +with silken banderoles, and driven through the water by banks of crimson +oars; a vessel of state and ceremony, not a ship of war. As it came nearer +it was perceived to have suffered severely in the ruthless grasp of the +storm. Broken were its masts and shattered its oars, while there fluttered +in the wind the torn remnants of its banners and sails. When at length it +grounded on the sands below the castle the proud bark was little better +than a shattered wreck. + +It was with deep curiosity that the Spaniards saw on the deck of the +stranded bark a group of high-born Moors, men and maidens dressed in robes +of silk rich with jewels, and their features bearing the stamp of lofty +rank. In their midst stood a young lady of striking beauty, sumptuously +attired, and evidently of the highest station, for all paid her reverence, +and a guard of armed Moors stood around her, scimitar in hand. + +On landing, a venerable Moor approached the alcaide, who had descended to +meet the strangers, and said, in such words of the Gothic language as he +could command,-- + +"Worthy sir, we beg your protection and compassion. The princess under our +care is the only daughter of the king of Algiers, on her way to the court +of the king of Tunis, to whom she is betrothed. The tempest has driven us +to your shores. Be not, we implore you, more cruel than the storm, which +has spared us and our precious charge." + +The alcaide returned a courteous answer, offering the princess and her +train the shelter of the castle, but saying that he had not the power to +release them. They must hold themselves the captives of Roderic, the king +of the Goths, to whom his duty required him to send them. The fate of a +royal captive, he said, could be decided only by the royal voice. + +Some days afterwards Elyata, the Moorish princess, entered Toledo in a +procession more like that of a triumphant heroine than of a captive. A +band of Christian horsemen preceded the train. The Moorish guard, richly +attired, followed. In the midst rode the princess, surrounded by her +maidens and dressed in her bridal robes, which were resplendent with +pearls, diamonds, and other gems. Roderic advanced in state from his +palace to receive her, and was so struck with her beauty and dignity of +aspect that at first sight warm emotions filled his heart. + +Elyata was sadly downcast at her captivity, but Roderic, though not +releasing her, did all he could to make her lot a pleasant one. A royal +palace was set aside for her residence, in whose spacious apartments and +charming groves and gardens the grief of the princess gradually softened +and passed away. Roderic, moved by a growing passion, frequently visited +her, and in time soft sentiments woke in her heart for the handsome and +courteous king. When, in the end, he begged her to become his bride her +blushes and soft looks spoke consent. + +One thing was wanting. Roderic's bride should be a Christian. Taught the +doctrines of the new faith by learned bishops, Elyata's consent to the +change of faith was easily won, and the princess was baptized as a +Christian maiden under the new name of Exilona. The marriage was +celebrated with the greatest magnificence, and was followed by tourneys +and banquets and all the gayeties of the time. Some of the companions of +the princess accepted the new faith and remained with her. Those who clung +to their old belief were sent back to Africa with rich presents from the +king, an embassy going with them to inform the monarch of Algiers of his +daughter's marriage, and to offer him the alliance and friendship of +Roderic the Gothic king. + + [Illustration: TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR.] + + TOLEDO, WITH THE ALCAZAR. + + +Queen Exilona passed a happy life as the bride of the Gothic monarch, but +many were the vicissitudes which lay before her, for the Arab conquest was +near at hand and its effects could not but bear heavily upon her destiny. +After the defeat and death of Roderic a considerable number of noble Goths +sought shelter in the city of Merida, among them the widowed queen. +Thither came Musa with a large army and besieged the city. It was strongly +and bravely defended, and the gallant garrison only yielded when famine +came to the aid of their foes. + +A deputation from the city sought the Arab camp and was conducted to the +splendid pavilion of Musa, whom the deputies found to be an old man with +long white beard and streaming white hair. He received them kindly, +praised them for their valor, and offered them favorable terms. They +returned the next day to complete the conditions. On this day the +Mohammedan fast of Ramadhan ended, and the Arabs, who had worn their +meanest garb, were now in their richest attire, and joy had everywhere +succeeded penitent gloom. As for Musa, he seemed transformed. The meanly +dressed and hoary ancient of the previous visit now appeared a man in the +prime of life, his beard dark-red in hue, and his robes rich with gold and +jewels. The Goths, to whom the art of dyeing the hair was unknown, looked +on the transformation as a miracle. + +"We have seen," they said on their return, "their king, who was an old +man, become a young one. We have to do with a nation of prophets who can +change their appearance at will and transform themselves into any shape +they like. Our advice is that we should grant Musa his demands, for men +like these we cannot resist." + +The stratagem of the Arab was successful, the gates were opened, and +Merida became a captive city. The people were left their private wealth +and were free to come and go as they would, with the exception of some of +their noblest, who were to be held as hostages. Among these was the +widowed Queen Exilona. + +She was still young and beautiful. By paying tribute she was allowed to +live unmolested, and in this way she passed to the second phase of her +romantic career. Arab fancy has surrounded her history with many +surprising incidents, and Lope de Vega, the Spanish dramatist, has made +her the heroine of a romantic play, but her actual history is so full of +interest that we need not draw contributions from fable or invention. + +When Musa went to Syria at the command of the caliph he left his son +Abdul-Aziz as emir or governor of Spain. The new emir was a young, +handsome, and gallant man. He had won fame in Africa, and gained new +repute for wisdom and courage in Spain. The Moorish princess who had +become a Gothic queen was now a hostage in his hands, and her charms moved +his susceptible heart. His persuasive tongue and attractive person were +not without their effect upon the fair captive, who a second time lost her +heart to her captor, and agreed once more to become a bride. Her first +husband had been the king of Gothic Spain. Her second was the ruler of +Moorish Spain. She declined to yield her Christian creed, but she became +his wife and the queen of his heart, called by him Ummi-Assam, a name of +endearment common in Arab households. + +Exilona was ambitious, and sought to induce her new husband to assume the +style of a king. She made him a crown of gold and precious stones which +her soft persuasion induced him to wear. She bowed in his presence as if +to a royal potentate, and to oblige the nobles to do the same she induced +him to have the door-way of his audience chamber made so low that no one +could enter it without making an involuntary bow. She even tried to +convert him to Christianity, and built a low door to her oratory, so that +any one entering would seem to bow to the cross. + +These arts of the queen proved fatal to the prince whom she desired to +exalt, for this and other stories were told to the caliph, who was seeking +some excuse to proceed against the sons of Musa, whose ruin he had sworn. +It was told him that Abdul-Aziz was seeking to make Spain independent and +was bowing before strange gods. Soliman asked no more, but sent the order +for his death. + +It was to friends of the emir that the fatal mandate was sent. They loved +the mild Abdul, but they were true sons of Islam, and did not dare to +question the order of the Commander of the Faithful. The emir was then at +a villa near Seville, whither he was accustomed to withdraw from the cares +of state to the society of his beloved wife. Near by he had built a +mosque, and here, on the morning of his death, he entered and began to +read the Koran. + +A noise at the door disturbed him, and in a moment a throng burst into the +building. At their head was Habib, his trusted friend, who rushed upon him +and struck him with a dagger. The emir was unhurt, and sought to escape, +but the others were quickly upon him, and in a moment his body was rent +with dagger strokes and he had fallen dead. His head was at once cut off, +embalmed, and sent to the caliph. The cruel use made of it we have told. + +A wild commotion followed when the people learned of this murder, but it +was soon quelled. The power of the caliph was yet too strong to be +questioned, even in far-off Spain. What became of Exilona we do not know. +Some say that she was slain with her husband; some that she survived him +and died in privacy. However it be, her life was one of singular romance. + +As for the kindly and unfortunate emir, his memory was long fondly +cherished in Spain, and his name still exists in the title of a valley in +the suburbs of Antequera, which was named Abdelaxis in his honor. + + + + + +PELISTES, THE DEFENDER OF CORDOVA. + + +No sooner had Tarik defeated the Christian army on the fatal field of +Sidonia than he sent out detachments of horsemen in all directions, hoping +to win the leading cities of Spain before the people should recover from +their terror. One of these detachments, composed of seven hundred horse, +was sent against Cordova, an ancient city which was to become the capital +of Moslem Spain. This force was led by a brave soldier named Magued, a +Roman or Greek by birth, who had been taken prisoner when a child and +reared in the Arab faith. He now ranked next to Tarik in the arts and +stratagems of war, and as a horseman and warrior was the model and +admiration of his followers. + +Among the Christian leaders who had fled from the field of the Guadalete +was an old and valiant Gothic noble, Pelistes by name, who had fought in +the battle front until his son sank in death and most of his followers had +fallen around him. Then, with the small band left him, he rode in all +haste to Cordova, which he hoped to hold as a stronghold of the Goths. But +he found himself almost alone in the town, most of whose inhabitants had +fled with their valuables, so that, including the invalids and old +soldiers found there, he had but four hundred men with whom to defend the +city. + +A river ran south of the city and formed one of its defences. To its banks +came Magued,--led, say some of the chronicles, by the traitor, Count +Julian,--and encamped in a forest of pines. He sent heralds to the town, +demanding its surrender, and threatening its defenders with death if they +resisted. But Pelistes defied him to do his worst. + +What Magued might have found difficult to do by force he accomplished by +stratagem. A shepherd whom he had captured told him of the weakness of the +garrison, and acquainted him with a method by which the city might be +entered. Forcing the rustic to act as guide, Magued crossed the river on a +stormy night, swimming the stream with his horses, each cavalier having a +footman mounted behind him. By the time they reached the opposite shore +the rain had changed to hail, whose loud pattering drowned the noise of +the horses' hoofs as the assailants rode to a weak place in the wall of +which the shepherd had told them. Here the battlements were broken and +part of the wall had fallen, and near by grew a fig-tree whose branches +stretched towards the breach. Up this climbed a nimble soldier, and by +hard effort reached the broken wall. He had taken with him Magued's +turban, whose long folds of linen were unfolded and let down as a rope, by +whose aid others soon climbed to the summit. The storm had caused the +sentries to leave their posts, and this part of the wall was left +unguarded. + +In a short time a considerable number of the assailants had gained the top +of the wall. Leaping from the parapet, they entered the city and ran to +the nearest gate, which they flung open to Magued and his force. The city +was theirs; the alarm was taken too late, and all who resisted were cut +down. By day-dawn Cordova was lost to Spain with the exception of the +church of St. George, a large and strong edifice, in which Pelistes had +taken refuge with the remnant of his men. Here he found an ample supply of +food and obtained water from some secret source, so that he was enabled to +hold out against the enemy. + +For three long months the brave garrison defied its foes, though Magued +made every effort to take the church. How they obtained water was what +most puzzled him, but he finally discovered the secret through the aid of +a negro whom the Christians had captured and who escaped from their hands. +The prisoner had learned during his captivity that the church communicated +by an underground channel with a spring somewhere without. This was sought +for with diligence and at length found, whereupon the water supply of the +garrison was cut off at its source, and a new summons to surrender was +made. + +There are two stories of what afterwards took place. One is that the +garrison refused to surrender, and that Magued, deeply exasperated, +ordered the church to be set on fire, most of its defenders perishing in +the flames. The other story is a far more romantic one, and perhaps as +likely to be true. This tells us that Pelistes, weary of long waiting for +assistance from without, determined to leave the church in search of aid, +promising, in case of failure, to return and die with his friends. + +Mounted on the good steed that he had kept alive in the church, and armed +with lance, sword, and shield, the valiant warrior set forth before the +dawn, and rode through the silent streets, unseen by sentinel or early +wayfarer. The vision of a Christian knight on horseback was not likely to +attract much attention, as there were many renegade Christians with the +Moors, brought thither in the train of Count Julian. Therefore, when the +armed warrior presented himself at a gate of the city just as a foraging +party was entering, he rode forth unnoticed in the confusion and galloped +briskly away towards the neighboring mountains. + +Having reached there he stopped to rest, but to his alarm he noticed a +horseman in hot pursuit upon his trail. Spurring his steed onward, +Pelistes now made his way into the rough intricacies of the mountain +paths; but, unluckily, as he was passing along the edge of a declivity, +his horse stumbled and rolled down into the ravine below, so bruising and +cutting him in the fall that, when he struggled to his feet, his face was +covered with blood. + +While he was in this condition the pursuer rode up. It proved to be Magued +himself, who had seen him leave the city and had followed in haste. To his +sharp summons for surrender the good knight responded by drawing his +sword, and, wounded and bleeding as he was, put himself in posture for +defence. + +The fight that followed was as fierce as some of those told of King +Arthur's knights. Long and sturdily the two champions fought, foot to +foot, sword to scimitar, until their shields and armor were rent and +hacked and the ground was red with their blood. Never had those hills seen +so furious a fight by so well-matched champions, and during their +breathing spells the two knights gazed upon each other with wonder and +admiration. Magued had never met so able an antagonist before, nor +Pelistes encountered so skilfully wielded a blade. + +But the Gothic warrior had been hurt by his fall. This gave Magued the +advantage, and he sought to take his noble adversary alive. Finally, weak +from loss of blood, the gallant Goth gave a last blow and fell prostrate. +In a moment Magued's point was at his throat, and he was bidden to ask for +his life or die. No answer came. Unlacing the helmet of the fallen knight, +Magued found him insensible. As he debated with himself how he would get +the captive of his sword to the city, a group of Moorish cavaliers rode up +and gazed with astonishment on the marks of the terrible fight. The +Christian knight was placed by them on a spare horse and carried to +Cordova's streets. + +As the train passed the beleaguered church its garrison, seeing their late +leader a captive in Moorish hands, sallied fiercely out to his rescue, and +for some minutes the street rang sharply with the sounds of war. But +numbers gathered to the defence, the assailants were driven back, and the +church was entered by their foes, the clash of arms resounding within its +sacred precincts. In the end most of the garrison were killed and the rest +made prisoners. + +The wounded knight was tenderly cared for by his captor, soon regaining +his senses, and in time recovering his health. Magued, who had come to +esteem him highly, celebrated his return to health by a magnificent +banquet, at which every honor was done the noble knight. The Arabs knew +well how to reward valor, even in a foe. + +In the midst of the banquet Pelistes spoke of a noble Christian knight he +once had known, his brother in arms and the cherished friend of his heart, +one whom he had most admired and loved of all the Gothic host,--his old and +dear comrade, Count Julian. + +"He is here!" cried some of the Arabs, enthusiastically, pointing to a +knight who had recently entered. "Here is your old friend and comrade, +Count Julian." + +"That Julian!" cried Pelistes, in tones of scorn; "that traitor and +renegade my friend and comrade! No, no; this is not Julian, but a fiend +from hell who has entered his body to bring him dishonor and ruin." + +Turning scornfully away he strode proudly from the room, leaving the +traitor knight, overwhelmed with shame and confusion, the centre of a +circle of scornful looks, for the Arabs loved not the traitor, however +they might have profited by his treason. + +The fate of Pelistes, as given in the Arab chronicles, was a tragic one. +Magued, who had never before met his equal at sword play, proposed to send +him to Damascus, thinking that so brave a man would be a fitting present +to the caliph and a living testimony to his own knightly prowess. But +others valued the prize of valor as well as Magued, Tarik demanding that +the valiant prisoner should be delivered to him, and Musa afterwards +claiming possession. The controversy ended in a manner suitable to the +temper of the times, Magued slaying the captive with his own hand rather +than deliver to others the prize of his sword and shield. + + + + + +THE STRATAGEM OF THEODOMIR. + + +The defeat of the Guadalete seemed for the time to have robbed the Goths +of all their ancient courage. East and west, north and south, rode the +Arab horsemen, and stronghold after stronghold fell almost without +resistance into their hands, until nearly the whole of Spain had +surrendered to the scimitar. History has but a few stories to tell of +valiant defence by the Gothic warriors. One was that of Pelistes, at +Cordova, which we have just told. The other was that of the wise and +valorous Theodomir, which we have next to relate. + +Abdul-Aziz, Musa's noble son, whose sad fate we have chronicled, had been +given the control of Southern Spain, with his head-quarters in Seville. +Here, after subduing the Comarca, he decided on an invasion of far-off +Murcia, the garden-land of the south, a realm of tropic heat, yet richly +fertile and productive. There ruled a valiant Goth named Theodomir, who +had resisted Tarik on his landing, had fought in the fatal battle in which +Roderic fell, and had afterwards, with a bare remnant of his followers, +sought his own territory, which after him was called the land of Tadmir. + +Hither marched Abdul-Aziz, eager to meet in battle a warrior of such +renown, and to add to his dominions a country so famed for beauty and +fertility. He was to find Theodomir an adversary worthy of his utmost +powers. So small was the force of the Gothic lord that he dared not meet +the formidable Arab horsemen in open contest, but he checked their advance +by all the arts known in war, occupying the mountain defiles and gorges +through which his country must be reached, cutting off detachments, and +making the approach of the Arabs difficult and dangerous. + + [Illustration: A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS.] + + A COUNCIL OF THE VISIGOTHS. + + +His defence was not confined to the hills. At times he would charge +fiercely on detached parties of Arabs in the valleys or plains, and be off +again to cover before the main force could come up. Long he defeated every +effort of the Arab leader to bring on an open battle, but at length found +himself cornered at Lorca, in a small valley at a mountain's foot. Here, +though the Goths fought bravely, they found themselves too greatly +outnumbered, and in the end were put to panic-flight, numbers of them +being left dead on the hotly contested field. + +The handful of fugitives, sharply pursued by the Moorish cavalry, rode in +all haste to the fortified town of Orihuela, a place of such strength that +with sufficient force they might have defied there the powerful enemy. But +such had been their losses in battle and in flight that Theodomir found +himself far too weak to face the Moslem host, whose advance cavalry had +followed so keenly on his track as to reach the outer walls by the time he +had fairly closed the gates. + +Defence was impossible. He had not half enough men to guard the walls and +repel assaults. It would have been folly to stand a siege, yet Theodomir +did not care to surrender except on favorable terms, and therefore adopted +a shrewd stratagem to deceive the enemy in regard to his strength. + +To the surprise of the Arab leader the walls of the town, which he had +thought half garrisoned, seemed to swarm with armed and bearded warriors, +far too great a force to be overcome by a sudden dash. In the face of so +warlike an array, caution awoke in the hearts of the assailants. They had +looked for an easy victory, but against such numbers as these assault +might lead to severe bloodshed and eventual defeat. They felt that it +would be necessary to proceed by the slow and deliberate methods of a +regular siege. + +While Abdul-Aziz was disposing his forces and making heedful preparations +for the task he saw before him, he was surprised to see the principal gate +of the city thrown open and a single Gothic horseman ride forth, bearing a +flag of truce and making signals for a parley. A safe-conduct was given +him, and he was led to the tent of the Moslem chief. + +"Theodomir has sent me to negotiate with you," he said, "and I have full +power to conclude terms of surrender. We are abundantly able to hold out, +as you may see by the forces on our walls, but as we wish to avoid +bloodshed we are willing to submit on honorable terms. Otherwise we will +defend ourselves to the bitter end." + +The boldness and assurance with which he spoke deeply impressed the Arab +chief. This was not a fearful foe seeking for mercy, but a daring +antagonist as ready to fight as to yield. + +"What terms do you demand?" asked Abdul-Aziz. + +"My lord," answered the herald, "will only surrender on such conditions as +a generous enemy should grant and a valiant people receive. He demands +peace and security for the province and its people and such authority for +himself as the strength of his walls and the numbers of his garrison +justify him in demanding." + +The wise and clement Arab saw the strength of the argument, and, glad to +obtain so rich a province without further loss of life, he assented to the +terms proposed, bidding the envoy to return and present them to his chief. +The Gothic knight replied that there was no need of this, he having full +power to sign the treaty. The terms were therefore drawn up and signed by +the Arab general, after which the envoy took the pen and, to the +astonishment of the victor, signed the name of Theodomir at the foot of +the document. It was the Gothic chief himself. + +Pleased alike with his confidence and his cleverness, Abdul-Aziz treated +the Gothic knight with the highest honor and distinction. At the dawn of +the next day the gates of the city were thrown open for surrender, and +Abdul-Aziz entered at the head of a suitable force. But when the garrison +was drawn up in the centre of the city for surrender, the surprise of the +Moslem became deep amazement. What he saw before him was a mere handful of +stalwart soldiers, eked out with feeble old men and boys. But the main +body before him was composed of women, whom the astute Goth had bidden to +dress like men and to tie their long hair under their chins to represent +beards; when, with casques on their heads and spears in their hands, they +had been ranged along the walls, looking at a distance like a line of +sturdy warriors. + +Theodomir waited with some anxiety, not knowing how the victor would +regard this stratagem. Abdul might well have viewed with anger the +capitulation of an army of women and dotards, but he had a sense of humor +and a generous heart, and the smile of amusement on his face told the +Gothic chief that he was fully forgiven for his shrewd stratagem. +Admiration was stronger than mortification in the Moslem's heart. He +praised Theodomir for his witty and successful expedient, and for the +three days that he remained at Orihuela banquets and fetes marked his +stay, he occupying the position of a guest rather than an enemy. No injury +was done to people or town, and the Arabs soon left the province to +continue their career of conquest, satisfied with the arrangements for +tribute which they had made. + +By a strange chance the treaty of surrender of the land of Tadmir still +exists. It is drawn up in Latin and in Arabic, and is of much interest as +showing the mode in which such things were managed at that remote date. It +stipulates that war shall not be waged against Theodomir, son of the +Goths, and his people; that he shall not be deprived of his kingdom; that +the Christians shall not be separated from their wives and children, or +hindered in the services of their religion; and that their temples shall +not be burned. Theodomir was left lord of seven cities,--Orihuela, +Valencia, Alicante, Mula, Biscaret, Aspis, and Lorca,--in which he was to +harbor no enemies of the Arabs. + +The tribute demanded of him and his nobles was a dinar (a gold coin) +yearly from each, also four measures each of wheat, barley, must, vinegar, +honey, and oil. Vassals and taxable people were to pay half this amount. + +These conditions were liberal in the extreme. The tribute demanded was by +no means heavy for a country so fertile, in which light culture yields +abundant harvests; the delightful valley between Orihuela and Murcia, in +particular, being the garden spot of Spain. The inhabitants for a long +period escaped the evils of war felt in other parts of the conquered +territory, their province being occupied by only small garrisons of the +enemy, while its distance from the chief seat of war removed it from +danger. + +After the murder of Abdul-Aziz, Theodomir sent an embassy to the Caliph +Soliman, begging that the treaty should be respected. The caliph in reply +sent orders that its stipulations should be faithfully observed. In this +the land of Tadmir almost stood alone in that day, when treaties were +usually made only to be set at naught. + + + + + +THE CAVE OF COVADONGA. + + +Tarik landed in Spain in April, 711. So rapid were the Arabs in conquest +that in two years from that date nearly the whole peninsula was in their +hands. Not quite all, or history might have another story to relate. In a +remote province of the once proud kingdom--a rugged northwest corner--a few +of its fugitive sons remained in freedom, left alone by the Arabs partly +through scorn, partly on account of the rude and difficult character of +their place of refuge. The conquerors despised them, yet this slender +group was to form the basis of the Spain we know to-day, and to expand and +spread until the conquerors would be driven from Spanish soil. + +The Goths had fled in all directions from their conquerors, taking with +them such of their valuables as they could carry, some crossing the +Pyrenees to France, some hiding in the mountain valleys, some seeking a +place of refuge in the Asturias, a rough hill country cut up in all +directions by steep, scarped rocks, narrow defiles, deep ravines, and +tangled thickets. Here the formidable Moslem cavalry could not pursue +them; here no army could deploy; here ten men might defy a hundred. The +place was far from inviting to the conquerors, but in it was sown the seed +of modern Spain. + +A motley crew it was that gathered in this rugged region, a medley of +fugitives of all ranks and stations,--soldiers, farmers, and artisans; +nobles and vassals; bishops and monks; men, women, and children,--brought +together by a terror that banished all distinctions of rank and avocation. +For a number of years this small band of fugitive Christians, gathered +between the mountains and the sea in northwestern Spain, remained quiet, +desiring only to be overlooked or disregarded by the conquerors. But in +the year 717 a leader came to them, and Spain once more lifted her head in +defiance of her invaders. + +Pelayo, the leader named, is a hero shrouded in mist. Fable surrounds him; +a circle of romantic stories have budded from his name. He is to us like +his modern namesake, the one battle-ship of Spain, which, during the +recent war, wandered up and down the Mediterranean with no object in view +that any foreigner could discover. Of the original Pelayo, some who +profess to know say that he was of the highest rank,--young, handsome, and +heroic, one who had fought under Roderic at the Guadalete, had been held +by the Arabs as a hostage at Cordova, and had escaped to his native hills, +there to infuse new life and hope into the hearts of the fugitive group. + +Ibun Hayyan, an Arabian chronicler, gives the following fanciful account +of Pelayo and his feeble band. "The commencement of the rebellion happened +thus: there remained no city, town, or village in Galicia but what was in +the hands of the Moslems with the exception of a steep mountain, on which +this Pelayo took refuge with a handful of men. There his followers went on +dying through hunger until he saw their numbers reduced to about thirty +men and ten women, having no other food for support than the honey which +they gathered in the crevices of the rock, which they themselves inhabited +like so many bees. However, Pelayo and his men fortified themselves by +degrees in the passes of the mountain until the Moslems were made +acquainted with their preparations; but, perceiving how few they were, +they heeded not the advice given to them, but allowed them to gather +strength, saying, 'What are thirty barbarians perched upon a rock? They +must inevitably die.'" + +Die they did not, that feeble relic of Spain on the mountain-side, though +long their only care was for shelter and safety. Here Pelayo cheered them, +doing his utmost to implant new courage in their fearful hearts. At length +the day came when Spain could again assume a defiant attitude, and in the +mountain valley of Caggas de Onis Pelayo raised the old Gothic standard +and ordered the beating of the drums. Beyond the sound of the long roll +went his messengers seeking warriors in valley and glen, and soon his +little band had grown to a thousand stalwart men, filled with his spirit +and breathing defiance to the Moslem conquerors. That was an eventful day +for Spain, in which her crushed people again lifted their heads. + +It was a varied throng that gathered around Pelayo's banner. Sons of the +Goths and the Romans were mingled with descendants of the more ancient +Celts and Iberians. Representatives of all the races that had overrun +Spain were there gathered, speaking a dozen dialects, yet instinct with a +single spirit. From them the modern Spaniard was to come, no longer Gothic +or Roman, but a descendant of all the tribes and races that had peopled +Spain. Some of them carried the swords and shields they had wielded in the +battle of the Guadalete, others brought the rude weapons of the +mountaineers. But among them were strong hands and stout hearts, summoned +by the drums of Pelayo to the reconquest of Spain. + +Word soon came to Al Horr, the new emir of Spain, that a handful of +Christians were in arms in the mountains of the northwest, and he took +instant steps to crush this presumptuous gathering, sending his trusty +general Al Kamah with a force that seemed abundant to destroy Pelayo and +his rebel band. + +Warning of the approach of the Moslem foe was quickly brought to the +Spanish leader, who at once left his place of assembly for the cave of +Covadonga, a natural fortress in Eastern Asturia, some five miles from +Caggas de Onis, which he had selected as a place strikingly adapted to a +defensive stand. Here rise three mountain-peaks to a height of nearly four +thousand feet, enclosing a small circular valley, across which rushes the +swift Diva, a stream issuing from Mount Orandi. At the base of Mount +Auseva, the western peak, rises a detached rock, one hundred and seventy +feet high, projecting from the mountain in the form of an arch. At a short +distance above its foot is visible the celebrated cave or grotto of +Covadonga, an opening forty feet wide, twelve feet high, and extending +twenty-five feet into the rock. + +The river sweeps out through a narrow and rocky defile, at whose narrowest +part the banks rise in precipitous walls. Down this ravine the stream +rushes in rapids and cascades, at one point forming a picturesque +waterfall seventy-five feet in height. Only through this straitened path +can the cave be reached, and this narrow ravine and the valley within +Pelayo proposed to hold with his slender and ill-armed force. + +Proudly onward came the Moslem captain, full of confidence in his powerful +force and despising his handful of opponents. Pelayo drew him on into the +narrow river passage by a clever stratagem. He had posted a small force at +the mouth of the pass, bidding them to take to flight after a discharge of +arrows. His plan worked well, the seeming retreat giving assurance to the +Moslems, who rushed forward in pursuit along the narrow ledge that borders +the Diva, and soon emerged into the broader path that opens into the +valley of Covadonga. + +They had incautiously entered a _cul-de-sac_, in which their numbers were +of no avail, and where a handful of men could hold an army at bay. A small +body of the best armed of the Spaniards occupied the cave, the others +being placed in ambush among the chestnut-trees that covered the heights +above the Diva. All kept silent until the Moslem advance had emerged into +the valley. Then the battle began, one of the most famous conflicts in the +whole history of Spain, famous not for the numbers engaged, but for the +issue involved. The future of Spain dwelt in the hands of that group of +patriots. The fight in the valley was sharp, but one-sided. The Moslem +arrows rebounded harmlessly from the rocky sides of the cave, whose +entrance could be reached only by a ladder, while the Christians, hurling +their missiles from their point of vantage into the crowded mass below, +punished them so severely that the advance was forced back upon those that +crowded the defile in the rear. Al Kamah, finding his army recoiling in +dismay and confusion, and discovering too late his error, ordered a +retreat; but no sooner had a reverse movement been instituted than the +ambushed Christians on the heights began their deadly work, hurling huge +stones and fallen trees into the defile, killing the Moslems by hundreds, +and choking up the pass until flight became impossible. + +The panic was complete. From every side the Christians rushed upon the +foe. Pelayo, bearing a cross of oak and crying that the Lord was fighting +for his people, leaped downward from the cave, followed by his men, who +fell with irresistible fury on the foe, forcing them backward under the +brow of Mount Auseva, where Al Kamah strove to make a stand. + +The elements now came to the aid of the Christians, a furious storm +arising whose thunders reverberated among the rocks, while lightnings +flashed luridly in the eyes of the terrified troops. The rain poured in +blinding torrents, and soon the Diva, swollen with the sudden fall, rose +into a flood, and swept away many of those who were crowded on its +slippery banks. The heavens seemed leagued with the Christians against the +Moslem host, whose destruction was so thorough that, if we can credit the +chronicles, not a man of the proud army escaped. + +This is doubtless an exaggeration, but the victory of Pelayo was complete +and the first great step in the reconquest of Spain was taken. The year +was 717, six years after the landing of the Arabs and the defeat of the +Goths. + +Thus ended perhaps the most decisive battle in the history of Spain. With +it new Spain began. The cave of Covadonga is still a place of pilgrimage +for the Spanish patriot, a stairway of marble replacing the ladder used by +Pelayo and his men. We may tell what followed in a few words. Their +terrible defeat cleared the territory of the Austurias of Moslem soldiers. +From every side fugitive Christians left their mountain retreats to seek +the standard of Pelayo. Soon the patriotic and daring leader had an army +under his command, by whom he was chosen king of Christian Spain. + +The Moslems made no further attack. They were discouraged by their defeat +and were engaged in a project for the invasion of Gaul that required their +utmost force. Pelayo slowly and cautiously extended his dominions, +descending from the mountains into the plains and valleys, and organizing +his new kingdom in civil as well as in military affairs. All the men under +his control were taught to bear arms, fortifications were built, the +ground was planted, and industry revived. Territory which the Moslems had +abandoned was occupied, and from a group of soldiers in a mountain cavern +a new nation began to emerge. + +Pelayo died at Caggas de Onis in the year 737, twenty years after his +great victory. After his death the work he had begun was carried forward, +until by the year 800 the Spanish dominion had extended over much of Old +Castile,--so called from its numerous castles. In a hundred years more it +had extended to the borders of New Castile. The work of reconquest was +slowly but surely under way. + + + + + + [Illustration: BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE.] + + BARONIAL CASTLE IN OLD CASTILE. + + + + + +THE ADVENTURES OF A FUGITIVE PRINCE. + + +A new dynasty came to the throne of the caliphs of Damascus in 750. The +line of the Ommeyades, who had held the throne since the days of the +Prophet Mohammed, was overthrown, and the line of the Abbassides began. +Abdullah, the new caliph, bent on destroying every remnant of the old +dynasty, invited ninety of its principal adherents to a banquet, where +they were set upon and brutally murdered. There followed a scene worthy of +a savage. The tables were removed, carpets were spread over the bleeding +corpses, and on these the viands were placed, the guests eating their +dinner to the dismal music of the groans of the dying victims beneath. + +The whole country was now scoured for all who were connected with the +fallen dynasty, and wherever found they were brutally slain; yet despite +the vigilance of the murderers a scion of the family of the Ommeyades +escaped. Abdurrahman, the princely youth in question, was fortunately +absent from Damascus when the order for his assassination was given. +Warned of his proposed fate, he gathered what money and jewels he could +and fled for his life, following little-used paths until he reached the +banks of the Euphrates. But spies were on his track and descriptions of +him had been sent to all provinces. He was just twenty years old, and, +unlike the Arabians in general, had a fair complexion and blue eyes, so +that he could easily be recognized, and it seemed impossible that he could +escape. + +His retreat on the Euphrates was quickly discovered, and the agents of +murder were so hot upon his track that he was forced to spring into the +river and seek for safety by swimming. The pursuers reached the banks when +the fugitives were nearly half-way across, Abdurrahman supporting his son, +four years of age, and Bedr, a servant, aiding his thirteen-year-old +brother. The agents of the caliph called them back, saying that they would +not harm them, and the boy, whose strength was giving out, turned back in +spite of his brother's warning. When Abdurrahman reached the opposite +bank, it was with a shudder of horror that he saw the murder of the boy, +whose head was at once cut off. That gruesome spectacle decided the +question of his trusting himself to the mercy of the caliph or his agents. + +The life of the fugitive prince now became one of unceasing adventure. He +made his way by covert paths towards Egypt, wandering through the desert +in company with bands of Bedouins, living on their scanty fare, and +constantly on the alert against surprise. Light sleep and hasty flittings +were the rule with him and his few attendants as they made their way +slowly westward over the barren sands, finally reaching Egypt. Here he was +too near the caliph for safety, and he kept on westward to Barca, where he +hoped for protection from the governor, who owed his fortunes to the favor +of the late caliph. + +He was mistaken. Ibn Habib, the governor of Barca, put self-interest above +gratitude, and made vigorous efforts to seize the fugitive, whom he hoped +to send as a welcome gift to the cruel Abdullah. The life of the fugitive +was now one of hair-breadth escapes. For five years he remained in Barca, +disguised and under a false name, yet in almost daily peril of his life. +On one occasion a band of pursuers surrounded the tent in which he was and +advanced to search it. His life was saved by Tekfah, the wife of the +chief, who hid him under her clothes. When, in later years, he came to +power, he rewarded the chief and his wife richly for their kindly aid. + +On another occasion a body of horse rode into the village of tents in +which he dwelt as a guest and demanded that he should be given up. The +handsome aspect and gentle manner of the fugitive had made the tribesmen +suspect that they were the hosts of a disguised prince; he had gained a +sure place in their hearts, and they set the pursuers on a false scent. +Such a person was with them, they said, but he had gone with a number of +young men on a lion hunt in a neighboring mountain valley and would not +return until the next evening. The pursuers at once set off for the place +mentioned, and the fugitive, who had been hidden in one of the tents, rode +away in the opposite direction with his slender train. + +Leaving Barca, he journeyed farther westward over the desert, which at +that point comes down to the Mediterranean. Finally Tahart was reached, a +town within the modern Algeria, the seat of the Beni Rustam, a tribe which +gave him the kindliest welcome. To them, as to the Barcans, he seemed a +prince in disguise. Near by was a tribe of Arabs named the Nefezah, to +which his mother had belonged, and from which he hoped for protection and +assistance. Reaching this, he told his rank and name, and was welcomed +almost as a king, the tribesmen, his mother's kindred, paying him homage, +and offering their aid to the extent of their ability in the ambitious +scheme which he disclosed. + +This was an invasion of Spain, which at that time was a scene of confusion +and turmoil, distracted by rival leaders, the people exhausted by wars and +quarrels, many of their towns burned or ruined, and the country ravaged by +famine. What could be better than for the heir of the illustrious house of +Ommeyades, flying from persecution by the Abbassides, and miraculously +preserved, to seek the throne of Spain, bring peace to that distracted +land, and found an independent kingdom in that western section of the vast +Arabian empire? + +His servant, Bedr, who had kept with him through all his varied career and +was now his chief officer, was sent to Spain on a secret mission to the +friends of the late dynasty of caliphs, of whom there were many in that +land. Bedr was highly successful in his mission. Yusuf, the Abbasside +emir, was absent from Cordova and ignorant of his danger, and all promised +well. Not waiting for the assistance promised him in Africa, the prince +put to sea almost alone. As he was about to step on board his boat a +number of Berbers gathered round and showed an intention to prevent his +departure. They were quieted by a handful of dinars and he hastened on +board,--none too soon, for another band, greedy for gold, rushed to the +beach, some of them wading out and seizing the boat and the camel's-hair +cable that held it to the anchor. These fellows got blows instead of +dinars, one, who would not let go, having his hand cut off by a sword +stroke. The edge of a scimitar cut the cable, the sail was set, and the +lonely exile set forth upon the sea to the conquest of a kingdom. It was +evening of a spring day of the year 756 that the fugitive prince landed +near Malaga, in the land of Andalusia, where some prominent chiefs were in +waiting to receive him with the homage due to a king. + +Hundreds soon flocked to the standard of the adventurer, whose manly and +handsome presence, his beaming blue eyes, sweet smile, and gracious manner +won him the friendship of all whom he met. With steadily growing forces he +marched to Seville. Here were many of his partisans, and the people flung +open the gates with wild shouts of welcome. It was in the month of May +that the fortunes of Abdurrahman were put to the test, Yusuf having +hastily gathered a powerful force and advanced to the plain of Musarah, +near Cordova, on which field the fate of the kingdom was to be decided. + +It was under a strange banner that Abdurrahman advanced to meet the army +of the emir,--a turban attached to a lance-head. This standard afterwards +became sacred, the turban, as it grew ragged, being covered by a new one. +At length the hallowed old rags were removed by an irreverent hand, "and +from that time the empire of the Beni Ummeyah began to decline." + +We may briefly conclude our tale. The battle was fierce, but Abdurrahman's +boldness and courage prevailed, and the army of Yusuf in the end gave way, +Cordova becoming the victor's prize. The generous conqueror gave liberty +and distinction to the defeated emir, and was repaid in two years by a +rebellion in which he had an army of twenty thousand men to meet. Yusuf +was again defeated, and now lost his life. + +Thus it was that the fugitive prince, who had saved his life by swimming +the Euphrates under the eyes of an assassin band, became the Caliph of the +West, for under him Spain was cut loose from the dominion of the +Abbassides and made an independent kingdom, its conqueror becoming its +first monarch under the title of Abdurrahman I. + +Almansur, then the Caliph of the East, sought to recover the lost domain, +sending a large army from Africa; but this was defeated with terrible +slaughter by the impetuous young prince, who revenged himself by sending +the heads of the general and many of his officers to the caliph in bags +borne by merchants, which were deposited at the door of Almansur's tent +during the darkness of the night. The finder was cautioned to be careful, +as the bags contained treasure. So they were brought in to the caliph, who +opened them with his own hand. Great was his fury and chagrin when he saw +what a ghastly treasure they contained. "This man is the foul fiend in +human form," he exclaimed. "Praised be Allah that he has placed a sea +between him and me." + + + + + +BERNARDO DEL CARPIO. + + +Spain, like France, had its hero of legend. The great French hero was +Roland, whose mighty deeds in the pass of Roncesvalles have been widely +commemorated in song and story. In Spanish legend the gallant opponent of +the champion of France was Bernardo del Carpio, a hero who perhaps never +lived, except on paper, but about whose name a stirring cycle of story has +grown. The tale of his life is a tragedy, as that of heroes is apt to be. +It may be briefly told. + +When Charlemagne was on the throne of France Alfonso II. was king of +Christian Spain. A hundred years had passed since all that was left to +Spain was the cave of Covadonga, and in that time a small kingdom had +grown up with Oviedo for its capital city. This kingdom had spread from +the Asturias over Leon, which gave its name to the new realm, and the slow +work of driving back the Moslem conquerors had well begun. + +Alfonso never married and had no children. People called him Alfonso the +Chaste. He went so far as to forbid any of his family to marry, so that +the love affairs of his sister, the fair infanta Ximena, ran far from +smooth. The beautiful princess loved and was loved again by the noble +Sancho Diaz, Count of Saldana, but the king would not listen to their +union. The natural result followed; as they dared not marry in public they +did so in private, and for a year or two lived happily together, none +knowing of their marriage, and least of all the king. + +But when a son was born to them the truth came out. It threw the +tyrannical king into a violent rage. His sister was seized by his orders +and shut up in a convent, and her husband was thrown into prison for life, +some accounts saying that his eyes were put out by order of the cruel +king. As for their infant son, he was sent into the mountains of the +Asturias, to be brought up among peasants and mountaineers. + +It was known that he had been sent there by Alfonso, and the people +believed him to be the king's son and treated him as a prince. In the +healthy out-door life of the hills he grew strong and handsome, while his +native courage was shown in hunting adventures and the perils of mountain +life. When old enough he learned the use of arms, and soon left his humble +friends for the army, in which his boldness and bravery were shown in many +encounters with the French and the Arabs. Those about him still supposed +him to be the son of the king, though Alfonso, while furnishing him with +all knightly arms and needs, neither acknowledged nor treated him as his +son. But if not a king's son, he was a very valiant knight, and became the +terror of all the foes of Spain. + +All this time his unfortunate father languished in prison, where from time +to time he was told by his keepers of the mighty deeds of the young prince +Bernardo del Carpio, by which name the youthful warrior was known. Count +Sancho knew well that this was his son, and complained bitterly of the +ingratitude of the youth who could leave his father perishing in a prison +cell while he rode freely and joyously in the open air, engaged in battle +and banquet, and was everywhere admired and praised. He knew not that the +young warrior had been kept in ignorance of his birth. + +During this period came that great event in the early history of Spain in +which Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees with a great army and marched upon +the city of Saragossa. It was in the return from this expedition that the +dreadful attack took place in which Roland and the rear guard of the army +were slain in the pass of Roncesvalles. In Spanish story it was Bernardo +del Carpio who led the victorious hosts, and to whose prowess was due the +signal success. + +This fierce fight in a mountain-pass, in which a valiant band of +mountaineers overwhelmed and destroyed the flower of the French army, has +been exalted by poetic legend into one of the most stupendous and romantic +of events. Ponderous epic poems have made Roland their theme, numbers of +ballads and romances tell of his exploits, and the far-off echoes of his +ivory horn still sound through the centuries. One account tells that he +blew his horn so loud and long that the veins of his neck burst in the +strain. Others tell that he split a mountain in twain by a mighty stroke +of his sword Durandal. The print of his horse's hoofs are shown on a +mountain-peak where only a flying horse could ever have stood. In truth, +Roland, whose name is barely mentioned in history, rose to be the greatest +hero of romance, the choicest and best of the twelve paladins of +Charlemagne. + +Bernardo del Carpio was similarly celebrated in Spanish song, though he +attained no such worldwide fame. History does not name him at all, but the +ballads of Spain say much of his warlike deeds. It must suffice here to +say that this doughty champion marched upon Roland and his men while they +were winding through the narrow mountain-pass, and as they advanced the +mountaineers swelled their ranks. + + "As through the glen his spears did gleam, the soldiers from the hills, + They swelled his host, as mountain-stream receives the roaring rills; + They round his banner flocked in scorn of haughty Charlemagne, + And thus upon their swords are sworn the faithful sons of Spain." + +Roland and his force lay silent in death when the valiant prince led back +his army, flushed with victory, and hailed with the plaudits of all the +people of the land. At this moment of his highest triumph the tragedy of +his life began. His old nurse, who had feared before to tell the tale, now +made him acquainted with the true story of his birth, telling him that he +was the nephew, not the son, of the king; that his mother, whom he thought +long dead, still lived, shut up for life in a convent; and that his father +lay languishing in a dungeon cell, blind and in chains. + +As may well be imagined, this story filled the soul of the young hero with +righteous wrath. He strode into the presence of the king and asked, with +little reverence, if the story were true. Alfonso surlily admitted it. +Bernardo then demanded his father's freedom. This the king refused. +Burning with anger, the valiant youth shut himself up in his castle, +refusing to take part in the rejoicings that followed the victory, and +still sternly demanding the release of his father. + +"Is it well that I should be abroad fighting thy battles," he asked the +king, "while my father lies fettered in thy dungeons? Set him free and I +shall ask no further reward." + +Alfonso, who was obstinate in his cruelty, refused, and the indignant +prince took arms against him, joining the Moors, whom he aided to harry +the king's dominions. Fortifying his castle, and gathering a bold and +daring band from his late followers, he made incursions deep into the +country of the king, plundering hamlet and city and fighting in the ranks +of the Moslems. + +This method of argument was too forcible even for the obstinacy of +Alfonso. His counsellors, finding the kingdom itself in danger, urged him +to grant Bernardo's request, and to yield him his father in return for his +castle. The king at length consented, and Bernardo, as generous and +trusting as he was brave, immediately accepted the proposed exchange, +sought the king, handed him the keys of his castle, and asked him to +fulfil his share of the contract. + +Alfonso agreed to do so, and in a short time the king and his nephew rode +forth, Bernardo's heart full of joy at the thought of meeting the parent +whom he had never yet seen. As they rode forward a train came from the +opposite direction to meet them, in the midst a tall figure, clad in +splendid attire and mounted on horseback. But there was something in his +aspect that struck Bernardo's heart deep with dread. + +"God help me!" he exclaimed, "is that sightless and corpse-like figure the +noble Count of Saldana, my father?" + +"You wished to see him," coldly answered the king. "He is before you. Go +and greet him." + +Bernardo did so, and reverently took the cold hand of his father to kiss +it. As he did so the body fell forward on the neck of the horse. It was +only a corpse. Alfonso had killed the father before delivering him to his +son. + +Only his guards saved the ruthless tyrant at that moment from death. The +infuriated knight swore a fearful oath of vengeance upon the king, and +rode away, taking the revered corpse with him. Unfortunately, the story of +Bernardo ends here. None of the ballads tell what he did for revenge. We +may imagine that he joined his power to the Moors and harried the land of +Leon during his after life, at length reaching Alfonso's heart with his +vengeful blade. But of this neither ballad nor legend tells, and with the +pathetic scene of the dead father's release our story ends. + + + + + +RUY DIAZ, THE CID CAMPEADOR. + + +Bernardo del Carpio is not the chief Spanish hero of romance. To find the +mate of Roland the paladin we must seek the incomparable Cid, the +campeador or champion of Spain, the noblest figure in Spanish story or +romance. _El Mio Cid_, "My Cid," as he is called, with his matchless horse +Bavieca and his trenchant sword Tisona, towers in Spanish tale far above +Christian king and Moslem caliph, as the pink of chivalry, the pearl of +knighthood, the noblest and worthiest figure in all that stirring age. + +Cid is an Arabic word, meaning "lord" or "chief." The man to whom it was +applied was a real personage, not a figment of fancy, though it is to +poetry and romance that he owes his fame, his story having been expanded +and embellished in chronicles, epic poems, and ballads until it bears +little semblance to actual history. Yet the deeds of the man himself +probably lie at the basis of all the splendid fictions of romance. + +The great poem in which his exploits were first celebrated, the famous +"Poema del Cid," is thought to be the oldest, as it is one of the noblest +in the Spanish language. Written probably not later than the year 1200, it +is of about three thousand lines in length, and of such merit that its +unknown author has been designated the "Homer of Spain." As it was written +soon after the death of the Cid, it could not have deviated far from +historic truth. Chief among the prose works is the "Chronicle of the +Cid,"--_Chronica del famoso Cavallero Cid Ruy Diez_,--which, with additions +from the poem, was charmingly rendered in English by the poet Southey, +whose production is a prose poem in itself. Such are the chief sources of +our knowledge of the Cid, an active, stirring figure, full of the spirit +of mediaevalism, whose story seems to bring back to us the living features +of the age in which he flourished. A brave and daring knight, rousing the +jealousy of nobles and kings by his valiant deeds, now banished and now +recalled, now fighting against the Moslems, now with them, now for his own +hand, and in the end winning himself a realm and dying a king without the +name,--such is the man whose story we propose to tell. + +This hero of romance was born about the year 1040 at Bivar, a little +village near Burgos, his father being Diego Lainez, a man of gentle birth, +his mother Teresa Rodriguez, daughter of the governor of the Asturias. He +is often called Rodrigo de Bivar, from his birthplace, but usually Rodrigo +Diaz, or Ruy Diez, as his name is given in the chronicle. + +While still a boy the future prowess of the Cid was indicated. He was keen +of intellect, active of frame, and showed such wonderful dexterity in +manly exercises as to become unrivalled in the use of arms. Those were +days of almost constant war. The kingdom of the Moors was beginning to +fall to pieces; that of the Christians was growing steadily stronger; not +only did war rage between the two races, but Moor fought with Moor, +Christian with Christian, and there was abundant work ready for the strong +hand and sharp sword. This state of affairs was to the taste of the +youthful Rodrigo, whose ambition was to become a hero of knighthood. + +While gentle in manner and magnanimous in disposition, the young soldier +had an exalted sense of honor and was sternly devoted to duty. While he +was still a boy his father was bitterly insulted by Count Gomez, who +struck him in the face. The old man brooded over his humiliation until he +lost sleep and appetite, and withdrew from society into disconsolate +seclusion. + +Rodrigo, deeply moved by his father's grief, sought and killed the +insulter, and brought the old man the bleeding head of his foe. At this +the disconsolate Diego rose and embraced his son, and bade him sit above +him at table, saying that "he who brought home that head should be the +head of the house of Layn Calvo." + +From that day on the fame of the young knight rapidly grew, until at +length he defeated and captured five Moorish kings who had invaded +Castile. This exploit won him the love of Ximena, the fair daughter of +Count Gomez, whom he had slain. Foreseeing that he would become the +greatest man in Spain, the damsel waited not to be wooed, but offered him +her hand in marriage, an offer which he was glad to accept. And ever +after, says the chronicle, she was his loving wife. + +The young champion is said to have gained the good-will of St. Lazarus and +the Holy Virgin by sleeping with a leper who had been shunned by his +knights. No evil consequences came from this example of Christian +philanthropy, while it added to the knight's high repute. + +Fernando I., who had gathered a large Christian kingdom under his crown, +died when Rodrigo was but fifteen years of age, and in his will foolishly +cut up his kingdom between his three sons and two daughters, greatly +weakening the Christian power, and quickly bringing his sons to sword's +point. By the will Sancho was placed over Castile, Alfonso became king of +Leon, Garcia ruled in Galicia; Urraca, one of the daughters, received the +city of Toro, and Elvira was given that of Zamora. + +Sancho was not satisfied with this division. Being the oldest, he thought +he should have all, and prepared to seize the shares of his brothers and +sisters. Looking for aid in this design, he was attracted by the growing +fame of young Rodrigo, and gained his aid in the restoration of Zamora, +which the Moors had destroyed. While thus engaged there came to Rodrigo +messengers with tribute from the five Moorish kings whom he had captured +and released. They hailed the young warrior as Sid, or Cid, and the king, +struck by the title, said that Ruy Diaz should thenceforth bear it; also +that he should be known as campeador or champion. + +King Sancho now knighted the young warrior with his own hand, and soon +after made him _alferez_, or commander of his troops. As such he was +despatched against Alfonso, who was soon driven from his kingdom of Leon +and sought shelter in the Moorish city of Toledo. Leon being occupied, the +Cid marched against Galicia, and drove out Garcia as he had done Alfonso. +Then he deprived Urraca and Elvira of the cities left them by their +father, and the whole kingdom was once more placed under a single ruler. + +It did not long remain so. Sancho died in 1072, and at once Alfonso and +Garcia hurried back from exile to recover their lost realms. But Alfonso's +ambition equalled that of Sancho. All or none was his motto. Invading the +kingdom of Galicia, he robbed Garcia of it and held him prisoner. Then he +prepared to invade Castile, and offered the command of the army for this +enterprise to the Cid. + +The latter was ready for fighting in any form, so that he could fight with +honor. But there was doubt in his mind if service under Alfonso was +consistent with the honor of a knight. King Sancho had been assassinated +while hunting, and it was whispered that Alfonso had some share in the +murder. The high-minded Cid would not draw sword for him unless he swore +that he had no lot or part in his brother's death. Twice the Cid gave him +the oath, whereupon, says the chronicle, "My Cid repeated the oath to him +a third time, and the king and the knights said 'Amen.' But the wrath of +the king was exceeding great; and he said to the Cid, 'Ruy Diaz, why dost +thou press me so, man?' From that day forward there was no love towards My +Cid in the heart of the king." + +But the king had sworn, and the Cid entered his service and soon conquered +Castile, so that Alfonso became monarch of Castile, Leon, Galicia, and +Portugal, and took the title of Emperor of Spain. As adelantado, or lord +of the marches, Ruy Diaz now occupied himself with the Moors,--fighting +where hostility reigned, taking tribute for the king from Seville and +other cities, and settling with the sword the disputes of the chiefs, or +aiding them in their quarrels. Thus he took part with Seville in a war +with Cordova, and was rewarded with so rich a present by the grateful king +that Alfonso, inspired by his secret hatred for the Cid, grew jealous and +envious. + +During these events years passed on, and the Cid's two fair daughters grew +to womanhood and were married, at the command of the king, to the two +counts of Carrion. The Cid liked not his sons-in-law, and good reason he +had, for they were a pair of base hounds despite their lordly title. The +brides were shamefully treated by them, being stripped and beaten nearly +to death on their wedding-journey. + +When word of this outrage came to the Cid his wrath overflowed. Stalking +with little reverence into the king's hall, he sternly demanded redress +for the brutal act. He could not appeal to the law. The husband in those +days was supreme lord and master of his wife. But there was an unwritten +law, that of the sword, and the incensed father demanded that the brutal +youths should appear in the lists and prove their honor, if they could, +against his champion. + +They dared not refuse. In those days, when the sword was the measure of +honor and justice, to refuse would have been to be disgraced. They came +into the lists, where they were beaten like the hounds that they had shown +themselves, and the noble girls were set free from their bonds. Better +husbands soon sought the Cid's daughters, and they were happily married in +the end. + +The exploits of the Cid were far too many for us to tell. Wherever he went +victory attended his sword. On one occasion the king marched to the aid of +one of his Moorish allies, leaving the Cid behind him too sick to ride. +Here was an opportunity for the Moors, a party of whom broke into Castile +and by a rapid march made themselves masters of the fortress of Gomez. Up +from his bed of sickness rose the Cid, mounted his steed (though he could +barely sit in the saddle), charged and scattered the invaders, pursued +them into the kingdom of Toledo, and returned with seven thousand +prisoners and all the Moorish spoil. + +This brilliant defence of the kingdom was the turning point in his career. +The king of Toledo complained to Alfonso that his neutral territory had +been invaded by the Cid and his troops, and King Alfonso, seeking revenge +for the three oaths he had been compelled to take, banished the Cid from +his dominions, on the charge of invading the territory of his allies. + +Thus the champion went forth as a knight-errant, with few followers, but a +great name. Tears came into his eyes as he looked back upon his home, its +doors open, its hall deserted, no hawks upon the perches, no horses in the +stalls. "My enemies have done this," he said. "God be praised for all +things." He went to Burgos, but there the people would not receive him, +having had strict orders from the king. Their houses were closed, the +inn-keepers barred their doors, only a bold little maiden dared venture +out to tell him of the decree. As there was no shelter for him there, he +was forced to seek lodging in the sands near the town. + +Needing money, he obtained it by a trick that was not very honorable, +though in full accord with the ethics of those times. He pawned to the +Jews two chests which he said were treasure chests, filled with gold. Six +hundred marks were received, and when the chests were afterwards opened +they proved to be filled with sand. This was merely a good joke to poet +and chronicler. The Jews lay outside the pale of justice and fair-dealing. + +Onward went the Cid, his followers growing in number as he marched. First +to Barcelona, then to Saragossa, he went, seeking knightly adventures +everywhere. In Saragossa he entered the service of the Moorish king, and +for several years fought well and sturdily for his old enemies. But time +brought a change. In 1081 Alfonso captured Toledo and made that city his +capital, from which he prepared to push his way still deeper into the +Moorish dominions. He now needed the Cid, whom he had banished five years +before. + +But it was easier to ask than to get. The Cid had grown too great to be at +any king's beck and call. He would fight for Alfonso, but in his own way, +holding himself free to attack whom he pleased and when he pleased, and to +capture the cities of the Moslems and rule them as their lord. He had +become a free lance, fighting for his own hand, while armies sprang, as it +were, from the ground at his call to arms. + +In those days of turmoil valor rarely had long to wait for opportunity. +Ramon Berenguer, lord of Barcelona, had laid siege to Valencia, an +important city on the Mediterranean coast. Thither marched the Cid with +all speed, seven thousand men in his train, and forced Ramon to raise the +siege. The Cid became governor of Valencia, under tribute to King Alfonso, +and under honor to hold it against the Moors. + +The famous champion was not done with his troubles with Alfonso. In the +years that followed he was once more banished by the faithless king, and +his wife and children were seized and imprisoned. At a later date he came +to the king's aid in his wars, but found him again false to his word, and +was obliged to flee for safety from the camp. + +Valencia had passed from his control and had more than once since changed +hands. At length the Moorish power grew so strong that the city refused to +pay tribute to Spain and declared its independence. Here was work for the +Cid--not for the benefit of Alfonso, but for his own honor and profit. He +was weary of being made the foot-ball of a jealous and faithless monarch, +and craved a kingdom of his own. Against Valencia he marched with an army +of free swords at his back. He was fighting now for the Cid, not for +Moorish emir or Spanish monarch. For twenty months he beseiged the fair +city, until starvation came to the aid of his sword. No relief reached the +Moors; the elements fought against them, floods of rain destroying the +roads and washing away the bridges; on June 15, 1094, the Cid Campeador +marched into the city thenceforth to be associated with his name. + +Ascending its highest tower, he gazed with joy upon the fair possession +which he had won with his own good sword without aid from Spanish king or +Moorish ally, and which he proposed to hold for his own while life +remained. His city it was, and today it bears his name, being known as +Valencia del Cid. But he had to hold it with the good sword by which he +won it, for the Moors, who had failed to aid the beleaguered city, sought +with all their strength to win it back. + +During the next year thirty thousand of them came and encamped about the +walls of the city. But fighting behind walls was not to the taste of the +Cid Campeador. Out from the gates he sallied and drove them like sheep +from their camp, killing fifteen thousand of them in the fight. + +"Be it known," the chronicle tells us, "that this was a profitable day's +work. Every foot-soldier shared a hundred marks of silver that day, and +the Cid returned full honorably to Valencia. Great was the joy of the +Christians in the Cid Ruy Diaz, who was born in a happy hour. His beard +was grown, and continued to grow, a great length. My Cid said of his chin, +'For the love of King Don Alfonso, who hath banished me from his land, no +scissors shall come upon it, nor shall a hair be cut away, and Moors and +Christians shall talk of it.'" And until he died his great beard grew on +untouched. + + [Illustration: VALENCIA DEL CID.] + + VALENCIA DEL CID. + + +Not many were the men with whom he had done his work, but they were +soldiers of tried temper and daring hearts. "There were one thousand +knights of lineage and five hundred and fifty other horsemen. There were +four thousand foot-soldiers, besides boys and others. Thus many were the +people of My Cid, him of Bivar. And his heart rejoiced, and he smiled and +said, 'Thanks be to God and to Holy Mother Mary! We had a smaller company +when we left the house of Bivar.'" + +The next year King Yussef, leader of the Moors, came again to the siege of +Valencia, this time with fifty thousand men. Small as was the force of the +Cid as compared with this great army, he had no idea of fighting cooped up +like a rat in a cage. Out once more he sallied, with but four thousand men +at his back. His bishop, Hieronymo, absolved them, saying, "He who shall +die, fighting full forward, I will take as mine his sins, and God shall +have his soul." + +A learned and wise man was the good bishop, but a valorous one as well, +mighty in arms alike on horseback and on foot. "A boon, Cid don Rodrigo," +he cried. "I have sung mass to you this morning. Let me have the giving of +the first wounds in this battle." + +"In God's name, do as you will," answered the Cid. + +That day the bishop had his will of the foe, fighting with both hands +until no man knew how many of the infidels he slew. Indeed, they were all +too busy to heed the bishop's blows, for, so the chronicle says, only +fifteen thousand of the Moslems escaped. Yussef, sorely wounded, left to +the Cid his famous sword Tisona, and barely escaped from the field with +his life. + +Bucar, the brother of Yussef, came to revenge him, but he knew not with +whom he had to deal. Bishop Hieronymo led the right wing, and made havoc +in the ranks of the foe. "The bishop pricked forward," we are told. "Two +Moors he slew with the first two thrusts of his lance; the haft broke and +he laid hold on his sword. God! how well the bishop fought. He slew two +with the lance and five with the sword. The Moors fled." + +"Turn this way, Bucar," cried the Cid, who rode close on the heels of the +Moorish chief; "you who came from behind sea to see the Cid with the long +beard. We must greet each other and cut out a friendship." + +"God confound such friendships," cried Bucar, following his flying troops +with nimble speed. + +Hard behind him rode the Cid, but his horse Bavieca was weary with the +day's hard work, and Bucar rode a fresh and swift steed. And thus they +went, fugitive and pursuer, until the ships of the Moors were at hand, +when the Cid, finding that he could not reach the Moorish king with his +sword, flung the weapon fiercely at him, striking him between the +shoulders. Bucar, with the mark of battle thus upon him, rode into the sea +and was taken into a boat, while the Cid picked up his sword from the +ground and sought his men again. + +The Moorish host did not escape so well. Set upon fiercely by the +Spaniards, they ran in a panic into the sea, where twice as many were +drowned as were slain in the battle; and of these, seventeen thousand and +more had fallen, while a vast host remained as prisoners. Of the +twenty-nine kings who came with Bucar, seventeen were left dead upon the +field. + +The chronicler uses numbers with freedom. The Cid is his hero, and it is +his task to exalt him. But the efforts of the Moors to regain Valencia and +their failure to do so may be accepted as history. In due time, however, +age began to tell upon the Cid, and death came to him as it does to all. +He died in 1099, from grief, as the story goes, that his colleague, Alvar +Fanez, had suffered a defeat. Whether from grief or age, at any rate he +died, and his wife, Ximena, was left to hold the city, which for two years +she gallantly did, against all the power of the Moors. Then Alfonso +entered it, and, finding that he could not hold it, burned the principal +buildings and left it to the Moors. A century and a quarter passed before +the Christians won it again. + +When Alfonso left the city of the Cid he brought with him the body of the +campeador, mounted upon his steed Bavieca, and solemnly and slowly the +train wound on until the corpse of the mighty dead was brought to the +cloister of the monastery of Cardena. Here the dead hero was seated on a +throne, with his sword Tisona in his hand; and, the story goes, a caitiff +Jew, perhaps wishing to revenge his brethren who had been given sand for +gold, plucked the flowing beard of the Cid. At this insult the hand of the +corpse struck out and the insulter was hurled to the floor. + +The Cid Campeador is a true hero of romance, and well are the Spaniards +proud of him. Honor was the moving spring of his career. As a devoted son, +he revenged the insult to his father; as a loving husband, he made Ximena +the partner of his fame; as a tender father, he redressed his daughters' +wrongs; as a loyal subject, he would not serve a king on whom doubt of +treachery rested. In spite of the injustice of the king, he was true to +his country, and came again and again to its aid. Though forced into the +field as a free lance, he was throughout a Christian cavalier. And, though +he cheated the Jews, the story goes that he repaid them their gold. +Courage, courtesy, and honor were the jewels of his fame, and romance +holds no nobler hero. + +It will not be amiss to close our tale of the Cid with a quotation from +the famous poem in which it is shown how even a lion quailed before his +majesty: + + "Peter Bermuez arose; somewhat he had to say; + The words were strangled in his throat, they could not find their way; + Till forth they came at once, without a stop or stay: + 'Cid, I'll tell you what, this always is your way; + You have always served me thus, whenever you have come + To meet here in the Cortes, you call me Peter the Dumb. + I cannot help my nature; I never talk nor rail; + But when a thing is to be done, you know I never fail. + Fernando, you have lied, you have lied in every word; + You have been honored by the Cid and favored and preferred. + I know of all your tricks, and can tell them to your face: + Do you remember in Valencia the skirmish and the chase? + You asked leave of the Cid to make the first attack, + You went to meet a Moor, but you soon came running back. + I met the Moor and killed him, or he would have killed you; + I gave you up his arms, and all that was my due. + Up to this very hour, I never said a word; + You praised yourself before the Cid and I stood by and heard + How you had killed the Moor, and done a valiant act; + And they believed you all, but they never knew the fact. + You are tall enough and handsome, but cowardly and weak, + Thou tongue without a hand, how can you dare to speak? + There's the story of the lions should never be forgot; + Now let us hear, Fernando, what answer you have got? + The Cid was sleeping in his chair, with all his knights around; + The cry went forth along the hall that the lion was unbound. + What did you do, Fernando? Like a coward as you were, + You shrunk behind the Cid, and crouched beneath his chair. + We pressed around the throne to shield our loved from harm. + Till the good Cid awoke. He rose without alarm. + He went to meet the lion with his mantle on his arm. + The lion was abashed the noble Cid to meet; + He bowed his mane to the earth, his muzzle at his feet. + The Cid by the neck and the mane drew him to his den, + He thrust him in at the hatch, and came to the hall again. + He found his knights, his vassals, and all his valiant men. + He asked for his sons-in-law, they were neither of them there + I defy you for a coward and a traitor as you are.'" + + + + + +LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA. + + +On the 16th of July, 1212, was fought the great battle which broke the +Moorish power in Spain. During the two centuries before fresh streams of +invasion had flowed in from Africa to yield new life to the Moslem power. +From time to time in the Mohammedan world reforms have sprung up, and been +carried far and wide by fanaticism and the sword. One such body of +reformers, the Almoravides, invaded Spain in the eleventh century and +carried all before it. It was with these that the Cid Campeador had to +deal. A century later a new reformer, calling himself El Mahdi, appeared +in Africa, and set going a movement which overflowed the African states +and made its way into Spain, where it subdued the Moslem kingdoms and +threatened the Christian states. These invaders were known as the +Almohades. They were pure Moors. The Arab movement had lost its strength, +and from that time forward the Moslem dominions in Spain were peopled +chiefly by Moors. + +Spain was threatened now as France had been threatened centuries before +when Charles Martel crushed the Arab hordes on the plains of Tours. All +Christendom felt the danger and Pope Innocent III. preached a crusade for +the defence of Spain against the infidel. In response, thousands of armed +crusaders flocked into Spain, coming in corps, in bands, and as +individuals, and gathered about Toledo, the capital of Alfonso VIII., King +of Castile. From all the surrounding nations they came, and camped in the +rich country about the capital, a host which Alfonso had much ado to feed. + +Mohammed An-Nassir, the emperor of the Almohades, responded to the effort +of the Pope by organizing a crusade in Moslem Africa. He proclaimed an +_Algihed_, or Holy War, ordered a massacre of all the Christians in his +dominions, and then led the fanatical murderers to Spain to join the +forces there in arms. Christian Europe was pitted against Moslem Africa in +a holy war, Spain the prize of victory, and the plains of Andalusia the +arena of the coming desperate strife. + +The decisive moment was at hand. Mohammed left Morocco and reached Seville +in June. His new levies were pouring into Spain in hosts. On the 21st of +June Alfonso began his advance, leading southward a splendid array. +Archbishops and bishops headed the army. In the van marched a mighty force +of fifty thousand men under Don Diego Lopez de Haro, ten thousand of them +being cavalry. After them came the troops of the kings of Aragon and +Castile, each a distinct army. Next came the knights of St. John of +Calatrava and the knights of Santiago, their grand-masters leading, and +after them many other bodies, including troops from Italy and Germany. +Such a gallant host Spain had rarely seen. It was needed, for the peril +was great. While one hundred thousand marched under the Christian banners, +the green standard of the prophet, if we may credit the historians, rose +before an army nearly four times as large. + + [Illustration: ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF + BATTLE.] + + ALFONSO VIII. HARANGUING HIS TROOPS UPON THE EVE OF BATTLE. + + +Without dwelling on the events of the march, we may hasten forward to the +12th of July, when the host of Alfonso reached the vicinity of the Moorish +army, and the Navas de Tolosa, the destined field of battle, lay near at +hand. The word _navas_ means "plains." Here, on a sloping spur of the +Sierra Morena, in the upper valley of the Guadalquiver, about seventy +miles east of Cordova, lies an extended table-land, a grand plateau whose +somewhat sloping surface gave ample space for the vast hosts which met +there on that far-off July day. + +To reach the plateau was the problem before Alfonso. The Moslems held the +ground, and occupied in force the pass of Losa, Nature's highway to the +plain. What was to be done? The pass could be won, if at all, only at +great cost in life. No other pass was known. To retire would be to +inspirit the enemy and dispirit the Christian host. No easy way out of the +quandary at first appeared, but a way was found,--by miracle, the writers +of that time say; but it hardly seems a miracle that a shepherd of the +region knew of another mountain-pass. This man, Martin Halaja, had grazed +his flocks in that vicinity for years. He told the king of a pass unknown +to the enemy, by which the army might reach the table-land, and to prove +his words led Lopez de Haro and another through this little-known mountain +by-way. It was difficult but passable, the army was put in motion and +traversed it all night long, and on the morning of the 14th of July the +astonished eyes of the Mohammedans gazed on the Christian host, holding in +force the borders of the plateau, and momentarily increasing in numbers +and strength. Ten miles before the eyes of Alfonso and his men stretched +the plain, level in the centre, in the distance rising in gentle slopes to +its border of hills, like a vast natural amphitheatre. The soldiers, +filled with hope and enthusiasm, spread through their ranks the story that +the shepherd who had led them was an angel, sent by the Almighty to lead +his people to victory over the infidel. + +Mohammed and his men had been told on the previous day by their scouts +that the camp of the Christians was breaking up, and rejoiced in what +seemed a victory without a blow. But when they saw these same Christians +defiling in thousands before them on the plain, ranged in battle array +under their various standards, their joy was changed to rage and +consternation. Against the embattled front their wild riders rode, +threatening the steady troops with brandished lances and taunting them +with cowardice. But Alfonso held his mail-clad battalions firm, and the +light-armed Moorish horsemen hesitated to attack. Word was brought to +Mohammed that the Christians would not fight, and in hasty gratulation he +sent off letters to cities in the rear to that effect. He little dreamed +that he was soon to follow his messengers in swifter speed. + +It was a splendid array upon which the Christians gazed,--one well +calculated to make them tremble for the result,--for the hosts of Mohammed +covered the hill-sides and plain like "countless swarms of locusts." On an +eminence which gave an outlook over the whole broad space stood the +emperor's tent, of three-ply crimson velvet flecked with gold, strings of +pearls depending from its purple fringes. To guard it from assault rows of +iron chains were stretched, before which stood three thousand camels in +line. In front of these ten thousand negroes formed a living wall, their +front bristling with the steel of their lances, whose butts were planted +firmly in the sand. In the centre of this powerful guard stood the +emperor, wearing the green dress and turban of his ancestral line. +Grasping in one hand his scimitar, in the other he held a Koran, from +which he read those passages of inspiration to the Moslems which promised +the delights of Paradise to those who should fall in a holy war and the +torments of hell to the coward who should desert his ranks. + +The next day was Sunday. The Moslems, eager for battle, stood all day in +line, but the Christians declined to fight, occupying themselves in +arranging their different corps. Night descended without a skirmish. But +this could not continue with the two armies so closely face to face. One +side or the other must surely attack on the following day. At midnight +heralds called the Christians to mass and prayer. Everywhere priests were +busy confessing and shriving the soldiers. The sound of the furbishing of +arms mingled with the strains of religious service. At the dawn of the +next day both hosts were drawn up in battle array. The great struggle was +about to begin. + +The army of the Moors, said to contain three hundred thousand regular +troops and seventy-five thousand irregulars, was drawn up in crescent +shape in front of the imperial tent,--in the centre the vast host of the +Almohades, the tribes of the desert on the wings, in advance the +light-armed troops. The Christian host was formed in four legions, King +Alfonso occupying the centre, his banner bearing an effigy of the Virgin. +With him were Rodrigo Ximenes, the archbishop of Toledo, and many other +prelates. The force was less than one hundred thousand strong, some of the +crusaders having left it in the march. + +The sun was not high when the loud sound of the Christian trumpets and the +Moorish _atabals_ gave signal for the fray, and the two hosts surged +forward to meet in fierce assault. Sternly and fiercely the battle went +on, the struggling multitudes swaying in the ardor of the fight,--now the +Christians, now the Moslems surging forward or driven back. With +difficulty the thin ranks of the Christians bore the onsets of their +densely grouped foes, and at length King Alfonso, in fear for the result, +turned to the prelate Rodrigo and exclaimed,-- + +"Archbishop, you and I must die here." + +"Not so," cried the bold churchman. "Here we must triumph over our +enemies." + +"Then let us to the van, where we are sorely needed, for, indeed, our +lines are being bitterly pressed." + +Nothing backward, the archbishop followed the king. Fernan Garcia, one of +the king's cavaliers, urged him to wait for aid, but Alfonso, commending +himself to God and the Virgin, spurred forward and plunged into the thick +of the fight. And ever as he rode, by his side rode the archbishop, +wearing his chasuble and bearing aloft the cross. The Moorish troops, who +had been jeering at the king and the cross-bearing prelate, drew back +before this impetuous assault, which was given force by the troops who +crowded in to the rescue of the king. The Moors soon yielded to the +desperate onset, and were driven back in wild disarray. + +This was the beginning of the end. Treason in the Moorish ranks came to +the Christian aid. Some of Mohammed's force, who hated him for having +cruelly slain their chief, turned and fled. The breaking of their centre +opened a way for the Spaniards to the living fortress which guarded the +imperial tent, and on this dense line of sable lancers the Christian +cavalry madly charged. + +In vain they sought to break that serried line of steel. Some even turned +their horses and tried to back them in, but without avail. Many fell in +the attempt. The Moslem ranks seemed impervious. In the end one man did +what a host had failed to perform. A single cavalier, Alvar Nunez de Lara, +stole in between the negroes and the camels, in some way passed the +chains, and with a cheer of triumph raised his banner in the interior of +the line. A second and a third followed in his track. The gap between the +camels and the guard widened. Dozens, hundreds rushed to join their daring +leader. The camels were loosened and dispersed; the negroes, attacked +front and rear, perished or fled; the living wall that guarded the emperor +was gone, and his sacred person was in peril. + +Mohammed was dazed. His lips still repeated from the Koran, "God alone is +true, and Satan is a betrayer," but terror was beginning to stir the roots +of his hair. An Arab rode up on a swift mare, and, springing to the +ground, cried,-- + +"Mount and flee, O king. Not thy steed but my mare. She comes of the +noblest breed, and knows not how to fail her rider in his need. All is +lost! Mount and flee!" + +All was lost, indeed. Mohammed scrambled up and set off at the best speed +of the Arabian steed, followed by his troops in a panic of terror. The +rout was complete. While day continued the Christian horsemen followed and +struck, until the bodies of slain Moors lay so thick upon the plain that +there was scarce room for man or horse to pass. Then Archbishop Rodrigo, +who had done so much towards the victory, stood before Mohammed's tent and +in a loud voice intoned the _Te Deum laudamus_, the soldiers uniting in +the sacred chant of victory. + +The archbishop, who became the historian of this decisive battle, speaks +of two hundred thousand Moslem slain. We cannot believe it so many, +despite the historian's statement. Twenty-five Christians alone fell. This +is as much too small as the other estimate is too large. But, whatever the +losses, it was a great and glorious victory, and the spoils of war that +fell to the victors were immense. Gold and silver were there in abundance; +horses, camels, and wagons in profusion; arms of all kinds, commissary +stores in quantities. So vast was the number of lances strewn on the +ground that the conquering army used only these for firewood in their +camp, and did not burn the half of them. + +King Alfonso, with a wise and prudent liberality, divided the spoil among +his troops and allies, keeping only the glory of the victory for himself. +Mohammed's splendid tent was taken to Rome to adorn St. Peter's, and the +captured banners were sent to the cities of Spain as evidences of the +great victory. For himself, the king reserved a fine emerald, which he +placed in the centre of his shield. Ever since that brilliant day in +Spanish annals, the sixteenth of July has been kept as a holy festival, in +which the captured banners are carried in grand procession, to celebrate +the "Triumph of the Cross." + +The supposed miracle of the shepherd was not the only one which the +monastic writers saw in the victorious event. It was said that a red +cross, like that of Calatrava, appeared in the sky, inspiriting the +Christians and dismaying their foes; and that the sight of the Virgin +banner borne by the king's standard-bearer struck the Moslems with terror. +It was a credulous age, one in which reputed miracles could be woven out +of the most homely and every-day material. + +Death soon came to the leaders in the war. Mohammed, sullen with defeat, +hurried to Morocco, where he shut himself up in gloomy seclusion, and +died--or was poisoned--before the year's end. Alfonso died two years later. +The Christians did not follow up their victory with much energy, and the +Moslems still held a large section of Spain, but their power had +culminated and with this signal defeat began its decline. Step by step +they yielded before the Christian advance, though nearly three centuries +more passed before they lost their final hold on Spain. + + + + + +THE KEY OF GRANADA. + + +Nearly eight hundred years had passed away after the landing of Tarik, the +Arab, in Spain and the defeat and death of Don Roderic, the last king of +the Goths. During those centuries the handful of warriors which in the +mountains of the north had made a final stand against the invading hordes +had grown and spread, pushing back the Arabs and Moors, until now the +Christians held again nearly all the land, the sole remnant of Moslem +dominion being the kingdom of Granada in the south. The map of Spain shows +the present province of Granada as a narrow district bordering on the +Mediterranean Sea, but the Moorish kingdom covered a wider space, +spreading over the present provinces of Malaga and Almeria, and occupying +one of the richest sections of Spain. It was a rock-bound region. In every +direction ran sierras, or rugged mountain-chains, so rocky and steep as to +make the kingdom almost impregnable. Yet within their sterile confines lay +numbers of deep and rich valleys, prodigal in their fertility. + +In the centre of the kingdom arose its famous capital, the populous and +beautiful city of Granada, standing in the midst of a great vega or plain, +one hundred miles and more in circumference and encompassed by the snowy +mountains of the Sierra Nevada. The seventy thousand houses of the city +spread over two lofty hills and occupied the valley between them, through +which ran the waters of the Douro. On one of these hills stood the +Alcazaba, a strong fortress; on the other rose the famous Alhambra, a +royal palace and castle, with space within its confines for forty thousand +men, and so rare and charming in its halls and courts, its gardens and +fountains, that it remains to-day a place of pilgrimage to the world for +lovers of the beautiful in architecture. And from these hills the city +between showed no less attractive, with its groves of citron, orange, and +pomegranate trees, its leaping fountains, its airy minarets, its mingled +aspect of crowded dwellings and verdant gardens. + +High walls, three leagues in circuit, with twelve gates and a thousand and +thirty towers, girded it round, beyond which extended the vega, a vast +garden of delight, to be compared only with the famous plain of Damascus. +Through it the Xenil wound in silvery curves, its waters spread over the +plain in thousands of irrigating streams and rills. Blooming gardens and +fields of waving grain lent beauty to the plain; orchards and vineyards +clothed the slopes of the hills; in the orange and citron groves the voice +of the nightingale made the nights musical. In short, all was so beautiful +below and so soft and serene above that the Moors seemed not without +warrant for their fond belief that Paradise lay in the skies overhanging +this happy plain. + +But, alas for Granada! war hung round its borders, and the blare of the +trumpet and clash of the sword were ever familiar sounds within its +confines. Christian kingdoms surrounded it, whose people envied the +Moslems this final abiding-place on the soil of Spain. Hostilities were +ceaseless on the borders; plundering forays were the delight of the +Castilian cavaliers and the Moorish horsemen. Every town was a fortress, +and on every peak stood a watch-tower, ready to give warning with a signal +fire by night or a cloud of smoke by day of any movement of invasion. For +many years such a state of affairs continued between Granada and its +principal antagonist, the united kingdoms of Castile and Leon. Even when, +in 1457, a Moorish king, disheartened by a foray into the vega itself, +made a truce with Henry IV., king of Castile and Leon, and agreed to pay +him an annual tribute, the right of warlike raids was kept open. It was +only required that they must be conducted secretly, without sound of +trumpet or show of banners, and must not continue more than three days. +Such a state of affairs was desired alike by the Castilian and Moorish +chivalry, who loved these displays of daring and gallantry, and enjoyed +nothing more than a crossing of swords with their foes. In 1465 a Moorish +prince, Muley Abul Hassan, a man who enjoyed war and hated the Christians, +came to the throne, and at once the tribute ceased to be paid. For some +years still the truce continued, for Ferdinand and Isabella, the new +monarchs of Spain, had troubles at home to keep them engaged. But in 1481 +the war reopened with more than its old fury, and was continued until +Granada fell in 1492, the year in which the wise Isabella gave aid to +Columbus for the discovery of an unknown world beyond the seas. + +The war for the conquest of Granada was one full of stirring adventure and +hair-breadth escapes, of forays and sieges, of the clash of swords and the +brandishing of spears. It was no longer fought by Spain on the principle +of the raid,--to dash in, kill, plunder, and speed away with clatter of +hoofs and rattle of spurs. It was Ferdinand's policy to take and hold, +capturing stronghold after stronghold until all Granada was his. In a +memorable pun on the name of Granada, which signifies a pomegranate, he +said, "I will pick out the seeds of this pomegranate one by one." + +Muley Abul Hassan, the new Moorish king, began the work, foolishly +breaking the truce which Ferdinand wished a pretext to bring to an end. On +a dark night in 1481 he fell suddenly on Zahara, a mountain town on the +Christian frontier, so strong in itself that it was carelessly guarded. It +was taken by surprise, its inhabitants were carried off as slaves, and a +strong Moorish garrison was left to hold it. + +The Moors paid dearly for their daring assault. The Christians retaliated +by an attack on the strong and rich city of Alhama, a stronghold within +the centre of the kingdom, only a few leagues distant from the capital +itself. Strongly situated on a rocky height, with a river nearly +surrounding it and a fortress seated on a steep crag above it, and far +within the border, no dream of danger to Alhama came to the mind of the +Moors, who contented themselves with a small garrison and a negligent +guard. + +But the loss of Zahara had exasperated Ferdinand. His wars at home were +over and he had time to attend to the Moors, and scouts had brought word +of the careless security of the guard of Alhama. It could be reached by a +difficult and little-travelled route through the defiles of the mountains, +and there were possibilities that a secret and rapid march might lead to +its surprise. + +At the head of the enterprise was Don Rodrigo Ponce de Leon, Marquis of +Cadiz, the most distinguished champion in the war that followed. With a +select force of three thousand light cavalry and four thousand infantry, +adherents of several nobles who attended the expedition, the mountains +were traversed with the greatest secrecy and celerity, the marches being +made mainly by night and the troops remaining quiet and concealed during +the day. No fires were made and no noise was permitted, and midnight of +the third day found the invaders in a small, deep valley not far from the +fated town. Only now were the troops told what was in view. They had +supposed that they were on an ordinary foray. The inspiring tidings filled +them with ardor, and they demanded to be led at once to the assault. + +Two hours before daybreak the army was placed in ambush close to Alhama, +and a body of three hundred picked men set out on the difficult task of +scaling the walls of the castle and surprising its garrison. The ascent +was steep and very difficult, but they were guided by one who had +carefully studied the situation on a previous secret visit and knew what +paths to take. Following him they reached the foot of the castle walls +without discovery. + +Here, under the dark shadow of the towers, they halted and listened. There +was not a sound to be heard, not a light to be seen; sleep seemed to brood +over castle and town. The ladders were placed and the men noiselessly +ascended, Ortega, the guide, going first. The parapet reached, they moved +stealthily along its summit until they came upon a sleepy sentinel. +Seizing him by the throat, Ortega flourished a dagger before his eyes and +bade him point the way to the guard-room. The frightened Moor obeyed, and +a dagger thrust ended all danger of his giving an alarm. In a minute more +the small scaling party was in the guard-room, massacring the sleeping +garrison, while the remainder of the three hundred were rapidly ascending +to the battlements. + +Some of the awakened Moors fought desperately for their lives, the clash +of arms and cries of the combatants came loudly from the castle, and the +ambushed army, finding that the surprise had been effective, rushed from +their lurking-place with shouts and the sound of trumpets and drums, +hoping thereby to increase the dismay of the garrison. Ortega at length +fought his way to a postern, which he threw open, admitting the Marquis of +Cadiz and a strong following, who quickly overcame all opposition, the +citadel being soon in full possession of the Christians. + +While this went on the town took the alarm. The garrison had been +destroyed in the citadel, but all the Moors, citizens and soldiers alike, +were accustomed to weapons and warlike in spirit, and, looking for speedy +aid from Granada, eight leagues away, the tradesmen manned the battlements +and discharged showers of stones and arrows upon the Christians wherever +visible. The streets leading to the citadel were barricaded, and a steady +fire was maintained upon its gate, all who attempted to sally into the +city being shot down. + +It began to appear as if the Spaniards had taken too great a risk. Their +peril was great. Unless they gained the town they must soon be starved out +of the castle. Some of them declared that they could not hope to hold the +town even if they took it, and proposed to sack and burn the castle and +make good their retreat before the king of Granada could reach them with +his forces. + +This weak-hearted counsel was not to the taste of the valiant Ponce de +Leon. "God has given us the castle," he said, "and He will aid us in +holding it. We won it with bloodshed; it would be a stain upon our honor +to abandon it through fear. We knew our peril before we came; let us face +it boldly." + +His words prevailed, and the army was led to the assault, planting their +scaling-ladders against the walls and swarming up to attack the Moors upon +the ramparts. The Marquis of Cadiz, finding that the gate of the castle +was commanded by the artillery of the town, ordered a breach to be made in +the wall; and through this, sword in hand, he led a body of troops into +the town. At the same time an assault was made from every point, and the +battle raged with the greatest fury at the ramparts and in the streets. + +The Moors, who fought for life, liberty, and property, defended themselves +with desperation, fighting in the streets and from the windows and roofs +of their houses. From morning until night the contest continued; then, +overpowered, the townsmen sought shelter in a large mosque near the walls, +whence they kept up so hot a flight of arrows and lances that the +assailants dared not approach. Finally, protected by bucklers and wooden +shields, some of the soldiers succeeded in setting fire to the door of the +mosque. As the flames rolled upward the Moors, deeming that all was lost, +rushed desperately out. Many of them were killed in this final fight; the +rest surrendered as prisoners. + +The struggle was at an end; the town lay at the mercy of the Spaniards; it +was given up to plunder, and immense was the booty taken. Gold and silver, +rare jewels, rich silks, and costly goods were found in abundance; horses +and cattle, grain, oil, and honey, all the productions of the kingdom, in +fact, were there in quantities; for Alhama was the richest town in the +Moorish territory, and from its strength and situation was called the Key +of Granada. The soldiers were not content with plunder. Thinking that they +could not hold the place, they destroyed all they could not carry away. +Huge jars of oil were shattered, costly furniture was demolished, much +material of the greatest value was destroyed. In the dungeons were found +many of the Christian captives who had been taken at Zahara, and who +gladly gained their freedom again. + +The loss of Alhama was a terrible blow to the kingdom of Granada. Terror +filled the citizens of the capital when the news reached that city. Sighs +and lamentations came from all sides, the mournful ejaculation, "Woe is +me, Alhama!" was in every mouth, and this afterwards became the burden of +a plaintive ballad, "_Ay de mi, Alhama_," which remains among the gems of +Spanish poetry. + +Abul Hassan, full of wrath at the daring presumption of his foes, hastened +at the head of more than fifty thousand men against the city, driving back +a force that was marching to the aid of the Christians, attacking the +walls with the fiercest fury, and cutting off the stream upon which the +city depended for water, thus threatening the defenders with death by +thirst. Yet, though in torments, they fought with unyielding desperation, +and held their own until the duke of Medina Sidonia, a bitter enemy of the +Marquis of Cadiz in peace, but his comrade in war, came with a large army +to his aid. King Ferdinand was hastening thither with all speed, and the +Moorish monarch, after a last fierce assault upon the city, broke up his +camp and retreated in despair. From that time to the end of the contest +the Christians held the "Key of Granada," a threatening stronghold in the +heart of the land, from which they raided the vega at will, and exhausted +the resources of the kingdom. "_Ay de mi, Alhama!_" + + + + + +KING ABUL HASSAN AND THE ALCAIDE OF GIBRALTAR. + + +Muley Abul Hassan, the warlike king of Granada, weary of having his lands +raided and his towns taken, resolved to repay the Christians in kind. The +Duke of Medina Sidonia had driven him from captured Alhama. He owed this +mighty noble a grudge, and the opportunity to repay it seemed at hand. The +duke had led his forces to the aid of King Ferdinand, who was making a +foray into Moorish territory. He had left almost unguarded his +far-spreading lands, wide pasture plains covered thickly with flocks and +herds and offering a rare opportunity for a hasty foray. + +"I will give this cavalier a lesson that will cure him of his love for +campaigning," said the fierce old king. + +Leaving his port of Malaga at the head of fifteen hundred horse and six +thousand foot, the Moorish monarch followed the sea-shore route to the +border of his dominions, entering Christian territory between Gibraltar +and Castellar. There was only one man in this quarter of whom he had any +fear. This was Pedro de Vargas, governor of Gibraltar, a shrewd and +vigilant old soldier, whose daring Abul Hassan well knew, but knew also +that his garrison was too small to serve for a successful sally. + +The alert Moor, however, advanced with great caution, sending out parties +to explore every pass where an ambush might await him, since, despite his +secrecy, the news of his coming might have gone before. At length the +broken country of Castellar was traversed and the plains were reached. +Encamping on the banks of the Celemin, he sent four hundred lancers to the +vicinity of Algeciras to keep a close watch upon Gibraltar across the bay, +to attack Pedro if he sallied out, and to send word to the camp if any +movement took place. This force was four times that said to be in +Gibraltar. Remaining on the Celemin with his main body of troops, King +Hassan sent two hundred horsemen to scour the plain of Tarifa, and as many +more to the lands of Medina Sidonia, the whole district being a rich +pasture land upon which thousands of animals grazed. + +All went well. The parties of foragers came in, driving vast flocks and +herds, enough to replace those which had been swept from the vega of +Granada by the foragers of Spain. The troops on watch at Algeciras sent +word that all was quiet at Gibraltar. Satisfied that for once Pedro de +Vargas had been foiled, the old king called in his detachments and started +back in triumph with his spoils. + +He was mistaken. The vigilant governor had been advised of his movements, +but was too weak in men to leave his post. Fortunately for him, a squadron +of the armed galleys in the strait put into port, and, their commander +agreeing to take charge of Gibraltar in his absence, Pedro sallied out at +midnight with seventy of his men, bent upon giving the Moors what trouble +he could. + +Sending men to the mountain-tops, he had alarm fires kindled as a signal +to the peasants that the Moors were out and their herds in peril. Couriers +were also despatched at speed to rouse the country and bid all capable of +bearing arms to rendezvous at Castellar, a stronghold which Abul Hassan +would have to pass on his return. The Moorish king saw the fire signals +and knew well what they meant. Striking his tents, he began as hasty a +retreat as his slow-moving multitude of animals would permit. In advance +rode two hundred and fifty of his bravest men. Then came the great drove +of cattle. In the rear marched the main army, with Abul Hassan at its +head. And thus they moved across the broken country towards Castellar. + +Near that place De Vargas was on the watch, a thick and lofty cloud of +dust revealing to him the position of the Moors. A half-league of hills +and declivities separated the van and the rear of the raiding column, a +long, dense forest rising between. De Vargas saw that they were in no +position to aid each other quickly, and that something might come of a +sudden and sharp attack. Selecting the best fifty of his small force, he +made a circuit towards a place which he knew to be suitable for ambush. +Here a narrow glen opened into a defile with high, steep sides. It was the +only route open to the Moors, and he proposed to let the vanguard and the +herds pass and fall upon the rear. + +The Moors, however, were on the alert. While the Spaniards lay hidden, six +mounted scouts entered the defile and rode into the mouth of the glen, +keenly looking to right and left for a concealed enemy. They came so near +that a minute or two more must reveal to them the ambush. + +"Let us kill these men and retreat to Gibraltar," said one of the +Spaniards; "the infidels are far too many for us." + +"I have come for larger game than this," answered De Vargas, "and, by the +aid of God and Santiago, I will not go back without making my mark. I know +these Moors, and will show you how they stand a sudden charge." + +The scouts were riding deeper into the glen. The ambush could no longer be +concealed. At a quick order from De Vargas ten horsemen rushed so suddenly +upon them that four of their number were in an instant hurled to the +ground. The other two wheeled and rode back at full speed, hotly pursued +by the ten men. Their dashing pace soon brought them in sight of the +vanguard of the Moors, from which about eighty horsemen rode out to the +aid of their friends. The Spaniards turned and clattered back, with this +force in sharp pursuit. In a minute or two both parties came at a furious +rush into the glen. + +This was what De Vargas had foreseen. Bidding his trumpeter to sound, he +dashed from his concealment at the head of his men, drawn up in close +array. They were upon the Moors almost before they were seen, their +weapons making havoc in the disordered ranks. The skirmish was short and +sharp. The Moors, taken by surprise, and thrown into confusion, fell +rapidly, their ranks being soon so thinned that scarce half of them turned +in the retreat. + +"After them!" cried De Vargas. "We will have a brush with the vanguard +before the rear can come up." + +Onward after the flying Moors rode the gallant fifty, coming with such +force and fury on the advance-guard that many were overturned in the first +shock. Those behind held their own with some firmness, but their leaders, +the alcaides of Marabella and Casares, being slain, the line gave way and +fled towards the rear-guard, passing through the droves of cattle, which +they threw into utter confusion. + +Nothing further could be done. The trampling cattle had filled the air +with a blinding cloud of dust. De Vargas was badly wounded. A few minutes +might bring up the Moorish king with an overwhelming force. Despoiling the +slain, and taking with them some thirty horses, the victorious Spaniards +rode in triumph back to Castellar. + +The Moorish king, hearing the exaggerated report of the fugitives, feared +that all Xeres was up and in arms. + +"Our road is blocked," cried some of his officers. "We had better abandon +the animals and seek another route for our return." + +"Not so," cried the old king; "no true soldier gives up his booty without +a blow. Follow me; we will have a brush with these dogs of Christians." + +In hot haste he galloped onward, right through the centre of the herd, +driving the cattle to right and left. On reaching the field of battle he +found no Spaniard in sight, but dozens of his own men lay dead and +despoiled, among them the two alcaides. The sight filled the warlike old +king with rage. Confident that his foes had taken refuge in Castellar, he +rode on to that place, set fire to two houses near its walls, and sent a +shower of arrows into its streets. Pedro de Vargas was past taking to +horse, but he ordered his men to make a sally, and a sharp skirmish took +place under the walls. In the end the king drew off to the scene of the +fight, buried the dead except the alcaides, whose bodies were laid on +mules to be interred at Malaga, and, gathering the scattered herds, drove +them past the walls of Castellar by way of taunting the Christian foe. + +Yet the stern old Moorish warrior could thoroughly appreciate valor and +daring even in an enemy. + +"What are the revenues of the alcaide of Gibraltar?" he asked of two +Christian captives he had taken. + +"We know not," they replied, "except that he is entitled to one animal out +of every drove of cattle that passes his bounds." + +"Then Allah forbid that so brave a cavalier should be defrauded of his +dues." + +He gave orders to select twelve of the finest cattle from the twelve +droves that formed the herd of spoil, and directed that they should be +delivered to Pedro de Vargas. + +"Tell him," said the king, "that I beg his pardon for not sending these +cattle sooner, but have just learned they are his dues, and hasten to +satisfy them in courtesy to so worthy a cavalier. Tell him, at the same +time, that I did not know the alcaide of Gibraltar was so vigilant in +collecting his tolls." + +The soldierly pleasantry of the old king was much to the taste of the +brave De Vargas, and called for a worthy return. He bade his men deliver a +rich silken vest and a scarlet mantle to the messenger, to be presented to +the Moorish king. + +"Tell his majesty," he said, "that I kiss his hands for the honor he has +done me, and regret that my scanty force was not fitted to give him a more +signal reception. Had three hundred horsemen, whom I have been promised +from Xeres, arrived in time, I might have served him up an entertainment +more befitting his station. They may arrive during the night, in which +case his majesty, the king, may look for a royal service in the morning." + +"Allah preserve us," cried the king, on receiving this message, "from a +brush with these hard riders of Xeres! A handful of troops familiar with +these wild mountain-passes may destroy an army encumbered like ours with +booty." + +It was a relief to the king to find that De Vargas was too sorely wounded +to take the field in person. A man like him at the head of an adequate +force might have given no end of trouble. During the day the retreat was +pushed with all speed, the herds being driven with such haste that they +were frequently broken and scattered among the mountain defiles, the +result being that more than five thousand cattle were lost, being gathered +up again by the Christians. + +The king returned triumphantly to Malaga with the remainder, rejoicing in +his triumph over the Duke of Medina Sidonia, and having taught King +Ferdinand that the game of ravaging an enemy's country was one at which +two could play. + + + + + +THE RIVAL KINGS OF GRANADA. + + +"In the hand of God is the destiny of princes. He alone giveth empire," +piously says an old Arabian chronicler, and goes on with the following +story: A Moorish horseman, mounted on a fleet Arabian steed, was one day +traversing the mountains which extend between Granada and the frontier of +Murcia. He galloped swiftly through the valleys, but paused and gazed +cautiously from the summit of every height. A squadron of cavaliers +followed warily at a distance. There were fifty lances. The richness of +their armor and attire showed them to be warriors of noble rank, and their +leader had a lofty and prince-like demeanor. + +For two nights and a day the cavalcade made its way through that rugged +country, avoiding settled places and choosing the most solitary passes of +the mountains. Their hardships were severe, but campaigning was their +trade and their horses were of generous spirit. It was midnight when they +left the hills and rode through darkness and silence to the city of +Granada, under the shadows of whose high walls they passed to the gate of +the Albaycin. Here the leader ordered his followers to halt and remain +concealed. Taking four or five with him, he advanced to the gate and +struck upon it with the handle of his scimitar. + +"Who is it knocks at this unseasonable hour of the night?" demanded the +warder within. + +"Your king," was the answer. "Open and admit him." + +Opening a wicket, the warder held forth a light and looked at the man +without. Recognizing him at a glance, he opened the gate, and the +cavalier, who had feared a less favorable reception, rode in with his +followers and galloped in haste to the hill of the Albaycin, where the +new-comers knocked loudly at the doors of the principal dwellings, bidding +their tenants to rise and take arms for their lawful sovereign. The +summons was obeyed. Trumpets soon resounded in the streets; the gleam of +torches lit the dark avenues and flashed upon naked steel. From right and +left the Moors came hurrying to the rendezvous. By daybreak the whole +force of the Albaycin was under arms, ready to meet in battle the hostile +array on the opposite height of the Alhambra. + +To tell what this midnight movement meant we must go back a space in +history. The conquest of Granada was not due to Ferdinand and the +Spaniards alone. It was greatly aided by the dissensions of the Moors, who +were divided into two parties and fought bitterly with each other during +their intervals of truce with the Christians. Ferdinand won in the game +largely by a shrewd playing off of one of these factions against the other +and by taking advantage of the weakness and vacillation of the young king, +whose clandestine entrance to the city we have just seen. + +Boabdil el Chico, or Boabdil the Young, as he was called, was the son of +Muley Abul Hassan, against whom he had rebelled, and with such effect +that, after a bloody battle in the streets of the city, the old king was +driven without its walls. His tyranny had caused the people to gather +round his son. + +From that time forward there was dissension and civil war in Granada, and +the quarrels of its kings paved the way for the downfall of the state. The +country was divided into the two factions of the young and the old kings. +In the city the hill of the Albaycin, with its fortress of the Alcazaba, +was the stronghold of Boabdil, while the partisans of Abul Hassan dwelt on +the height of the Alhambra, the lower town between being the battle-ground +of the rival factions. + +The succeeding events were many, but must be told in few words. King +Boabdil, to show his prowess to the people, marched over the border to +attack the city of Lucena. As a result he was himself assailed, his army +put to the rout, and himself taken prisoner by the forces of Ferdinand of +Aragon. To regain his liberty he acknowledged himself a vassal of the +Spanish monarch, to whom he agreed to pay tribute. On his release he made +his way to the city of Granada, but his adherents were so violently +assailed by those of his father that the streets of the city ran blood, +and Boabdil the Unlucky, as he was now called, found it advisable to leave +the capital and fix his residence in Almeria, a large and splendid city +whose people were devoted to him. + +As the years went on Muley Abul Hassan became sadly stricken with age. He +grew nearly blind and was bed-ridden with paralysis. His brother Abdallah, +known as El Zagal, or "The Valiant," commander-in-chief of the Moorish +armies, assumed his duties as a sovereign, and zealously took up the +quarrel with his son. He attempted to surprise the young king at Almeria, +drove him out as a fugitive, and took possession of that city. At a later +date he endeavored to remove him by poison. It was this attempt that +spurred Boabdil to the enterprise we have just described. El Zagal was now +full king in Granada, holding the Alhambra as his palace, and his nephew, +who had been a wanderer since his flight from Almeria, was instigated to +make a bold stroke for the throne. + +On the day after the secret return of Boabdil battle raged in the streets +of Granada, a fierce encounter taking place between the two kings in the +square before the principal mosque. Hand to hand they fought with the +greatest fury till separated by the charges of their followers. + +For days the conflict went on, death and turmoil ruling in Granada, such +hatred existing between the two factions that neither side gave quarter. +Boabdil was the weaker in men. Fearing defeat in consequence, he sent a +messenger to Don Fadrique de Toledo, the Christian commander on the +border, asking for assistance. Don Fadrique had been instructed by +Ferdinand to give what aid he could to the young king, the vassal of +Spain, and responded to Boabdil's request by marching with a body of +troops to the vicinity of Granada. No sooner had Boabdil seen their +advancing banners than he sallied forth with a squadron to meet them. El +Zagal, who was equally on the alert, sallied forth at the same time, and +drew up his troops in battle array. + +The wary Don Fadrique, in doubt as to the meaning of this double movement, +and fearing treachery, halted at a safe distance, and drew off for the +night to a secure situation. Early the next morning a Moorish cavalier +approached the sentinels and asked for an audience with Don Fadrique, as +an envoy from El Zagal. The Christian troops, he said on behalf of the old +king, had come to aid his nephew, but he was ready to offer them an +alliance on better terms than those of Boabdil. Don Fadrique listened +courteously to the envoy, but for better assurance, determined to send a +representative to El Zagal himself, under protection of a flag. For this +purpose he selected Don Juan de Vera, one of the most intrepid and +discreet of his cavaliers, who had in years before been sent by King +Ferdinand on a mission to the Alhambra. + +Don Juan, on reaching the palace, was well received by the old king, +holding an interview with him which extended so far into the night that it +was too late to return to camp, and he was lodged in a sumptuous apartment +of the Alhambra. In the morning he was approached by one of the Moorish +courtiers, a man given to jest and satire, who invited him to take part in +a ceremony in the palace mosque. This invitation, given in jest, was +received by the punctilious Catholic knight in earnest, and he replied, +with stern displeasure,-- + + [Illustration: KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA.] + + KING CHARLES'S WELL, ALHAMBRA. + + +"The servants of Queen Isabella of Castile, who bear on their armor the +cross of St. Iago, never enter the temples of Mohammed, except to level +them to the earth and trample on them." + +This discourteous reply was repeated by the courtier to a renegade, who, +having newly adopted the Moorish faith, was eager to show his devotion to +the Moslem creed, and proposed to engage the hot-tempered Catholic knight +in argument. Seeking Don Juan, they found him playing chess with the +alcaide of the palace, and the renegade at once began to comment on the +Christian religion in uncomplimentary terms. Don Juan was quick to anger, +but he restrained himself, and replied, with grave severity,-- + +"You would do well to cease talking about what you do not understand." + +The renegade and his jesting companion replied in a series of remarks +intended as wit, though full of insolence, Don Juan fuming inwardly as he +continued to play. In the end they went too far, the courtier making an +obscene comparison between the Virgin Mary and Amina, the mother of +Mohammed. In an instant the old knight sprang up, white with rage, and +dashing aside chess-board and chessmen. Drawing his sword, he dealt such a +"_hermosa cuchillada_" ("handsome slash") across the head of the offending +Moor as to stretch him bleeding on the floor. The renegade fled in terror, +rousing the echoes of the palace with his outcries and stirring up guards +and attendants, who rushed into the room where the irate Christian stood +sword in hand defying Mohammed and his hosts. The alarm quickly reached +the ears of the king, who hurried to the scene, his appearance at once +restoring order. On hearing from the alcaide the cause of the affray, he +acted with becoming dignity, ordering the guards from the room and +directing that the renegade should be severely punished for daring to +infringe the hospitality of the palace and insult an embassador. + +Don Juan, his quick fury evaporated, sheathed his sword, thanked the king +for his courtesy, and proposed a return to the camp. But this was not easy +of accomplishment. A garbled report of the tumult in the palace had spread +to the streets, where it was rumored that Christian spies had been +introduced into the palace with treasonable intent. In a brief time +hundreds of the populace were in arms and thronging about the gate of +Justice of the Alhambra, where they loudly demanded the death of all +Christians in the palace and of all who had introduced them. + +It was impossible for Don Juan to leave the palace by the route he had +followed on his arrival. The infuriated mob would have torn him to pieces. +But it was important that he should depart at once. All that El Zagal +could do was to furnish him with a disguise, a swift horse, and an escort, +and to let him out of the Alhambra by a private gate. This secret mode of +departure was not relished by the proud Spaniard, but life was just then +of more value than dignity, as he appreciated when, in Moorish dress, he +passed through crowds who were thirsting for his blood. A gate of the city +was at length reached, and Don Juan and his escort rode quietly out. But +he was no sooner on the open plain than he spurred his horse to its speed, +and did not draw rein until the banners of Don Fadrique waved above his +head. + +Don Fadrique heard with much approval of the boldness of his envoy. His +opinion of Don Juan's discretion he kept to himself. He rewarded him with +a valuable horse, and wrote a letter of thanks to El Zagal for his +protection to his emissary. Queen Isabella, on learning how stoutly the +knight had stood up for the chastity of the Blessed Virgin, was highly +delighted, and conferred several distinctions of honor upon the cavalier +besides presenting him with three hundred thousand maravedis. + +The outcome of the advances of the two kings was that Don Fadrique chose +Boabdil as his ally, and sent him a reinforcement of foot-soldiers and +arquebusiers. This introduction of Christians into the city rekindled the +flames of war, and it continued to rage in the streets for the space of +fifty days. + +The result of the struggle between the two kings may be briefly told. +While they contended for supremacy Ferdinand of Aragon invaded their +kingdom with a large army and marched upon the great seaport of Malaga. El +Zagal sought an accommodation with Boabdil, that they might unite their +forces against the common foe, but the short-sighted young man spurned his +overtures with disdain. El Zagal then, the better patriot of the two, +marched himself against the Christian host, hoping to surprise them in the +passes of the mountains and perhaps capture King Ferdinand himself. +Unluckily for him, his well-laid plan was discovered by the Christians, +who attacked and defeated him, his troops flying in uncontrollable +disorder. + +The news of this disaster reached Granada before him and infuriated the +people, who closed their gates and threatened the defeated king from the +walls. Nothing remained to El Zagal but to march to Almeria and establish +his court in that city in which Boabdil had formerly reigned. Thus the +positions of the rival kings became reversed. From that time forward the +kingdom of Granada was divided into two, and the work of conquest by the +Christians was correspondingly reduced. + + + + + +THE KNIGHT OF THE EXPLOITS. + + +The dull monotony of sieges, of which there were many during the war with +Granada, was little to the taste of the valorous Spanish cavaliers. They +burned for adventure, and were ever ready for daring exploits, the more +welcome the more dangerous they promised to be. One day during the siege +of Baza, a strong city in El Zagal's dominions, two of these spirited +young cavaliers, Francisco de Bazan and Antonio de Cueva, were seated on +the ramparts of the siege works, bewailing the dull life to which they +were confined. They were overheard by a veteran scout, who was familiar +with the surrounding country. + +"Senors," he said, "if you pine for peril and profit and are eager to +pluck the beard of the fiery old Moorish king, I can lead you where you +will have a fine opportunity to prove your valor. There are certain +hamlets not far from the walls of El Zagal's city of Guadix where rich +booty awaits the daring raider. I can lead you there by a way that will +enable you to take them by surprise; and if you are as cool in the head as +you are hot in the spur you may bear off spoils from under the very eyes +of the king of the Moors." + +He had struck the right vein. The youths were at once hot for the +enterprise. To win booty from the very gates of Guadix was a stirring +scheme, and they quickly found others of their age as eager as themselves +for the daring adventure. In a short time they had enrolled a body of +nearly three hundred horse and two hundred foot, well armed and equipped, +and every man of them ready for the road. + +The force obtained, the raiders left the camp early one evening, keeping +their destination secret, and made their way by starlight through the +mountain passes, led by the _adalid_, or guide. Pressing rapidly onward by +day and night, they reached the hamlets one morning just before daybreak, +and fell on them suddenly, making prisoners of the inhabitants, sacking +the houses, and sweeping the fields of their grazing herds. Then, without +taking a moment to rest, they set out with all speed for the mountains, +which they hoped to reach before the country could be roused. + +Several of the herdsmen had escaped and fled to Guadix, where they told El +Zagal of the daring ravage. Wild with rage at the insult, the old king at +once sent out six hundred of his choicest horse and foot, with orders for +swift pursuit, bidding them to recover the booty and bring him as +prisoners the insolent marauders. The Christians, weary with their two +days and nights of hard marching, were driving the captured cattle and +sheep up a mountainside, when, looking back, they saw a great cloud of +dust upon their trail. Soon they discerned the turbaned host, evidently +superior to them in number, and man and horse in fresh condition. + +"They are too much for us," cried some of the horsemen. "It would be +madness in our worn-out state to face a fresh force of that number. We +shall have to let the cattle go and seek safety in flight." + +"What!" cried Antonio and Francisco, their leaders; "abandon our prey +without a blow? Desert our foot-soldiers and leave them to the enemy? Did +any of you think El Zagal would let us off without a brush? You do not +give good Spanish counsel, for every soldier knows that there is less +danger in presenting our faces than our backs to the foe, and fewer men +are killed in a brave advance than in a cowardly retreat." + +Some of the cavaliers were affected by these words, but the mass of the +party were chance volunteers, who received no pay and had nothing to gain +by risking their lives. Consequently, as the enemy came near, the +diversity of opinions grew into a tumult, and confusion reigned. The +captains ordered the standard-bearer to advance against the Moors, +confident that any true soldiers would follow his banner. He hesitated to +obey; the turmoil increased; in a moment more the horsemen might be in +full flight. + +At this critical juncture a horseman of the royal guards rode forward,--the +good knight Hernan Perez del Pulgar, governor of the fortress of Salar. +Taking off the handkerchief which, in the Andalusian fashion, he wore +round his head, he tied it to a lance and raised it in the air. + +"Comrades," he cried, "why do you load yourself with arms if you trust for +safety to your feet? We shall see who among you are the brave men and who +are the cowards. If it is a standard you want, here is mine. Let the man +who has the heart to fight follow this handkerchief." + +Waving his improvised banner, he spurred against the Moors. Many followed +him. Those who at first held back soon joined the advance. With one accord +the whole body rushed with shouts upon the enemy. The Moors, who were now +close at hand, were seized with surprise and alarm at this sudden charge. +The foremost files turned and fled in panic, followed by the others, and +pursued by the Christians, who cut them down without a blow in return. +Soon the whole body was in full flight. Several hundred of the Moors were +killed and their bodies despoiled, many were taken prisoners, and the +Christians returned in triumph to the army, driving their long array of +cattle and sheep and of mules laden with booty, and bearing in their front +the standard under which they had fought. + +King Ferdinand was so delighted with this exploit, and in particular with +the gallant action of Perez del Pulgar, that he conferred knighthood upon +the latter with much ceremony, and authorized him to bear upon his +escutcheon a golden lion in an azure field, showing a lance with a +handkerchief at its point. Round its border were to be depicted the eleven +alcaides defeated in the battle. This heroic deed was followed by so many +others during the wars with the Moors that Perez del Pulgar became in time +known by the flattering appellation of "He of the exploits." + +The most famous exploit of this daring knight took place during the siege +of Granada,--the final operation of the long war. Here single combats and +minor skirmishes between Christian and Moorish cavaliers were of almost +daily occurrence, until Ferdinand strictly forbade all such tilts, as he +saw that they gave zeal and courage to the Moors, and were attended with +considerable loss of life among his bravest followers. + +This edict of the king was very distasteful to the fiery Moorish knights, +who declared that the crafty Christian wished to destroy chivalry and put +an end to heroic valor. They did their best to provoke the Spanish knights +to combat, galloping on their fleet steeds close to the borders of the +camp and hurling their lances over the barriers, each lance bearing the +name of its owner with some defiant message. But despite the irritation +caused by these insults to the Spanish knights, none of them ventured to +disobey the mandate of the king. + +Chief among these Moorish cavaliers was one named Tarfe, a man of fierce +and daring spirit and a giant in size, who sought to surpass his fellows +in acts of audacity. In one of his sallies towards the Christian camp this +bold cavalier leaped his steed over the barrier, galloped inward close to +the royal quarters, and launched his spear with such strength that it +quivered in the earth close to the tents of the sovereigns. The royal +guards rushed out, but Tarfe was already far away, scouring the plain on +his swift Barbary steed. On examining the lance it was found to bear a +label indicating that it was intended for the queen, who was present in +the camp. + +This bravado and the insult offered Queen Isabella excited the highest +indignation among the Christian warriors. "Shall we let this insolent +fellow outdo us?" said Perez del Pulgar, who was present. "I propose to +teach these insolent Moors a lesson. Who will stand by me in an enterprise +of desperate peril?" The warriors knew Pulgar well enough to be sure that +his promise of peril was likely to be kept, yet all who heard him were +ready to volunteer. Out of them he chose fifteen,--men whom he knew he +could trust for strength of arm and valor of heart. + +His proposed enterprise was indeed a perilous one. A Moorish renegade had +agreed to guide him into the city by a secret pass. Once within, they were +to set fire to the Alcaiceria and others of the principal buildings, and +then escape as best they could. + +At dead of night they set out, provided with the necessary combustibles. +Their guide led them up a channel of the river Darro, until they halted +under a bridge near the royal gate. Here Pulgar stationed six of his +followers on guard, bidding them to keep silent and motionless. With the +others he made his way up a drain of the stream which passed under a part +of the city and opened into the streets. All was dark and silent. Not a +soul moved. The renegade, at the command of Pulgar, led the adventurers to +the principal mosque. Here the pious cavalier drew from under his cloak a +parchment inscribed in large letters with AVE MARIA, and nailed this to +the door of the mosque, thus dedicating the heathen temple to the Virgin +Mary. + +They now hurried to the Alcaiceria, where the combustibles were placed +ready to fire. Not until this moment was it discovered that the +torch-bearer had carelessly left his torch at the door of the mosque. It +was too late to return. Pulgar sought to strike fire with flint and steel, +but while doing so the Moorish guard came upon them in its rounds. Drawing +his sword and followed by his comrades, the bold Spaniard made a fierce +assault upon the astonished Moors, quickly putting them to flight. But the +enterprise was at an end. The alarm was given and soldiers were soon +hurrying in every direction through the streets. Guided by the renegade, +Pulgar and his companions hastened to the drain by which they had entered, +plunged into it, and reached their companions under the bridge. Here +mounting their horses, they rode back to the camp. + +The Moors were at a loss to imagine the purpose of this apparently +fruitless enterprise, but wild was their exasperation the next morning +when they found the "Ave Maria" on the door of a mosque in the centre of +their city. The mosque thus sanctified by Perez del Pulgar was actually +converted into a Christian cathedral after the capture of the city. + +We have yet to describe the sequel of this exploit. On the succeeding day +a powerful train left the Christian camp and advanced towards the city +walls. In its centre were the king and queen, the prince and princesses, +and the ladies of the court, surrounded by the royal body-guard,--a richly +dressed troop, composed of the sons of the most illustrious families of +Spain. The Moors gazed with wonder upon this rare pageant, which moved in +glittering array across the vega to the sound of martial music; a host +brilliant with banners and plumes, shining arms and shimmering silks, for +the court and the army moved there hand in hand. Queen Isabella had +expressed a wish to see, nearer at hand, a city whose beauty was of +world-wide renown, and the Marquis of Cadiz had drawn out this powerful +escort that she might be gratified in her desire. The queen had her wish, +but hundreds of men died that she might be pleased. + +While the royal dame and her ladies were gazing with delight on the red +towers of the Alhambra, rising in rich contrast through the green verdure +of their groves, a large force of Moorish cavalry poured from the city +gates, ready to accept the gage of battle which the Christians seemed to +offer. The first to come were a host of richly armed and gayly attired +light cavalry, mounted on fleet and fiery Barbary steeds. Heavily armed +cavalry followed, and then a strong force of foot-soldiers, until an army +was drawn up on the plain. Queen Isabella saw this display with disquiet, +and forbade an attack upon the enemy, or even a skirmish, as it would pain +her if a single warrior should lose his life through the indulgence of her +curiosity. + +As a result, though the daring Moorish horsemen rode fleetly along the +Christian front, brandishing their lances, and defying the cavaliers to +mortal combat, not a Spaniard stirred. The cavaliers were under the eyes +of Ferdinand, by whom such duels had been strictly forbidden. At length, +however, they were incensed beyond their powers of resistance. Forth from +the city rode a stalwart Moorish horseman, clad in steel armor, and +bearing a huge buckler and a ponderous lance. His device showed him to be +the giant warrior Tarfe, the daring infidel who had flung his lance at the +queen's tent. As he rode out he was followed by the shouts and laughter of +a mob, and when he came within full view of the Spanish army the cavaliers +saw, with indignant horror, tied to his horse's tail and dragging in the +dust, the parchment with its inscription of "Ave Maria" which Hernan Perez +del Pulgar had nailed to the door of the mosque. + +This insult was more than Castilian flesh and blood could bear. Hernan was +not present to maintain his deed, but Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the +young companions of his exploit, galloped to the king and earnestly begged +permission to avenge the degrading insult to their holy faith. The king, +who was as indignant as the knight, gave the desired permission, and +Garcilasso, closing his visor and grasping his spear, rode out before the +ranks and defied the Moor to combat to the death. + +Tarfe asked nothing better, and an exciting passage at arms took place on +the plain with the two armies as witnesses. Tarfe was the stronger of the +two, and the more completely armed. He was skilled in the use of his +weapons and dexterous in managing his horse, and the Christians trembled +for their champion. + +The warriors met in mid career with a furious shock. Their lances were +shivered, and Garcilasso was borne back in his saddle. But his horse +wheeled away and he was quickly firm in his seat again, sword in hand. +Sword against scimitar, the combatants returned to the encounter. The Moor +rode a trained horse, that obeyed his every signal. Round the Christian he +circled, seeking some opening for a blow. But the smaller size of +Garcilasso was made equal by greater agility. Now he parried a blow with +his sword, now he received a furious stroke on his shield. Each of the +combatants before many minutes felt the edge of the steel, and their blood +began to flow. + +At length the Moor, thinking his antagonist exhausted, rushed in and +grappled with him, using all his force to fling him from his horse. +Garcilasso grasped him in return with all his strength, and they fell +together to the earth, the Moor uppermost. Placing his knee on the breast +of the Spaniard, Tarfe drew his dagger and brandished it above his throat. +Terror filled the Christian ranks; a shout of triumph rose from those of +the Moors. But suddenly Tarfe was seen to loosen his grasp and roll over +in the dust. Garcilasso had shortened his sword and, as Tarfe raised his +arm, had struck him to the heart. + +The rules of chivalry were rigidly observed. No one interfered on either +side. Garcilasso despoiled his victim, raised the inscription "Ave Maria" +on the point of his sword, and bore it triumphantly back, amid shouts of +triumph from the Christian army. + +By this time the passions of the Moors were so excited that they could not +be restrained. They made a furious charge upon the Spanish host, driving +in its advanced ranks. The word to attack was given the Spaniards in +return, the war-cry "Santiago!" rang along the line, and in a short time +both armies were locked in furious combat. The affair ended in a repulse +of the Moors, the foot-soldiers taking to flight, and the cavalry vainly +endeavoring to rally them. They were pursued to the gates of the city, +more than two thousand of them being killed, wounded, or taken prisoners +in "the queen's skirmish," as the affair came to be called. + + + + + +THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR. + + +In 1492, nearly eight centuries after the conquest of Spain by the Arabs, +their dominion ended in the surrender of the city of Granada by King +Boabdil to the army of Ferdinand and Isabella. The empire of the Arab +Moors had shrunk, year by year and century by century, before the steady +advance of the Christians, until only the small kingdom of Granada +remained. This, distracted by anarchy within and assailed by King +Ferdinand with all the arts of statecraft and all the strength of arms, +gradually decreased in dimensions, city after city, district after +district, being lost, until only the single city of Granada remained. + +This populous and powerful city would have proved very difficult to take +by the ordinary methods of war, and could only have been subdued with +great loss of life and expenditure of treasure. Ferdinand assailed it by a +less costly and more exasperating method. Granada subsisted on the broad +and fertile vega or plain surrounding it, a region marvellously productive +in grain and fruits and rich in cattle and sheep. It was a cold-blooded +and cruel system adopted by the Spanish monarch. He assailed the city +through the vega. Disregarding the city, he marched his army into the +plain at the time of harvest and so thoroughly destroyed its growing crops +that the smiling and verdant expanse was left a scene of frightful +desolation. This was not accomplished without sharp reprisals by the +Moors, but the Spaniard persisted until he had converted the fruitful +paradise into a hopeless desert, and then marched away, leaving the +citizens to a winter of despair. + +The next year he came again, encamped his army near the city, destroyed +what little verdure remained near its walls, and waited calmly until +famine and anarchy should force the citizens to yield. He attempted no +siege. It was not necessary. He could safely trust to his terrible allies. +The crowded city held out desperately while the summer passed and autumn +moved on to winter's verge, and then, with famine stalking through their +streets and invading their homes, but one resource remained to the +citizens,--surrender. + +Ferdinand did not wish to distress too deeply the unhappy people. To +obtain possession of the city on any terms was the one thought then in his +mind. Harshness could come later, if necessary. Therefore, on the 25th of +November, 1492, articles of capitulation were signed, under which the +Moors of Granada were to retain all their possessions, be protected in +their religious exercises, and governed by their own laws, which were to +be administered by their own officials; the one unwelcome proviso being +that they should become subjects of Spain. To Boabdil were secured all his +rich estates and the patrimony of the crown, while he was to receive in +addition thirty thousand castellanos in gold. Excellent terms, one would +say, in view of the fact that Granada was at the mercy of Ferdinand, and +might soon have been obliged to surrender unconditionally. + +On the night preceding the surrender doleful lamentations filled the halls +of the Alhambra, for the household of Boabdil were bidding a last farewell +to that delightful abode. The most precious effects were hastily packed +upon mules, and with tears and wailings the rich hangings and ornaments of +the beautiful apartments were removed. Day had not yet dawned when a +sorrowful cavalcade moved through an obscure postern gate of the palace +and wound through a retired quarter of the city. It was the family of the +deposed monarch, which he had sent off thus early to save them from +possible scoffs and insults. + +The sun had barely risen when three signal-guns boomed from the heights of +the Alhambra, and the Christian army began its march across the vega. To +spare the feelings of the citizens it was decided that the city should not +be entered by its usual gates, and a special road had been opened leading +to the Alhambra. + +At the head of the procession moved the king and queen, with the prince +and princesses and the dignitaries and ladies of the court, attended by +the royal guards in their rich array. This cortege halted at the village +of Armilla, a league and a half from the city. Meanwhile, Don Pedro +Gonzalez de Mendoza, Grand Cardinal of Spain, with an escort of three +thousand foot and a troop of cavalry, proceeded towards the Alhambra to +take possession of that noblest work of the Moors. At their approach +Boabdil left the palace by a postern gate attended by fifty cavaliers, and +advanced to meet the grand cardinal, whom, in words of mournful +renunciation, he bade to take possession of the royal fortress of the +Moors. Then he passed sadly onward to meet the sovereigns of Spain, who +had halted awaiting his approach, while the army stood drawn up on the +broad plain. + +As the Spaniards waited in anxious hope, all eyes fixed on the Alhambra +heights, they saw the silver cross, the great standard of this crusade, +rise upon the great watch-tower, where it sparkled in the sunbeams, while +beside it floated the pennon of St. James, at sight of which a great shout +of "Santiago! Santiago!" rose from the awaiting host. Next rose the royal +standard, amid resounding cries of "Castile! Castile! For King Ferdinand +and Queen Isabella." The sovereigns sank upon their knees, giving thanks +to God for their great victory, the whole army followed their example, and +the choristers of the royal chapel broke forth into the solemn anthem of +"_Te Deum laudamus_." + +Ferdinand now advanced to a point near the banks of the Xenil, where he +was met by the unfortunate Boabdil. As the Moorish king approached he made +a movement to dismount, which Ferdinand prevented. He then offered to kiss +the king's hand. This homage also, as previously arranged, was declined, +whereupon Boabdil leaned forward and kissed the king's right arm. He then +with a resigned mien delivered the keys of the city. + +"These keys," he said, "are the last relics of the Arabian empire in +Spain. Thine, O king, are our trophies, our kingdom, and our person. Such +is the will of God! Receive them with the clemency thou hast promised, and +which we look for at thy hands." + + [Illustration: MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE.] + + MOORISH KING PAYING HOMAGE TO THE KING OF CASTILE. + + +"Doubt not our promises," said Ferdinand, kindly, "nor that thou shalt +regain from our friendship the prosperity of which the fortune of war has +deprived thee." + +Then drawing from his finger a gold ring set with a precious stone, +Boabdil presented it to the Count of Tendilla, who, he was informed, was +to be governor of the city, saying,-- + +"With this ring Granada has been governed. Take it and govern with it, and +God make you more fortunate than I." + +He then proceeded to the village of Armilla, where Queen Isabella +remained. She received him with the utmost courtesy and graciousness, and +delivered to him his son, who had been held as a hostage for the +fulfilment of the capitulation. Boabdil pressed the child tenderly to his +bosom, and moved on until he had joined his family, from whom and their +attendants the shouts and strains of music of the victorious army drew +tears and moans. + +At length the weeping train reached the summit of an eminence about two +leagues distant which commanded the last view of Granada. Here they paused +for a look of farewell at the beautiful and beloved city, whose towers and +minarets gleamed brightly before them in the sunshine. While they still +gazed a peal of artillery, faint with distance, told them that the city +was taken possession of and was lost to the Moorish kings forever. Boabdil +could no longer contain himself. + +"Allah achbar! God is great!" he murmured, tears accompanying his words of +resignation. + +His mother, a woman of intrepid soul, was indignant at this display of +weakness. + +"You do well," she cried, "to weep like a woman for what you failed to +defend like a man." + +Others strove to console the king, but his tears were not to be +restrained. + +"Allah achbar!" he exclaimed again; "when did misfortunes ever equal +mine?" + +The hill where this took place afterwards became known as Feg Allah +Achbar; but the point of view where Boabdil obtained the last prospect of +Granada is called by the Spaniards "_El ultimo suspiro del Moro_" or "The +last sigh of the Moor." + +As Boabdil thus took his last look at beautiful Granada, it behooves us to +take a final backward glance at Arabian Spain, from whose history we have +drawn so much of interest and romance. In this hospitable realm +civilization dwelt when few traces of it existed elsewhere. Here luxury +reigned while barbarism prevailed widely in Europe. We are told that in +Cordova a man might walk ten miles by the light of the public lamps, while +centuries afterwards there was not a single public lamp in London streets. +Its avenues were solidly paved, while centuries afterwards the people of +Paris, on rainy days, stepped from their door-sills into mud ankle-deep. +The dwellings were marked by beauty and luxury, while the people of +Europe, as a rule in that semi-barbaric period, dwelt in miserable huts, +dressed in leather, and lived on the rudest and least nutritive food. + +The rulers of France, England, and Germany lived in rude buildings without +chimneys or windows, with a hole in the roof for the smoke to escape, at a +time when the royal halls of Arabian Spain were visions of grace and +beauty. The residences of the Arabs had marble balconies overhanging +orange-gardens; their floors and walls were frequently of rich and +graceful mosaic; fountains gushed in their courts, quicksilver often +taking the place of water, and falling in a glistening spray. In summer +cool air was drawn into the apartments through ventilating towers; in +winter warm and perfumed air was discharged through hidden passages. From +the ceilings, corniced with fretted gold, great chandeliers hung. Here +were clusters of frail marble columns, which, in the boudoirs of the +sultanas, gave way to verd-antique incrusted with lapis lazuli. The +furniture was of sandal- or citron-wood, richly inlaid with gold, silver, +or precious minerals. Tapestry hid the walls, Persian carpets covered the +floors, pillows and couches of elegant forms were spread about the rooms. +Great care was given to bathing and personal cleanliness at a time when +such a thought had not dawned upon Christian Europe. Their +pleasure-gardens were of unequalled beauty, and were rich with flowers and +fruits. In short, in this brief space it is impossible to give more than a +bare outline of the marvellous luxury which surrounded this people, +recently come from the deserts of Arabia, at a time when most of the +remainder of Europe was plunged into the rudest barbarism. + +Much might be said of their libraries, their universities, their scholars +and scientists, and the magnificence of their architecture, of which +abundant examples still remain in the cities of Spain, the Alhambra of +Granada, the palace which Boabdil so reluctantly left, being almost +without an equal for lightness, grace, and architectural beauty in the +cities of the world. Well might the dethroned monarch look back with +bitter regret upon this rarest monument of the Arabian civilization and +give vent, in farewell to its far-seen towers, to "The last sigh of the +Moor." + + + + + +THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS. + + +In the spring succeeding the fall of Granada there came to Spain a glory +and renown that made her the envy of all the nations of Europe. During the +year before an Italian mariner, Christopher Columbus by name, after long +haunting the camp and court of Ferdinand and Isabella, had been sent out +with a meagre expedition in the forlorn hope of discovering new lands +beyond the seas. In March, 1493, extraordinary tidings spread through the +kingdom and reached the ears of the monarchs at their court in Barcelona. +The tidings were that the poor and despised mariner had returned to Palos +with wonderful tales of the discovery of a vast, rich realm beyond the +seas,--a mighty new empire for Spain. + +The marvellous news set the whole kingdom wild with joy. The ringing of +bells and solemn thanksgivings welcomed Columbus at the port from which he +had set sail. On his journey to the king's court his progress was impeded +by the multitudes who thronged to see the suddenly famous man,--the humble +mariner who had discovered for Spain what every one already spoke of as a +"New World." With him he brought several of the bronze-hued natives of +that far land, dressed in their simple island costume, and decorated, as +they passed through the principal cities, with collars, bracelets, and +other ornaments of gold. He exhibited, also, gold in dust and in shapeless +masses, many new plants, some of them of high medicinal value, several +animals never before seen in Europe, and birds whose brilliant plumage +attracted glances of delight from all eyes. + +It was mid-April when Columbus reached Barcelona. The nobility and knights +of the court met him in splendid array and escorted him to the royal +presence through the admiring throngs that filled the streets. Ferdinand +and Isabella, with their son, Prince John, awaited his arrival seated +under a superb canopy of state. On the approach of the discoverer they +rose and extended their hands to him to kiss, not suffering him to kneel +in homage. Instead, they bade him seat himself before them,--a mark of +condescension to a person of his rank unknown before in the haughty court +of Castile. He was, at that moment, "the man whom the king delighted to +honor," and it was the proudest period in his life when, having proved +triumphantly all for which he had so long contended, he was honored as the +equal of the proud monarchs of Spain. + +At the request of the sovereigns Columbus gave them a brief account of his +adventures, in a dignified tone, that warmed with enthusiasm as he +proceeded. He described the various tropical islands he had landed upon, +spoke with favor of their delightful climate and the fertility of their +soil, and exhibited the specimens he had brought as examples of their +fruitfulness. He dwelt still more fully upon their wealth in the precious +metals, of which he had been assured by the natives, and offered the gold +he brought with him as evidence. Lastly, he expatiated on the opportunity +offered for the extension of the Christian religion through lands populous +with pagans,--a suggestion which appealed strongly to the Spanish heart. +When he ceased the king and queen, with all present, threw themselves on +their knees and gave thanks to God, while the solemn strains of the _Te +Deum_ were poured forth by the choir of the royal chapel. + + [Illustration: RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.] + + RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. + + +Throughout his residence in Barcelona Columbus continued to receive the +most honorable distinction from the Spanish sovereigns. When Ferdinand +rode abroad the admiral rode by his side. Isabella, the true promoter of +his expedition, treated him with the most gracious consideration. The +courtiers, emulating their sovereigns, gave frequent entertainments in his +honor, treating him with the punctilious deference usually shown only to a +noble of the highest rank. It cannot be said, however, that envy at the +high distinction shown this lately obscure and penniless adventurer was +quite concealed, and at one of these entertainments is said to have taken +place the famous episode of the egg. + +A courtier of shallow wit, with the purpose of throwing discredit on the +achievement of Columbus, intimated that it was not so great an exploit +after all; all that was necessary was to sail west a certain number of +days; the lands lay there waiting to be discovered. Were there not other +men in Spain, he asked, capable of this? + +The response of Columbus was to take an egg and ask those present to make +it stand upright on its end. After they had tried and failed he struck the +egg on the table, cracking the shell and giving it a base on which to +stand. + +"But anybody could do that!" cried the critic. + +"Yes; and anybody can become a discoverer when once he has been shown the +way," retorted Columbus. "It is easy to follow in a known track." + +By this time all Europe had heard of the brilliant discovery of the +Genoese mariner, and everywhere admiration at his achievement and interest +in its results were manifested. Europe had never been so excited by any +single event. The world was found to be larger than had been dreamed of, +and it was evident that hundreds of new things remained to be known. Word +came to Barcelona that King John of Portugal was equipping a large +armament to obtain a share of the new realms in the west, and all haste +was made to anticipate this dangerous rival by sending Columbus again to +the New World. + +On the 25th of September, 1493, he set sail with a gallant armament, which +quite threw into the shade his three humble caravels of the year before. +It consisted of seventeen vessels, some of them of large size for that +day, and fifteen hundred souls, including several persons of rank, and +members of the royal household. Many of those that had taken part in the +Moorish war, stimulated by the love of adventure, were to win fame in the +coming years in the conquest of the alluring realms of the West, and the +earliest of these sailed now under the banner of the Great Admiral. + +The story of Columbus is too familiar to readers for more to be said of it +here. It was one in which the boasted honor of the Spanish court was +replaced by injustice and lack of good faith. Envy and malice surrounded +the discoverer, and in 1500 he was sent home in chains by an infamous +governor. The king, roused by a strong display of public indignation, +disavowed the base act of his agent, and received Columbus again with a +show of favor, but failed to reinstate him in the office of which he had +been unjustly deprived. The discoverer of America died at Valladolid in +1506, giving directions that the fetters which he had once worn, and which +he had kept as evidence of Spanish ingratitude, should be buried with him. + + + + + +PETER THE CRUEL AND THE FREE COMPANIES. + + +About the middle of the year 1365 a formidable expedition set out from +France for the invasion of Castile. It consisted of the celebrated Free +Companies, marauding bands of French and English knights and archers whose +allegiance was to the sword, and who, having laid waste France, now sought +fresh prey in Spain. Valiant and daring were these reckless freebooters, +bred to war, living on rapine, battle their delight, revel their +relaxation. For years the French and English Free Companies had been +enemies. Now a truce existed between their princes, and they had joined +hands under the leadership of the renowned knight Bertrand du Guesclin, at +that time the most famous soldier of France. Sir Hugh de Calverley headed +the English bands, known as the White Company, and made up largely of +men-at-arms, that is, of heavy armed horsemen; but with a strong +contingent of the formidable English archers. The total force comprised +more than twelve thousand men. + +"You lead the life of robbers," said Du Guesclin to them. "Every day you +risk your lives in forays, which yield you more blows than booty. I come +to propose an enterprise worthy of gallant knights and to open to you a +new field of action. In Spain both glory and profit await you. You will +there find a rich and avaricious king who possesses great treasures, and +is the ally of the Saracens; in fact, is half a pagan himself. We propose +to conquer his kingdom and to bestow it on the Count of Trastamara, an old +comrade of yours, a good lance, as you all know, and a gentle and generous +knight, who will share with you his land when you win it for him from the +Jews and Moslems of that wicked king, Don Pedro. Come, comrades, let us +honor God and shame the devil." + +The Free Companies were ready at a word to follow his banner. Among them +were many knights of noble birth who valued glory above booty, and looked +upon it as a worthy enterprise to dethrone a cruel and wicked king, the +murderer of his queen. As for the soldiers, they cared not against whom +they fought, if booty was to be had. + +"Messire Bertrand," they said, "gives all that he wins to his men-at-arms. +He is the father of the soldier. Let us march with him." + +And so the bargain was made and the Free Companies marched away, light of +heart and strong of hand, with a promising goal before them, and a chance +of abundance of fighting before they would see their homes again. + +Peter the Cruel, King of Castile and Leon, amply deserved to be dethroned. +His reign had been one of massacre. All whom he suspected died by the +dagger of the assassin. He bitterly hated his two half-brothers, Fadrique +and Henry. Fadrique he enticed to his court by a show of friendship, and +then had him brutally murdered at the gate of his palace, the Alcazar of +Seville. But his treatment of his queen was what made him specially odious +to his people. He married a French princess, Blanche of Bourbon, but +deserted her after two days to return to his mistress, Maria de Pedilla. +Blanche was taken to Toledo, where she was so closely confined that the +people rose and rescued her from the king's guards. Peter marched in anger +against the city, but its people defied him and kept the queen. Then the +crafty villain pretended sorrow and asked for a reconciliation. The queen +consented, went back to him, and was quickly imprisoned in a strong +fortress, where she was murdered by his orders in 1361. + +It was this shameful act and the murder of his brother Fadrique that +roused the people to insurrection. Henry of Trastamara, the remaining +brother, headed a revolt against the tyrant and invited the Free Companies +to his aid. These were the circumstances that gave rise to the march of Du +Guesclin and Calverley and their battle-loving bands. + +The adventurers wore crosses on their vests and banners, as though they +were a company of crusaders raised in the service of the church. But in +truth they were under the ban of excommunication, for they had no more +spared the church than the castle or the cottage. Du Guesclin, determined +to relieve them from this ban and force the Pope to grant them absolution, +directed his march upon Avignon, the papal residence in France. It was not +only absolution he wanted. The papal coffers were full; his military chest +was empty; his soldiers would not remain tractable unless well paid; the +church should have the privilege of aiding the army. + +It was with dismay that the people of Avignon beheld the White Company +encamp before their ramparts, late in the year 1365. An envoy from the +Pope was sent in haste to their camp, with a promise from the Holy Father +that he would remove the ban of excommunication if they would evacuate the +territory of the Church. The envoy's mission was a dangerous one, for the +fierce Free Companions had no reverence for priest or pope. He had hardly +crossed the Rhone before he was confronted by a turbulent band of English +archers, who demanded if he had brought money. + +"Money?" he asked, in faltering tones. + +"Ay, money!" they insolently cried, impeding his passage. + +On reaching Du Guesclin's tent he was treated with more politeness, but +was met with the same demand. + +"We cannot control our troops," said some of the chiefs; "and, as they are +ready to hazard their lives for the greater glory of the faith, they well +deserve the aid of the Church." + +"The Holy Father will incur much danger if he refuses the demand of our +men," said Du Guesclin, in smooth but menacing tones. "They have become +good Catholics in spite of themselves, and would very readily return to +their old trade." + +Imminent as the danger was, the Pope resisted, and tried to scare off that +flock of reckless war-hawks by the thunders of papal condemnation. But he +soon learned that appeals and threats alike were wasted on the Free +Companies. From the windows of his palace he could see groups of his +unruly visitors at work plundering farms and country houses. Fires were +here and there kindled. The rich lands of Avignon were in danger of a +general ravage. + +"What can I do?" said Du Guesclin to the complaints of the people. "My +soldiers are excommunicated. The devil is in them, and we are no longer +their masters." + +Evidently there was but one way to get rid of this irreligious crew. The +chiefs agreed to be satisfied with five thousand golden florins. This sum +was paid, and the knights companions, laden with plunder and absolved from +their sins, set out in the highest spirits, singing the praises of their +captain and the joys of war. Such was their farewell to France. + +Onward they marched, across the Pyrenees and into Aragon, whose king had +joined with Henry of Trastamara in requesting their presence. They were +far from welcome to the people of this region of Spain. Pedro IV. of +Aragon had agreed to pay them one hundred thousand golden florins on +condition that they should pass through his dominions without disorder; +but the adventurers, imagining that they were already in the enemy's +country, began their usual service of fire and sword. In Barbastro they +pillaged the houses, killed the burghers or tortured them to extort +ransom, and set fire to a church in which some had taken refuge, burning +alive more than two hundred persons. + +If such was the course of these freebooting bands in the country of their +friends, what would it be in that of their foes? Every effort was made to +get them out of the country as soon as possible. Immediate action was +needed, for the warlike mountaineers were beginning to revenge the +robberies of the adventurers by waylaying their convoys and killing their +stragglers. In early March, 1366, the frontier was passed, Sir Hugh de +Calverley leading his men against Borja, a town of Aragon which was +occupied by soldiers of Castile. + +The garrison fled on their approach, and soon the army entered Castile and +marched upon Calahorra, a town friendly to Prince Henry, and which opened +its gates at sight of their banners. Here an interesting ceremony took +place. Du Guesclin and the other leaders of the Free Companies, with as +much assurance as if they had already conquered Castile, offered Henry the +throne. + +"Take the crown," said the burly leader. "You owe this honor to the many +noble knights who have elected you their leader in this campaign. Don +Pedro, your enemy, has refused to meet you in the battle-field, and thus +acknowledges that the throne of Castile is vacant." + +Henry held back. He felt that these foreigners had not the crown of +Castile in their gift. But when the Castilians present joined in the +demand he yielded, and permitted them to place the crown upon his head. +His chief captain at once unfurled the royal standard, and passed through +the camp, crying, "Castile for King Henry! Long live King Henry!" Then, +amid loud acclamations, he planted the banner on the crest of a hill on +the road to Burgos. + +We need not delay on the events of this campaign. Everywhere the people of +Castile fell away from their cruel king, and Henry's advance was almost +unopposed. Soon he was in Burgos, and Don Pedro had become a fugitive +without an army and almost without a friend. Henry was now again crowned +king, many of the Castilian nobles taking part in the imposing ceremony. + +The first acts of the new king were to recompense the men who had raised +him to that high office. The money which he found in the treasury served +as a rich reward to the followers of Du Guesclin. He gave titles of +nobility and grants of land with a free hand to the chiefs of the Free +Companies and his other companions in arms. On Du Guesclin he conferred +his own countship of Trastamara, and added to it the lordship of Molino, +with the domains appertaining to both. Calverley was made Count of +Carrion, and received the domains which had formerly been held by the +sons-in-law of the Cid. Lesser rewards were given to lesser chiefs, and +none had reason to accuse Henry of Castile of want of generosity. + +But the Free Companions soon became a sword in the side of the new king. +As there was no more fighting to be done, they resumed their old +occupation of pillaging, and from every side complaints rained in upon the +throne. Henry felt it necessary to get rid of his unruly friends with all +despatch. Retaining Du Guesclin and Calverley in his service, with fifteen +hundred lances, mainly French and Breton, he dismissed the remainder, +placating them with rich presents and warm thanks. Nothing loath, and +gratified that they had avenged the murdered Queen Blanche, they took +their way back, finding abundant chance for fighting on their return. The +Castilians, the Navarrese, and the Aragonese all rose against them, and +everywhere they had to force a passage with their swords. But nothing +could stop them. Spain, accustomed to fight with Arabs and Moors, had no +warriors fit to face these intrepid and heavily armed veterans. Through +the Pyrenees they made their way, and here cut a road with their swords +through the main body of a French army which had gathered to oppose their +march. Once more they were upon the soil of France. + +It was the English and Gascon bands that were principally opposed. It was +known that the Black Prince was preparing to invade Spain, and an effort +was made to cut off the free lances who might enlist under his banners. +This famous knight, son of Edward III. of England, and victor at the +battle of Poitiers, where he had taken prisoner the king of France, was a +cousin of the fugitive king of Castile, who sought him at Cape Breton, and +begged his aid to recover his dominions. The chivalrous prince of Wales +knew little of the dastardly deeds of the suppliant. Don Pedro had brought +with him his three young maiden daughters, whose helpless state appealed +warmly to the generous knight. National policy accorded with the +inclination of the prince, for the Castilian revolution had been promoted +by France, and the usurper had been in the pay of the French king. These +inducements were enough to win for Don Pedro the support of Edward III., +and the aid of the Black Prince, who entered upon the enterprise with the +passionate enthusiasm which was a part of his nature. + +Soon again two armies were in the field, that of King Henry, raised to +defend his new dominions, and that of the Prince of Wales, gathered to +replace the fugitive Don Pedro upon the throne. With the latter was the +White Company, which had aided to drive Pedro from his seat and was now +equally ready to replace him there. These bold lancers and archers fought +for their own hands, with little care whose cause they backed. + +It was through the valley of Roncesvalles, that celebrated pass which was +associated with the name of the famous Roland, the chief knight of French +romance, that the army of the Black Prince made its way into Spain. +Calverley, who was not willing to fight against his liege lord, joined him +with his lances, King Henry generously consenting. Du Guesclin, a veteran +in the art of war, advised the Castilian king to employ a Fabian policy, +harassing the invaders by skirmishes, drawing them deep into the country, +and wearing them out with fatigue and hunger. He frankly told him that his +men could not face in a pitched battle the English veterans, led by such a +soldier as the Black Prince. But the policy suggested would have been +hazardous in Castile, divided as it was between two parties. Henry +remembered that his rival had lost the kingdom through not daring to risk +a battle, and he determined to fight for his throne, trusting his cause to +Providence and the strength of his arms. + +It was in the month of April, 1367, that the two armies came face to face +on a broad plain. They were fairly matched in numbers, and as day broke +both marched resolutely to the encounter, amid opposing shouts of "King +Henry for Castile" and "St. George and Guyenne." It was a hard, fierce, +bitter struggle that followed, in which the onset of Du Guesclin was so +impetuous as for a moment to break the English line. But the end was at +hand when the Castilian cavalry broke in panic before the charge of an +English squadron, which turned Du Guesclin's battalion and took it in +flank. The Captal de Buch at the same time fell on the flank of the +Castilian vanguard. Thus beset and surrounded, the French and Spanish +men-at-arms desperately sought to hold their own against much superior +numbers. King Henry fought valiantly, and called on all to rally round his +standard. But at length the banner fell, the disorder grew general, the +ranks broke, and knights and foot-soldiers joined in a tumultuous retreat. + +Their only hope now was the bridge of Najera, over the Najerilla, which +stream lay behind their line. Some rushed for the bridge, others leaped +into the river, which became instantly red with blood, for the arrows of +the archers were poured into the crowded stream. Only the approach of +night, the fatigue of the victors, and the temptation to plunder the town +and the camp saved the wreck of the Castilian army, which had lost seven +thousand foot-soldiers and some six hundred men-at-arms. Du Guesclin's +battalion, which alone had made a gallant stand, was half slain. A large +number of prisoners were taken, among them the valorous Du Guesclin +himself. + +Edward the Black Prince now first learned the character of the man whom he +had come to aid. Don Pedro galloped excitedly over the plain seeking his +rival, and, chancing to meet Lopez de Orozco, one of his former friends, +now the prisoner of a Gascon knight, he stabbed him to the heart, despite +the efforts of the Gascon in his defence. The report of this murder filled +the Black Prince with indignation, which was heightened when Don Pedro +offered to ransom all the Castilian prisoners, plainly indicating that he +intended to murder them. Prince Edward sternly refused, only consenting to +deliver up certain nobles who had been declared traitors before the +revolution. These Don Pedro immediately had beheaded before his tent. + +The breach between the allies rapidly widened, Don Pedro, as soon as he +fairly got possession of the throne, breaking all his engagements with the +Black Prince, while he was unable, from the empty state of his treasury, +to pay the allied troops. Four months Prince Edward waited, with growing +indignation, for redress, while disease was rapidly carrying off his men, +and then marched in anger from Spain with scarcely a fifth of the proud +array with which he had won the battle of Najera. + +The restored king soon justified his title of Peter the Cruel by a series +of sanguinary executions, murdering all of the adherents of his rival on +whom he could lay his hands. In this thirst for revenge not even women +escaped, and at length he committed an act which aroused the indignation +of the whole kingdom. Don Alfonso de Guzman had refused to follow the king +into exile. He now kept out of his reach, but his mother, Dona Urraca de +Osorio, fell into the hands of the monster, and was punished for being the +mother of a rebel by being burned alive on the ramparts of Seville. + +These excesses of cruelty roused a rebellious sentiment throughout +Castile, of which Henry, who had escaped to Aragon from the field of +Najera, took advantage. Supplied with money by the king of France, he +purchased arms and recruited soldiers, many of the French and Castilians +who had been taken prisoners at Najera and been released on parole joining +him in hopes of winning the means of paying their ransoms. Crossing the +Ebro, he marched upon Calahorra, in which the year before he had been +proclaimed king. Here numerous volunteers joined him, and at the head of a +considerable force he marched upon Burgos, which surrendered after a faint +show of resistance. + +During the winter the campaign continued, Leon, Madrid, and other towns +being captured, and in the spring of 1368 all northern Castile was in +Henry's hands. Don Pedro, whose army was small, had entered into alliance +with the Moorish king of Granada, who sent him an army of thirty-five +thousand men, with which force a vigorous attack was made on the city of +Cordova,--a holy city in the eyes of the Moors. Among its defenders was Don +Alfonso de Guzman, whose mother had been burned to death. The defence was +obstinate, but the Moors at length made breaches in the walls. They were +about to pour into the city when the women, mad with fear, rushed into the +streets with cries and moans, now reproaching the men-at-arms with +cowardice, now begging them with sobs and tears to make a last effort to +save the city from the brutal infidels. + +This appeal gave new courage to the Christians. They rushed on the Moors +with the fury of despair, drove them from the posts they had taken, hurled +them from the ramparts, tore down the black flags which already waved on +the towers, and finally expelled them from the breaches and the walls in a +panic. The breaches were repaired and the city was saved. In a few days +the Moors, thoroughly disheartened by their repulse, dispersed, and Don +Pedro lost his allies. + +Meanwhile, Henry was engaged in the siege of Toledo, the strongest place +in the kingdom, and before which he persistently lay for months, despite +all allurements to use his forces in other directions. Here Bertrand du +Guesclin, who had been ransomed by the Black Prince, joined him with a +force of some six hundred men-at-arms, all picked men; and hither, in +March, 1369, Don Pedro marched to the city's relief at the head of a +strong army. + +Henry, on learning of this movement, at once gathered all the forces he +could spare from the siege, three thousand men-at-arms in all, and +hastened to intercept his rival on the march. Not dreaming of such a +movement, Don Pedro had halted at Montiel, where his men lay dispersed, in +search of food and forage, over a space of several leagues. They were +attacked at daybreak, their surprise being so complete that the main body +was at once put to flight, while each division was routed as soon as it +appeared. Henry's forces suffered almost no loss, and within an hour's +time his rival's kingdom was reduced to the castle of Montiel, in which he +had taken refuge with a few of his followers. + +Leaving the defeated army to take care of itself, Henry devoted himself to +the siege of the castle, within whose poorly fortified walls lay the prize +for which he fought. Escape was impossible, and the small supply of +provisions would soon be exhausted. Don Pedro's only hope was to bribe +some of his foes. He sent an agent to Du Guesclin, offering him a rich +reward in gold and lands if he would aid in his escape. Du Guesclin asked +for time to consider, and immediately informed Henry of the whole +transaction. He was at once offered a richer reward than Pedro had +promised if he would entice the king out of the castle, and after some +hesitation and much persuasion he consented. + +On the night of March 23, ten days after the battle, Don Pedro, +accompanied by several of his knights, secretly left the fortress, the +feet of their horses being bound with cloth to deaden the sound of hoofs. +The sentinels, who had been instructed in advance, allowed them to pass, +and they approached the camp of the French adventurers, where Du Guesclin +was waiting to receive them. + +"To horse, Messire Bertrand," said the king, in a low voice; "it is time +to set out." + +No answer was returned. This silence frightened Don Pedro. He attempted to +spring into his saddle, but he was surrounded, and a man-at-arms held the +bridle of his horse. An officer asked him to wait in a neighboring tent. +Resistance was impossible, and he silently obeyed. + +Here he found himself encompassed by a voiceless group, through whose +lines, after a few minutes of dread suspense, a man in full armor +advanced. It was Henry of Trastamara, who now faced his brother for the +first time in fifteen years. He gazed with searching eyes upon Don Pedro +and his followers. + +"Where is this bastard," he harshly asked, "this Jew who calls himself +King of Castile?" + +"There stands your enemy," said a French esquire, pointing to Don Pedro. + +Henry gazed at him fixedly. So many years had elapsed that he failed to +recognize him easily. + +"Yes, it is I," exclaimed Don Pedro, "I, the King of Castile. All the +world knows that I am the legitimate son of good King Alfonso. It is thou +that art the bastard." + +At this insult Henry drew his dagger and struck the speaker a light blow +in the face. They were in too close a circle to draw their swords, and in +mortal fury they seized each other by the waist and struggled furiously, +the men around drawing back and no one attempting to interfere. + +After a brief period the wrestling brothers fell on a camp bed in a corner +of the tent, Don Pedro, who was the stronger, being uppermost. While he +felt desperately for a weapon with which to pierce his antagonist, one of +those present seized him by the foot and threw him on one side, so that +Henry found himself uppermost. Popular tradition says that it was Du +Guesclin's hand that did this act, and that he cried, "I neither make nor +unmake kings, but I serve my lord;" but some writers say it was the +Viscount de Rocaberti, of Aragon. + +However that be, Henry at once took advantage of the opportunity, picked +up his dagger, lifted the king's coat of mail, and plunged the weapon +again and again into his side. Only two of Don Pedro's companions sought +to defend him, and they were killed on the spot. Henry had his brother's +head at once cut off, and despatched the gruesome relic to Seville. + +Thus perished, by an uncalled-for act of treachery on the part of Du +Guesclin, for the castle must soon have surrendered, one of the most +bloodthirsty kings who ever sat upon a throne. Don Fadrique, his brother, +and Blanche of Bourbon, his wife, both of whom he had basely murdered, +were at length avenged. Henry ascended the throne as Henry II., and for +years reigned over Castile with a mild and just rule that threw still +deeper horror upon the bloody career of him who is known in history as +Peter the Cruel. + + + + + +THE GREAT CAPTAIN. + + +The long and bitter war for the conquest of Granada filled Spain with +trained soldiers and skilful leaders, men who had seen service on a +hundred fields, grim, daring veterans, without their equals in Europe. The +Spanish foot-soldiers of that day were inflexibly resolute, the cavalry +were skilled in the brilliant tactics of the Moors, and the leaders were +men experienced in all the arts of war. These were the soldiers who in the +New World overthrew empires with a handful of adventurers, and within a +fraction of a century conquered a continent for Spain. In Europe they were +kept actively employed. Charles VIII. of France, moved by ambition and +thirst for glory, led an army of invasion into Italy. He was followed in +this career of foreign conquest by his successor, Louis XII. The armies of +France were opposed by those of Spain, led by the greatest soldier of the +age, Gonsalvo de Cordova, a man who had learned the art of war in Granada, +but in Italy showed such brilliant and remarkable powers that he gained +the distinguishing title of the Great Captain. + +These wars were stretched out over years, and the most we can do is to +give some of their interesting incidents. In 1502 the Great Captain lay in +the far south of Italy, faced by a more powerful French army under the +Duke of Nemours, a young nobleman not wanting in courage, but quite unfit +to cope with the experienced veteran before him. Gonsalvo, however, was in +no condition to try conclusions with his well-appointed enemy. His little +corps was destitute of proper supplies, the men had been so long unpaid +that they were mutinous, he had pleaded for reinforcements in vain, and +the most he could do was to concentrate his small force in the seaport of +Barleta and the neighboring strongholds, and make the best show he could +in the face of his powerful foe. + +The war now declined into foraging inroads on the part of the French, in +which they swept the flocks and herds from the fertile pastures, and into +guerilla operations on the part of the Spanish, who ambushed and sought to +cut off the detached troops of the enemy. But more romantic encounters +occasionally took place. The knights on both sides, full of the spirit of +chivalry, and eager to prove their prowess, defied one another to jousts +and tourneys, and for the time being brought back a state of warfare then +fast passing away. + +The most striking of these meetings arose from the contempt with which the +French knights spoke of the cavalry of their enemy, which they declared to +be far inferior to their own. This insult, when told to the proud knights +of Gonsalvo's army, brought from them a challenge to the knights of +France, and a warlike meeting between eleven Spanish and as many French +warriors was arranged. A fair field was offered the combatants in the +neutral territory under the walls of the Venetian city of Trani, and on +the appointed day a gallant array of well-armed knights of both parties +appeared to guard the lists and maintain the honor of the tournament. + +Spectators crowded the roofs and battlements of Trani, while the lists +were thronged with French and Spanish cavaliers, who for the time laid +aside their enmity in favor of national honor and a fair fight. At the +fixed hour the champions rode into the lists, armed at all points, and +their horses richly caparisoned and covered with steel panoply. Among +those on the Castilian side were Diego de Paredes and Diego de Vera, men +who had won renown in the Moorish wars. Most conspicuous on the other side +was the good knight Pierre de Bayard, the chevalier "_sans peur et sans +reproche_," who was then entering upon his famous career. + +At the sound of the signal trumpets the hostile parties rushed to the +encounter, meeting in the centre of the lists with a shock that hurled +three of the Spaniards from their saddle, while four of their antagonists' +horses were slain. The fight, which began at ten in the morning, and was +to end at sunset, if not concluded before, was prosecuted with great fury +and varied success. Long before the hour of closing all the French were +dismounted except the Chevalier Bayard and one of his companions, their +horses, at which the Spaniards had specially aimed, being disabled or +slain. Seven of the Spaniards were still on horseback, and pressed so hard +upon their antagonists that the victory seemed safely theirs. + +But Bayard and his comrade bravely held their own, while the others, +intrenched behind their dead horses, defended themselves vigorously with +sword and shield, the Spaniards vainly attempting to spur their terrified +horses over the barrier. The fight went on in this way until the sun sank +below the horizon, when, both parties still holding the field, neither was +given the palm of victory, all the combatants being declared to have +proved themselves good and valiant knights. + +Both parties now met in the centre of the lists, where the combatants +embraced as true companions in chivalry, "making good cheer together" +before they separated. But the Great Captain did not receive the report of +the result with favor. + +"We have," said one of his knights, "disproved the taunts of the +Frenchmen, and shown ourselves as good horsemen as they." + +"I sent you for better," Gonsalvo coldly replied. + +A second combat in which the Chevalier Bayard was concerned met with a +more tragic termination. A Spanish cavalier, Alonzo de Sotomayor, +complained that Bayard had treated him uncourteously while holding him +prisoner. Bayard denied the charge, and defied the Spaniard to prove it by +force of arms, on horse or on foot, as he preferred. Sotomayor, well +knowing Bayard's skill as a horseman, challenged him to a battle on foot +_a l'outrance_, or "to the death." + +At the appointed time the two combatants entered the lists, armed with +sword and dagger and in complete armor, though wearing their visors up. +For a few minutes both knelt in silent prayer. They then rose, crossed +themselves, and advanced to the combat, "the good knight Bayard," we are +told, "moving as light of step as if he were going to lead some fair lady +down the dance." + +Bayard was the smaller man of the two, and still felt weakness from a +fever which had recently prostrated him. The Spaniard, taking advantage of +this, sought to crush him by the weight of his blows, or to close with him +and bring him to the ground by dint of his superior strength. But the +lightness and agility of the French knight enabled him to avoid the +Spaniard's grasp, while, by skill with the sword, he parried his enemy's +strokes, and dealt him an occasional one in return. + +At length, the Spaniard having exposed himself to attack by an +ill-directed blow, Bayard got in so sharp a thrust on the gorget that it +gave way, and the point of the blade entered his throat. Maddened by the +pain of the wound, Sotomayor leaped furiously on his antagonist and +grasped him in his arms, both rolling on the ground together. While thus +clasped in fierce struggle Bayard, who had kept his poniard in his left +hand throughout the fight, while his enemy had left his in his belt, drove +the steel home under his eye with such force that it pierced through his +brain. + +As the victor sprang to his feet, the judges awarded him the honors of the +day, and the minstrels began to pour forth triumphant strains in his +honor. The good knight, however, bade them desist, as it was no time for +gratulation when a good knight lay dead, and, first kneeling and returning +grateful thanks for his victory, he walked slowly from the lists, saying +that he was sorry for the result of the combat, and wished, since his +honor was saved, that his antagonist had lived. + +In these passages at arms we discern the fading gleam of the spirit of +mediaeval chivalry, soon to vanish before the new art of war. Rough and +violent as were these displays as compared with the pastimes of later +days, the magnificence with which they were conducted, and the +manifestations of knightly honor and courtesy which attended them, threw +something of grace and softness over an age in which ferocity was the +ruling spirit. + +Meanwhile, the position of the little garrison of Barleta grew daily +worse. No help came, the French gradually occupied the strongholds of the +neighboring country, and a French fleet in the Adriatic stood seriously in +the way of the arrival of stores and reinforcements. But the Great Captain +maintained his cheerfulness through all discouragement, and sought to +infuse his spirit into the hearts of his followers. His condition would +have been desperate with an able opponent, but he perfectly understood the +character of the French commander and patiently bided his time. + +The opportunity came. The French, weary of the slow game of blockade, +marched from their quarters and appeared before the walls of Barleta, bent +on drawing the garrison from the "old den" and deciding the affair in a +pitched battle. The Duke of Nemours sent a trumpet into the town to defy +the Great Captain to the encounter, but the latter coolly sent back word,-- + +"It is my custom to choose my own time and place for fighting, and I would +thank the Duc de Nemours to wait till my men have time to shoe their +horses and burnish up their arms." + +The duke waited a few days, then, finding that he could not decoy his wily +foe from the walls, broke camp and marched back, proud of having flaunted +a challenge in the face of the enemy. He knew not Gonsalvo. The French had +not gone far before the latter opened the gates and sent out his whole +force of cavalry, under Diego de Mendoza, with two corps of infantry, in +rapid pursuit. Mendoza was so eager that he left the infantry in the rear, +and fell on the French before they had got many miles away. + +A lively skirmish followed, though of short duration, Mendoza quickly +retiring, pursued by the French rear-guard, whose straggling march had +detached it from the main body of the army. Mendoza's feigned retreat soon +brought him back to the infantry columns, which closed in on the enemy's +flanks, while the flying cavalry wheeled in the rapid Moorish style and +charged their pursuers boldly in front. All was now confusion in the +French ranks. Some resisted, but the greater part, finding themselves +entrapped, sought to escape. In the end, nearly all who did not fall on +the field were carried prisoners to Barleta, under whose walls Gonsalvo +had drawn up his whole army, in readiness to support Mendoza if necessary. +The whole affair had passed so quickly that Nemours knew nothing of it +until the bulk of his rear-guard were safely lodged within the walls of +the Spanish stronghold. + +This brilliant success proved the turning-point in the tide of the war. A +convoy of transports soon after reached Barleta, bringing in an abundance +of provisions, and the Spaniards, restored in health and spirits, looked +eagerly for some new enterprise. Nemours having incautiously set out on a +distant expedition, Gonsalvo at once fell on the town of Ruvo and took it +by storm, in spite of a most obstinate defence. On April 28, 1503, +Gonsalvo, strengthened by reinforcements, finally left the stronghold of +Barleta, where he and his followers had suffered so severely and shown +such indomitable constancy. Reaching Cerignola, about sixteen miles from +Barleta, he awaited the advancing army of the French, rapidly intrenching +the ground, which was well suited for defence. Before these works were +completed, Nemours and his army appeared, and, though it was near +nightfall, made an immediate attack. The commander was incited to this by +taunts on his courage from some hot-headed subordinates, to whom he weakly +gave way, saying, "We will fight to-night, then; and perhaps those who +vaunt the loudest will be found to trust more to their spurs than to their +swords,"--a prediction which was to prove true. + +Of the battle, it must suffice to say that the trenches dug by the +Spaniards fatally checked the French advance, and in the effort to find a +passage Nemours fell mortally wounded. Soon the French lines were in +confusion, the Spanish arquebusiers pouring a galling fire into their +dense masses. Perceiving the situation, Gonsalvo ordered a general +advance, and, leaping their intrenchments, the Spaniards rushed in fury on +their foes, most of whose leaders had fallen. Panic succeeded, and the +flying French were cut down almost without resistance. + +The next morning the Great Captain passed over the field of battle, where +lay more than three thousand of the French, half their entire force. The +loss of the Spaniards was very small, and all the artillery, the baggage, +and most of the colors of the enemy were in their hands. Rarely had so +complete a victory been gained in so brief a time, the battle being hardly +more than one hour in duration. The body of the unfortunate Duke of +Nemours was found under a heap of the slain, much disfigured and bearing +the marks of three wounds. Gonsalvo was affected to tears at the sight of +the mutilated body of his young and gallant adversary, who, though +unfitted to head an army, had always proved himself a valiant knight. +During the following month Gonsalvo entered Naples, the main prize of the +war, where he was received with acclamations of joy and given the triumph +which his brilliant exploits so richly deserved. + +The work of the Great Captain was not yet at an end. Finding that his +forces were being defeated in every encounter and the cities held by them +captured, Louis XII. sent a large army to their relief, and late in the +year 1503 the hostile forces came face to face again, Gonsalvo being +forced by the exigencies of the campaign to encamp in a deplorable +situation, a region of swamp, which had been converted by the incessant +rains into a mere quagmire. The French occupied higher ground and were +much more comfortably situated. But Gonsalvo refused to move. He was +playing his old waiting game, knowing that the French dared not attack his +intrenched camp, and that time would work steadily in his favor. + + [Illustration: GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF + NEMOURS.] + + GONSALVO DE CORDOVA FINDING THE CORPSE OF THE DUKE OF NEMOURS. + + +"It is indispensable to the public service to maintain our present +position," he said to the officers who appealed to him to move; "and be +assured, I would sooner march forward two steps, though it would bring me +to my grave, than fall back one, to gain a hundred years of life." + +After that there were no more appeals. Gonsalvo's usual cheerfulness was +maintained, infusing spirit into his men in all the inconveniences of +their situation. He had a well-planned object in view. The hardy +Spaniards, long used to rough campaigning, bore their trying position with +unyielding resolution. The French, on the contrary, largely new recruits, +grew weary and mutinous, while sickness broke out in their ranks and +increased with alarming rapidity. + +At length Gonsalvo's day came. His opponent, not dreaming of an attack, +had extended his men over a wide space. On the night of December 28, in +darkness and storm, the Spanish army broke camp, marched to the river that +divided the forces, silently threw a bridge across the stream, and were +soon on its opposite side. Here they fell like a thunderbolt on the +unsuspecting and unprepared French, who were soon in disordered retreat, +hotly pursued by their foes, their knights vainly attempting to check the +enemy. Bayard had three horses killed under him, and was barely rescued +from death by a friend. So utterly were the French beaten that their +discouraged garrisons gave up town after town without a blow, and that +brilliant night's work not only ended the control of France over the +kingdom of Naples, but filled Louis XII. with apprehension of losing all +his possessions in Italy. + +Such were the most brilliant exploits of the man who well earned the proud +title of the Great Captain. He was as generous in victory as vigorous in +battle, and as courteous and genial with all he met as if he had been a +courtier instead of a soldier. In the end, his striking and unbroken +success in war aroused the envy and jealousy of King Ferdinand, and after +the return of Gonsalvo to Spain the unjust monarch kept him in retirement +till his death, putting smaller men at the head of his armies rather than +permit the greatest soldier of the century to throw his own exploits more +deeply into the shade. + + + + + +A KING IN CAPTIVITY. + + +Two great rivals were on the thrones of France and Spain,--Francis I., who +came to power in France in 1515, and Charles I., who became king of Spain +in 1516. In 1519 they were rivals for the imperial power in Germany. +Charles gained the German throne, being afterwards known as the emperor +Charles V., and during the remainder of their reigns these rival monarchs +were frequently at war. A league was formed against the French king by +Charles V., Henry VIII. of England, and Pope Leo X., as a result of which +the French were driven from the territory of Milan, in Italy. In 1524 they +were defeated at the battle of Sesia, the famous Chevalier Bayard here +falling with a mortal wound; and in 1525 they met with a more disastrous +defeat at the battle of Pavia, whose result is said to have caused Francis +to write to his mother, "_Madame, tout est perdu fors l'honneur_" ("All is +lost but honor"). + +The reason for these words may be briefly given. Francis was besieging +Pavia, with hopes of a speedy surrender, when the forces of Charles +marched to its relief. The most experienced French generals advised the +king to retire, but he refused. He had said he would take Pavia or perish +in the attempt, and a romantic notion of honor held him fast. The result +was ruinous, as may be expected where sentiment outweighs prudence. +Strongly as the French were intrenched, they were broken and put to rout, +and soon there was no resistance except where the king obstinately +continued to fight. + +Wounded in several places, and thrown from his horse, which was killed +under him, Francis defended himself on foot with heroic valor, while the +group of brave officers who sought to save his life, one after another, +lost their own. At length, exhausted with his efforts, and barely able to +wield his sword, the king was left almost alone, exposed to the fierce +assault of some Spanish soldiers, who were enraged by his obstinacy and +ignorant of his rank. + +At this moment a French gentleman named Pomperant, who had entered the +service of Spain, recognized the struggling king and hurried to his aid, +helping to keep off the assailants, and begging him to surrender to the +Duke of Bourbon, who was close at hand. Great as was the peril, Francis +indignantly refused to surrender to a rebel and traitor, as he held +Bourbon to be, and calling to Lannoy, a general in the imperial army who +was also near by, he gave up his sword to him. Lannoy, recognizing his +prisoner, received the sword with a show of the deepest respect, and +handed the king his own in return, saying,-- + +"It does not become so great a monarch to remain disarmed in the presence +of one of the emperor's subjects." + +The lack of prudence in Francis had proved serious not only to himself, +but to his troops, ten thousand of whom fell, among them many +distinguished nobles who preferred death to dishonor. Numbers of high rank +were taken prisoners, among them the king of Navarre. In two weeks not a +Frenchman remained in Italy. The gains from years of war had vanished in a +single battle. + +The tidings of the captivity of the French king filled France with +consternation and Spain with delight, while to all Europe it was an event +of the deepest concern, for all the nations felt the danger that might +arise from the ambition of the powerful emperor of Spain and Germany. +Henry VIII. requested that Francis should be delivered to him, as an ally +of Spain, though knowing well that such a demand would not gain a moment's +consideration. As for Italy, it was in terror lest it should be overrun by +the imperial armies. + +Francis, whom Lannoy held with great respect, but with the utmost care to +prevent an escape, hoped much from the generosity of Charles, whose +disposition he judged from his own. But Charles proposed to weaken his +enemy and refused to set him free unless he would renounce all claims upon +Italy, yield the provinces of Provence and Dauphine to form a kingdom for +the Constable Bourbon, and give up Burgundy to Germany. On hearing these +severe conditions, Francis, in a transport of rage, drew his dagger, +exclaiming,-- + +"It were better that a king should die thus!" + +A by-stander arrested the thrust; but, though Francis soon regained his +composure, he declared that he would remain a prisoner for life rather +than purchase liberty at such a price to his country. + +Thinking that these conditions came from the Spanish council, and not from +Charles himself, Francis now became anxious to visit the emperor in Spain, +hoping to soften him in a personal interview. He even furnished the +galleys for that purpose, Charles at that time being too poor to fit out a +squadron, and soon the spectacle was seen of a captive monarch sailing in +his own ships past his own dominions, of which he had a distant and +sorrowful view, to a land in which he was to suffer the indignities of +prison life. + +Landing at Barcelona, Francis was taken to Madrid and lodged in the +alcazar, under the most vigilant guard. He soon found that he had been far +too hasty in trusting to the generosity of his captor. Charles, on +learning of his captivity, had made a politic show of sympathy and +feeling, but on getting his rival fully into his hands manifested a plain +intention of forcing upon him the hardest bargain possible. Instead of +treating his prisoner with the courtesy due from one monarch to another, +he seemed to seek by rigorous usage to force from him a great ransom. + +The captive king was confined in an old castle, under a keeper of such +formal austerity of manners as added to the disgust of the high-spirited +French monarch. The only exercise allowed him was to ride on a mule, +surrounded by armed guards on horseback. Though Francis pressingly +solicited an interview, Charles suffered several weeks to pass before +going near him. These indignities made so deep an impression on the +prisoner that his natural lightness of temper deserted him, and after a +period of deep depression he fell into a dangerous fever, in which he +bitterly complained of the harshness with which he had been treated, and +said that the emperor would now have the satisfaction of having his +captive die on his hands. + +The physicians at length despaired of his life, and informed Charles that +they saw no hope of his recovery unless he was granted the interview he so +deeply desired. This news put the emperor into a quandary. If Francis +should die, all the advantage gained from the battle of Pavia would be +lost. And there were clouds in the sky elsewhere. Henry VIII. had +concluded a treaty of alliance with Queen Louise, regent of France, and +engaged to use all his efforts for the release of the king. In Italy a +dangerous conspiracy had been detected. There was danger of a general +European confederacy against him unless he should come to some speedy +agreement with the captive king. + +Charles, moved by these various considerations, at length visited Francis, +and, with a show of respect and affection, gave him such promises of +speedy release and princely treatment as greatly cheered the sad heart of +the captive. The interview was short; Francis was too ill to bear a long +one; but its effect was excellent, and the sick man at once began to +recover, soon regaining his former health. Hope had proved a medicine far +superior to all the drugs of the doctors. + +But the obdurate captor had said more than he meant. Francis was kept as +closely confined as ever. And insult was added to indignity by the +emperor's reception of the Constable Bourbon, a traitorous subject of +France, whom Charles received with the highest honors which a monarch +could show his noblest visitor, and whom he made his general-in-chief in +Italy. This act had a most serious result, which may here be briefly +described. In 1527 Bourbon made an assault on Rome, with an army largely +composed of Lutherans from Germany, and took it by assault, he being +killed on the walls. There followed a sack of the great city which had not +been surpassed in brutality by the Vandals themselves, and for months Rome +lay in the hands of a barbarous soldiery, who plundered and destroyed +without stint or mercy. + +What Charles mainly insisted upon and Francis most indignantly refused was +the cession of Burgundy to the German empire. He was willing to yield on +all other points, but bitterly refused to dismember his kingdom. He would +yield all claim to territory in Italy and the Netherlands, would pay a +large sum in ransom, and would make other concessions, but Burgundy was +part of France, and Burgundy he would not give up. + +In the end Francis, in deep despair, took steps towards resigning his +crown to his son, the dauphin. A plot for his escape was also formed, +which filled Charles with the fear that a second effort might succeed. In +dread that, through seeking too much, he might lose all, he finally agreed +upon a compromise in regard to Burgundy, Francis consenting to yield it, +but not until after he was set at liberty. The treaty included many other +articles, most of them severe and rigorous, while Francis agreed to leave +his sons, the dauphin and the Duke of Orleans, in the emperor's hands as +hostages for the fulfilment of the treaty. This treaty was signed at +Madrid, January 14, 1526. By it Charles believed that he had effectually +humbled his rival, and weakened him so that he could never regain any +great power. In this the statesmen of the day did not agree with him, as +they were not ready to believe that the king of France would live up to +conditions of such severity, forced from him under constraint. + + [Illustration: FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR.] + + FRANCIS I. REFUSING THE DEMANDS OF THE EMPEROR. + + +The treaty signed, the two monarchs seemed to become at once the best of +friends. They often appeared together in public; they had long conferences +in private; they travelled in the same litter and joined in the same +amusements; the highest confidence and affection seemed to exist between +them. Yet this love was all a false show,--Francis still distrusted the +emperor, and Charles still had him watched like a prisoner. + +In about a month the ratification of the treaty was brought from France, +and Francis set out from Madrid with the first true emotions of joy which +he had felt for a year. He was escorted by a body of horse under Alarcon, +who, when the frontiers of France were reached, guarded him as +scrupulously as ever. On arriving at the banks of the Andaye River, which +there separated the two kingdoms, Lautrec appeared on the opposite bank, +with a guard of horse equal to that of Alarcon. An empty bark was moored +in mid-stream. The cavalry drew up in order on each bank. Lannoy, with +eight gentlemen and the king, put off in a boat from the Spanish side of +the stream. Lautrec did the same from the French side, bringing with him +the dauphin and the Duke of Orleans. The two parties met in the empty +vessel, where in a moment the exchange was made, Francis embracing his +sons and then handing them over as hostages. Leaping into Lautrec's boat, +he was quickly on the soil of France. + +Mounting a Barbary horse which awaited him, the freed captive waved his +hand triumphantly over his head, shouted joyfully several times, "I am yet +a king!" and galloped away at full speed for Bayonne. He had been held in +captivity for a year and twenty-two days. + +Our tale of the captivity of the king ends here, but the consequences of +that captivity must be told. A league was immediately afterwards formed +against Charles, named the Holy League, from the Pope being at its head. +The nobles of Burgundy refused to be handed over to the imperial realm, +and an assembly called by Francis absolved him from his oath to keep the +treaty of Madrid. Francis, bewailing his lack of power to do what he had +promised in regard to Burgundy, offered to pay the emperor two millions of +crowns instead. In short, Charles had overreached himself through his +stringency to a captive rival, and lost all through his eagerness to +obtain too much. + +Ten years afterwards the relations between the two monarchs were in a +measure reversed. A rebellion had broken out in Flanders which needed the +immediate presence of Charles, and, for reasons satisfactory to himself, +he wished to go through France. His counsellors at Madrid looked upon such +a movement as fatally rash; but Charles persisted, feeling that he knew +the character of Francis better than they. The French king was ready +enough to grant the permission asked, and looked upon the occasion as an +opportunity to show his rival how kings should deal with their royal +neighbors. + +Charles was received with an ostentatious welcome, each town entertaining +him with all the magnificence it could display. He was presented with the +keys of the gates, the prisoners were set at liberty, and he was shown all +the honor due to the sovereign of the country itself. The emperor, though +impatient to continue his journey, remained six days in Paris, where all +things possible were done to render his visit a pleasant one. Had Francis +listened to the advice of some of his ministers, he would have seized and +held prisoner the incautious monarch who had so long kept him in +captivity. But the confidence of the emperor was not misplaced; no +consideration could induce the high-minded French king to violate his +plighted word, or make him believe that Charles would fail to carry out +certain promises he had made. He forgot for the time how he had dealt with +his own compacts, but Charles remembered, and was no sooner out of France +than all his promises faded from his mind, and Francis learned that he was +not the only king who could enter into engagements which he had no +intention to fulfil. + + + + + +THE INVASION OF AFRICA. + + +As Italy was invaded by Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great Captain, so Africa +was invaded by Cardinal Ximenes, the Great Churchman, one of the ablest +men who ever appeared in Spain, despite the fact that he made a dreadful +bonfire of thousands of Arabian manuscripts in the great square of +Granada. The greater part of these were copies of the Koran, but many of +them were of high scientific and literary value, and impossible to +replace. Yet, while thus engaged in a work fitted for an unlettered +barbarian, Ximenes was using his large revenues to found the University of +Alcala, the greatest educational institution in Spain, and was preparing +his famous polyglot Bible, for which the rarest manuscripts were +purchased, without regard to cost, that the Scriptures might be shown at +one view in their various ancient languages. To indicate the cost of this +work, it is said that he paid four thousand golden crowns for seven +manuscripts, which came too late to be of use in the work. It is strange, +under these circumstances, that he failed to preserve the valuable part of +the Arabian manuscripts. + +The vast labors undertaken by Ximenes at home did not keep him from +enterprises abroad. He was filled with a burning zeal for the propagation +of the Catholic faith, formed plans for a crusade to the Holy Land, and +organized a remarkably successful expedition against the Moslems of +Africa. It is of the latter that we desire to speak. + +Soon after the death of Isabella, Mazalquivir, a nest of pirates on the +Barbary coast, had been captured by an expedition organized by the +energetic Ximenes. He quickly set in train a more difficult enterprise, +one directed against Oran, a Moorish city of twenty thousand inhabitants, +strongly fortified, with a large commerce, and the haunt of a swarm of +piratical cruisers. The Spanish king had no money and little heart for +this enterprise, but that did not check the enthusiastic cardinal, who +offered to loan all the sums needed, and to take full charge of the +expedition, leading it himself, if the king pleased. Ferdinand made no +objection to this, being quite willing to make conquests at some one +else's expense, and the cardinal set to work. + +It is not often that an individual can equip an army, but Ximenes had a +great income of his own and had the resources of the Church at his back. +By the close of the spring of 1509 he had made ready a fleet of ten +galleys and eighty smaller vessels, and assembled an army of four thousand +horse and ten thousand foot, fully supplied with provisions and military +stores for a four months' campaign. Such was the energy and activity of a +man whose life, until a few years before, had been spent in the solitude +of the cloister and in the quiet practices of religion, and who was now an +infirm invalid of more than seventy years of age. + +The nobles thwarted his plans, and mocked at the idea of "a monk fighting +the battles of Spain." The soldiers had little taste for fighting under a +father of the Church, "while the Great Captain was left to stay at home +and count his beads like a hermit." The king threw cold water on the +enterprise. But the spirit and enthusiasm of the old monk triumphed over +them all, and on the 16th of May the fleet weighed anchor, reaching the +port of Mazalquivir on the following day. Oran, the goal of the +expedition, lay about a league away. + +As soon as the army was landed and drawn up in line, Ximenes mounted his +mule and rode along its front, dressed in his priestly robes, but with a +sword by his side. A group of friars followed, also with monastic garbs +and weapons of war. The cardinal, ascending a rising ground, made an +animated address to the soldiers, rousing their indignation by speaking of +the devastation of the coast of Spain by the Moslems, and awakening their +cupidity by dwelling on the golden spoil to be found in the rich city of +Oran. He concluded by saying that he had come to peril his own life in the +service of the cross and lead them in person to battle. + +The officers now crowded around the warlike old monk and earnestly begged +him not to expose his sacred person to the hazards of the fight, saying +that his presence would do more harm than good, as the men might be +distracted from the work before them by attending to his personal safety. +This last argument moved the warlike cardinal, who, with much reluctance, +consented to keep in the rear and leave the command of the army to its +military leader, Count Pedro Navarro. + +The day was now far advanced. Beacon-fires on the hill-tops showed that +the country was in alarm. Dark groups of Moorish soldiers could be seen on +the summit of the ridge that lay between Oran and Mazalquivir, and which +it would be necessary to take before the city could be reached. The men +were weary with the labors of landing, and needed rest and refreshment, +and Navarro deemed it unsafe to attempt anything more that day; but the +energetic prelate bade him "to go forward in God's name," and orders to +advance were at once given. + +Silently the Spanish troops began to ascend the steep sides of the +acclivity. Fortunately for them, a dense mist had arisen, which rolled +down the skirts of the hills and filled the valley through which they +moved. As soon as they left its cover and were revealed to the Moors a +shower of balls and arrows greeted them, followed by a desperate charge +down the hill. But the Spanish infantry, with their deep ranks and long +pikes, moved on unbroken by the assault, while Navarro opened with a +battery of heavy guns on the flank of the enemy. + +Thrown into disorder by the deadly volleys, the Moors began to give +ground, and, pressed upon heavily by the Spanish spearsmen, soon broke +into flight. The Spaniards hotly pursued, breaking rank in their eagerness +in a way that might have proved fatal but for the panic of the Moors, who +had lost all sense of discipline. The hill-top was reached, and down its +opposite slope poured the Spaniards, driving the fleeing Moors. Not far +before them rose the walls of Oran. The fleet had anchored before the city +and was vigorously cannonading it, being answered with equal spirit by +sixty pieces of artillery on the fortifications. Such were the excitement +and enthusiasm of the soldiers that they forgot weariness and disregarded +obstacles. In swift pursuit they followed the scattering Moors, and in a +brief time were close to the walls, defended by a deeply discouraged +garrison. + +The Spaniards had brought few ladders, but in the intense excitement and +energy of the moment no obstacle deterred them. Planting their long pikes +against the walls, or thrusting them into the crevices between the stones, +they clambered up with remarkable dexterity,--a feat which they were +utterly unable to repeat the next day, when they tried it in cold blood. + +A weak defence was made, and the ramparts soon swarmed with Spanish +soldiers. Sousa, the captain of the cardinal's guard, was the first to +gain the summit, where he unfurled the banner of Ximenes,--the cross on one +side and the cardinal's arms on the other. Six other banners soon floated +from the walls, and the soldiers, leaping down into the streets, gained +and threw open the gates. In streamed the army, sweeping all opposition +before it. Resistance and flight were alike unavailing. Houses and mosques +were tumultuously entered, no mercy being shown, no regard for age or sex, +the soldiers abandoning themselves to the brutal license and ferocity +common to the wars of that epoch. + +In vain Navarro sought to check his brutal troops; they were beyond +control; the butchery never ceased until, gorged with the food and wine +found in the houses, the worn-out soldiers flung themselves down in the +streets and squares to sleep. Four thousand Moors had been slain in the +brief assault, and perhaps twice that number were taken prisoners. The +city of Oran, that morning an opulent and prosperous community, was at +night a ruined and captive city, with its ferocious conquerors sleeping +amidst their slaughtered victims. + + [Illustration: LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN.] + + LIBERATION OF THE CAPTIVES FROM THE DUNGEON OF ORAN. + + +It was an almost incredible victory, considering the rapidity with which +it had been achieved. On the morning of the 16th the fleet of transports +had set sail from Spain. On the night of the 17th the object of the +expedition was fully accomplished, the army being in complete possession +of Oran, a strongly manned and fortified city, taken almost without loss. +Ximenes, to whose warlike enthusiasm this remarkable victory was wholly +due, embarked in his galley the next morning and sailed along the city's +margin, his soul swelling with satisfaction at his wonderful success. On +landing, the army hailed him as the true victor of Oran, a wave of +acclamations following him as he advanced to the alcazar, where the keys +of the fortress were put into his hands. A few hours after the surrender +of the city a powerful reinforcement arrived for its relief, but on +learning of its loss the disconcerted Moors retired. Had the attack been +deferred to the next day, as Navarro proposed, it would probably have +failed. The people of Spain ascribed the victory to inspiration from +heaven; but the only inspiration lay in the impetuous energy and +enthusiasm of the cardinal. Yet at that period it was by no means uncommon +to invent stories of miracles, and it is soberly asserted that the sun +stood still for several hours while the action went on, Heaven repeating +the miracle of Joshua, and halting the solar orb in its career, that more +of the heathen might be slaughtered. The greatest miracle of all would +have been had the sun stood still nowhere else than over the fated city of +Oran. + +It may not be amiss to add to this narrative an account of a second +expedition against Africa, made by Charles V. some thirty years later, in +which Heaven failed to come to the aid of Spain, and whose termination was +as disastrous as that of the expedition of Ximenes had been fortunate. + +It was the city of Algiers that Charles set out to reduce, and, though the +season was late and it was the time of the violent autumnal winds, he +persisted in his purpose in spite of the advice of experienced mariners. +The expedition consisted of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse, +with a large body of noble volunteers. The storms came as promised and +gave the army no small trouble in its voyage, but at length, with much +difficulty and danger, the troops were landed on the coast near Algiers +and advanced at once upon the town. + +Hascan, the Moorish leader, had only about six thousand men to oppose to +the large Spanish army, and had little hope of a successful resistance by +force of arms. But in this case Heaven--if we admit its interference at +all--came to the aid of the Moors. On the second day after landing, and +before operations had fairly begun, the clouds gathered and the skies grew +threatening. Towards evening rain began to fall and a fierce wind arose. +During the night a violent tempest swept the camp, and the soldiers, who +were without tents or shelter of any kind, were soon in a deplorable +state. Their camp, which was in a low situation, was quickly overflowed by +the pouring rains, and the ground became ankle deep in mud. No one could +lie down, while the wind blew so furiously that they could only stand by +thrusting their spears into the ground and clinging to them. About +day-dawn they were attacked by the vigilant Hascan, and a considerable +number of them killed before the enemy was forced to retire. + +Bad as the night had been, the day proved more disastrous still. The +tempest continued, its force increasing, and the sea, roused to its utmost +fury by the winds, made sad havoc of the ships. They were torn from their +anchorage, flung violently together, beat to pieces on the rocks, and +driven ashore, while many sank bodily in the waves. In less than an hour +fifteen war-vessels and a hundred and forty transports were wrecked and +eight thousand men had perished, those of the crews who reached shore +being murdered by the Moors as soon as they touched land. + +It was with anguish and astoundment that the emperor witnessed this wreck +of all his hopes, the great stores which he had collected for subsistence +and military purposes being in one fatal hour buried in the depths of the +sea. At length the wind began to fall, and some hopes arose that vessels +enough might have escaped to carry the distressed army back to Europe. But +darkness was again at hand, and a second night of suspense and misery was +passed. In the morning a boat reached land with a messenger from Andrew +Doria, the admiral of the fleet, who sent word that in fifty years of +maritime life he had never seen so frightful a storm, and that he had been +forced to bear away with his shattered ships to Cape Metafuz, whither he +advised the emperor to march with all speed, as the skies were still +threatening and the tempest might be renewed. + +The emperor was now in a fearful quandary. Metafuz was at least three +days' march away. All the food that had been brought ashore was consumed. +The soldiers, worn out with fatigue, were in no condition for such a +journey. Yet it was impossible to stay where they were. There was no need +of deliberation; no choice was left; their only hope of safety lay in +instant movement. + +The sick, wounded, and feeble were placed in the centre, the stronger in +front and rear, and the disastrous march began. Some of the men could +hardly bear the weight of their arms; others, worn out with toiling +through the nearly impassable roads, lay down and died; many perished from +hunger and exhaustion, there being no food but roots and berries gathered +by the way and the flesh of horses killed by the emperor's order; many +were drowned in the streams, swollen by the severe rains; many were killed +by the enemy, who followed and harassed them throughout the march. The +late gallant army was a bedraggled and miserable fragment when the +survivors at length reached Metafuz. Fortunately the storm was at an end, +and they were able to obtain from the ships the provisions of which they +stood so sorely in need. + +The calamities which attended this unlucky expedition were not yet at an +end. No sooner had the soldiers embarked than a new storm arose, less +violent than the former, but sufficient to scatter the ships to right and +left, some making port in Spain, some in Italy, all seeking such harbors +of refuge as they could find. The emperor, after passing through great +perils, was driven to the port of Bugia in Africa, where contrary winds +held him prisoner for several weeks. He at length reached Spain, to find +the whole land in dismay at the fate of the gallant expedition, which had +set out with such high hopes of success. To the end of his reign Charles +V. had no further aspirations for conquest in Africa. + + + + + +AN EMPEROR RETIRED FROM BUSINESS. + + +In October of the year 1555 a strange procession passed through a rugged +and hilly region of Spain. At its head rode an alcalde with a posse of +alguazils. Next came a gouty old man in a horse-litter, like a prisoner in +the hands of a convoy of officers of justice. A body of horsemen followed, +and in the rear toiled onward a long file of baggage-mules. + +As the train advanced into the more settled regions of the country it +became evident that the personage thus convoyed was not a prisoner, but a +person of the highest consequence. On each side of the road the people +assembled to see him pass, with a show of deep respect. At the towns along +the route the great lords of the neighborhood gathered in his honor, and +in the cities the traveller was greeted by respectful deputations of +officials. When Burgos was approached the great constable of Castile, with +a strong retinue of attendants, came to meet him, and when he passed +through the illuminated streets of that city the bells rang out in merry +peals, while enthusiastic people filled the streets. + +It was not a prisoner to the law, but a captive to gout, who thus passed +in slow procession through the lands and cities of Spain. It was the royal +Charles, King of Spain and the Netherlands, Emperor of Germany, and +magnate of America, at that time the greatest monarch in Europe, lord of a +realm greater than that of Charlemagne, who made his way with this small +following and in this simple manner through the heart of his Spanish +dominions. He had done what few kings have done before or since, +voluntarily thrown off his crown in the height of his power,--weary of +reigning, surfeited with greatness,--and retired to spend the remainder of +his life in privacy, to dwell far from the pomp of courts in a simple +community of monks. + +The next principal halting-place of the retired monarch was the city of +Valladolid, once the capital of the kingdom and still a rich and splendid +place, adorned with stately public buildings and the palaces of great +nobles. Here he remained for some time resting from his journey, his house +thronged with visitors of distinction. Among these, one day, came the +court fool. Charles touched his cap to him. + +"Welcome, brother," said the jester; "do you raise your hat to me because +you are no longer emperor?" + +"No," answered Charles, "but because this sorry courtesy is all I have +left to give you." + +On quitting Valladolid Charles seemed to turn his back finally on the +world, with all its pomps and vanities. Before leaving he took his last +dinner in public, and bade an affectionate farewell to his sisters, his +daughter, and his grandson, who had accompanied him thus far in his +journey. A large train of nobles and cavaliers rode with him to the gates +of the city, where he courteously dismissed them, and moved onward +attended only by his simple train. + +"Heaven be praised!" said the world-weary monarch, as he came nearer his +place of retreat; "after this no more visits of ceremony, no more +receptions!" + +But he was not yet rid of show and ostentation. Spending the night at +Medina del Campo, at the house of a rich banker named Rodrigo de Duenas, +the latter, by way of display, warmed the emperor's room with a brazier of +pure gold, in which, in place of common fuel, sticks of cinnamon were +burned. Neither the perfume nor the ostentation was agreeable to Charles, +and on leaving the next morning he punished his over-officious host by +refusing to permit him to kiss his hand, and by causing him to be paid for +the night's lodging like a common inn-keeper. + +This was not the first time that cinnamon had been burned in the emperor's +chamber. The same was done by the Fuggers, the famous bankers of Germany, +who had loaned Charles large sums for his expedition against Tunis, and +entertained him at their house on his return. In this case the emperor was +not offended by the odor of cinnamon, since it was modified by a different +and more agreeable perfume. The bankers, grateful to Charles for breaking +up a pestilent nest of Barbary pirates, threw the receipts for the money +they had loaned him into the fire, turning their gold into ashes in his +behalf. This was a grateful sacrifice to the emperor, whose war-like +enterprises consumed more money than he could readily command. + +The vicinity of Yuste was reached late in November. Here resided a +community of Jeronymite monks, in whose monastery he proposed to pass the +remainder of his days. There were two roads by which it could be +reached,--one an easy, winding highway, the other a rugged mountain-pass. +But by the latter four days would be saved, and Charles, tired of the long +journey, determined to take it, difficult as it might prove. + +He had been warned against the mountain pathway, and found it fully as +formidable as he had been told. A body of hardy rustics were sent ahead, +with pikes, shovels, and other implements, to clear the way. But it was +choked here and there with fallen stones and trunks of trees which they +were unable to move. In some localities the path wound round dizzy +precipices, where a false step would have been fatal. To any traveller it +would have been very difficult; to the helpless emperor it was frightfully +dangerous. The peasants carried the litter; in bad parts of the way the +emperor was transferred to his chair; in very perilous places the vigorous +peasants carried him in their arms. + +Several hours of this hard toil passed before they reached the summit. As +they emerged from the dark defiles of the _Puerto Nuevo_--now known as "The +Emperor's Pass"--Charles exclaimed, "It is the last pass I shall go through +in this world, save that of death." + +The descent was much more easy, and soon the gray walls of Yuste, half +hidden in chestnut-groves, came in sight. Yet it was three months before +the traveller reached there, for the apartments preparing for him were far +from ready, and he had to wait throughout the winter in the vicinity, in a +castle of the Count of Oropesa, and in the midst of an almost continual +downpour of rain, which turned the roads to mire, the country almost to a +swamp, and the mountains to vapor-heaps. The threshold of his new home was +far from an agreeable one. + +Charles V. had long contemplated the step he had thus taken. He was only +fifty-five years of age, but he had become an old man at fifty, and was +such a victim to the gout as to render his life a constant torment and the +duties of royalty too heavy to be borne. So, taking a resolution which few +monarchs have taken before or since, he gave up his power and resolved to +spend the remainder of his life in such quiet and peace as a retired +monastery would give. Spain and its subject lands he transferred to his +son Philip, who was to gain both fame and infamy as Philip II. He did his +best, also, to transfer the imperial crown of Germany to his fanatical and +heartless heir, but his brother Ferdinand, who was in power there, would +not consent, and he was obliged to make Ferdinand emperor of Germany, and +break in two the vast dominion which he had controlled. + +Charles had only himself to thank for his gout. Like many a man in humbler +life, he had abused the laws of nature until they had avenged themselves +upon him. The pleasures of the table with him far surpassed those of +intellectual or business pursuits. He had an extraordinary appetite, equal +to that of any royal _gourmand_ of whom history speaks, and, while leaving +his power behind him, he brought this enemy with him into his retirement. + + [Illustration: CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE.] + + CHARLES V. APPROACHING YUSTE. + + +We are told by a Venetian envoy at his court, in the latter part of his +reign, that, while still in bed in the morning, he was served with potted +capon, prepared with sugar, milk, and spices, and then went to sleep +again. At noon a meal of various dishes was served him, and another after +vespers. In the evening he supped heartily on anchovies, of which he was +particularly fond, or some other gross and savory food. His cooks were +often at their wits' end to devise some new dish, rich and highly seasoned +enough to satisfy his appetite, and his perplexed purveyor one day, +knowing Charles's passion for timepieces, told him "that he really did not +know what new dish he could prepare him, unless it were a _fricassee_ of +watches." + +Charles drank as heartily as he ate. His huge repasts were washed down +with potations proportionately large. Iced beer was a favorite beverage, +with which he began on rising and kept up during the day. By way of a +stronger potation, Rhenish wine was much to his taste. Roger Ascham, who +saw him on St. Andrew's day dining at the feast of the Golden Fleece, +tells us: "He drank the best that I ever saw. He had his head in the glass +five times as long as any of us, and never drank less than a good quart at +once of Rhenish." + +It was this over-indulgence in the pleasures of the table that brought the +emperor to Yuste. His physician warned him in vain. His confessor wasted +admonitions on his besetting sin. Sickness and suffering vainly gave him +warning to desist. Indigestion troubled him; bilious disorders brought +misery to his overworked stomach. At length came gout, the most terrible +of his foes. This enemy gave him little rest day or night. The man who had +hunted in the mountains for days without fatigue, who had kept the saddle +day and night in his campaigns, who had held his own in the lists with the +best knights of Europe, was now a miserable cripple, carried, wherever he +went, in the litter of an invalid. + +One would have thought that, in his monastic retreat, Charles would cease +to indulge in gastronomic excesses, but the retired emperor, with little +else to think of, gave as much attention to his appetite as ever. Yuste +was kept in constant communication with the rest of the world on matters +connected with the emperor's table. He was especially fond of fish and all +the progeny of the water,--eels, frogs, oysters, and the like. The trout of +the neighborhood were too small for his liking, so he had larger ones sent +from a distance. Potted fish--anchovies in particular--were favorite viands. +Eel pasty appealed strongly to his taste. Soles, lampreys, flounders +reached his kitchen from Seville and Portugal. The country around supplied +pork, mutton, and game. Sausages were sent him from a distance; olives +were brought from afar, as those near at hand were not to his liking. +Presents of sweetmeats and confectionery were sent him by ladies who +remembered his ancient tastes. In truth, Charles, tortured with gout, did +everything he well could to favor its attacks. + +The retired emperor, though he made a monastery his abode, had no idea of +living like a monk. His apartments were richly furnished and hung with +handsome tapestry, and every attention was paid to his personal comfort. +Rich carpets, canopies of velvet, sofas and chairs of carved walnut, seats +amply garnished with cushions for the ease of his tender joints, gave a +luxurious aspect to his retirement. His wardrobe contained no less than +sixteen robes of silk and velvet, lined with ermine, eider-down, or the +soft hair of the Barbary goat. He could not endure cold weather, and had +fireplaces and chimneys constructed in every room, usually keeping his +apartments almost at furnace heat, much to the discomfort of his +household. With all this, and his wrappings of fur and eider-down, he +would often be in a shiver and complain that he was chilled to the bone. + +His table was richly provided with plate, its service being of silver, as +were also the articles of the toilet, the basins, pitchers, and other +utensils of his bed-chamber. With these were articles of pure gold, +valuable for their curious workmanship. He had brought with him many +jewels of value, and a small but choice collection of paintings, some of +them among the noblest masterpieces of art. Among them were eight gems +from the hand of Titian. These were hung in rich frames around his rooms. +He was no reader, and had brought few books, his whole library comprising +but thirty-one volumes, and these mostly religious works, such as +psalters, missals, breviaries, and the like. There was some little science +and some little history, but the work which chiefly pleased him was a +French poem, "_Le Chevalier Delibere_," then popular, which celebrated the +exploits of the house of Burgundy, and especially of Charles the Bold. + +And now it comes in place to say something of how Charles employed himself +at Yuste, aside from eating and drinking and shivering in his chimney +corner. The mode in which a monarch retired from business passes his time +cannot be devoid of interest. He by no means gave up his attention to the +affairs of the realm, but kept himself well informed in all that was going +on, sometimes much to his annoyance, since blunders were made that gave +him a passing desire to be again at the head of affairs. In truth, two +years after his retirement, the public concerns got into such a snarl that +Philip earnestly sought to induce the emperor to leave his retreat and aid +him with his ripened experience. This Charles utterly refused to do. He +had had his fill of politics. It was much less trouble to run a household +than a nation. But he undertook to do what he could to improve the +revenues of the crown. Despatches about public affairs were brought to him +constantly, and his mental thermometer went up or down as things prospered +or the reverse. But he was not to be tempted to plunge again into the +turbulent tide of public affairs. + +Charles had other and more humble duties to occupy his time. His paroxysms +of gout came only at intervals, and in the periods between he kept himself +engaged. He had a taste for mechanics, and among his attendants was an +Italian named Torriano, a man of much ingenuity, who afterwards +constructed the celebrated hydraulic works at Toledo. He was a skilful +clock-maker, and, as Charles took a special interest in timepieces, his +assistant furnished his apartments with a series of elaborate clocks. One +of these was so complicated that its construction occupied more than three +years, every detail of the work being curiously watched by Charles. +Watches were then of recent invention, yet there were a number of them at +Yuste, made by Torriano. + +The attempt to make his clocks keep time together is said to have been one +of the daily occupations of the retired emperor, and the adjustment of his +clocks and watches gave him so much trouble that he is said to have one +day remarked that it was absurd to try and make men think alike, when, do +what he would, he could not make two of his timepieces agree. + +He often amused himself with Torriano in making little puppets,--soldiers +that would go through their exercises, dancing tambourine-girls, etc. It +is even asserted that they constructed birds that would fly in and out of +the window, a story rather difficult to accept. The monks began to look +upon Torriano as a professor of magic when he invented a handmill small +enough to be hidden in a friar's sleeve, yet capable of grinding enough +meal in a day to last a man for a week. + +The emperor was very fond of music, particularly devotional music, and was +a devotee in religious exercises, spending much of his time in listening +to the addresses of the chaplains, and observing the fasts and festivals +of the Church. His fondness for fish made the Lenten season anything but a +period of penance for him. + +He went on, indeed, eating and drinking as he would; and his disease went +on growing and deepening, until at length the shadow of death lay heavy on +the man whose religion did not include temperance in its precepts. During +1558 he grew steadily weaker, and on the 21st of September the final day +came; his eyes quietly closed and life fled from his frame. + +Yuste, famous as the abiding-place of Charles in his retirement, remained +unmolested in the subsequent history of the country until 1810, when a +party of French dragoons, foraging near by, found the murdered body of one +of their comrades not far from the monastery gates. Sure in their minds +that the monks had killed him, they broke in, dispersed the inmates, and +set the buildings on fire. The extensive pile of edifices continued to +burn for eight days, no one seeking to quench the flames. On the ninth the +ancient monastery was left a heap of ashes, only the church remaining, +and, protected by it, the palace of Charles. + +In 1820 a body of neighboring insurgents entered and defaced the remaining +buildings, carrying off everything they could find of value and turning +the church into a stable. Some of the monks returned, but in 1837 came an +act suppressing the convents, and the poor Jeronymites were finally turned +adrift. To-day the palace of Charles V. presents only desolate and dreary +chambers, used as magazines for grain and olives. So passes away the glory +of the world. + + + + + +THE FATE OF A RECKLESS PRINCE. + + +In 1568 died Don Carlos, Prince of Asturias, the son of Philip II. of +Spain; and in the same year died Isabella of Valois, the young and +beautiful queen of the Spanish monarch. Legend has connected the names of +Carlos and Isabella, and a mystery hangs over them which research has +failed to dispel. Their supposed love, their untimely fate, and the +suspicion that their death was due to the jealousy of the king, have +proved a prolific theme for fiction, and the story of the supposed unhappy +fate of the two has passed from the domain of history into that of romance +and the drama, there being more than one fine play based on the loves and +misfortunes of Carlos and Isabella. But sober history tells nothing of the +kind, and it is with history that we are here concerned. + +Carlos, the heir of the throne of Spain, was born in 1545. He was a bold, +headstrong boy, reckless in disposition, fond of manly exercises, generous +to a fault, fearless of heart, and passionately desirous of a military +life. In figure he was deformed, one shoulder being higher and one leg +longer than the other, while his chest was flat and his back slightly +humped. His features were not unhandsome, though very pale, and he spoke +with some difficulty. He was feeble and sickly as a boy, subject to +intermittent fever, and wasted away so greatly that it seemed as if he +would not live to manhood. + +Such were the mental and physical characteristics of the princely youth +who while still young was betrothed by treaty to the beautiful French +princess Isabella of Valois. The marriage was not destined to take place. +Before the treaty was ratified, Queen Mary of England, Philip's wife, +died, and his name was substituted for that of his son in the marriage +treaty. The wedding ceremony took place at Toledo, in February, 1560, and +was celebrated with great splendor. Carlos was present, and may have felt +some resentment at being robbed by his father of this beautiful bride. +Romantic historians tell us that Isabella felt a tender sentiment for him, +a very unlikely statement in view of the fact that he was at that time a +sickly, ill-favored boy of only fourteen years of age. Shortly after the +marriage Carlos was formally recognized as heir to the crown. + +Two years afterwards a serious accident occurred. In descending a flight +of stairs the boy slipped and fell headlong, injuring his head so severely +that his life was despaired of. His head swelled to an enormous size; he +became delirious and totally blind; examination showed that his skull was +fractured; a part of the bone was removed, but no relief was obtained. All +the arts of the doctors of that day were tried in vain, but the boy got no +better. Processions were made to the churches, prayers were offered, and +pilgrimages were vowed, all without avail. Then more radical means were +tried. The mouldering bones of a holy Franciscan, who had died a hundred +years before, and had always been the object of the prince's especial +veneration, were taken from their coffin and laid on the boy's bed, and +the cloth that had enclosed the dead man's skull was placed on his +forehead. + +That night, we are gravely told, the dead friar came to Carlos in his +sleep, bidding him to "be of good cheer, for he would certainly recover." +Soon after, the fever subsided, his head shrank back to its natural size, +his sight returned. In two months from the date of the accident he was +physically well, his recovery being partly or wholly due to the skill of +an Italian surgeon, who trepanned him and by this act restored him to +consciousness. + +Likely enough the boy was never cured. The blow may have done some +permanent injury to his brain. At any rate, he became strikingly eccentric +and reckless, giving way to every mad whim that came into his mind. The +stories of his wild doings formed the scandal of Madrid. In 1564 one of +his habits was to patrol the streets with a number of young nobles as +lawless as himself, attacking the passengers with their swords, kissing +the women, and using foul language to ladies of the highest rank. + +At that time it was the custom for the young gallants of the court to wear +very large boots. Carlos increased the size of his, that he might carry in +them a pair of small pistols. Fearing mischief, the king ordered the +shoemaker to reduce the size of his son's boots; but when the unlucky son +of St. Crispin brought them to the palace, the prince flew into a rage, +beat him severely, and then ordered the leather to be cut into pieces and +stewed, and forced the shoemaker to swallow it on the spot--or as much of +it as he could get down. + +These are only a sample of his pranks. He beat his governor, attempted to +throw his chamberlain out of the window, and threatened to stab Cardinal +Espinosa for banishing a favorite actor from the palace. + +One anecdote told of him displays a reckless and whimsical humor. Having +need of money, Carlos asked of a merchant, named Grimaldo, a loan of +fifteen hundred ducats. The money-lender readily consented, thanked the +prince for the compliment, and, in the usual grandiloquent vein of +Castilian courtesy, told Carlos that all he had was at his disposal. + +"I am glad to learn that," answered the prince. "You may make the loan, +then, one hundred thousand ducats." + +Poor Grimaldo was thunderstruck. He tremblingly protested that it was +impossible,--he had not the money. "It would ruin my credit," he declared. +"What I said were only words of compliment." + +"You have no right to bandy compliments with princes," Don Carlos replied. +"I take you at your word. If you do not, in twenty-four hours, pay over +the money to the last _real_, you shall have bitter cause to rue it." + +The unhappy Grimaldo knew not what to do. Carlos was persistent. It took +much negotiation to induce the prince to reduce the sum to sixty thousand +ducats, which the merchant raised and paid,--with a malediction on all +words of compliment. The money flew like smoke from the prince's hands, he +being quite capable of squandering the revenues of a kingdom. He lived in +the utmost splendor, and was lavish with all who came near him, saying, in +support of his gifts and charities, "Who will give if princes do not?" + +The mad excesses of the prince, his wild defiance of decency and decorum, +were little to the liking of his father, who surrounded the young man with +agents whom he justly looked upon as spies, and became wilder in his +conduct in consequence. Offers of marriage were made from abroad. +Catharine de Medicis proposed the hand of a younger sister of Isabella. +The emperor of Germany pressed for a union with his daughter Anne, the +cousin of Carlos. Philip agreed to the latter, but deferred the marriage. +He married Anne himself after the death of Carlos, making her his fourth +wife. Thus both the princesses intended for the son became the brides of +the father. + +The trouble between Carlos and his father steadily grew. The prince was +now twenty-one years of age, and, in his eagerness for a military life, +wished to take charge of affairs in the Netherlands, then in rebellion +against Spain. On learning that the Duke of Alva was to be sent thither, +Carlos said to him, "You are not to go there; I will go myself." + +The efforts of the duke to soothe him only irritated him, and in the end +he drew his dagger and exclaimed, "You shall not go; if you do I will kill +you." + +A struggle followed, the prince making violent efforts to stab the duke. +It only ended when a chamberlain came in and rescued Alva. This outrage on +his minister doubled the feeling of animosity between father and son, and +they grew so hostile that they ceased to speak, though living in the same +palace. + +The next escapade of Carlos brought matters to a crisis. He determined to +fly from Spain and seek a more agreeable home in Germany or the +Netherlands. As usual, he had no money, and he tried to obtain funds by +demanding loans from different cities,--a reckless process which at once +proclaimed that he had some mad design in mind. He went further than this, +saying to his confidants that "he wished to kill a man with whom he had a +quarrel." This purpose he confessed to a priest, and demanded absolution. +The priest refused this startling request, and as the prince persisted in +his sanguinary purpose, a conclave of sixteen theologians was called +together to decide what action it was advisable to take in so +extraordinary a case. + +After a debate on the subject, one of them asked Carlos the name of his +enemy. The prince calmly replied,-- + +"My father is the person. I wish to take his life." + +This extraordinary declaration, in which the mad prince persisted, threw +the conclave into a state of the utmost consternation. On breaking up, +they sent a messenger to the king, then at the Escorial Palace, and made +him acquainted with the whole affair. This story, if it is true, seems to +indicate that the prince was insane. + +His application to the cities for funds was in a measure successful. By +the middle of January, 1568, his agents brought him in a hundred and fifty +thousand ducats,--a fourth of the sum he had demanded. On the 17th he sent +an order to Don Ramon de Tassis, director-general of the posts, demanding +that eight horses should be provided for him that evening. Tassis, +suspecting something wrong, sent word that the horses were all out. Carlos +repeated his order in a peremptory manner, and the postmaster now sent all +the horses out, and proceeded with the news to the king at the Escorial. +Philip immediately returned to Madrid, where, the next morning, Carlos +attacked his uncle, Don John of Austria, with a drawn sword, because the +latter refused to repeat a conversation he had had with the king. + +For some time Carlos had slept with the utmost precautions, as if he +feared an attack upon his life. His sword and dagger lay ready by his +bedside, and he kept a loaded musket within reach. He had also a bolt +constructed in such a manner that, by aid of pulleys, he could fasten or +unfasten the door of his chamber while in bed. All this was known to +Philip, and he ordered the mechanic who had made it to derange the +mechanism so that it would not work. To force a way into the chamber of a +man like Carlos might not have been safe. + + [Illustration: THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID.] + + THE ROYAL PALACE. MADRID. + + +At the hour of eleven that night the king came down-stairs, wearing armor +on his body and a helmet on his head. With him were the Duke of Feria, +captain of the guard, several other lords, and twelve guardsmen. They +quietly entered the chamber of the prince, and the duke, stealing to the +bedside, secured the sword, dagger, and musket which lay there. + +The noise now wakened Carlos, who sprang up, demanding who was there. + +"It is the council of state," answered the duke. + +On hearing this the prince leaped from the bed, uttering threats and +imprecations, and endeavored to seize his arms. Philip, who had prudently +kept in the background until the weapons were secured, now advanced and +bade his son to return to bed and keep quiet. + +"What does your majesty want of me?" demanded the prince. + +"You will soon learn," Philip harshly replied. + +He then gave orders that the windows and doors of the room should be +strongly secured and the keys brought to him. Every article of furniture, +even the andirons, with which violence might have been done, was removed +from the room. The king then appointed Feria keeper of the prince, and +bade the other nobles to serve him, with due respect, saying that he would +hold them as traitors if they permitted him to escape. + +"Your majesty had better kill me than keep me a prisoner," exclaimed +Carlos. "It will be a great scandal to the kingdom. If you do not kill me +I will kill myself." + +"You will do no such thing," answered Philip. "That would be the act of a +madman." + +"Your majesty," replied the prince, "treats me so ill that you drive me to +this extremity. I am not mad, but you drive me to despair." + +Other words passed, and on the withdrawal of the king the voice of Carlos +was so broken by sobs that his words could scarcely be heard. That night +the Duke of Feria and two other lords remained in the prince's room,--now +his prison. Each succeeding night two of the six appointed lords performed +this duty. They were not allowed to wear their swords in the presence of +the prince, but his meat was cut up before serving, as no knife was +permitted to be used at his meals. A guard was stationed in the passage +without, and, as the prince could not look from his barricaded windows, he +was from that day dead to the world. + +The king immediately summoned his council of state and began a process +against the prisoner. Though making a show of deep affliction, he was +present at all the meetings and listened to all the testimony, which, when +written out, formed a heap of paper half a foot thick. + +The news of the arrest of Don Carlos made a great sensation in Spain. The +wildest rumors were set afloat. Some said that he had tried to kill his +father, others that he was plotting rebellion. Many laid all the blame on +the king. "Others, more prudent than their neighbors, laid their fingers +on their lips and were silent." The affair created almost as much +sensation throughout Europe as in Spain. Philip, in his despatches to +other courts, spoke in such vague and mysterious language that it was +impossible to tell what he meant, and the most varied surmises were +advanced. + +Meanwhile, Carlos was kept rigorously confined, so much so that he was not +left alone day or night. Of the two nobles in his chamber at night, one +was required to keep awake while the other slept. They were permitted to +talk with him, but not on political matters nor on the subject of his +imprisonment. They were ordered to bring him no messages from without nor +receive any from him. No books except devotional ones were allowed him. + +If it was the purpose of Philip to end the life of his son by other means +than execution he could not have taken better measures. For a young man of +his high spirit and fiery temper such strict confinement was maddening. At +first he was thrown into a frenzy, and tried more than once to make way +with himself. The sullenness of despair succeeded. He grew daily more +emaciated, and the malarial fever which had so long affected him now +returned in a severe degree. To allay the heat of the fever he would +deluge the floor of his chamber with water, and walk for hours with bare +feet on the cold floor. He had a warming-pan filled with ice and snow +brought him, and kept it for hours at night in his bed. He would drink +snow-water in immoderate draughts. In his eating he seemed anxious to +break down his strength,--now refusing all food for days together, now +devouring a pasty of four partridges at a sitting, washing it down with +three gallons or more of iced water. + +That he was permitted to indulge in such caprices seems to indicate that +Philip wished him to kill himself. No constitution, certainly not so weak +a one as that of Carlos, could long withstand these excesses. His stomach +refused to perform its duty; severe vomiting attacked him; dysentery set +in; his strength rapidly failed. The expected end came on the 24th of +July, six months after the date of his imprisonment, death releasing the +prince from the misery of his unhappy lot. One writer tells us that it was +hastened by a strong purgative dose, administered by his father's orders, +and that he was really assassinated. However that be, Philip had little +reason to be sorry at the death of his lunatic son. To one of his austere +temperament it was probably an easy solution of a difficult problem. + +Less than three months passed after the death of Carlos when Isabella +followed him to the grave. She was then but twenty-three years old,--about +the same age as himself. The story was soon set afloat that Philip had +murdered both his son and his wife, moved thereto by jealousy; and from +this has arisen the romantic story of secret love between the two, with +the novels and dramas based thereon. In all probability the story is +without foundation. Philip is said to have been warmly loved by his wife, +and the poison which carried her away seems to have been the heavy doses +of medicine with which the doctors of that day sought to cure a passing +illness. + + + + + +SPAIN'S GREATEST VICTORY AT SEA. + + +On the 16th of September, 1571, there sailed from the harbor of Messina +one of the greatest fleets the Mediterranean had ever borne upon its +waves. It consisted of more than three hundred vessels, most of them +small, but some of great bulk for that day, carrying forty pieces of +artillery. On board these ships were eighty thousand men. Of these, less +than thirty thousand were soldiers, for in those days, when war-galleys +were moved by oars rather than sails, great numbers of oarsmen were +needed. At the head of this powerful armament was Don John of Austria, +brother of Philip II., and the ablest naval commander that Spain +possessed. + +At sunrise on the 7th of October the Christian fleet came in sight, at the +entrance to the Bay of Lepanto, on the west of Greece, of the great +Turkish armament, consisting of nearly two hundred and fifty royal +galleys, with a number of smaller vessels in the rear. On these ships are +said to have been not less than one hundred and twenty thousand men. A +great battle for the supremacy of Christian or Mohammedan was about to be +fought between two of the largest fleets ever seen in the Mediterranean. + +For more than a century the Turks had been masters of Constantinople and +the Eastern Empire, and had extended their dominion far to the west. The +Mediterranean had become a Turkish lake, which the fleets of the Ottoman +emperors swept at will. Cyprus had fallen, Malta had sustained a terrible +siege, and the coasts of Italy and Spain were exposed to frightful +ravages, in which the corsairs of the Barbary states joined hands with the +Turks. France only was exempt, its princes having made an alliance with +Turkey, in which they gained safety at the cost of honor. + +Spain was the leading opponent of this devastating power. For centuries +the Spanish people had been engaged in a bitter crusade against the Moslem +forces. The conquest of Granada was followed by descents upon the African +coast, the most important of which was the conquest of Tunis by Charles +the Fifth in 1535, on which occasion ten thousand Christian captives were +set free from a dreadful bondage. An expedition against Tripoli in 1559, +however, ended in disaster, the Turks and the Moors continued triumphant +at sea, and it was not until 1571 that the proud Moslem powers received an +effectual check. + +The great fleet of which Don John of Austria was admiral-in-chief had not +come solely from Spain. Genoa had furnished a large number of galleys, +under their famous admiral, Andrew Doria,--a name to make the Moslems +tremble. Venice had added its fleet, and the Papal States had sent a +strong contingent of ships. Italy had been suffering from the Turkish +fleet, fire and sword had turned the Venetian coasts into a smoking +desolation, and this was the answer of Christian Europe to the Turkish +menace. + +The sight of the Turkish fleet on that memorable 7th of October created +instant animation in the Christian armament. Don John hoisted his pennon, +ordered the great standard of the league, given by the Pope, to be +unfurled, and fired a gun in defiance of the Turks. Some of the commanders +doubted the wisdom of engaging the enemy in a position where he had the +advantage, but the daring young commander curtly cut short the discussion. + +"Gentlemen," he said, "this is the time for combat, not for counsel." + +Steadily the two fleets approached each other on that quiet sea. The +Christian ships extended over a width of three miles. On the right was +Andrew Doria, with sixty-four galleys. The centre, consisting of +sixty-three galleys, was commanded by Don John, with Colonna, the +captain-general of the Pope, on one flank, and Veniero, the Venetian +captain-general, on the other. The left wing, commanded by the noble +Venetian Barbarigo, extended as near to the coast of AEtolia as it was +deemed safe to venture. The reserve, of thirty-five galleys, was under the +Marquis of Santa Cruz. The plan of battle was simple. Don John's orders to +his captains were for each to select an adversary, close with him at once, +and board as soon as possible. + +As the fleet advanced the armament of the Turks came into full view, +spread out in half-moon shape over a wider space than that of the allies. +The great galleys, with their gilded and brightly painted prows and their +myriad of banners and pennons, presented a magnificent spectacle. But the +wind, which had thus far favored the Turks, now suddenly shifted and blew +in their faces, and the sun, as the day advanced, shone directly in their +eyes. The centre of their line was occupied by the huge galley of Ali +Pasha, their leader. Their right was commanded by Mahomet Sirocco, viceroy +of Egypt; their left by Uluch Ali, dey of Algiers, the most redoubtable of +the corsair lords of the sea. + +The breeze continued light. It was nearly noon when the fleets came face +to face. The sun, now nearing the zenith, shone down from a cloudless sky. +As yet it seemed like some grand holiday spectacle rather than the coming +of a struggle for life or death. + +Suddenly the shrill war-cry of the Turks rang out on the air. Their cannon +began to play. The firing ran along the line until the whole fleet was +engaged. On the Christian side the trumpets rang defiance and the guns +answered the Turkish peals. The _galeazzas_, a number of mammoth +war-ships, had been towed a half-mile in advance of the Spanish fleet, and +as the Turks came up poured broadsides from their heavy guns with striking +effect, doing considerable damage. But Ali Pasha, not caring to engage +these monster craft, opened his lines and passed them by. They had done +their work, and took no further part, being too unwieldy to enter into +close action. + +The battle began on the left. Barbarigo, the Venetian admiral, had brought +his ships as near the coast as he dared. But Mahomet Sirocco knew the +waters better, passed between his ships and the shore, and doubled upon +him, bringing the Christian line between two fires. Barbarigo was wounded, +eight galleys were sent to the bottom, and several were captured. Yet the +Venetians, who hated the Turks with a mortal hatred, fought on with +unyielding fury. + +Uluch Ali, on the Christian right, tried the same manoeuvre. But he had +Andrew Doria, the experienced Genoese, to deal with, and his purpose was +defeated by a wide extension of the Christian line. It was a trial of +skill between the two ablest commanders on the Mediterranean. Doria, by +stretching out his line, had weakened his centre, and the corsair captain, +with alert decision, fell upon some galleys separated from their +companions, sinking several, and carrying off the great Capitana of Malta +as a prize. + +Thus both on the right and on the left the Christians had the worst of it. +The severest struggle was in the centre. Here were the flag-ships of the +commanders,--the Real, Don John's vessel, flying the holy banner of the +League; Ali Pasha displaying the great Ottoman standard, covered with +texts from the Koran in letters of gold, and having the name of Allah +written upon it many thousands of times. + +Both the commanders, young and ardent, burned with desire to meet in mid +battle. The rowers urged forward their vessels with an energy that sent +them ahead of the rest of their lines, driving them through the foaming +water with such force that the pasha's galley, much the larger and loftier +of the two, was hurled upon its opponent until its prow reached the fourth +bench of rowers. Both vessels groaned and quivered to their very keels +with the shock. + +As soon as the vessels could be disengaged the combat began, the pasha +opening with a fierce fire of cannon and musketry, which was returned with +equal fury and more effect. The Spanish gunners and musketeers were +protected by high defences, and much of the Turkish fire went over their +heads, while their missiles, poured into the unprotected and crowded crews +of Ali's flag-ship, caused terrible loss. But the Turks had much the +advantage in numbers, and both sides fought with a courage that made the +result a matter of doubt. + +The flag-ships were not long left alone. Other vessels quickly gathered +round them, and the combat spread fiercely to both sides. The new-comers +attacked one another and assailed at every opportunity the two central +ships. But the latter, beating off their assailants, clung together with +unyielding pertinacity, as if upon them depended the whole issue of the +fight. + +The complete width of the entrance to the bay of Lepanto was now a scene +of mortal combat, though the vessels were so lost under a pall of smoke +that none of the combatants could see far to the right or left. The lines, +indeed, were broken up into small detachments, each fighting the +antagonists in its front, without regard to what was going on elsewhere. +The battle was in no sense a grand whole, but a series of separate combats +in which the galleys grappled and the soldiers and sailors boarded and +fought hand to hand. The slaughter was frightful. In the case of some +vessels, it is said, every man on board was killed or wounded, while the +blood that flowed from the decks stained the waters of the gulf red for +miles. + +The left wing of the allies, as has been said, was worsted at the +beginning of the fight, its commander receiving a wound which proved +mortal. But the Venetians fought on with the courage of despair. In the +end they drove back their adversaries and themselves became the +assailants, taking vessel after vessel from the foe. The vessel of Mahomet +Sirocco was sunk, and he was slain after escaping death by drowning. His +death ended the resistance of his followers. They turned to fly, many of +the vessels being run ashore and abandoned and their crews largely +perishing in the water. + +While victory in this quarter perched on the Christian banners, the mortal +struggle in the centre went on. The flag-ships still clung together, an +incessant fire of artillery and musketry sweeping both decks. The +Spaniards proved much the better marksmen, but the greater numbers of the +Turks, and reinforcements received from an accompanying vessel, balanced +this advantage. Twice the Spaniards tried to board and were driven back. A +third effort was more successful, and the deck of the Turkish galley was +reached. The two commanders cheered on their men, exposing themselves to +danger as freely as the meanest soldier. Don John received a wound in the +foot,--fortunately a slight one. Ali Pasha led his janizaries boldly +against the boarders, but as he did so he was struck in the head by a +musket-ball and fell. The loss of his inspiring voice discouraged his men. +For a time they continued to struggle, but, borne back by their impetuous +assailants, they threw down their arms and asked for quarter. + +The deck was covered with the bodies of the dead and wounded. From beneath +them the body of Ali was drawn, severely, perhaps mortally, wounded. His +rescuers would have killed him on the spot, but he diverted them by +pointing out where his money and jewels could be found. The next soldier +to come up was one of the galley-slaves, whom Don John had unchained from +the oar and supplied with arms. Ali's story of treasure was lost on him. +With one blow he severed his head from his shoulders, and carried the gory +prize to Don John, laying it at his feet. The generous Spaniard looked at +it with a mingling of pity and horror. + +"Of what use can such a present be to me?" he coldly asked the slave, who +looked for some rich reward; "throw it into the sea." + +This was not done. The head was stuck on a pike and raised aloft on the +captured galley. At the same time the great Ottoman banner was drawn down, +while that of the Cross was elevated with cheers of triumph in its place. + +The shouts of "victory!" the sight of the Christian standard at the +mast-head of Ali's ship, the news of his death, which spread from ship to +ship, gave new courage to the allies and robbed the Turks of spirit. They +fought on, but more feebly. Many of their vessels were boarded and taken. +Others were sunk. After four hours of fighting the resistance of the +Turkish centre was at an end. + +On the right, as related, Andrew Doria had suffered a severe loss by +stretching his line too far. He would have suffered still more had not the +reserve under Santa Cruz, which had already given aid to Don John, come to +his relief. Strengthened by Cardona with the Sicilian squadron, he fell on +the Algerine galleys with such fierceness that they were forced to recoil. +In their retreat they were hotly assailed by Doria, and Uluch, beset on +all sides, was obliged to abandon his prizes and take to flight. Tidings +now came to him of the defeat of the centre and the death of Ali, and, +hoisting signals for retreat, he stood in all haste to the north, followed +by the galleys of his fleet. + +With all sail spread and all its oarsmen vigorously at work, the corsair +fleet sped rapidly away, followed by Doria and Santa Cruz. Don John joined +in the pursuit, hoping to intercept the fugitives in front of a rocky +headland which stretched far into the sea. But the skilled Algerine leader +weathered this peril, losing a few vessels on the rocks, the remainder, +nearly forty in number, bearing boldly onward. Soon they distanced their +pursuers, many of whose oarsmen had taken part and been wounded in the +fight. Before nightfall the Algerines were vanishing below the horizon. + +There being signs of a coming storm, Don John hastened to seek a harbor of +refuge, setting fire to such vessels as were damaged beyond usefulness, +and with the remainder of his prizes making all haste to the neighboring +port of Petala, the best harbor within reach. + +The loss of the Turks had been immense, probably not less than twenty-five +thousand being killed and five thousand taken prisoners. To Don John's +prizes may be added twelve thousand Christian captives, chained to the +oars by the Turks, who now came forth, with tears of joy, to bless their +deliverers. The allies had lost no more than eight thousand men. This +discrepancy was largely due to their use of fire-arms, while many of the +Turks fought with bows and arrows. Only the forty Algerine ships escaped; +one hundred and thirty vessels were taken. The Christian loss was but +fifteen galleys. The spoils were large and valuable, consisting in great +measure of gold, jewels, and rich brocades. + +Of the noble cavaliers who took part in the fight, we shall speak only of +Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, a nephew of Don John, whom he was +destined to succeed in military renown. He began here his career with a +display of courage and daring unsurpassed on the fleet. Among the +combatants was a common soldier, Cervantes by name, whose future glory was +to throw into the shade that of all the leaders in the fight. Though +confined to bed with a fever on the morning of the battle, he insisted on +taking part, and his courage in the affray was shown by two wounds on his +breast and a third in his hand which disabled it for life. Fortunately it +was the left hand. The right remained to write the immortal story of Don +Quixote de la Mancha. + +Thus ended one of the greatest naval battles of modern times. No important +political effect came from it, but it yielded an immense moral result. It +had been the opinion of Europe that the Turks were invincible at sea. This +victory dispelled that theory, gave new heart to Christendom, and so +dispirited the Turks that in the next year they dared not meet the +Christians at sea, though they were commanded by the daring dey of +Algiers. The beginning of the decline of the Ottoman empire may be said to +date from the battle of Lepanto. + + + + + +THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. + + +During almost the whole reign of Philip II. the army of Spain was kept +busily engaged, now with the Turks and the Barbary states, now with the +revolted Moriscos, or descendants of the Moors of Granada, now in the +conquest of Portugal, now with the heretics of the Netherlands. All this +was not enough for the ambition of the Spanish king. Elizabeth of England +had aided the Netherland rebels and had insulted him in America by sending +fleets to plunder his colonies; England, besides, was a nest of enemies of +the church of which Philip was one of the most zealous supporters; he +determined to attempt the conquest of that heretical and hostile island +and the conversion of its people. + +For months all the shipwrights of Spain were kept busy in building vessels +of an extraordinary size. Throughout the kingdom stores were actively +collected for their equipment. Levies of soldiers were made in Italy, +Germany, and the Netherlands, to augment the armies of Spain. What was in +view was the secret of the king, but through most of 1587 all Europe +resounded with the noise of his preparations. + +Philip broached his project to his council of state, but did not gain much +support for his enterprise. "England," said one of them, "is surrounded +with a tempestuous ocean and has few harbors. Its navy is equal to that of +any other nation, and if a landing is made we shall find its coasts +defended by a powerful army. It would be better first to subdue the +Netherlands; that done we shall be better able to chastise the English +queen." The Duke of Parma, Philip's general in chief, was of the same +opinion. Before any success could be hoped for, he said, Spain should get +possession of some large seaport in Zealand, for the accommodation of its +fleet. + +These prudent counsels were thrown away on the self-willed king. His +armies had lately conquered Portugal; England could not stand before their +valor; one battle at sea and another on shore would decide the contest; +the fleet he was building would overwhelm all the ships that England +possessed; the land forces of Elizabeth, undisciplined and unused to war, +could not resist his veteran troops, the heroes of a hundred battles, and +led by the greatest general of the age. All this he insisted on. Europe +should see what he could do. England should be punished for its heresy and +Elizabeth pay dearly for her discourtesy. + +Philip was confirmed in his purpose by the approbation of the Pope. +Elizabeth of England was the greatest enemy of the Catholic faith. She had +abolished it throughout her dominions and executed as a traitor the +Catholic Queen Mary of Scotland. For nearly thirty years she had been the +chief support of the Protestants in Germany, France, and the Netherlands. +Pope Pius V. had already issued a bull deposing Elizabeth, on the ground +of acts of perfidy. Sixtus VI., who succeeded, renewed this bull and +encouraged Philip who, ambitious to be considered the guardian of the +Church, hastened his preparations for the conquest of the island kingdom. + +Elizabeth was not deceived by the stories set afloat by Spain. She did not +believe that this great fleet was intended partly for the reduction of +Holland, partly for use in America, as Philip declared. Scenting danger +afar, she sent Sir Francis Drake with a fleet to the coast of Spain to +interrupt these stupendous preparations. + +Drake was the man for the work. Dispersing the Spanish fleet sent to +oppose him, he entered the harbor of Cadiz, where he destroyed two large +galleons and a handsome vessel filled with provisions and naval stores. +Then he sailed for the Azores, captured a rich carrack on the way home +from the East Indies, and returned to England laden with spoils. He had +effectually put an end to Philip's enterprise for that year. + +Philip now took steps towards a treaty of peace with England, for the +purpose of quieting the suspicions of the queen. She appeared to fall into +the snare, pretended to believe that his fleet was intended for Holland +and America, and entered into a conference with Spain for the settlement +of all disturbing questions. But at the same time she raised an army of +eighty thousand men, fortified all exposed ports, and went vigorously to +work to equip her fleet. She had then less than thirty ships in her navy, +and these much smaller than those of Spain, but the English sailors were +the best and boldest in the world, new ships were rapidly built, and pains +was taken to increase the abhorrence which the people felt for the tyranny +of Spain. Accounts were spread abroad of the barbarities practised in +America and in the Netherlands, vivid pictures were drawn of the cruelties +of the Inquisition, and the Catholic as well as the Protestant people of +England became active in preparing for defence. The whole island was of +one mind; loyalty seemed universal; the citizens of London provided thirty +ships, and the nobility and gentry of England forty or fifty more. But +these were of small size as compared with those of their antagonist, and +throughout the island apprehension prevailed. + +In the beginning of May, 1588, Philip's strenuous labors were concluded +and the great fleet was ready. It was immense as compared with that with +which William the Conqueror had invaded and conquered England five +centuries before. The Invincible Armada, as the Spaniards called it, +consisted of one hundred and fifty ships, many of them of enormous size. +They were armed with more than two thousand six hundred great guns, were +provisioned for half a year, and contained military stores in a profusion +which only the wealth of America and the Indies could have supplied. On +them were nearly twenty thousand of the famous troops of Spain, with two +thousand volunteers of the most distinguished families, and eight thousand +sailors. In addition there was assembled in the coast districts of the +Netherlands an army of thirty-four thousand men, for whose transportation +to England a great number of flat-bottomed vessels had been procured. +These were to venture upon the sea as soon as the Armada was in position +for their support. + +And now, indeed, "perfidious Albion" had reason to tremble. Never had that +nation of islanders been so seriously threatened, not even when the ships +of William of Normandy were setting sail for its shores. The great fleet, +which lay at Lisbon, then a city of Spain, was to set sail in the early +days of May, and no small degree of fear affected the hearts of all +Protestant Europe, for the conquest of England by Philip the fanatic would +have been a frightful blow to the cause of religious and political +liberty. + +All had so far gone well with Spain; now all began to go ill. At the very +time fixed for sailing the Marquis of Santa Cruz, the admiral of the +fleet, was taken violently ill and died, and with him died the Duke of +Paliano, the vice-admiral. Santa Cruz's place was not easy to fill. Philip +chose to succeed him the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a nobleman totally +ignorant of sea affairs, giving him for vice-admiral Martinez de Recaldo, +a seaman of much experience. All this caused so much delay that the fleet +did not sail till May 29. + +Storm succeeded sickness to interfere with Philip's plans. A tempest fell +on the fleet on its way to Corunna, where it was to take on some troops +and stores. All but four of the ships reached Corunna, but they had been +so battered and dishevelled by the winds that several weeks passed before +they could again be got ready for sea,--much to the discomfiture of the +king, who was eager to become the lord and master of England. He had dwelt +there in former years as the husband of Queen Mary; now he was ambitious +to set foot there as absolute king. + +England, meanwhile, was in an ebullition of joy. Word had reached there +that the Spanish fleet was rendered unseaworthy by the storm, and the +queen's secretary, in undue haste, ordered Lord Howard, the admiral, to +lay up four of his largest ships and discharge their crews, as they would +not be needed. But Howard was not so ready to believe a vague report, and +begged the queen to let him keep the ships, even if at his own expense, +till the truth could be learned. To satisfy himself, he set sail for +Corunna, intending to try and destroy the Armada if as much injured as +reported. Learning the truth, and finding that a favorable wind for Spain +had begun to blow, he returned to Plymouth in all haste, in some dread +lest the Armada might precede him to the English coast. + +He had not long been back when stirring tidings came. The Armada had been +seen upon the seas. Lord Howard at once left harbor with his fleet. The +terrible moment of conflict, so long and nervously awaited, was at hand. +On the next day--July 30--he came in view of the great Spanish fleet, drawn +up in the form of a crescent, with a space of seven miles between its +wings. Before this giant fleet his own seemed but a dwarf. Paying no +attention to Lord Howard's ships, the Armada moved on with dignity up the +Channel, its purpose being to disperse the Dutch and English ships off the +Netherland coast and escort to England the Duke of Parma's army, then +ready to sail. + +Lord Howard deemed it wisest to pursue a guerilla mode of warfare, +harassing the Spaniards and taking any advantage that offered. He first +attacked the flag-ship of the vice-admiral Recaldo, and with such vigor +and dexterity as to excite great alarm in the Spanish fleet. From that +time it kept closer order, yet on the same day Howard attacked one of its +largest ships. Others hurried to the aid; but in their haste two of them +ran afoul, one, a large galleon, having her mast broken. She fell behind +and was captured by Sir Francis Drake, who discovered, to his delight, +that she had on board a chief part of the Spanish treasure. + +Other combats took place, in all of which the English were victorious. The +Spaniards proved ignorant of marine evolutions, and the English sailed +around them with a velocity which none of their ships could equal, and +proved so much better marksmen that nearly every shot told, while the +Spanish gunners fired high and wasted their balls in the air. The fight +with the Armada seemed a prototype of the much later sea-battles at Manila +and Santiago de Cuba. + +Finally, after a halt before Calais, the Armada came within sight of +Dunkirk, where Parma's army, with its flat-bottomed transports, was +waiting to embark. Here a calm fell upon the fleets, and they remained +motionless for a whole day. But about midnight a breeze sprang up and Lord +Howard put into effect a scheme he had devised the previous day. He had +made a number of fire-ships by filling eight vessels with pitch, sulphur, +and other combustibles, and these were now set on fire and sent down the +wind against the Spanish fleet. + +It was with terror that the Spaniards beheld the coming of these flaming +ships. They remembered vividly the havoc occasioned by fire-ships at the +siege of Antwerp. The darkness of the night added to their fears, and +panic spread from end to end of the fleet. All discipline vanished; +self-preservation was the sole thought of each crew. Some took time to +weigh their anchors, but others, in wild haste, cut their cables, and soon +the ships were driving blindly before the wind, some running afoul of each +other and being completely disabled by the shock. + +When day dawned Lord Howard saw with the highest satisfaction the results +of his stratagem. The Spanish fleet was in the utmost disorder, its ships +widely dispersed. His own fleet had just been strengthened, and he at once +made an impetuous attack upon the scattered Armada. The battle began at +four in the morning and lasted till six in the evening, the Spaniards +fighting with great bravery but doing little execution. Many of their +ships were greatly damaged, and ten of the largest were sunk, run aground, +or captured. The principal galeas, or large galley, manned with three +hundred galley slaves and having on board four hundred soldiers, was +driven ashore near Calais, and nearly all the Spaniards were killed or +drowned in attempting to reach land. The rowers were set at liberty. + +The Spanish admiral was greatly dejected by this series of misfortunes. As +yet the English had lost but one small ship and about one hundred men, +while his losses had been so severe that he began to dread the destruction +of the entire fleet. He could not without great danger remain where he +was. His ships were too large to approach nearer to the coast of Flanders. +Philip had declined to secure a suitable harbor in Zealand, as advised. +The Armada was a great and clumsy giant, from which Lord Howard's much +smaller fleet had not fled in terror, as had been expected, and which now +was in such a condition that there was nothing left for it but to try and +return to Spain. + +But the getting there was not easy. A return through the Channel was +hindered by the wind, which blew strongly from the south. Nor was it a +wise movement in the face of the English fleet. The admiral, therefore, +determined to sail northward and make the circuit of the British islands. + +Unfortunately for Lord Howard, he was in no condition to pursue. By the +neglect of the authorities he had been ill-supplied with gunpowder, and +was forced to return to England for a fresh supply. But for this +deficiency he possibly might, in the distressed condition of the Spanish +fleet, have forced a surrender of the entire Armada. As it was, his return +proved fortunate, for the fleets had not far separated when a frightful +tempest began, which did considerable harm to the English ships, but fell +with all its rage on the exposed Armada. + +The ships, drawn up in close ranks, were hurled fiercely together, many +being sunk. Driven helplessly before the wind, some were dashed to pieces +on the rocks of Norway, others on the Scottish coast or the shores of the +western islands. Some went down in the open sea. A subsequent storm, which +came from the west, drove more than thirty of them on the Irish coast. Of +these, some got off in a shattered state, others were utterly wrecked and +their crews murdered on reaching the shore. The admiral's ship, which had +kept in the open sea, reached the Spanish coast about the close of +September. + +Even after reaching harbor in Spain troubles pursued them, two of the +galleons taking fire and burning to ashes. Of the delicately reared noble +volunteers, great numbers had died from the hardships of the voyage, and +many more died from diseases contracted at sea. The total loss is not +known; some say that thirty-two, some that more than eighty, ships were +lost, while the loss of life is estimated at from ten thousand to fifteen +thousand. Spain felt the calamity severely. There was hardly a family of +rank that had not some one of its members to mourn, and so universal was +the grief that Philip, to whose ambition the disaster was due, felt +obliged to issue an edict to abridge the time of public mourning. + +In England and Holland, on the contrary, the event was hailed with +universal joy. Days of solemn thanksgiving were appointed, and Elizabeth, +seated in a triumphal chariot and surrounded by her ministers and nobles, +went for this purpose to St. Paul's Cathedral, the concourse bearing a +great number of flags that had been taken from the enemy. + +The joy at the destruction of the Armada was not confined to England and +Holland. All Northern Europe joined in it. Philip's ambition, in the event +of victory over England, might have led him to attempt the subjection of +every Protestant state in Europe, while Catholic France, which he +afterwards attempted to conquer, had the greatest reason to dread his +success. + +Thus ended the most threatening enterprise in the religious wars of the +sixteenth century, and to Lord Howard and his gallant captains England and +Europe owe the deepest debt of gratitude, for the success of the Armada +and the conquest of England by Spain might have proved a calamity whose +effects would have been felt to the present day. + + + + + +THE CAUSES OF SPAIN'S DECADENCE. + + +The golden age of Spain began in 1492, in which year the conquest of +Granada extinguished the Arab dominion, and the discovery of America by +Columbus opened a new world to the enterprise of the Spanish cavaliers. It +continued during the reigns of Charles I. and Philip II., extending over a +period of about a century, during which Spain was the leading power in +Europe, and occupied the foremost position in the civilized world. In +Europe its possessions included the Netherlands and important regions in +Italy, while its king, Charles I., ruled as Charles V. over the German +empire, possessing a dominion in Europe only surpassed by that of +Charlemagne. Under Philip II. Portugal became a part of the Spanish realm, +and with it its colony of Brazil, so that Spain was the unquestioned owner +of the whole continent of South America, while much of North America lay +under its flag. + +Wealth flowed into the coffers of this broad kingdom in steady streams, +the riches of America over-flowing its treasury; its fleet was the +greatest, its army the best trained and most irresistible in Europe; it +stood as the bulwark against that mighty Ottoman power before which the +other nations trembled, and checked its career of victory at Lepanto; in +short, as above said, it was for a brief period the leading power in +Europe, and appeared to have in it the promise of a glorious career. + +Such was the status of Spain during the reigns of the monarchs named. This +was followed by a long period of decline, which reduced that kingdom from +its position of supremacy into that of one of the minor powers of Europe. +Various causes contributed to this change, the chief being the accession +of a series of weak monarchs and the false ideas of the principles of +political economy which then prevailed. The great treasure which flowed +into Spain from her American colonies rather hastened than retarded her +decline. The restrictions and monopolies of her colonial policy gave rise +to an active contraband trade, which reaped the harvest of her commerce. +The over-abundant supply of gold and silver had the effect of increasing +the price of other commodities and discouraging her rising industries, the +result being that she was obliged to purchase abroad the things she ceased +to produce at home and the wealth of America flowed from her coffers into +those of the adjoining nations. Her policy towards the Moriscos banished +the most active agriculturists from the land, and large districts became +desert, population declined, and the resources of the kingdom diminished +yearly. In a century after the death of Philip II. Spain, from being the +arbiter of the destinies of Europe, had grown so weak that the other +nations ceased to regard her otherwise than as a prey for their ambition, +her population had fallen from eight to six millions, her revenue from two +hundred and eighty to thirty millions, her navy had vanished, her army had +weakened, and her able soldiers and statesmen had disappeared. + +In addition to the causes of decline named, others of importance were her +treatment of the Jews and the Moriscos, though the banishment of the +former took place at an earlier date. Despite their activity in trade and +finance and the value to the nations of their genius for business, the +Jews of Europe were everywhere persecuted, often exposed to robbery and +massacre, and expelled from some kingdoms. In Spain their expulsion was +conducted with cruel severity. + +Many of the unfortunate Jews, seeking to escape persecution, embraced +Christianity. But their conversion was doubted, they were subjected to +constant espionage, and the least suspicion of indulging in their old +worship exposed them to the dangerous charge of heresy, a word of +frightful omen in Spain. It was to punish these delinquent Jews that in +1480 the Inquisition was introduced, and at once began its frightful work, +no less than two thousand "heretics" being burned alive in 1481, while +seventeen thousand were "reconciled," a word of mild meaning elsewhere, +but which in Spain signified torture, confiscation of property, loss of +citizenship, and frequently imprisonment for life in the dungeons of the +Inquisition. Severe as was the treatment of the Jews throughout +Christendom, nowhere were they treated more pitilessly than in Spain. + +The year 1492, in which Spain gained glory by the conquest of Granada and +the discovery of America, was one of the deepest misfortune to this +people, who were cruelly driven from the kingdom. The edict for this was +signed by Ferdinand and Isabella at Granada, March 30, 1492, and decreed +that all unbaptized Jews, without regard to sex, age, or condition, should +leave Spain before the end of the next July, and never return thither +under penalty of death and confiscation of property. Every Spaniard was +forbidden to give aid in any form to a Jew after the date named. The Jews +might sell their property and carry the proceeds with them in bills of +exchange or merchandise, but not in gold or silver. + +This edict came like a thunderbolt to the Israelites. At a tyrant's word +they must go forth as exiles from the land in which they and their +forefathers had dwelt for ages, break all their old ties of habit and +association, and be cast out helpless and defenceless, marked with a brand +of infamy, among nations who held them in hatred and contempt. + +Under the unjust terms of the edict they were forced to abandon most of +the property which they had spent their lives in gaining. It was +impossible to sell their effects in the brief time given, in a market +glutted with similar commodities, for more than a tithe of their value. As +a result their hard-won wealth was frightfully sacrificed. One chronicler +relates that he saw a house exchanged for an ass and a vineyard for a suit +of clothes. In Aragon the property of the Jews was confiscated for the +benefit of their creditors, with little regard to its value. As for the +bills of exchange which they were to take instead of gold and silver, it +was impossible to obtain them to the amount required in that age of +limited commerce, and here again they were mercilessly robbed. + +The migration was one of the most pitiable known in history. As the time +fixed for their departure approached the roads of the country swarmed with +emigrants, young and old, strong and feeble, sick and well, some on horses +or mules, but the great multitude on foot. The largest division, some +eighty thousand in number, passed through Portugal, whose monarch taxed +them for a free passage through his dominions, but, wiser than Ferdinand, +permitted certain skilful artisans among them to settle in his kingdom. + +Those who reached Africa and marched towards Fez, where many of their race +resided, were attacked by the desert tribes, robbed, slain, and treated +with the most shameful barbarity. Many of them, half-dead with famine and +in utter despair, returned to the coast, where they consented to be +baptized with the hope that they might be permitted to return to their +native land. + +Those who sought Italy contracted an infectious disease in the crowded and +filthy vessels which they were obliged to take; a disorder so malignant +that it carried off twenty thousand of the people of Naples during the +year, and spread far over the remainder of Italy. As for the Jews, hosts +of them perished of hunger and disease, and of the whole number expelled, +estimated at one hundred and sixty thousand, only a miserable fragment +found homes at length in foreign lands, some seeking Turkey, others +gaining refuge and protection in France and England. As for the effect of +the migration on Spain it must suffice here to quote the remark of a +monarch of that day: "Do they call this Ferdinand a politic prince, who +can thus impoverish his own kingdom and enrich ours?" + +Spain was in this barbarous manner freed of her Jewish population. There +remained the Moors, who had capitulated, under favorable terms, to +Ferdinand in 1492. These terms were violated a few years later by Cardinal +Ximenes, his severity driving them into insurrection in 1500. This was +suppressed, and then punishment began. So rigid was the inquiry that it +seemed as if all the people of Granada would be condemned as guilty, and +in mortal dread many of them made peace by embracing Christianity, while +others sold their estates and migrated to Barbary. In the end, all who +remained escaped persecution only by consenting to be baptized, the total +number of converts being estimated at fifty thousand. The name of Moors, +which had superseded that of Arabs, was now changed to that of Moriscos, +by which these unfortunate people were afterwards known. + +The ill-faith shown to the Moors of the plain gave rise to an insurrection +in the mountains, in which the Spaniards suffered a severe defeat. The +insurgents, however, were soon subdued, and most of them, to prevent being +driven from their homes, professed the Christian faith. By the free use of +torture and the sword the kings of Spain had succeeded in adding largely +to their Christian subjects. + +The Moriscos became the most skilful and industrious agriculturists of +Spain, but they were an alien element of the population and from time to +time irritating edicts were issued for their control. In 1560 the Moriscos +were forbidden to employ African slaves, for fear that they might make +infidels of them. This was a severe annoyance, for the wealthy farmers +depended on the labor of these slaves. In 1563 they were forbidden to +possess arms except under license. In 1566 still more oppressive edicts +were passed. They were no longer to use the Arabic language or wear the +Moorish dress, and the women were required to go about with their faces +unveiled,--a scandalous thing among Mohammedans. Their weddings were to be +conducted in public, after the Christian forms, their national songs and +dances were interdicted, and they were even forbidden to indulge in warm +baths, bathing being a custom of which the Spaniard of that day appears to +have disapproved. + +The result of these oppressive edicts was a violent and dangerous +insurrection, which involved nearly all the Moriscos of Spain, and +continued for more than two years, requiring all the power of Spain for +its suppression. Don John of Austria, the victor at Lepanto, led the +Spanish troops, but he had a difficult task, the Moriscos, sheltered in +their mountain fastnesses, making a desperate and protracted resistance, +and showing a warlike energy equal to that which had been displayed in the +defence of Granada. + +The end of the war was followed by a decree from Philip II. that all the +Moors of Granada should be removed into the interior of the country, their +lands and houses being forfeited, and nothing left them but their personal +effects. This act of confiscation was followed by their reduction to a +state of serfdom in their new homes, no one being permitted to change his +abode without permission, under a very severe penalty. If found within ten +leagues of Granada they were condemned, if between the ages of ten and +seventeen, to the galleys for life; if older, to the punishment of death. + +The dispersal of the Moriscos of Granada, while cruel to them, proved of +the greatest benefit to Spain. Wherever they went the effects of their +superior skill and industry were soon manifested. They were skilled not +only in husbandry, but in the mechanic arts, and their industry gave a new +aspect of prosperity to the provinces to which they were banished, while +the valleys and hill-sides of Granada, which had flourished under their +cultivation, sank into barrenness under the unskilful hands of their +successors. + +Yet this benefit to agriculture did not appeal to the ruling powers in +Spain. The Moriscos were not Spaniards, and could not easily become so +while deprived of all civil rights. While nominally Christian, there was a +suspicion that at heart they were still Moslems. And their relations to +the Moors of Africa and possible league with the corsairs of the +Mediterranean aroused distrust. Under Philip III., a timid and incapable +king, the final act came. He was induced to sign an edict for the +expulsion of the Moriscos, and this quiet and industrious people, a +million in number, were in 1610, like the Jews before them, forced to +leave their homes in Spain. + +It is not necessary to repeat the story of the suffering which necessarily +followed so barbarous an act. What has been said of the circumstances +attending the expulsion of the Jews will suffice. That of the Moriscos was +not so inhuman in its consequences, but it was serious enough. +Fortunately, in view of the intense impolicy and deep intolerance +indicated in the act, its evil effects reacted upon its advocates. To the +Moriscos the suffering was personal; to Spain it was national. As France +half-ruined herself by expelling the Huguenots, the most industrious of +her population, Spain did the same in expelling the Moriscos, to whose +skill and industry she owed so much of her prosperity. So it ever must be +when bigotry is allowed to control the policy of states. France recovered +from the evil effects of her mad act. Spain never did. The expulsion of +the Moriscos was one of the most prominent causes of her decline, and no +indications of a recovery have yet been shown. + +The expulsion of the Jews and Moriscos was not sufficient to satisfy the +intolerant spirit of Spain. Heresy had made its way even into the minds of +Spaniards. Sons of the Church themselves had begun to think in other lines +than those laid down for them by the priestly guardians of their minds. +Protestant books were introduced into the ever-faithful land, and a +considerable number of converts to Protestantism were made. + +Upon these heretics the Inquisition descended with all its frightful +force. Philip, in a monstrous edict, condemned all to be burned alive who +bought, sold, or read books prohibited by the Church. The result was +terrible. The land was filled with spies. Arrests were made on all sides. +The instruments of torture were kept busy. In all the principal cities of +Spain the monstrous spectacle of the _auto-de-fe_ was to be seen, +multitudes being burned at the stake for having dared to read the books or +accept the arguments of Protestant writers. + +The total effect of this horrible system of persecution we can only +epitomize. Thousands were burned at the stake, thousands imprisoned for +life after terrible torture, thousands robbed of their property, and their +children condemned to poverty and opprobrium; and the kingdom of Christ, +as the Spanish monarchs of that day estimated it, was established in +Spain. + +The Spanish Inquisition proved an instrument of conviction which none +dared question. Heresy was blotted out from Spain,--and Spain was blotted +out from the ranks of enlightened nations. Freedom of thought was at an +end. The mind of the Spaniard was put in fetters. Spain, under the sombre +shadow of this barbarity, was shut out from the light which was breaking +over the remainder of Europe. Literature moved in narrow channels, +philosophy was checked, the domain of science was closed, progress was at +an end. Spain stood still while the rest of the world was sweeping onward; +and she stands still to-day, her mind in the fifteenth century. The +decadence of Spain is due to the various causes named,--the weakness of her +rulers, lack of just and advantageous ideas of political and commercial +economy, suppression of freedom of thought and opinion on topics which +were being freely handled elsewhere in Christendom, and a narrow and +intolerant policy which, wherever shown, is a fatal barrier to the +progress of mankind. + + + + + +THE LAST OF A ROYAL RACE. + + +The rebellion of the Moriscos, due to the oppressive edicts of Philip II., +as stated in the preceding tale, was marked by numerous interesting +events. Some of these are worth giving in illustration of the final +struggle of the Moors in Spain. The insurgents failed in their first +effort, that of seizing the city of Granada, still filled with their +fellow-countrymen, and restoring as far as possible their old kingdom; and +they afterwards confined themselves to the difficult passes and mountain +fastnesses of the Sierra Nevada, where they presented a bold front to the +power of Spain. + +Having proclaimed their independence, and cast off all allegiance to the +crown of Spain, their first step was to select a new monarch of their own +race. The man selected for this purpose was of royal blood, being +descended in a direct line from the ancient family of the Omeyades, +caliphs of Damascus, and for nearly four centuries rulers in Spain. This +man, who bore the Castilian name of Don Fernando de Valor, but was known +by the Moors as Aben-Humeya, was at that time twenty-two years of age, +comely in person and engaging in manners, and of a deportment worthy of +the princely line from which he had descended. A man of courage and +energy, he escaped from Granada and took refuge in the mountains, where he +began a war to the knife against Spain. + +The early events of the war were unfavorable to the Moors. Their +strongholds were invaded by a powerful Spanish force under the Marquis of +Mondejar, and their forces soon put to flight. Aben-Humeya was so hotly +pursued that he was forced to spring from his horse, cut the hamstrings of +the animal to render it useless to his pursuers, and seek refuge in the +depths of the sierras, where dozens of hiding-places unknown to his +pursuers could be found. + +The insurrection was now in a desperate stage. Mondejar was driving the +rebels in arms in terror before him; tower and town fell in succession +into his hands; everywhere his arms were victorious, and only one thing +was wanting to bring all opposition to an end,--the capture of Aben-Humeya, +the "little king" of the Alpujarras. This crownless monarch was known to +be wandering with a few followers in the wilds of the mountains; but while +he lived the insurrection might at any moment blaze out again, and +detachments of soldiers were sent to pursue him through the sierras. + +The captain of one of these parties learned from a traitor that the +fugitive prince remained hidden in the mountains only during the day, +finding shelter at night in the house of a kinsman, Aben-Aboo, on the +skirts of the sierras. Learning the situation of this mansion, the Spanish +captain led his men with the greatest secrecy towards it. Travelling by +night, they reached the vicinity of the dwelling under cover of the +darkness. In a minute more the house would have been surrounded and its +inmates secured; but at this critical moment the arquebuse of one of the +Spaniards was accidentally discharged, the report echoing loudly among the +hills and warning the lightly sleeping inmates of their danger. + +One of them, El Zaguer, the uncle of Aben-Humeya, at once sprang up and +leaped from the window of his room, making his way with all haste to the +mountains. His nephew was not so fortunate. Running to his window, in the +front of the house, he saw the ground occupied by troops. He hastily +sought another window, but his foes were there before him. Bewildered and +distressed, he knew not where to turn. The house was surrounded; the +Spaniards were thundering on the door for admittance; he was like a wolf +caught in its lair, and with as little mercy to hope from his captors. + +By good fortune the door was well secured. One possible chance for safety +occurred to the hunted prince. Hastening down-stairs, he stood behind the +portal and noiselessly drew its bolts. The Spaniards, finding the door +give way, and supposing that it had yielded to their blows, rushed hastily +in and hurried through the house in search of the fugitive who was hidden +behind the door. The instant they had all passed he slipped out, and, +concealed by the darkness outside, hastened away, soon finding a secure +refuge in the mountains. + +Aben-Aboo remained in the hands of the assaillants, who vainly questioned +him as to the haunts of his kinsmen. On his refusal to answer they +employed torture, but with no better effect. "I may die," he courageously +said, "but my friends will live." So severe and cruel was their treatment, +that in the end they left him for dead, returning to camp with the other +prisoners they had taken. As it proved, however, the heroic Aben-Aboo did +not die, but lived to play a leading part in the war. + +With kindly treatment of the Moriscos he would probably have given no more +trouble, but the Spanish proved utterly merciless, their soldiers raging +through the mountains, and committing the foulest acts of outrage and +rapine. In Granada a frightful deed was committed. A large number of the +leading Moriscos, about one hundred and fifty in all, had been seized and +imprisoned, being held as hostages for the good behavior of their friends. +Here, on a night in March, the prison was entered by a body of Spaniards, +who assailed the unfortunate captives, arms in hand, and began an +indiscriminate massacre. The prisoners seizing what means of defence they +could find, fought desperately for their lives, and for two hours the +unequal combat continued, not ending while a Morisco remained alive. + +This savage act led to terrible reprisals on the part of the insurgents, +who in the subsequent war treated with atrocious cruelty many of their +captives. The Moriscos were soon in arms again, Aben-Humeya at their head, +and the war blazed throughout the length and breadth of the mountains. +Even from Barbary came a considerable body of Moors, who entered the +service of the Morisco chief. Fierce and intrepid, trained to the military +career, and accustomed to a life of wild adventure, these were a most +valuable reinforcement to Aben-Humeya's forces, and enabled him to carry +on a guerilla warfare which proved highly vexatious to the troops of +Spain. He made forays from the mountains into the plain, penetrating into +the vega and boldly venturing even to the walls of Granada. The +insurrection spread far and wide through the Sierra Nevada, and the +Spanish army, now led by Don John of Austria, the king's brother, found +itself confronted by a most serious task. + +The weak point in the organization of the Moriscos lay in the character of +their king. Aben-Humeya, at first popular, soon displayed traits of +character which lost him the support of his followers. Surrounded by a +strong body-guard, he led a voluptuous life, and struck down without mercy +those whom he feared, no less than three hundred and fifty persons falling +victims to his jealousy or revenge. His cruelty and injustice at length +led to a plot for his death, and his brief reign ended in assassination, +his kinsman, Aben-Aboo, being chosen as his successor. + +The new king was a very different man from his slain predecessor. He was +much the older of the two, a man of high integrity and great decorum of +character. While lacking the dash and love of adventure of Aben-Humeya, he +had superior judgment in military affairs, and full courage in carrying +out his plans. His election was confirmed from Algiers, a large quantity +of arms and ammunition was imported from Barbary, reinforcements crossed +the Mediterranean, and the new king began his reign under excellent +auspices, his first movement being against Orgiba, a fortified place on +the road to Granada, which he invested in October with an army of ten +thousand men. + + [Illustration: THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA.] + + THE ALHAMBRA, OVERLOOKING GRANADA. + + +The capture of this place, which soon followed, roused the enthusiasm of +the Moriscos to the highest pitch. From all sides the warlike peasantry +flocked to the standard of their able chief, and a war began resembling +that of a century before, when the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella were +invading the Kingdom of Granada. From peak to peak of the sierras +beacon-fires flashed their signals, calling the bold mountaineers to +forays on the lands of the enemy. Pouring suddenly down on the lower +levels, the daring marauders swept away in triumph to the mountains the +flocks and herds of their Christian foes. The vega of Granada became, as +in ancient times, the battle-ground of Moorish and Christian cavaliers, +the latter having generally the advantage, though occasionally the +insurgent bands would break into the suburbs, or even the city of Granada, +filling its people with consternation, and causing the great bell of the +Alhambra to peal out its tocsin of alarm and call the Spanish chivalry in +haste to the fray. + +We cannot describe, even in epitome, the varied course of this sanguinary +war. As might well have been expected, the greater force of the Spaniards +gradually prevailed, and the autumn of 1570 found the insurgents almost +everywhere subdued. Only Aben-Aboo, the "little king," remained in arms, a +force of four hundred men being all that were left to him of his recent +army. But these were men warmly devoted to him, and until the spring of +1571 every effort for his capture proved in vain. Hiding in mountain caves +and in inaccessible districts, he defied pursuit, and in a measure kept +alive the flame of rebellion. + +Treason at length brought his career to an end. One of the few insurgent +prisoners who escaped death at the hands of the Spanish executioners +revealed the hiding-place of the fugitive king, and named the two persons +on whom Aben-Aboo most relied, his secretary, Abou Amer, and a Moorish +captain named El Senix. + +An effort was made to win over the secretary by one who had formerly known +him, a letter being sent him which roused him to intense indignation. El +Senix, however, becoming aware of its contents, and having a private +grudge against his master, sent word by the messenger that he would +undertake, for a suitable recompense, to betray him to the Christians. + +An interview soon after took place between the Moor and Barredo, the +Spanish agent, some intimation of which came to the ears of Aben-Aboo. The +king at once sought a cavern in the neighborhood where El Senix was +secreted, and, leaving his followers outside, imprudently entered alone. +He found El Senix surrounded by several of his friends, and sternly +demanded of him the purpose of his interview with Barredo. Senix, confused +by the accusation, faltered out that he had simply been seeking to obtain +an amnesty for him. Aben-Aboo listened with a face of scorn, and, turning +on his heel with the word "treachery," walked back to the mouth of the +cave. + +Unluckily, his men, with the exception of two guards stationed at the +entrance, had left the spot to visit some near-by friends. Senix, +perceiving that his own life was in danger, and that this was his only +opportunity for safety, fell with his followers on the guards, one of whom +was killed and the other put to flight. Then an attack was made on +Aben-Aboo. The latter defended himself desperately, but the odds were too +great, and the dastardly El Senix ended the struggle by felling him with +the butt-end of his musket, when he was quickly despatched. + +Thus died the last of the Omeyades, the famous dynasty of Arabian caliphs +founded in 660, and established in Spain in 756. Aben-Aboo, the last of +this royal race, was given in death a triumphal entrance to Granada, as if +he were one whom the Spaniards delighted to honor. The corpse was set +astride on a mule, being supported by a wooden frame, which lay hidden +beneath flowing robes. On one side rode Barredo; on the other the murderer +El Senix bore the scimitar and arquebuse of the dead prince. The kinsmen +and friends of the Morisco chief rode in his train, and after them came a +regiment of infantry and a troop of horse. + +As the procession moved along the street of Zacatin salvos of musketry +saluted it, peals of artillery roared from the towers of the Alhambra, and +the multitude thronged to gaze with silent curiosity on the ghastly face. +Thus the cavalcade proceeded until the great square of Vivarambla was +reached. Here were assembled the principal cavaliers and magistrates of +the city, and here El Senix dismounted and delivered to Deza, the +president of the tribunal before which were tried the insurgent captives, +the arms of the murdered prince. + +And now this semblance of respect to a brave enemy was followed by a scene +of barbarity worthy of the Spain of that day. The ceremony of a public +execution was gone through with, the head of the corpse being struck off, +after which the body was given to the boys of Granada, who dragged it +through the streets and exposed it to every indignity, finally committing +it to the flames. The head, enclosed in a cage, was set over the gate that +faced towards the Alpujarras. There it remained for a year, seeming to +gaze towards the hills which the Morisco chief had loved so well, and +which had witnessed his brief and disastrous reign. + +Such was the fate of Aben-Aboo, the last of a line of great monarchs, and +one of the best of them all; a man of lofty spirit, temperate appetites, +and courageous endurance, who, had he lived in more prosperous days, might +have ruled in the royal halls of Cordova with a renown equal to that of +the most famous caliph of his race. + + + + + +HENRY MORGAN AND THE BUCCANEERS. + + +As the seventeenth century passed on, Spain, under the influence of +religious intolerance and bad government, grew weak, both at home and +abroad. Its prominent place in Europe was lost. Its vast colonial +provinces in America were scenes of persecution and anarchy. There the +fortresses were allowed to decay, the soldiers, half-clothed and unpaid, +to become beggars or bandits, the treasures to be pilfered, and commerce +to become a system of fraud; while the colonists were driven to detest +their mother land. This weakness was followed by dire consequences. Bands +of outcasts from various nations, who had settled on Spanish territory in +the West Indies, at first to forage on the cattle of Hispaniola, organized +into pirate crews, and, under the name of buccaneers, became frightful +scourges of the commerce of Spain. + +These wretches, mainly French, English, and Dutch, deserters and outlaws, +the scum of their nations, made the rich merchant and treasure ships of +Spain their prey, slaughtering their crews, torturing them for hidden +wealth, rioting with profuse prodigality at their lurking-places on land, +and turning those fair tropical islands into a pandemonium of outrage, +crime, and slaughter. As they troubled little the ships of other nations, +these nations rather favored than sought to suppress them, and Spain +seemed powerless to bring their ravages to an end. In consequence, as the +years went on, they grew bolder and more adventurous. Beginning with a few +small, deckless sloops, they in time gained large and well-armed vessels, +and created so deep a terror among the Spaniards by their savage attacks +that the latter rarely made a strong resistance. + +Lurking in forest-hidden creeks and inlets of the West India islands, they +kept a keen lookout for the ships that bore to Spain the gold, silver, +precious stones, and rich products of the New World, pursued them in their +swift barks, boarded them, and killed all who ventured to resist. If the +cargo was a rich one, and there had been little effort at defence, the +prisoners might be spared their lives; if otherwise, they were flung +mercilessly into the sea. Sailing then to their place of rendezvous, the +captors indulged in the wildest and most luxurious orgies, their tables +groaning with strong liquors and rich provisions; gaming, music, and +dancing succeeding; extravagance, debauchery, and profusion of every kind +soon dissipating their blood-bought wealth. + +Among the pirate leaders several gained prominence for superior boldness +or cruelty, among whom we may particularly name L'Olonnois, a Frenchman, +of such savage ferocity that all mariners of Spanish birth shuddered with +fear at his very name. This wretch suffered the fate he deserved. In an +expedition to the Isthmus of Darien he was taken prisoner by a band of +savage Indians, who tore him to pieces alive, flung his quivering limbs +into the fire, and then scattered the ashes to the air. + +Most renowned of all the buccaneers was Henry Morgan, a native of Wales, +who ran away from home as a boy, was sold as a slave in Barbadoes, and +afterwards joined a pirate crew, in time becoming a leader among the +lawless hordes. By this time the raids of the ferocious buccaneers had +almost put an end to Spanish commerce with the New World, and the daring +freebooters, finding their gains at sea falling off, collected fleets and +made attacks on land, plundering rich towns and laying waste thriving +settlements. So greatly had Spanish courage degenerated that the pirates +with ease put to flight ten times their number of that Spanish soldiery +which, a century before, had been the finest in the world. + +The first pirate to make such a raid was Lewis Scott, who sacked the town +of Campeachy, robbing it of all its wealth, and forcing its inhabitants to +pay an enormous ransom. Another named Davies marched inland to Nicaragua, +took and plundered that town, and carried off a rich booty in silver and +precious stones. He afterwards pillaged the city of St. Augustine, +Florida. Others performed similar exploits, but we must confine our +attention to the deeds of Morgan, the boldest and most successful of them +all. + +Morgan's first enterprise was directed against Port au Prince, Cuba, +where, however, the Spaniards had received warning and concealed their +treasures, so that the buccaneer gained little for his pains. His next +expedition was against Porto Bello, on the Isthmus, one of the richest and +best fortified of American cities. Two castles, believed to be +impregnable, commanded the entrances to the harbor. When the freebooters +learned that their leader proposed to attack so strong a place as this the +hearts of the boldest among them shrank. But Morgan, with a few inspiring +words, restored their courage. + +"What boots it," he exclaimed, "how small our number, if our hearts be +great! The fewer we are the closer will be our union and the larger our +shares of plunder." + +Boldness and secrecy carried the day. One of the castles was taken by +surprise, the first knowledge of the attack coming to the people of the +town from the concussion when Morgan blew it up. Before the garrison or +the citizens could prepare to oppose them the freebooters were in the +town. The governor and garrison fled in panic haste to the other castle, +while the terrified people threw their treasures into wells and cisterns. +The castle made a gallant resistance, but was soon obliged to yield to the +impetuous attacks of the pirate crews. + +It was no light exploit which Morgan had performed,--to take with five +hundred men a fortified city with a large garrison and strengthened by +natural obstacles to assault. The ablest general in ordinary war might +well have claimed renown for so signal a victory. But the ability of the +leader was tarnished by the cruelty of the buccaneer. The people were +treated with shocking barbarity, many of them being shut up in convents +and churches and burned alive, while the pirates gave themselves up to +every excess of debauchery. + +The great booty gained by this raid caused numerous pirate captains to +enlist under Morgan's flag, and other towns were taken, in which similar +orgies of cruelty and debauchery followed. But the impunity of the +buccaneers was nearing its end. Their atrocious acts had at length aroused +the indignation of the civilized world, and a treaty was concluded between +Great Britain and Spain whose chief purpose was to put an end to these +sanguinary and ferocious deeds. + +The first effect of this treaty was to spur the buccaneers to the +performance of some exploit surpassing any they had yet achieved. So high +was Morgan's reputation among the pirates that they flocked from all +quarters to enlist under his flag, and he soon had a fleet of no fewer +than thirty-seven vessels manned by two thousand men. With so large a +force an expedition on a greater scale could well be undertaken, and a +counsel of the chiefs debated whether they should make an assault upon +Vera Cruz, Carthagena, or Panama. Their choice fell upon Panama, as the +richest of the three. + +The city of Panama at that time (1670) was considered one of the greatest +and most opulent in America. It contained two thousand large buildings and +five thousand smaller, all of which were three stories high. Many of these +were built of stone, others of cedar wood, being elegantly constructed and +richly furnished. The city was the emporium for the silver- and gold-mines +of New Spain, and its merchants lived in great opulence, their houses rich +in articles of gold and silver, adorned with beautiful paintings and other +works of art, and full of the luxuries of the age. The churches were +magnificent in their decorations, and richly embellished with ornaments in +gold and silver. The city presented such a prize to cupidity as +freebooters and bandits had rarely conceived of in their wildest dreams. + + [Illustration: STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA.] + + STREET IN OLD QUARTER OF PANAMA. + + +The daring enterprise began with the capture by four hundred men of the +Fort of St. Laurence, at the mouth of the Chagres River. Up this +serpentine stream sailed the freebooters, as far as it would bear them, +and thence they marched overland, suffering the greatest hardships and +overcoming difficulties which would have deterred men of less intrepid +spirit. Eight days of this terrible march brought the adventurers within +sight of the far-spreading Pacific, and of the spires of the coveted city +on its shores. + +The people of Panama had been apprised of what was in store for them, and +had laid ambuscades for the buccaneers, but Morgan, by taking an indirect +route to the town, avoided these. Panama was but partly fortified. In +several quarters it lay open to attack. It must be fought for and won or +lost on the open plain. Here the Spaniards had assembled to the number of +two thousand infantry and four hundred cavalry, well equipped and +possessing everything needed but spirit to meet the dreaded foe. They had +adopted an expedient sure to prove a dangerous one. A herd of wild bulls, +to the number of more than two thousand, was provided, with Indians and +negroes to drive them on the pirate horde. The result resembled that in +which the Greeks drove elephants upon the Roman legions. Many of the +buccaneers were accustomed to the chase of wild cattle, and, by shouts and +the waving of colored flags, turned the bulls back upon the Spanish lines, +which they threw into disorder. + +The buccaneers followed with an impetuous charge which broke the ranks of +the defenders of the town, who, after a two hours' combat, were completely +routed, the most of them being killed or taken prisoners. The assault was +now directed upon the town, which was strongly defended, the pirates being +twice repulsed and suffering much from the numerous Spanish guns. But +after a three hours' fight they overcame all opposition and the city fell +into their hands. + +A scene of frightful bloodshed and inhumanity followed. The buccaneers +gave no quarter, killing all they met. Lest they should be exposed to a +counter assault while intoxicated, Morgan called them together and forbade +them to taste the wine of the town, saying that it had been poisoned. +Conflagration followed massacre. Fires broke out in several quarters of +the city, and great numbers of dwellings, with churches, convents, and +numerous warehouses filled with valuable goods were reduced to ashes. +These fires continued to burn during most of the month in which the +freebooters held the city, and in which they indulged to the full in their +accustomed cruelty, rapacity, and licentiousness. + +Treasure was found in great quantities in the wells and caves, where it +had been thrown by the terrified people. The vessels taken in the harbor +yielded valuable commodities. Detachments were sent into the country to +capture and bring back those who had fled for safety, and by torturing +these several rich deposits of treasure were discovered in the surrounding +forests. A few of the inhabitants escaped with their wealth by sea, +seeking shelter in the islands of the bay, and a galleon laden with the +king's plate and jewels and other precious articles belonging to the +church and the people narrowly escaped after a hot chase by the +buccaneers. With these exceptions the rich city was completely looted. + +After a month spent among the ruins of Panama Morgan and his villainous +followers departed, one hundred and seventy-five mules carrying their more +bulky spoil, while with them were six hundred prisoners, some carrying +burdens, others held to ransom. Thus laden, they reached again the mouth +of the Chagres, where their ships awaited them and where a division of the +spoil was to be made. + +Treachery followed this stupendous act of piracy, Morgan's later history +being an extraordinary one for a man of his infamous record. He was +possessed with the demon of cupidity, and a quarrel arose between him and +his men concerning the division of the spoil. Morgan ended it by running +off with the disputed plunder. On the night preceding the final division, +during the hours of deepest slumber, the treacherous chief, with a few of +his confidants, set sail for Jamaica, in a vessel deeply laden with +spoils. On waking and learning this act of base treachery, the infuriated +pirates pursued him, but in vain; he safely reached Jamaica with his +ill-gotten wealth. + +In this English island the pirate chief gained not only safety, but +honors. In some way he won the favor of Charles II., who knighted him as +Sir Henry Morgan and placed him on the admiralty court in Jamaica. He +subsequently, for a time, acted as deputy governor, and in this office +displayed the greatest severity towards his old associates, several of +whom were tried before him and executed. One whole crew of buccaneers were +sent by him to the Spaniards at Carthagena, in whose hands they were +likely to find little favor. He was subsequently arrested, sent to +England, and imprisoned for three years under charges from Spain; but this +was the sole punishment dealt out to the most notorious of the buccaneers. + +The success of Morgan's enterprise stimulated the piratical crews to +similar deeds of daring, and the depredations continued, not only in the +West Indies and eastern South America, but afterwards along the Pacific, +the cities of Leon, in Mexico, New Granada, on the lake of Nicaragua, and +Guayaquil, the port of Quito, being taken, sacked, and burned. Finally, +France and England joined Spain in efforts for their suppression, the +coasts were more strictly guarded, and many of the freebooters settled as +planters or became mariners in honest trade. Some of them, however, +continued in their old courses, dispersing over all seas as enemies of the +shipping of the world; but by the year 1700 their career had fairly come +to an end, and the race of buccaneers ceased to exist. + + + + + +ELIZABETH FARNESE AND ALBERONI. + + +In 1714 certain events took place in Spain of sufficient interest to be +worth the telling. Philip V., a feeble monarch, like all those for the +century preceding him, was on the throne. In his youth he had been the +Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. of France, and upon the death of +that great monarch would be close in the succession to the throne of that +kingdom. But, chosen as king of Spain by the will of Charles II., he +preferred a sure seat to a doubtful one, and renounced his claim to the +French crown, thus bringing to an end the fierce "War of the Succession," +which had involved most of the powers of Europe for many years. + +Philip, by nature weak and yielding, became in time a confirmed +hypochondriac, and on the death of his wife, Maria Louise, in 1714, +abandoned himself to grief, refusing to attend to business of any kind, +shutting himself up in the strictest seclusion, and leaving the affairs of +the kingdom practically in the hands of the Princess Orsini, the governess +of his children, and his chief adviser. + +Sorrow-stricken as was the bereaved king, affairs were already in train to +provide him with a new wife, a plan being laid for that purpose at the +very funeral of his queen, as some writers say, between the ambitious +Princess Orsini and a cunning Italian named Alberoni, while they, with a +show of grave decorum, followed Maria Louise to the grave. + +The story of Alberoni is an interesting one. This man, destined to become +prime minister of Spain, began life as the son of a gardener in the duchy +of Parma. While a youth he showed such powers of intellect that the +Jesuits took him into their seminary and gave him an education of a +superior character. He assumed holy orders and, by a combination of +knowledge and ability with adulation and buffoonery, made his way until he +received the appointment of interpreter to the Bishop of St. Domino, who +was about to set out on a mission from the Duke of Parma to the Duke of +Vendome, then commander of the French forces in Italy. + +The worthy bishop soon grew thoroughly disgusted with Vendome, who, high +as he was in station, displayed a shameless grossness of manner which was +more than the pious churchman could endure. The conduct of the affair was +therefore left to the interpreter, whose delicacy was not disturbed by the +duke's behavior, and who managed to ingratiate himself fully in the good +graces of the French general, becoming so great a favorite that in the end +he left the service of the Duke of Parma for that of Vendome. + +Subsequently the duke was appointed to a command in Spain, where he +employed Alberoni in all his negotiations with the court of Madrid. Here +the wily and ambitious Italian won the favor of the Princess Orsini so +fully that when, on Vendome's death, he returned home, the Duke of Parma +sent him as his envoy to Spain. + +The princess little dreamed the character of the man whom she had taken +into confidential relations, and who was plotting to overthrow her +influence at court. Bent on retaining her influence by the choice of a +tractable queen, she spoke to Alberoni of the urgent necessity of finding +another bride for the disconsolate king. The shrewd diplomat named several +eligible princesses, each of whom he dismissed as objectionable for one +reason or another. At the end he adroitly introduced the name of Elizabeth +Farnese, step-daughter of the Duke of Parma, of whom he spoke carelessly +as a good girl, fattened on Parmesan cheese and butter, and so narrowly +educated that she had not an idea beyond her embroidery. She might +succeed, he hinted, to the throne of Parma, as the duke had no child of +his own, in which case there would be a chance for Spain to regain her +lost provinces in Italy. + +The deluded Princess Orsini was delighted with the suggestion. With such a +girl as this for queen she could continue to hold the reins of state. She +easily induced Philip to approve the choice; the Duke of Parma was charmed +with the offer; and the preliminary steps to the marriage were hurried +through with all possible rapidity. + +Before the final conclusion of the affair, however, the Princess Orsini +discovered in some way that Alberoni had lied, and that the proposed bride +was by no means the ignorant and incapable country girl she had been told. +Furious at the deception, she at once sent off a courier with orders to +stop all further proceedings relating to the marriage. The messenger +reached Parma in the morning of the day on which the marriage ceremony was +to be performed by proxy. But Alberoni was wide awake to the danger, and +managed to have the messenger detained until it was too late. Before he +could deliver his despatches Elizabeth Farnese was the legal wife of +Philip of Spain. + +The new queen had been fully advised of the state of affairs by Alberoni. +The Princess Orsini, to whom she owed her elevation, was to be got rid of, +at once and permanently. On crossing the frontiers she was met by all her +household except the princess, who was with the king, then on his way to +meet and espouse his bride. At Alcala the princess left him and hastened +to meet the queen, reaching the village of Xadraca in time to receive her +as she alighted from her carriage, kiss her hand, and in virtue of her +office at court to conduct her to her apartment. + +Elizabeth met the princess with a show of graciousness, but on entering +her chamber suddenly turned and accused her visitor of insulting her by +lack of respect, and by appearing before her in improper attire. The +amazed princess, overwhelmed by this accusation, apologized and +remonstrated, but the queen refused to listen to her, ordered her from the +room, and bade the officer of the guard to arrest and convey her beyond +the frontier. + +Here was a change in the situation! The officer hesitated to arrest one +who for years had been supreme in Spain. + +"Were you not instructed to obey me implicitly?" demanded Elizabeth. + +"Yes, your majesty." + +"Then do as I have ordered. I assume all responsibility." + +"Will your majesty give me a written sanction?" + +"Yes," said Elizabeth, in a tone very different from that of the +bread-and-butter miss whom Alberoni had represented her. + +Calling for pen, ink, and paper, she wrote upon her knee an order for the +princess's arrest, and bade the hesitating officer to execute it at once. + +He dared no longer object. The princess, in court dress, was hurried into +a carriage, with a single female attendant and two officers, being allowed +neither a change of clothing, protection against the cold, nor money to +procure needed conveniences on the road. In this way a woman of over sixty +years of age, whose will a few hours before had been absolute in Spain, +was forced to travel throughout an inclement winter night, and continue +her journey until she was thrust beyond the limits of Spain, within which +she was never again permitted to set foot. + +Such was the first act of the docile girl whom the ambitious princess had +fully expected to use as a tool for her designs. Schooled by her skilled +adviser, and perhaps sanctioned by Philip, who may have wished to get rid +of his old favorite, Elizabeth at the start showed a grasp of the +situation which she was destined to keep until the end. The feeble-minded +monarch at once fell under her influence, and soon all the affairs of the +kingdom became subject to her control. + +Elizabeth was a woman of restless ambition and impetuous temper, and she +managed throughout Philip's reign to keep the kingdom in constant hot +water. The objects she kept in view were two: first, to secure to Philip +the reversion of the French crown in case of the death of the then Duke of +Anjou, despite the fact that he had taken frequent oaths of renunciation; +second, to secure for her own children sovereign rule in Italy. + +We cannot detail the long story of the intrigues by which the ambitious +woman sought to bring about these purposes, but in all of them she found +an able ally in Alberoni. Elizabeth did not forget that she owed her high +position to this man. They were, besides, congenial in disposition, and +she persuaded Philip to trust and consult him, and finally to appoint him +prime minister. Not satisfied with this reward to her favorite, she, after +a few years, induced the Pope to grant him a cardinal's hat and Philip to +make him a grandee of Spain. The gardener's son had, by ability and +shrewdness, reached the highest summit to which his ambition could aspire. + +From the greatest height one may make the most rapid fall. The power of +Alberoni was destined quickly to reach its end. Yet it was less his own +fault than the ambition of the queen that led to the termination of his +career. As a prime minister he proved a marked success, giving Spain an +administration far superior to any she had enjoyed for many years. +Alberoni was a man of great ability, which he employed in zealous efforts +to improve the internal condition of the country, having the wisdom to +avail himself of the talents and knowledge of other able men in handling +those departments of government with which he was unfamiliar. He seemed +inclined to keep Spain at peace, at least until she had regained some of +her old power and energy; but the demands of the queen overcame his +reluctance, and in the end he entered upon the accomplishment of her +purposes with a daring and recklessness in full accordance with the +demands of her restless spirit of intrigue. + +Louis XIV. died in 1715. Louis XV., his heir, was a sickly child, not yet +five years old. Philip would have been regent during his youth, and his +heir in case of his death, had he not renounced all claim to the French +throne. He was too weak and irresolute in himself to take any steps to +gain this position, but his wife spurred him on to ambitious designs, and +Alberoni entered eagerly into her projects, beginning a series of +intrigues in France with all who were opposed to the Duke of Orleans, the +existing regent. + +These intrigues led to war. The duke concluded an alliance with England +and Germany, the former enemies of France. Philip, exasperated at seeing +himself thus thwarted, declared war against the German emperor, despite +all that Alberoni could do to prevent, and sent an expedition against +Sardinia, which captured that island. Sicily was also invaded. Alberoni +now entered into intrigues for the restoration of the banished Stuarts to +the English throne, and took part in a conspiracy in France to seize the +Duke of Orleans and appoint Philip to the regency. + +Both these plots failed, the war became general, Philip found his armies +beaten, and Alberoni was forced to treat for peace. The Spanish minister +had made bitter enemies of George I. of England and the Duke of Orleans, +who, claiming that he was responsible for disturbing the peace of Europe, +demanded his dismissal as a preliminary to peace. His failure had lost him +influence with the king, but the queen, the real power behind the throne, +supported him, and it was only by promises of the enemies of Alberoni to +aid her views for the establishment of her children that she was induced +to yield consent to his overthrow. + +On the 4th of December, 1719, Alberoni spent the evening transacting +affairs of state with the king and queen. Up to that time he remained in +full favor and authority, however he may have suspected the intrigues for +his overthrow. Their majesties that night left Madrid for their country +palace at Pardo, and from there was sent a decree by the hands of a +secretary of state, to the all-powerful minister, depriving him of all his +offices, and bidding him to quit Madrid within eight days and Spain within +three weeks. + +Alberoni had long been hated by the people of Spain, and detested by the +grandees, who could not be reconciled to the supremacy of a foreigner and +his appointment to equality with them in rank. But this sudden dismissal +seemed to change their sentiments, and rouse them to realization of the +fact that Spain was losing its ablest man. Nobles and clergy flocked to +his house in such numbers that the king became alarmed at this sudden +popularity, and ordered him to shorten the time of his departure. + +Alberoni sought refuge in Rome, but here the enmity of France and England +pursued him, and Philip accused him of misdemeanors in office, for which +he demanded a trial by the Pope and cardinals. Before these judges the +disgraced minister defended himself so ably that the court brought the +investigation to a sudden end by ordering him to retire to a monastery for +three years. + +This period the favor of the Pope reduced to one year, and his chief +enemy, the regent of France, soon after dying, he was permitted to leave +the monastery and pass the remainder of his life free from persecution. +His career was a singular one, considering the lowness of his origin, and +showed what ability and shrewdness may accomplish even against the +greatest obstacles of fortune. + + + + + +THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. + + +The great Mediterranean Sea has its gate-way, nine miles wide, opening +into the Atlantic, the gate-posts being the headland of Ceuta, on the +African coast, and the famous rock of Gibraltar, in southwestern Spain, +two natural fortresses facing each other across the sea. It is a singular +fact that the African headland is held by Spain, and the Spanish headland +by Great Britain,--this being a result of the wars of the eighteenth +century. Gibraltar, in fact, has had a striking history, one worth the +telling. + +This towering mass of rock rises in solitary grandeur at the extremity of +a sandy level, reaching upward to a height of fourteen hundred and eight +feet, while it is three miles long and three-fourths of a mile in average +width. It forms a stronghold of nature which attracted attention at an +early date. To the Greeks it was one of the Pillars of Hercules,--Abyla +(now Ceuta) being the other,--and formed the supposed western boundary of +the world. Tarik, the Arab, landed here in 711, fortified the rock, and +made it his base of operations against Gothic Spain. From him it received +its name, Gebel el Tarik (Hill of Tarik), now corrupted into Gibraltar. +For seven centuries it remained in Moorish hands, except for a short +interval after 1302, when it was taken by Ferdinand II. of Castile. The +king of Granada soon recaptured it; from him it was taken by treachery by +the king of Fez in 1333; Alfonso XI. of Castile vigorously besieged it, +but in vain; the king of Granada mastered it again in 1410; and it finally +fell into the hands of Spain in 1462. + +A formidable attempt was made by the Moors for its recovery in 1540, it +being vigorously attacked by the pirates of Algiers, who fought fiercely +to win the rock, but were finally repulsed. + +For the next event in the history of this much-coveted rock we must go on +to the year 1704, when the celebrated war of the Succession was in full +play. Louis XIV. of France supported his grandson Philip V. as the +successor to the throne of Spain. The Archduke Charles of Austria was +supported by England, Portugal, and Holland, and was conveyed to the +Peninsula and landed at Lisbon by an English fleet under Admiral Rorke. +The admiral, having disposed of the would-be king, sailed for Barcelona, +which he was told was a ripe plum, ready to fall into his mouth. He was +disappointed; Barcelona was by no means ripe for his purposes, and he +sailed back, ready for any enterprise that might offer itself. + +Soon before him towered the rock of Gibraltar, a handsome prize if it +could be captured, and poorly defended, as he knew. The Spaniards, +trusting, as it seems, in the natural strength of the place, which they +deemed impregnable, had left it with a very small supply of artillery and +ammunition, and with almost no garrison. Here was a promising opportunity +for the disappointed admiral and his associate, the prince of Hesse +Darmstadt, who headed the foreign troops. A landing was made, siege lines +were opened, batteries were erected, and a hot bombardment began, to which +the feeble garrison could make but a weak reply. But the most effective +work was done by a body of soldiers, who scrambled up a part of the rock +that no one dreamed could be ascended, and appeared above the works, +filling with terror the hearts of the garrison. + +Two days answered for the enterprise. At the end of that time the +governor, Don Diego de Salmas, capitulated, and Gibraltar was taken +possession of in the name of Queen Anne of England, the prince being left +there with a garrison of two thousand men. From that time to this +Gibraltar has remained an outpost of Great Britain, with whose outlying +strongholds the whole world bristles. + +The loss of this strong place proved a bitter draught to the pride of +Spain, and strenuous efforts to recapture it were made. In the succeeding +year (1705) it was besieged by a strong force of French and Spanish +troops, but their efforts were wasted, for the feeble court of Madrid left +the army destitute of necessary supplies. By the peace of Utrecht, 1713, +Gibraltar was formally made over to Great Britain, a country famous for +clinging with a death-grip to any place of which she has once taken hold. + +Later efforts were made to win the Rock of Tarik for Spain, one in 1756, +but the last and greatest in 1779-82. It is this vigorous effort with +which we are here concerned, the siege being one of the most famous of +recent times. + +The Revolutionary War in the United States stirred up all Europe, and +finally brought Great Britain two new foes, the allied kingdoms of France +and Spain. The latter country had never lost its irritation at seeing a +foreign power in possession of a part of its home territory. Efforts were +made to obtain Gibraltar by negotiation, Spain offering her friendly aid +to Great Britain in her wars if she would give up Gibraltar. This the +British government positively refused to do, and war was declared. A siege +of Gibraltar began which lasted for more than three years. + +Spain began the work in 1779 with a blockade by sea and an investment by +land. Supplies were cut off from the garrison, which was soon in a state +of serious distress for food, and strong hopes were entertained that it +would be forced to yield. But the British government was alert. Admiral +Rodney was sent with a strong fleet to the Mediterranean, the Spanish +blockading fleet was defeated, the garrison relieved, provisioned, and +reinforced, and Rodney sailed in triumph for the West Indies. + +For three years the blockade was continued with varying fortunes, the +garrison being now on the verge of starvation, now relieved by British +fleets. At the close of the third year it was far stronger than at the +beginning. The effort to subdue it by famine was abandoned, and +preparations for a vigorous siege were made. France had joined her forces +with those of Spain. The island of Minorca, held by the British, had been +taken by the allied fleet, and it was thought impossible for Gibraltar to +resist the projected assault. + +The land force that had so long besieged the rock was greatly +strengthened, new batteries were raised, new trenches opened, and a severe +fire was begun upon the works. Yet so commanding was the situation and so +strong were the defences of the garrison that success from the land side +seemed impossible, and it was determined to make the main attack from the +sea. + +A promising method of attack was devised by a French engineer of the +highest reputation for skill in his profession, the Chevalier D'Arcon. The +plan offered by him was so original and ingenious as to fill the besiegers +with hopes of sure success, and the necessary preparations were diligently +made. Ten powerful floating batteries were constructed, which were thought +fully adapted to resist fire, throw off shells, and quench red-hot balls. +Every effort was made to render them incombustible and incapable of being +sunk. These formidable batteries were towed to the bay of Gibraltar and +anchored at a suitable distance from the works, D'Arcon himself being in +command. Ten ships of the line were sent to co-operate with them, the +arrival of reinforcements from France increased the land army to forty +thousand men, and Crillon, the conqueror of Minorca, was placed in supreme +command. The allied fleets were ordered to cruise in the straits, so as to +prevent interference by a British fleet. + +These great and scientific preparations filled all hearts with hope. No +doubt was entertained that Gibraltar now must fall and Great Britain +receive the chastisement she deserved. The nobility of Spain sought in +numbers the scene of action, eager to be present at the triumph of her +arms. From Versailles came the French princes, full of expectation of +witnessing the humbling of British pride. So confident of success was +Charles III., king of Spain, that his first question every morning on +waking was, "Is Gibraltar taken?" All Spain and all France were instinct +with hope of seeing the pride of the islanders go down. + +Gibraltar was garrisoned by seven thousand troops under General Elliot. +These lay behind fortifications on which had been exhausted all the +resources of the engineering skill of that day, and in their hearts was +the fixed resolve never to surrender. The question had become one of +national pride rather than of utility. Gibraltar was not likely to prove +of any very important advantage to Great Britain, but the instinct to hold +on has always been with that country a national trait, and, however she +might have been induced to yield Gibraltar as an act of policy, she was +determined not to do so as an act of war. + +Early on the 13th of September, 1782, the long-threatened bombardment +began from so powerful a park of artillery that its roar is said to have +exceeded anything ever before heard. There were defects in the plan. The +trenches on land proved to be too far away. The water was rough and the +gunboats could not assist. But the work of the batteries came up to the +highest expectations. The fire poured by them upon the works was +tremendous, while for many hours the shells and red-hot balls of the +garrison, fired with the greatest precision, proved of no avail. The +batteries seemed invulnerable to fire and shell, and the hopes of the +besiegers rose to the highest point, while those of the besieged +correspondingly fell. + +In the end this powerful assault was defeated by one of those events to +which armed bodies of men are always liable,--a sudden and uncalled-for +spasm of fear that flew like wildfire through fleet and camp. The day had +nearly passed, evening was approaching, the hopes of the allies were at +their height, when a red-hot ball from the works lodged in the nearest +battery and started a fire, which the crew sought in vain to quench. + +In a sudden panic, for which there seems to have been no sufficient cause, +the terrified crew wet their powder and ceased to fire on the British +works. The panic spread to the other batteries, and from them to the +forces on shore, even the commander-in-chief being affected by the +causeless fear. At one moment the assailants were enthusiastic with +expectation of success. Not many minutes afterwards they were so overcome +with unreasoning terror that an insane order was given to burn the +batteries, and these were fired with such precipitate haste that the crews +were allowed no time to escape. More of the men were saved by their +enemies, who came with generous intrepidity to their aid, than by their +own terror-stricken friends. + +This unfortunate event put a sudden end to the costly and promising +effort. The nobles of Spain and the princes of France left the camp in +disgust. Charles III. received word that Gibraltar was not captured, and +not likely to be, and the idea of taking the stronghold by force was +abandoned, the blockade being resumed. + +To keep away British aid the allied fleet was increased until it numbered +forty-seven ships of the line, with a considerable number of smaller +vessels. Furnaces were prepared to heat shot for the destruction of any +transports and store-ships that might enter the harbor. Against this great +fleet Lord Howe appeared in October with only thirty sail, and encumbered +with a large convoy. The allied leaders seeing this small force, felt sure +of victory, and of Gibraltar as their prize. + +But again they were doomed to disappointment. The elements came to the +British aid. A violent storm drove the allied fleet from its anchorage, +dispersed the vessels, injured many of the large ships, and drove the +small craft ashore. Lord Howe, whose ships were far better handled, sailed +in good order through the straits, and for five days of rough weather +offered battle to the disabled enemy, keeping them at a distance while his +transports and store-ships entered the harbor and supplied the garrison +abundantly with provisions, ammunition, and men. The effort to take +Gibraltar was hopelessly defeated. The blockade was still kept up, but +merely as a satisfaction to Spanish pride. All hope of taking the fortress +was at an end. Gibraltar remains to-day in British hands, and no later +attempt to take it has been made. + + + + + +THE FALL OF A FAVORITE. + + +The course of our work now brings us down to recent times. After the death +of Philip II., in 1598, Spain had little history worth considering. Ruled +by a succession of painfully weak kings, who were devoid of anything +approaching political wisdom, the fortunes of the realm ran steadily +downward. From being the strongest, it became in time one of the weakest +and least considered of European kingdoms; and from taking the lead in the +politics and wars of Europe, it came to be a plaything of the neighboring +nations,--a catspaw which they used for the advancement of their own ends. + +It was in this way that Napoleon treated Spain. He played with it as a cat +plays with a mouse, and when the proper time came pounced upon it and +gathered it in. Charles IV., the Spanish king of Napoleon's time, was one +of the feeblest of his weak line,--an imbecile whom the emperor of France +counted no more than a feather in his path. He sought to deal with him as +he had done with the equally effeminate king of Portugal. When a French +army invaded Portugal in 1807, its weak monarch cut the knot of the +difficulty by taking ship and crossing the ocean to Brazil, abandoning his +old kingdom and setting up a new one in the New World. When Spain was in +its turn invaded, its king proposed to do the same thing,--to carry the +royal court of Spain to America, and leave a kingdom without a head to +Napoleon. Such an act would have exactly suited the purposes of the astute +conqueror, but the people rose in riot, and Charles IV. remained at home. + +The real ruler of Spain at that time was a licentious and insolent +favorite of the king and queen, Emanuel Godoy by name, who began life as a +soldier, was made Duke of Alcudia by his royal patrons, and was appointed +prime minister in 1792. In 1795, having made peace with France after a +disastrous war, he received the title of "Prince of the Peace." His +administration was very corrupt, and he won the hatred of the nobles, the +people, and the heir to the throne. But his influence over the imbecile +king and the licentious queen was unbounded, and he could afford to laugh +in the face of his foes. But favorites are apt to have a short period of +power, and, though Godoy remained long in office, his downfall at length +came. + +Napoleon had marched his armies through Spain to the conquest of Portugal, +no one in Spain having the courage to object. It was stipulated that a +second French army should not cross the Pyrenees, but in defiance of this +Napoleon filled the north of Spain with his troops in 1808, and sent a +third army across the mountains without pretence of their being needed in +Portugal. No protest was made against this invasion of a neutral nation. +The court of Madrid was helpless with terror, and, with the hope of +propitiating Napoleon, admitted his legions into all the cities of +Catalonia, Biscay, and Navarre. + +Only one thing more was needed to make the French masters of the whole +country. They held the towns, but the citadels were in possession of +Spanish troops. These could not be expelled by violence while a show of +peace was kept up. But Napoleon wanted them, and employed stratagem to get +them into his hands. + +In two of the towns, St. Sebastian and Figueras, a simple lie sufficed. +The officers in command of the French garrisons asked permission to +quarter their unruly conscripts in the citadels. As the court had ordered +that all the wishes of the emperor's officers should be gratified, this +seemingly innocent request was granted. But in place of conscripts the +best men of the regiments were sent, and these were gradually increased in +numbers until in the end they overpowered the Spanish garrisons and +admitted the French. + +At Pamplona a similar request was refused by the governor of the citadel, +but he permitted sixty unarmed men daily to enter the fortress to receive +rations for their respective divisions. Here was the fatal entering wedge. +One night the officer in charge, whose quarters were near the citadel +gate, secretly filled his house with armed grenadiers. The next morning +sixty picked men, with arms hidden under their cloaks, were sent in for +rations. The hour was too early, and the French soldiers loitered about +under pretence of waiting for the quartermaster. Some sauntered into the +Spanish guard-house. Others, by a sportive scuffle on the drawbridge, +prevented its being raised, and occupied the attention of the garrison. +Suddenly a signal was given. The men drew their weapons and seized the +arms of the Spaniards. The grenadiers rushed from their concealment. The +bridge and gate were secured, French troops hastened to the aid of their +comrades, and the citadel was won. + +At Barcelona a different stratagem was employed. A review of the French +forces was held under the walls of the citadel, whose garrison assembled +to look on. During the progress of the review the French general, on +pretence that he had been ordered from the city, rode with his staff on to +the drawbridge with the ostensible purpose of bidding farewell to the +Spanish commander. While the Spaniards curiously watched the manoeuvres of +the troops others of the French quietly gathered on the drawbridge. At a +signal this was seized, a rush took place, and the citadel of Barcelona +was added to the conquests of France. + +The surprise of these fortresses produced an immense sensation in Spain. +That country had sunk into a condition of pitiable weakness. Its navy, +once powerful, was now reduced to a small number of ships, few of them in +condition for service. Its army, once the strongest in Europe, was now but +a handful of poorly equipped and half-drilled men. Its finances were in a +state of frightful disorganization. The government of a brainless king, a +dissolute queen, and an incapable favorite had brought Spain into a +condition in which she dared not raise a hand to resist the ambitious +French emperor. + +In this dilemma Godoy, the so-called "Prince of the Peace," persuaded the +king and queen of Spain that nothing was left them but flight. The royal +house of Portugal had found a great imperial realm awaiting it in America. +Spain possessed there a dominion of continental extent. What better could +they do than remove to the New World the seat of their throne and cut +loose from their threatened and distracted realm? + +The project was concealed under the form of a journey to Andalusia, for +the purpose, as announced by Godoy, of inspecting the ports. But the +extensive preparations of the court for this journey aroused a suspicion +of its true purpose among the people, whose indignation became extreme on +finding that they were to be deserted by the royal house, as Portugal had +been. The exasperation of all classes--the nobility, the middle class, and +the people--against the court grew intense. It was particularly developed +in the army, a body which Godoy had badly treated. The army leaders argued +that they had better welcome the French than permit this disgrace, and +that it was their duty to prevent by force the flight of the king. + +But all this did not deter the Prince of the Peace. He had several +frigates made ready in the port of Cadiz, the royal carriages were ordered +to be in readiness, and relays of horses were provided on the road. The +date of departure was fixed for the 15th or 16th of March, 1808. + +On the 13th Godoy made his way from Madrid to Aranjuez, a magnificent +royal residence on the banks of the Tagus, then occupied by the royal +family. This residence, in the Italian style and surrounded by superb +grounds and gardens, was fronted by a wide highway, expanding opposite the +palace into a spacious place, on which were several fine mansions +belonging to courtiers and ministers, one of the finest being occupied by +the prime minister. In the vicinity a multitude of small houses, inhabited +by tradesmen and shop-keepers, made up the town of Aranjuez. + +Godoy, on arriving at Aranjuez, summoned a council of the ministers, the +time having arrived to apprise them of what was proposed. One of them, the +Marquis of Caballero, kept him waiting, and on his arrival refused to +consent, either by word or signature, to the flight of the king. + +"I order you to sign," the prime minister angrily exclaimed. + +"I take no orders except from the king," haughtily replied the marquis. + +A sharp altercation followed, in which the other ministers took part, and +the meeting broke up in disorder, nothing being done. On retiring, the +irate counsellors, full of agitation, dropped words which were caught up +by the public and aroused a commotion that quickly spread throughout the +town. Thence it extended into the surrounding country, everywhere arousing +the disaffected, and soon strange and sinister faces appeared in the quiet +town. The elements of a popular outbreak were gathering. + +During the succeeding two days the altercation between the Prince of the +Peace and the ministers continued, and the public excitement was added to +by words attributed to Ferdinand, the king's son and heir to the throne, +who was said to have sought aid against those who proposed to carry him +off against his will. On the morning of the 16th, the final day fixed for +the journey, the public agitation was so great that the king issued a +proclamation, which was posted in the streets, saying that he had no +thought of leaving his people. It ended: "Spaniards, be easy; your king +will not leave you." + +This for the time calmed the people. Yet on the 17th the excitement +reappeared. The carriages remained loaded in the palace court-yard; the +relays of horses were kept up; all the indications were suspicious. During +the day the troops of the garrison of Madrid not on duty, with a large +number of the populace, appeared in Aranjuez, having marched a distance of +seven or eight leagues. They shouted maledictions on their way against the +queen and the Prince of the Peace. + +The streets of Aranjuez that night were filled with an excited mob, many +of them life-guards from Madrid, who divided into bands and patrolled the +vicinity of the palace, determined that no one should leave. About +midnight an incident changed the excitement into a riot. A lady left +Godoy's residence under escort of a few soldiers. She appeared to be about +to enter a carriage. The crowd pressed closely around, and the hussars of +the minister, who attended the lady, attempted to force a passage through +them. At this moment a gun was fired,--by whom was not known. A frightful +tumult at once arose. The life-guards and other soldiers rushed upon the +hussars, and a furious mob gathered around the palace, shouting, "Long +live the king!" "Death to the Prince of the Peace!" + +Soon a rush was made towards the residence of the prince, which the throng +surrounded, gazing at it with eyes of anger, yet hesitating to make an +attack. As they paused in doubt, a messenger from the palace approached +the mansion and sought admission. It was refused from those within. He +insisted upon entrance, and a shot came from the guards within. In an +instant all hesitation was at an end. The crowd rushed in fury against the +doors, broke them in, and swarmed into the building, driving the guards +back in dismay. + +It was magnificently furnished, but their passion to destroy soon made +havoc of its furniture and decorations. Pictures, hangings, costly +articles of use and ornament were torn down, dashed to pieces, flung from +the windows. The mob ran from room to room, destroying everything of value +they met, and eagerly seeking the object of their hatred, with a +passionate thirst for his life. The whole night was spent in the search, +and, the prince not being found, his house was reduced to a wreck. + +Word of what was taking place filled the weak soul of Charles IV. with +mortal terror. The prince failed to appear, and, by the advice of the +ministers, a decree was issued by the king on the following morning +depriving Emanuel Godoy of the offices of grand admiral and generalissimo, +and exiling him from the court. + +Thus fell this detestable favorite, the people, who blamed him for the +degradation of Spain, breaking into a passionate joy, singing, dancing, +building bonfires, and giving every manifestation of delight. In Madrid, +when the news reached there, the enthusiasm approached delirium. + +Meanwhile, where was the fallen favorite? Despite the close search made by +the mob, he remained concealed in his residence. Alarmed by the crash of +the breaking doors, he had seized a pistol and a handful of gold, rushed +up-stairs, and hid himself in a loft under the roof, rolling himself up in +a sort of rush carpet used in Spain. Here he remained during the whole of +the 18th and the succeeding night, but on the morning of the 19th, after +thirty-six hours' suffering, thirst and hunger forced him to leave his +retreat. He presented himself suddenly before a sentry on duty in the +palace, offering him his gold. But the man refused the bribe and instantly +called the guard. Fortunately the mass of the people were not near by. +Some life-guards who just then came up placed the miserable captive +between their horses, and conveyed him as rapidly as they could towards +their barracks. But these were at some distance, the news of the capture +spread like wild-fire, and they had not gone far before the mob began to +gather around them, their hearts full of murderous rage. + +The prince was on foot between two of the mounted guardsmen, leaning for +shelter against the pommels of their saddles. Others of the horsemen +closed up in front and rear, and did their best to protect him from the +fury of the rabble, who struck wildly at him with every weapon they had +been able to snatch up. Despite the efforts of the guardsmen some of the +blows reached him, and he was finally brought to the barracks with his +feet trodden by the horses, a large wound in his thigh, and one eye nearly +out of his head. Here he was thrown, covered with blood, upon the straw in +the stables, a sad example of what comes of the favor of kings when +exercised in defiance of the will of the people. Godoy had begun life as a +life-guardsman, and now, after almost sharing the throne, he had thus +returned to the barracks and the straw bed of his youth. + +We may give in outline the remainder of the story of this fallen favorite. +Promise being given that he should have an impartial trial, the mob ceased +its efforts to kill him. Napoleon, who had use for him, now came to his +rescue, and induced him to sign a deed under which Charles IV. abdicated +the throne in favor of his son. His possessions in Spain were confiscated, +but Charles, who removed to Rome, was his friend during life. After the +death of his protector he went to Paris, where he received a pension from +Louis Philippe; and in 1847, when eighty years of age, he received +permission to return to Spain, his titles and most of his property being +restored. But he preferred to live in Paris, where he died in 1851. + + + + + + [Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.] + + THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA. + + + + + +THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA. + + +On the banks of the Ebro, in northwestern Spain, stands the ancient city +of Saragossa, formerly the capital of Aragon, and a place of fame since +early Roman days. A noble bridge of seven arches, built nearly five +centuries ago, crosses the stream, and a wealth of towers and spires gives +the city an imposing appearance. This city is famous for its sieges, of +which a celebrated one took place in the twelfth century, when the +Christians held it in siege for five years, ending in 1118. In the end the +Moors were forced to surrender, or such of them as survived, for a great +part of them had died of hunger. In modern times it gained new and high +honor from its celebrated resistance to the French in 1808. It is this +siege with which we are concerned, one almost without parallel in history. + +We have told in the preceding tale how Charles IV. of Spain was forced to +yield the throne to his son Ferdinand, who was proclaimed king March 20, +1808. This act by no means agreed with the views of Napoleon, who had +plans of his own for Spain, and who sought to end the difficulty by +deposing the Bourbon royal family and placing his own brother, Joseph +Bonaparte, on the throne. + +The imperious emperor of the French had, however, the people as well as +the rulers of Spain to deal with. The news of his arbitrary action was +received throughout the Peninsula with intense indignation, and suddenly +the land blazed into insurrection, and the French garrisons, which had +been treacherously introduced into Spain, found themselves besieged. +Everywhere the peasants seized arms and took to the field, and a fierce +guerilla warfare began which the French found it no easy matter to +overcome. At Baylen, a town of Andalusia, which was besieged by the +insurgents, the French suffered a serious defeat, an army of eighteen +thousand men being forced to surrender as prisoners of war. This was the +only important success of the Spanish, but they courageously resisted +their foes, and at Saragossa gained an honor unsurpassed in the history of +Spain. Never had there been known such a siege and such a defence. + +Saragossa was attacked by General Lefebre on June 15, 1808. Thinking that +a city protected only by a low brick wall, with peasants and townsmen for +its defenders, and few guns in condition for service, could be carried at +first assault, the French general made a vigorous attack, but found +himself driven back. He had but four or five thousand men, while the town +had fifty thousand inhabitants, the commander of the garrison being Joseph +Palafox, a man of indomitable spirit. + +Lefebre, perceiving that he had been over-confident, now encamped and +awaited reinforcements, which arrived on the 29th, increasing his force to +twelve thousand men. He was recalled for service elsewhere, General +Verdier being left in command, and during the succeeding two months the +siege was vigorously prosecuted, the French being supplied with a large +siege train, with which they hotly bombarded the city. + +Weak as were the walls of Saragossa, interiorly it was remarkably well +adapted for defence. The houses were strongly built, of incombustible +material, they being usually of two stories, each story vaulted and +practically fireproof. Every house had its garrison, and the massive +convents which rose like castles within the circuit of the wall were +filled with armed men. Usually when the walls of a city are taken the city +falls; but this was by no means the case with Saragossa. The loss of its +walls was but the beginning, not the end, of its defence. Each convent, +each house, formed a separate fortress. The walls were loop-holed for +musketry, ramparts were constructed of sand-bags, and beams were raised +endwise against the houses to afford shelter from shells. + +It was not until August that the French, now fifteen thousand strong, were +able to force their way into the city. But to enter the city was not to +capture it. They had to fight their way from street to street and from +house to house. At length the assailants penetrated to the Cosso, a public +walk formed on the line of the old Moorish ramparts, but here their +advance was checked, the citizens defending themselves with the most +desperate and unyielding energy. + +The singular feature of this defence was that the women of Saragossa took +as active a part in it as the men. The Countess Burita, a beautiful young +woman of intrepid spirit, took the lead in forming her fellow-women into +companies, at whose head were ladies of the highest rank. These, +undeterred by the hottest fire and freely braving wounds and death, +carried provisions to the combatants, removed the wounded to the +hospitals, and were everywhere active in deeds of mercy and daring. One of +them, a young woman of low rank but intrepid soul, gained world-wide +celebrity by an act of unusual courage and presence of mind. + +While engaged one day in her regular duty, that of carrying meat and wine +to the defenders of a battery, she found it deserted and the guns +abandoned. The French fire had proved so murderous that the men had shrunk +back in mortal dread. Snatching a match from the hand of a dead +artillery-man, the brave girl fired his gun, and vowed that she would +never leave it while a Frenchman remained in Saragossa. Her daring shamed +the men, who returned to their guns, but, as the story goes, the brave +girl kept her vow, working the gun she had chosen until she had the joy to +see the French in full retreat. This took place on the 14th of August, +when the populace, expecting nothing but to die amid the ruins of their +houses, beheld with delight the enemy in full retreat. The obstinate +resistance of the people and reverses to the arms of France elsewhere had +forced them to raise the siege. + +The deeds of the "Maid of Saragossa" have been celebrated in poetry by +Byron and Southey and in art by Wilkie, and she stands high on the roll of +heroic women, being given, as some declare, a more elevated position than +her exploit deserved. + +Saragossa, however, was only reprieved, not abandoned. The French found +themselves too busily occupied elsewhere to attend to this centre of +Spanish valor until months had passed. At length, after the defeat and +retreat of Sir John Moore and the English allies of Spain, a powerful +army, thirty-five thousand strong, returned to the city on the Ebro, with +a battering train of sixty guns. + +Palafox remained in command in the city, which was now much more strongly +fortified and better prepared for defence. The garrison was +super-abundant. From the field of battle at Tudela, where the Spaniards +had suffered a severe defeat, a stream of soldiers fled to Saragossa, +bringing with them wagons and military stores in abundance. As the +fugitives passed, the villagers along the road, moved by terror, joined +them, and into the gates of the city poured a flood of soldiers, +camp-followers, and peasants, until it was thronged with human beings. +Last of all came the French, reaching the city on the 20th of December, +and resuming their interrupted siege. And now Saragossa, though destined +to fall, was to cover itself with undying glory. + +The townsmen, giving up every thought of personal property, devoted all +their goods, their houses, and their persons to the war, mingling with the +soldiers and the peasants to form one great garrison for the fortress into +which the whole city was transformed. In all quarters of the city massive +churches and convents rose like citadels, the various large streets +running into the broad avenue called the Cosso, and dividing the city into +a number of districts, each with its large and massive structures, well +capable of defence. + +Not only these thick-walled buildings, but all the houses, were converted +into forts, the doors and windows being built up, the fronts loop-holed, +and openings for communication broken through the party-walls; while the +streets were defended by trenches and earthen ramparts mounted with +cannon. Never before was there such an instance of a whole city converted +into a fortress, the thickness of the ramparts being here practically +measured by the whole width of the city. + +Saragossa had been a royal depot for saltpetre, and powder-mills near by +had taught many of its people the process of manufacture, so no magazines +of powder subject to explosion were provided, this indispensable substance +being made as it was needed. Outside the walls the trees were cut down and +the houses demolished, so that they might not shield the enemy; the public +magazines contained six months' provisions, the convents and houses were +well stocked, and every preparation was made for a long siege and a +vigorous defence. + +Again, as before, companies of women were enrolled to attend the wounded +in the hospitals and carry food and ammunition to the men, the Countess +Burita being once more their commander, and performing her important duty +with a heroism and high intelligence worthy of the utmost praise. Not less +than fifty thousand combatants within the walls faced the thirty-five +thousand French soldiers without, who had before them the gigantic task of +overcoming a city in which every dwelling was a fort and every family a +garrison. + +A month and more passed before the walls were taken. Steadily the French +guns played on these defences, breach after breach was made, a number of +the encircling convents were entered and held, and by the 1st of February +the walls and outer strongholds of the city were lost. Ordinarily, under +such circumstances, the city would have fallen, but here the work of the +assailants had but fairly begun. The inner defences--the houses with their +unyielding garrisons--stood intact, and a terrible task still faced the +French. + +The war was now in the city streets, the houses nearest the posts held by +the enemy were crowded with defenders, in every quarter the alarm-bells +called the citizens to their duty, new barricades rose in the streets, +mines were sunk in the open spaces, and the internal passages from house +to house were increased until the whole city formed a vast labyrinth, +throughout which the defenders could move under cover. + +Marshall Lannes, the French commander, viewed with dread and doubt the +scene before him. Untrained in the art of war as were the bulk of the +defenders, courage and passionate patriotism made up for all deficiencies. +Men like these, heedless of death in their determined defence, were +dangerous to meet in open battle, and the prudent Frenchman resolved to +employ the slow but surer process of excavating a passage and fighting his +way through house after house until the city should be taken piecemeal. + +Mining through the houses was not sufficient. The greater streets divided +the city into a number of small districts, the group of dwellings in each +of which forming a separate stronghold. To cross these streets it was +necessary to construct underground galleries, or build traverses, since a +Spanish battery raked each street, and each house had to be fought for and +taken separately. + +While the Spaniards held the convents and churches the capture of the +houses by the French was of little service to them, the defenders making +sudden and successful sallies from these strong buildings, and +countermining their enemies, their numbers and perseverance often +frustrating the superior skill of the French. The latter, therefore, +directed their attacks upon these buildings, mining and destroying many of +them. On the other hand, the defenders saturated with rosin and pitch the +timbers of the buildings they could no longer hold, and interposed a +barrier of fire between themselves and their assailants which often +delayed them for several days. + +Step by step, inch by inch, the French made their way forward, complete +destruction alone enabling them to advance. The fighting was incessant. +The explosion of mines, the crash of falling buildings, the roar of cannon +and musketry, the shouts of the combatants continually filled the air, +while a cloud of smoke and dust hung constantly over the city as the +terrible scene of warfare continued day after day. + +By the 17th of February the Cosso was reached and passed. But the French +soldiers had become deeply discouraged by their fifty days of unremitting +labor and battle, fighting above and beneath the earth, facing an enemy as +bold as themselves and much more numerous, and with half the city still to +be conquered. Only the obstinate determination of Marshal Lannes kept them +to their work. + +By his orders a general assault was made on the 18th. Under the +university, a large building in the Cosso, mines containing three thousand +pounds of powder were exploded, the walls falling with a terrific crash. +Meanwhile, fifty pieces of artillery were playing on the side of the Ebro, +where the great convent of St. Lazar was breached and taken, two thousand +men being here cut off from the city. On the 19th other mines were +exploded, and on the 20th six great mines under the Cosso, loaded with +thousands of pounds of powder, whose explosion would have caused immense +destruction, were ready for the match, when an offer to surrender brought +the terrible struggle to an end. + +The case had become one of surrender or death. The bombardment, incessant +since the 10th of January, had forced the women and children into the +vaults, which were abundant in Saragossa. There the closeness of the air, +the constant burning of oil, and the general unsanitary conditions had +given rise to a pestilence which threatened to carry off all the +inhabitants of the city. Such was the state of the atmosphere that slight +wounds became fatal, and many of the defenders of the barricades were fit +only for the hospitals. By the 1st of February the death-rate had become +enormous. The daily deaths numbered nearly five hundred, and thousands of +corpses, which it was impossible to bury, lay in the streets and houses, +and in heaps at the doors of the churches, infecting the air with their +decay. The French held the suburbs, most of the wall, and one-fourth of +the houses, while the bursting of thousands of shells and the explosion of +nearly fifty thousand pounds of gunpowder in mines had shaken the city to +its foundations. Of the hundred thousand people who had gathered within +its walls, more than fifty thousand were dead; thousands of others would +soon follow them to the grave; Palafox, their indomitable chief, was sick +unto death. Yet despite this there was a strong and energetic party who +wished to protract the siege, and the deputies appointed to arrange terms +of surrender were in peril of their lives. + +The terms granted were that the garrison should march out with the honors +of war, to be taken as prisoners to France; the peasants should be sent to +their homes; the rights of property and exercise of religion should be +guaranteed. + +Thus ended one of the most remarkable sieges on record,--remarkable alike +for the energy and persistence of the attack and the courage and obstinacy +of the defence. Never in all history has any other city stood out so long +after its walls had fallen. Rarely has any city been so adapted to a +protracted defence. Had not its houses been nearly incombustible it would +have been reduced to ashes by the bombardment. Had not its churches and +convents possessed the strength of forts it must have quickly yielded. Had +not the people been animated by an extraordinary enthusiasm, in which +women did the work of men, a host of peasants and citizens could not so +long have endured the terrors of assault on the one hand and of pestilence +on the other. In the words of General Napier, the historian of the +Peninsular War, "When the other events of the Spanish war shall be lost in +the obscurity of time, or only traced by disconnected fragments, the story +of Zaragoza, like some ancient triumphal pillar standing amidst ruins, +will tell a tale of past glory." + + + + + +THE HERO OF THE CARLISTS. + + +Spain for years past has had its double king,--a king in possession and a +king in exile, a holder of the throne and an aspirant to the throne. For +the greater part of a century one has rarely heard of Spain without +hearing of the Carlists, for continually since 1830 there has been a +princely claimant named Charles, or Don Carlos, struggling for the crown. + +Ferdinand VII., who succeeded to the throne on the abdication of Charles +IV. in 1808, made every effort to obtain an heir. Three wives he had +without a child, and his brother, Don Carlos, naturally hoped to succeed +him. But the persistent king married a fourth time, and this time a +daughter was born to him. There was a law excluding females from the +throne, but this law had been abrogated by Ferdinand to please his wife, +and thus the birth of his daughter robbed Don Carlos of his hopes of +becoming king. + +Ferdinand died in 1833, and the infant Isabella was proclaimed queen, with +her mother as regent. The liberals supported her, the absolutists gathered +around Don Carlos, and for years there was a bitter struggle in Spain, the +strength of the Carlists being in the Basque provinces and Spanish +Navarre,--a land of mountaineers, loyal in nature and conservative by +habit. + +The dynasty of the pretender has had three successive claimants to the +throne. The first Don Carlos abdicated in 1844, and was succeeded by Don +Carlos the Second, his son. He died in 1861, and his cousin, Don Carlos +the Third, succeeded to the claim, and renewed the struggle for the crown. +It was this third of the name that threatened to renew the insurrection +during the Spanish-American war of 1898. + +This explanation is necessary to make clear what is known by Carlism in +Spain. Many as have been the Carlist insurrections, they have had but one +leader of ability, one man capable of bringing them success. This was the +famous Basque chieftain Zumalacarregui, the renowned "Uncle Tomas" of the +Carlists, whose brilliant career alone breaks the dull monotony of Spanish +history in the nineteenth century, and who would in all probability have +placed Don Carlos on the throne but for his death from a mortal wound in +1835. Since then Carlism has struggled on with little hope of success. + +Navarre, the chief seat of the insurrection, borders on the chain of the +Pyrenees, and is a wild confusion of mountains and hills, where the +traveller is confused in a labyrinth of long and narrow valleys, deep +glens, and rugged rocks and cliffs. The mountains are highest in the +north, but nowhere can horsemen proceed the day through without +dismounting, and in many localities even foot travel is very difficult. In +passing from village to village long and winding roads must be traversed, +the short cuts across the mountains being such as only a goat or a +Navarrese can tread. + +Regular troops, in traversing this rugged country, are exhausted by the +shortest marches, while the people of the region go straight through wood +and ravine, plunging into the thick forests and following narrow paths, +through which pursuit is impossible, and where an invading force does not +dare to send out detachments for fear of having them cut off by a sudden +guerilla attack. It was here and in the Basque provinces to the west, with +their population of hardy and daring mountaineers, that the troops of +Napoleon found themselves most annoyed by the bold guerilla chiefs, and +here the Carlist forces long defied the armies of the crown. + +Tomas Zumalacarregui, the "modern Cid," as his chief historian entitles +him, was a man of high military genius, rigid in discipline, skilful in +administration, and daring in leadership; a stern, grave soldier, to whose +face a smile rarely came except when shots were falling thick around him +and when his staff appeared as if they would have preferred music of a +different kind. To this intrepid chief fear seemed unknown, prudence in +battle unthought of, and so many were his acts of rashness that when a +bullet at length reached him it seemed a miracle that he had escaped so +long. The white charger which he rode became such a mark for the enemy, +from its frequent appearance at the head of a charging troop or in +rallying a body of skirmishers, that all those of a similar color ridden +by members of his staff were successively shot, though his always escaped. +On more than one occasion he brought victory out of doubt, or saved his +little army in retreat, by an act of hare-brained bravery. Such was the +"Uncle Tomas" of the Navarrese, the darling of the mountaineers, the man +who would very likely have brought final victory to their cause had not +death cut him off in the midst of his career. + +Few were the adherents of Don Carlos when this able soldier placed himself +at their head,--a feeble remnant hunted like a band of robbers among their +native mountains. When he appeared in 1833, escaping from Madrid, where he +was known as a brave soldier and an opponent of the queen, he found but +the fragment of an insurgent army in Navarre. All he could gather under +his banner were about eight hundred half-armed and undisciplined men,--a +sorry show with which to face an army of over one hundred and twenty +thousand men, many of them veterans of the recent wars. These were thrown +in successive waves against Uncle Tomas and his handful of followers, +reinforcement following reinforcement, general succeeding general, even +the redoubtable Mina among them, each with a new plan to crush the Carlist +chief, yet each disastrously failing. + +Beginning with eight hundred badly armed peasants and fourteen horses, the +gallant leader had at the time of his death a force of twenty-eight +thousand well-organized and disciplined infantry and eight hundred +horsemen, with twenty-eight pieces of artillery and twelve thousand spare +muskets, all won by his good sword from the foe,--his arsenal being, as he +expressed it, "in the ranks of the enemy." During these two years of +incessant war more than fifty thousand of the army of Spain, including a +very large number of officers, had fallen in Navarre, sixteen fortified +places had been taken, and the cause of Don Carlos was advancing by leaps +and bounds. The road to Madrid lay open to the Carlist hero when, at the +siege of Bilboa, a distant and nearly spent shot struck him, inflicting a +wound from which he soon died. With the fall of Zumalacarregui fell the +Carlist cause. Weak hands seized the helm from which his strong one had +been struck, incompetency succeeded genius, and three years more of a +weakening struggle brought the contest to an end. In all later revivals of +the insurrection it has never gained a hopeful stand, and with the fall of +"Uncle Tomas" the Carlist claim to the throne seemingly received its +death-blow. + +The events of the war between the Navarrese and their opponents were so +numerous that it is not easy to select one of special interest from the +mass. We shall therefore speak only of the final incidents of +Zumalacarregui's career. Among the later events was the siege and capture +of Villafranca. Espartero, the Spanish general, led seven thousand men to +the relief of this place, marching them across the mountains on a dark and +stormy night with the hope of taking the Carlists by surprise. But Uncle +Tomas was not the man to be taken unawares, and reversed the surprise, +striking Espartero with a small force in the darkness, and driving back +his men in confusion and dismay. Eighteen hundred prisoners were taken, +and the general himself narrowly escaped. General Mirasol was taken, with +all his staff, in a road-side house, from which he made an undignified +escape. He was a small man, and by turning up his embroidered cuffs, these +being the only marks of the grade of brigadier-general in the Spanish +army, he concealed his rank. He told his captors that he was a _tambor_. +In their anxiety to capture officers the soldiers considered a drummer too +small game, and dismissed the general with a sound kick to the custody of +those outside. As these had more prisoners than they could well manage, he +easily escaped. + +On learning of the defeat of Espartero the city surrendered. The news of +the fall of Villafranca had an important effect, the city of Tolosa being +abandoned by its garrison and Burgera surrendered, though it was strongly +garrisoned. Here Charles V.--as Don Carlos was styled by his party--made a +triumphal entry. He was then at the summit of his fortunes and full of +aspiring hopes. Eybar was next surrendered, the garrison of Durango fled, +and Salvatierra was evacuated. + +Victory seemed to have perched upon the banners of the Navarrese, town +after town falling in rapid succession into their hands, and the crown of +Spain appeared likely soon to change hands. Zumalacarregui proposed next +to march upon Vittoria, which had been abandoned with the exception of a +few battalions, and thence upon the important city of Burgos, where he +would either force the enemy to a battle or move forward upon Madrid. So +rapid and signal had been his successes that consternation filled the army +of the queen, the soldiers being in such terror that little opposition was +feared. Bets ran high in the Carlist army that six weeks would see them in +Madrid, and any odds could have been had that they would be there within +two months. Such was the promising state of affairs when the impolitic +interference of Don Carlos led to a turn in the tide of his fortune and +the overthrow of his cause. + +What he wanted most was money. His military chest was empty. In the path +of the army lay the rich mercantile city of Bilboa. Its capture would +furnish a temporary supply. He insisted that the army, instead of crossing +the Ebro and taking full advantage of the panic of the enemy, should +attack this place. This Zumalacarregui strongly opposed. + +"Can you take it?" asked Carlos. + +"I can take it, but it will be at an immense sacrifice, not so much of men +as of time, which now is precious," was the reply. + +Don Carlos insisted, and the general, sorely against his will, complied. +The movement was not only unwise in itself, it led to an accident that +brought to an end all the fair promise of success. + +The siege was begun. Zumalacarregui, anxious to save time, determined to +take the place by storm as soon as a practicable breach should be made, +and on the morning of the day he had fixed for the assault he, with his +usual daring, stepped into the balcony of a building not far from the +walls to inspect the state of affairs with his glass. + +On seeing a man thus exposed, evidently a superior officer, to judge from +his telescope and the black fur jacket he wore, all the men within that +part of the walls opened fire on him. The general soon came out of the +balcony limping in a way that at once created alarm, and, unable to +conceal his lameness, he admitted that he was wounded. A bullet, glancing +from one of the bars of the balcony window, had struck him in the calf of +the right leg, fracturing the small bone and dropping two or three inches +lower in the flesh. + +The wound appeared but trifling,--the slight hurt of a spent ball,--but the +surgeons, disputing as to the policy of extracting the ball, did nothing, +not even dressing the wound till the next morning. It was of slight +importance, they said. He would be on horseback within a month, perhaps in +two weeks. The wounded man was not so sanguine. + +"The pitcher goes to the well till it breaks at last," he said. "Two +months more and I would not have cared for any sort of wound." + +Those two months might have put Don Carlos on the throne and changed the +history of Spain. In eleven days the general was dead and a change had +come over the spirit of affairs. The operations against Bilboa languished, +the garrison regained their courage, the plan of storming the place was +set aside, the queen's troops, cheered by tidings of the death of the +"terrible Zumalacarregui," took heart again and marched to the relief of +the city. Their advance ended in the siege being raised, and in the first +encounter after the death of their redoubtable chief the Carlists met with +defeat. The decline in the fortunes of Don Carlos had begun. One man had +lifted them from the lowest ebb almost to the pinnacle of success. With +the fall of Zumalacarregui Carlism received a death-blow in Spain, for +there is little hope that one of this dynasty of claimants will ever reach +the throne. + + + + + +MANILA AND SANTIAGO. + + +The record of Spain has not been glorious at sea. She has but one great +victory, that of Lepanto, to offer in evidence against a number of great +defeats, such as those of the Armada, Cape St. Vincent, and Trafalgar. In +1898 two more defeats, those of Manila and Santiago, were added to the +list, and with an account of these our series of tales from Spanish +history may fitly close. + +Exactly three centuries passed from the death of Philip II. (1598) to that +of the war with the United States, and during that long period the tide of +Spanish affairs moved steadily downward. At its beginning Spain exercised +a powerful influence over European politics; at its end she was looked +upon with disdainful pity and had no longer a voice in continental +affairs. Such was the inevitable result of the weakness and lack of +statesmanship with which the kingdom had been misgoverned during the +greater part of this period. + +In her colonial affairs Spain had shown herself as intolerant and +oppressive as at home. When the other nations of Europe were loosening the +reins of their colonial policy, Spain kept hers unyieldingly rigid. +Colonial revolution was the result, and she lost all her possessions in +America but the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. Yet she had learned no +lesson,--she seemed incapable of profiting by experience,--and the old +policy of tyranny and rapacity was exercised over these islands until +Cuba, the largest of them, was driven into insurrection. + +In attempting to suppress this insurrection Spain adopted the cruel +methods she had exercised against the Moriscos in the sixteenth century, +ignoring the fact that the twentieth century was near its dawn, and that a +new standard of humane sympathy and moral obligation had arisen in other +nations. Her cruelty towards the insurgent Cubans became so intolerable +that the great neighboring republic of the United States bade her, in +tones of no uncertain meaning, to bring it to an end. In response Spain +adopted her favorite method of procrastination, and the frightful reign of +starvation in Cuba was maintained. This was more than the American people +could endure, and war was declared. With the cause and the general course +of that war our readers are familiar, but it embraced two events of signal +significance--the naval contests of the war--which are worth telling again +as the most striking occurrences in the recent history of Spain. + +At early dawn of the 1st of May, 1898, a squadron of United States +cruisers appeared before the city of Manila, in the island of Luzon, the +largest island of the Philippine archipelago, then a colony of Spain. This +squadron, consisting of the cruisers Olympia, Baltimore, Raleigh, and +Boston, the gunboats Petrel and Concord, and the despatch-boat McCulloch, +had entered the bay of Manila during the night, passing unhurt the +batteries at its mouth, and at daybreak swept in proud array past the city +front, seeking the Spanish fleet, which lay in the little bay of Cavite, +opening into the larger bay. + + [Illustration: THE CITY OF SARAGOSSA.] + + THE ANNIHILATION OF THE SPANISH FLEET IN THE HARBOR OF MANILA. + +Copyright, 1898, by Arkell Publishing Company + + +The Spanish ships consisted of five cruisers and three gunboats, inferior +in weight and armament to their enemy, but flanked by shore batteries on +each end of the line, and with an exact knowledge of the harbor, while the +Americans were ignorant of distances and soundings. These advantages on +the side of the Spanish made the two fleets practically equal in strength. +The battle about to be fought was one of leading importance in naval +affairs. It was the second time in history in which two fleets built under +the new ideas in naval architecture and armament had met in battle. The +result was looked for with intense interest by the world. + +Commodore Dewey, the commander of the American squadron, remained fully +exposed on the bridge of his flag-ship, the Olympia, as she stood daringly +in, followed in line by the Baltimore, Raleigh, Petrel, Concord, and +Boston. As they came up, the shore batteries opened fire, followed by the +Spanish ships, while two submarine mines, exploded before the Olympia, +tossed a shower of water uselessly into the air. + +Heedless of all this, the ships continued their course, their guns +remaining silent, while the Spanish fire grew continuous. Plunging shells +tore up the waters of the bay to right and left, but not a ship was +struck, and not a shot came in return from the frowning muzzles of the +American guns. The hour of 5.30 had passed and the sun was pouring its +beams brightly over the waters of the bay, when from the forward turret of +the Olympia boomed a great gun, and an 8-inch shell rushed screaming in +towards the Spanish fleet. Within ten minutes more all the ships were in +action, and a steady stream of shells were pouring upon the Spanish ships. + +The difference in effect was striking. The American gunners were trained +to accurate aiming; the Spanish idea was simply to load and fire. In +consequence few shells from the Spanish guns reached their mark, while few +of those from American guns went astray. Soon the fair ships of Spain were +frightfully torn and rent and many of their men stretched in death, while +hardly a sign of damage was visible on an American hull. + +Sweeping down parallel to the Spanish line, and pouring in its fire as it +went from a distance of forty-five hundred yards, the American squadron +swept round in a long ellipse and sailed back, now bringing its starboard +batteries into play. Six times it passed over this course, the last two at +the distance of two thousand yards. From the great cannon, and from the +batteries of smaller rapid-fire guns, a steady stream of projectiles was +hurled inward, frightfully rending the Spanish ships, until at the end of +the evolutions three of them were burning fiercely, and the others were +little more than wrecks. + +Admiral Montojo's flag-ship, the Reina Cristina, made a sudden dash from +the line in the middle of the combat, with the evident hope of ramming and +sinking the Olympia. The attempt was a desperate one, the fire of the +entire fleet being concentrated on the single antagonist, until the storm +of projectiles grew so terrific that utter annihilation seemed at hand. +The Spanish admiral now swung his ship around and started hastily back. +Just as she had fairly started in the reverse course an 8-inch shell from +the Olympia struck her fairly in the stern and drove inward through every +obstruction, wrecking the aft-boiler and blowing up the deck in its +explosion. It was a fatal shot. Clouds of white smoke were soon followed +by the red glare of flames. For half an hour longer the crew continued to +work their guns. At the end of that time the fire was master of the ship. + +Two torpedo-boats came out with the same purpose, and met with the same +reception. Such a rain of shell poured on them that they hastily turned +and ran back. They had not gone far before one of them, torn by a shell, +plunged headlong to the bottom of the bay. The other was beached, her crew +flying in terror to the shore. + +While death and destruction were thus playing havoc with the Spanish +ships, the Spanish fire was mainly wasted upon the sea. Shots struck the +Olympia, Baltimore, and Boston, but did little damage. One passed just +under Commodore Dewey on the bridge and tore a hole in the deck. One +ripped up the main deck of the Baltimore, disabled a 6-inch gun, and +exploded a box of ammunition, by which eight men were slightly wounded. +These were the only men hurt on the American side during the whole battle. + +At 7.35 Commodore Dewey withdrew his ships that the men might breakfast. +The Spanish ships were in a hopeless state. Shortly after eleven the +Americans returned and ranged up again before the ships of Spain, nearly +all of which were in flames. For an hour and a quarter longer the blazing +ships were pounded with shot and shell, the Spaniards feebly replying. At +the end of that time the work was at an end, the batteries being silenced +and the ships sunk, their upper works still blazing. Of their crews, +nearly a thousand had perished in the fight. + +Thus ended one of the most remarkable naval battles in history. For more +than three hours the American ships had been targets for a hot fire from +the Spanish fleet and forts, and during all that time not a man had been +killed and not a ship seriously injured. Meanwhile, the Spanish fleet had +ceased to exist. Its burnt remains lay on the bottom of the bay. The forts +had been battered into shapeless heaps of earth, their garrisons killed or +put to flight. It was an awful example of the difference between accurate +gunnery and firing at random. + +Two months later a second example of the same character was made. Spain's +finest squadron, consisting of the four first-class armored cruisers Maria +Teresa, Vizcaya, Almirante Oquendo, and Cristobal Colon, with two +torpedo-boat destroyers, lay in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, blockaded +by a powerful American fleet of battle-ships and cruisers under Admiral +Sampson. They were held in a close trap. The town was being besieged by +land. Sampson's fleet far outnumbered them at sea. They must either +surrender with the town or take the forlorn hope of escape by flight. + +The latter was decided upon. On the morning of July 3 the lookout on the +Brooklyn, Commodore Schley's flag-ship, reported that a ship was coming +out of the harbor. The cloud of moving smoke had been seen at the same +instant from the battle-ship Iowa, and in an instant the Sunday morning +calm on these vessels was replaced by intense excitement. + +Mast-head signals told the other ships of what was in view, the men rushed +in mad haste to quarters, the guns were made ready for service, ammunition +was hoisted, coal hurled into the furnaces, and every man on the alert. It +was like a man suddenly awoke from sleep with an alarm cry: at one moment +silent and inert, in the next moment thrilling with intense life and +activity. + +This was not a battle; it was a flight and pursuit. The Spaniards as soon +as the harbor was cleared opened a hot fire on the Brooklyn, their nearest +antagonist, which they wished to disable through fear of her superior +speed. But their gunnery here was like that at Manila, their shells being +wasted through unskilful handling. On the other hand the fire from the +American ships was frightful, precise, and destructive, the fugitive ships +being rapidly torn by such a rain of shells as had rarely been seen +before. + +Turning down the coast, the fugitive ships drove onward at their utmost +speed. After them came the cruiser Brooklyn and the battle-ships Texas, +Iowa, Oregon, and Indiana, hurling shells from their great guns in their +wake. The New York, Admiral Sampson's flag-ship, was distant several miles +up the coast, too far away to take part in the fight. + +Such a hail of shot, sent with such accurate aim, could not long be +endured. The Maria Teresa, Admiral Cervera's flag-ship, was quickly in +flames, while shells were piercing her sides and bursting within. The main +steam-pipe was severed, the pump was put out of service, the captain was +killed. Lowering her flag, the vessel headed for the shore, where she was +quickly beached. + +The Almirante Oquendo, equally punished, followed the same example, a mass +of flames shrouding her as she rushed for the beach. The Vizcaya was the +next to succumb, after a futile effort to ram the Brooklyn. One shell from +the cruiser went the entire length of her gun-deck, killing or wounding +all the men on it. The Oregon was pouring shells into her hull, and she in +turn, burning fiercely, was run ashore. She had made a flight of twenty +miles. + +Only one of the Spanish cruisers remained,--the Cristobal Colon. She had +passed all her consorts, and when the Vizcaya went ashore was six miles +ahead of the Brooklyn and more than seven miles from the Oregon. It looked +as if she might escape. But she would have to round Cape Cruz by a long +detour, and the Brooklyn was headed straight for the cape, while the +Oregon kept on the Colon's trail. + +An hour, a second hour, passed; the pursuers were gaining mile by mile; +the spurt of speed of the Colon was at an end. One of the great 13-inch +shells of the Oregon, fired from four miles away, struck the water near +the Colon. A second fell beyond her. An 8-inch shell from the Brooklyn +pierced her above her armor-belt. At one o'clock both ships were pounding +away at her, an ineffective fire being returned. At 1.20 she hauled down +her flag, and, like her consorts, ran ashore. She had made a run of +forty-eight miles. + +About six hundred men were killed on the Spanish ships; the American loss +was one man killed and one wounded. The ships of Spain were blazing +wrecks; those of the United States were none the worse for the fight. It +was like the victory at Manila repeated. It resembled the latter in +another particular, two torpedo-boats taking part in the affair. These +were attacked by the Gloucester, a yacht converted into a gunboat, and +dealt with so shrewdly that both of them were sunk. + +The battle ended, efforts to save on the part of the American ships +succeeded the effort to destroy, the Yankee tars showing as much courage +and daring in their attempts to rescue the wounded from the decks of the +burning ships as they had done in the fight. The ships were blazing fore +and aft, their guns were exploding from the heat, at any moment the fire +might reach the main magazines. A heavy surf made the work of rescue +doubly dangerous; yet no risk could deter the American sailors while the +chance to save one of the wounded remained, and they made as proud a +record on the decks of the burning ships as they had done behind the guns. + +These two signal victories were the great events of the war. Conjoined +with one victory on land, they put an end to the conflict. Without a +fleet, and with no means of aiding her Cuban troops, Spain was helpless, +and the naval victories at Manila and Santiago, in which one man was +killed, virtually settled the question of Cuban independence, and taught +the nations of Europe that a new and great naval power had arisen, with +which they would have to deal when they next sought to settle the +destinies of the world. + +THE END. + + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME VII*** + + + +CREDITS + + +September 2006 + + Project Gutenberg Edition + Joshua Hutchinson + Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 19457.txt or 19457.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/4/5/19457/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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